Wikipedia swwiki https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwanzo MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.11 first-letter Media Maalum Majadiliano Mtumiaji Majadiliano ya mtumiaji Wikipedia Majadiliano ya Wikipedia Faili Majadiliano ya faili MediaWiki Majadiliano ya MediaWiki Kigezo Majadiliano ya kigezo Msaada Majadiliano ya msaada Jamii Majadiliano ya jamii Lango Majadiliano ya lango Wikichanzo Majadiliano ya Wikichanzo TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 72 1580017 1578148 2026-07-17T23:05:24Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 8 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580017 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} [[Picha:JMR-Memphis1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Mwanamke wa Haki]] ni ishara ya idara ya sheria.<ref>Hamilton, Marci. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Ox4_vqFCjcEC&pg=PA296&dq=%22lady+justice%22+symbol&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=uXb8Se-IC4GuyATlm5SPBg God vs. the Gavel]'', page 296 (Cambridge University Press 2005): “The symbol of the judicial system, seen in courtrooms throughout the United States, is blindfolded Lady Justice.”</ref><ref>Fabri, Marco. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=AwwH0F8iC9QC&pg=PA137&dq=%22lady+justice%22+symbol&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=uXb8Se-IC4GuyATlm5SPBg The challenge of change for judicial systems]'', page 137 (IOS Press 2000): “the judicial system is intended to be apolitical, its symbol being that of a blindfolded Lady Justice holding balanced scales.”</ref> [[Haki]] inaonyeshwa kama [[mungu jike]] ambaye anabeba ishara [[tatu]] za [[utawala wa kisheria]]: [[upanga]] unaoashiria nguvu ya mahakama; [[mizani]] zinazoashiria upimaji wa madai yanayoshindana; na [[kitambaa]] kinachofunika macho kuashiria kutofanya upendeleo.<ref>Luban, ''Law's Blindfold'', 23</ref>]] '''Sheria''' (kutoka [[neno]] la [[Kiarabu]]; kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''law'' <ref>from [[Old English]] ''lagu'' "Words of Mel"; ''legal'' comes from [[Latin]] ''legalis'', from ''[[translating "law" to other European languages|lex]]'' "law", "statute" ([http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none Law], Online Etymology Dictionary; [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/legal Legal], Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary)</ref>) ni [[mfumo]] wa [[kanuni]], ambazo kwa kawaida hutekelezwa kupitia seti ya [[taasisi]] maalumu.<ref>Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90; see "[[analytical jurisprudence]]" for extensive debate on what law is; in ''[[The Concept of Law]]'' Hart argued law is a "system of rules" (Campbell, ''The Contribution of Legal Studies'', 184); Austin said law was "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction" (Bix, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/austin-john/#3 John Austin]); Dworkin describes law as an "interpretive concept" to achieve [[justice]] (Dworkin, ''Law's Empire'', 410); and Raz argues law is an "authority" to mediate people's interests (Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 3–36).</ref> Inaunda [[siasa]], [[uchumi]] na [[jamii]] kwa njia mbalimbali na huratibu mahusiano baina ya [[watu]]. [[Sheria ya mkataba]] huongoza kila kitu, kuanzia kununua [[tiketi]] ya [[basi]] hadi [[biashara]] katika [[Soko|masoko]]. [[Sheria ya mali]] inafafanua [[haki]] na [[wajibu]] unaohusiana na uhamisho wa jina la mali ya binafsi na [[mali ya kweli]]. [[Sheria ya hifadhi]] inatumika kwa mali yanayotumika kwa uwekezaji na usalama wa kifedha, huku [[sheria ya kukiuka wajibu]] inaruhusu madai ya [[fidia]] ikiwa haki au mali za mtu zinafanyiwa madhara. Ikiwa madhara ni kinyume cha sheria, [[sheria ya jinai]] inatoa mbinu zinazoweza kutumiwa na [[taifa]] ili kumshtaki mhusika. [[Sheria ya kikatiba]] inatoa utaratibu wa utungaji wa sheria, ulinzi wa [[haki za kibinadamu]] na [[uchaguzi]] wa wawakilishi wa kisiasa. [[Sheria ya utawala]] inatumika kuangalia upya maamuzi ya [[vyombo vya serikali]], huku [[sheria ya kimataifa]] inatawala shughuli baina ya [[nchi]] huru zinazohusu mambo kama vile [[biashara]], vikwazo vya kimazingira na hatua za [[Jeshi|kijeshi]]. Akiandika mnamo [[350 K.K.]], [[mwanafalsafa]] wa [[Ugiriki ya Kale]] [[Aristotle]] alisema, "[[Utawala wa sheria]] ni bora kuliko utawala wa mtu yeyote binafsi."<ref>"it is more proper that law should govern than any one of the citizens: upon the same principle, if it is advantageous to place the supreme power in some particular persons, they should be appointed to be only guardians, and the servants of the laws." (Aristotle, ''Politics'' [[s:Politics (Aristotle)/Book 3#3:16|3.16]]).</ref> Mifumo ya sheria inaelezea [[haki]] na majukumu kwa njia mbalimbali. Tofauti ya jumla inaweza kufanywa kati ya maeneo yanayotawaliwa na [[mfumo wa sheria ya kiraia]], ambayo huandika sheria zao, na yale yanayofuata [[sheria za kawaida]], ambapo sheria haijaundwa kwa utaratibu maalumu. Katika baadhi ya nchi, [[sheria ya dini]] bado hutumika kama sheria maalum. Sheria ni chanzo kikuu cha uchunguzi wa kitaalam, wa [[historia ya sheria]], [[falsafa ya sheria]], [[uchambuzi wa kiuchumi wa sheria]] au [[somo la kijamii kuhusu sheria]]. Sheria pia huibua masuala muhimu na magumu kuhusu [[usawa]], [[uadilifu]] na [[haki]]. "Katika usawa wake wa ajabu", alisema mwandishi [[Anatole France]] mnamo mwaka [[1894]], "sheria inakataza matajiri na mafukura kulala chini ya madaraja, kuombaomba barabarani na kuiba mikate."<ref>The original French is: "La loi, dans un grand souci d'égalité, interdit aux riches comme aux pauvres de coucher sous les ponts, de mendier dans les rues et de voler du pain" (France, ''The Red Lily'', [http://www.online-literature.com/anatole-france/red-lily/8/ Chapter VII]).</ref> Katika [[demokrasia]] ya kawaida, taasisi za msingi za kutafsiri na kuunda sheria ni matawi matatu makuu ya [[utawala]], ambayo ni [[mahakama]] isiyo na upendeleo, [[bunge]] na [[serikali]] yenye kuwajibika. Ili kutekeleza na kutumia nguvu za kufanya sheria ifuatwe na kutoa huduma kwa umma, urasimu wa serikali, [[jeshi]] na [[polisi]] ni muhimu. Vyombo hivyo vyote vya dola viliundwa na kutawaliwa na sheria, [[taaluma ya kisheria]] iliyo huru na [[jamii]] yenye bidii zinajulisha na kusaidia maendeleo. == Masomo ya sheria == Mifumo yote ya kisheria inahusu na masuala ya msingi, lakini kila taifa inaainisha na kubainisha masomo yake ya kisheria kwa njia mbalimbali. Tofauti ya kawaida ni kuwa "[[sheria ya umma]]" (maneno yanayohusika kwa karibu na [[taifa]], na kuhusisha sheria ya kikatiba, kitawala na ya jinai), na "[[sheria ya kibinafsi]]" (inayohusisha mkataba, [[sheria ya kukiuka wajibu]] na mali).<ref>Although many scholars argue that "the boundaries between public and private law are becoming blurred", and that this distinction has become mere "folklore" (Bergkamp, ''Liability and Environment'', 1–2).</ref> Katikamifumo ya [[sheria ya kirai(mfumo wa sheria)|sheria ya kirai]] , mkataba na kukiuka wajibu zinapatikana chini ya [[sheria ya majukumu]] huku sheria ya hifadhi inapatikana chini ya serkali za halali au [[Mkataba wa Hague wa Sheria inayotumika kwa Hifadhi na kwa jinsi ya Kuzijua|mikataba ya kimataifa]]. Sheria ya Kimataifa, kikatiba, kitawala, jinai, mkataba, kukiuka wajibu na mali na [[sheria ya hifadhi|hifadhi]] zinatambulika kama "masomo msingi ya jadi",<ref>E.g. in England these seven subjects, with EU law substituted for international law, make up a "qualifying law degree". For criticism, see [[Peter Birks]]' poignant comments attached to a previous version of the [http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/articles1/birks1.html#appendix Notice to Law Schools].</ref> ingawa kuna [[Sheria#Masomo zaidi|masomo zaidi]] ambayo yanaweza kuwa na umuhimu mkubwa zaidi wa kiutendaji. === Sheria ya Kimataifa === {{Main|Sheria ya umma ya kimataifa|Mgongano wa sheria|Sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya}} [[Picha:Naciones Unidas 3.jpg|right|thumb|Ikitoa katiba ya sheria ya kimataifa ya umaa, mfumo wa [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] ulikubaliwa wakati wa [[Vita Vikuu vya Pili vya Dunia]]]] Sheria ya kimataifa inaweza kuashiria mambo matatu: sheria ya umma ya kimataifa, sheria ya kibinafsi ya kimataifa au mgongano wa sheria na sheria ya mashirika makubwa ya kimataifa. * '''[[Sheria ya Umma ya Kimataifa]]''' inajihusisha na uhusiano kati ya mataifa uhuru. [[Vyanzo vya sheria ya kimataifa|Vyanzo]] vya maendeleo ya sheria ya umma ya kimataifa ni [[Desturi(sheria)|desturi]], mwenendo na mikataba kati ya nchi huru [[Mikataba ya Geneva]]. Sheria ya umma ya kimataifa inaweza kutengezwa na [[mashirika ya kimataifa]], kama vile [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] (ambao ilianzishwa baada ya kushindwa kwa [[Shirikisho la Kimataifa]] kuzuia [[Vita vya Vikuu vya Pili vya Dunia]]),<ref>[http://www.un.org/aboutun/history.htm History of the UN], United Nations. [[Winston Churchill]] (''The Hinge of Fate'', 719) comments on the League of Nations' failure: "It was wrong to say that the League failed. It was rather the member states who had failed the League."</ref> [[Shirika la Kimataifa la Ajira]], [[Shirika la Kimataifa la Biashara]], au [[Shirika la Fedha la Kimataifa]]. Sheria ya kimatifa ya umma ina hadhi maalum kama sheria kwa sababu hakuna kikozi cha kimataifa cha polisi, na mahakama (kama vile [[Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Haki]] kama tawi la kimsingi la Umoja wa Mataifa la mahakama) halina uwezo wa kuadhibu kutokutii.<ref>The prevailing manner of enforcing international law is still essentially "self help"; that is the reaction by states to alleged breaches of international obligations by other states (Robertson, ''Crimes against Humanity'', 90; Schermers-Blokker, ''International Institutional Law'', 900–901).</ref> Hata hivyo, miili michache, kama vile WTO, ina mifumo yenye ufanisi ya utatuzi wa kudumu na utatuzi wa mogogoro inayoambatana na vikwazo vya kibiashara.<ref>Petersmann, ''The GATT/WTO Dispute Settlement System'', 32</ref> * '''[[Mgongano wa sheria]]''' (au "sheria ya kibinafsi ya kimataifa" katika nchi za [[sheria ya kiraia]]) unahusisha [[maeneo ya kimamlaka ya kisheria]] ya mgogoro wa kisheria baina ya watu wa kibinafsi unafaa kusikizwa na sheria za maeneo gani ya kimamlaka ya kisheria ndiyo inayofaa kutumika. Leo, biashra zinazidi kuwa na uwezo wa kusongeza minyororo ya ugavi ya [[mtaji]] na [[ajira]] kuvuka mipaka, na pia kufanya biashara na kampuni za nchi za ng'ambo, hivyo kulifanya swali kuhusu nchi ipi ndiyo inayomamlaka ya kisheria kuwa muhimu zaidi. Idadi kubwa zaidi ya biashara zinachagua usuluhishi wa kibiashara chini ya [[Tuzo la Mkataba wa Utambuzi na Utendaji wa Masuluhisho ya Kimataifa|Mkataba wa New York wa mnamo mwaka1958]].<ref>Redfem, ''International Commercial Arbitration'', 68–69</ref> * '''[[Sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya]]''' ndiyo ya kwanza, kufikia sasa, ambayo ni mfano wa [[sheria kuu ya kimataifa]]. Kutokana na mwenendo wa kuongezeka kwa ushirikiano wa kiuchumi Duniani, mikataba mingi ya kikanda — hasa ya [[Umoja wa Nchi za Amerika Kusini]] — zimeanza kuufuata mfano kama huu. Katika Umoja wa Ulaya, nchi huru zimekusanya mamlaka yao katika mfumo wa mahakama na [[Bunge la Ulaya|taasisi za kisiasa]]. Taasisi hizi zinapewa uwezo wa kutekeleza kanuni za kisheria dhidi ya au kwa nchi wanachama na raia katika namna ambayo haiwezekani kupitia sheria ya umma ya kimataifa.<ref>Schermers–Blokker, ''International Institutional Law'', 943</ref> Kama [[Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki]] yalivyosema katika miaka ya 1960, sheria ya Umoja wa Umoja wa Ulaya hujumiusha "muundo mpya wa sheria ya kimataifa" kwa ajili ya faida inayotegemeana ya kijamii na kiuchumi wa nchi zote wanachama.<ref>See the [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61962J0026:EN:HTML C-26/62 ''Van Gend en Loos v Nederlanse Administratie Der Belastingen''], and [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:61964J0006:EN:HTML ''Flaminio Costa v E.N.E.L.''] decisions of the European Court.</ref> === Sheria ya kikatiba na ya kiutawala === {{Main|Sheria ya kikatiba|Sheria ya kiutawala}} [[Picha:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|thumb|[[Azimio la Haki za Kibinadamu na za Raia]], ambalo kanuni zake bado zini thamani ya kikatiba]] Sheria ya kikatiba na kiutawala zinasimamia mambo ya nchi. [[Sheria ya kikatiba]] inahusisha uhusiano baina ya serikali, bunge na mahakama na [[haki za kibinadamu]] au [[uhuru wa kiraia]] wa watu binafsi dhidi ya nchi. Maeneo mengi ya kisheria, kama vile [[Sheria ya Marekani|Marekani]] na [[Sheria ya Ufaransa|Ufaransa]], zina katiba moja iliyoandikwa kwa makini, iliyo na [[Muswada wa Haki]]. Katiba chache kama vile [[Sheria la Uingereza|Uingereza]], hazina hati kama hiyo."Katiba" kwa ufupi ni zile sheria ambazo zinajumuisha [[mwili wa kisiasa]], kutoka [[kanuni]], [[sheria za uamuzi]] na [[Mkataba wa kikatiba(utamaduni wa kisiasa)|mkataba]]. Kesi kwa jina ''[[Entick dhidi ya Carrington]]''<ref>''[[Entick v Carrington]]'' (1765) 19 Howell's State Trials 1030; [1765] [http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/KB/1765/J98.html 95 ER 807]</ref> ilionyesha wazi kanuni ya kikatiba inayotokana na sheria ya kawaifa. Nyumba ya Bwana Entick ilifanyiwa upekekuzi na Afisa mmoja wa polisi aliyeitwa Carrington. Wakati Bwana Entick alipolalamika mbele ya mahakama, Afisa Carrington alidokeza kwamba kibali kutoka waziri wa Serikali, [[George Montague-Dunk, ali wa pili wa Halifax|Ali wa Halifax]], kilikuwa na mamlaka halali. Hata hivyo, hakukuwa na sheria iliyoandikwa au mamlaka ya kimahakama ambayo yalitoa uwezo huo.Hakimu mkuu, [[Charles Pratt, Ali wa kwanza wa Camden|Bwana Camden]], alisema, <blockquote>Mwisho mkubwa, ambao ulifanya watu kuingia katika jamii, ilikuwa kupata mali. Haki hiyo imetunzwa na ni takatifu na haiwezi kuondolewa wakati wowote, ambapo haijaondolewa au kufupishwa na sheria fulani ya umma kwa manufaa ya wote...Hakuna sababau inayoweza kupatikana au kutolewa, kimya cha vitabu ni mamlaka dhidi ya mshtakiwa, na aliyeathiriwa lazima atendewe haki.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.constitution.org/trials/entick/entick_v_carrington.htm | title=Entick v Carrington | work=19 Howell’s State Trials 1029 (1765) | publisher=Constitution Society | location=[[Marekani|US]] | accessdate=2008-11-13}}</ref></blockquote> Kanuni ya kimsingi ya kikatiba, ilitokana na [[Citabu viwili mbili kuhusu Serikali|John Locke]], inadokeza ya kwamba mtu binafsi anaweza kufanya isipokuwa kile ambacho kimekataliwa kisheria.<ref>Locke, ''The Second Treatise'', [[s:Two Treatises of Government/The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and End of Civil Government#2:9|Chapter 9, section 124]]</ref><ref>Tamanaha, ''On the Rule of Law'', 47</ref> Sheria ya utawala ndiyo mbinu msingi ya kufanya mashirika ya umma yawajibike. Watu wanaweza kutumia [[mapitio ya kimahakama]] kwa matendo au uamuzi uliofanywa na za halmashauri za mitaa, huduma za umma au wizara za serikali, kuhakikisha kuwa zinazingatia sheria. Mahakama ya kwanza ya maalum ya kiutawala yalikuwa mahakama ya ''[[Council of State (France)|Conseil d'État]]'' yaliyoundwa mnamo mwaka wa 1799, wakati [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] alipochukua mamlaka nchini Ufaransa.<ref name="A75">Auby, ''Administrative Law in France'', 75</ref> === Sheria ya jinai === {{Main|Sheria ya jinai}} Sheria ya jinai, inayojulikana pia kama sheria ya kuadhibu, inahusisha makosa na adhabu.<ref>[[Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria|Cesare Beccaria]]'s seminal treatise of 1763–1764 is titled ''On Crimes and Punishments'' (''[[Dei delitti e delle pene]]'').</ref> Kwa hivyo inapima ufafanuzi wa adhabu ya makosa yaliyopatikana kuwa na madhara yanaonekana kuwa na uwezo wa kusababisha uharibifu lakini, kwa undani, haifanyi uamuzi wa kimaadili kumhusu mkosaji wala kuwekea jamii vikwazo ambavyo vinakataza watu kimwili wasifanye makoa mwanzoni.<ref name="W2">Brody, Acker and Logan, ''Criminal Law'', 2; Wilson, ''Criminal Law'', 2</ref> Investigating, apprehending, charging, and trying suspected offenders is regulated by the law of [[criminal procedure]].<ref name="Br2">Brody, Acker and Logan, ''Criminal Law'', 2</ref> Kesi ya kidhana ya uhalifu inatokana na ushahidi, [[Mzigo wa Ushahidi|kuzidi shaka ya kuridhisha]], kuwa mtu ana hatia ya mambo mawili. Kwanza, mshtakiwa lazima awe amefanya kitendo ambacho kinatazamwa na jamii kuwa hatia, au ''[[actus reus]]'' (kitendo cha hatia).<ref>See e.g. Brody, Acker and Logan, ''Criminal Law'', 205 about ''[[Robinson v California]]'', 370 U.S. 660 (1962).</ref> Pili, lazima mshtakiwa awe na [[dhamira (jinai)|dhamira ya kufanya uharibifu]] ya kufanya kitendoo fulani cha jinai, au ''[[mens rea]]'' (akili ya hatia). Hata hivyo, kwa kile kinachojulikana kama hatia za "[[Dhima kali (jinai)|dhima kali]]", ''actus reus'' haitoshi.<ref>See e.g. Feinman, ''Law 111'', 260–261 about ''[[Powell v Texas]]'', 392 U.S. 514 (1968).</ref> Mifumo ya jinai ya utamaduni wa sheria ya raia zinatofautisha kati ya nia katika dhana pana (''dolus directus'' na ''dolus eventualis''), na uzembe. Uzembe hauna jukumu la jinai isipokuwa ambapo hatia fulani una adhabu yake maalum.<ref>Dörmann, Doswald-Beck and Kolb, ''Elements of War Crimes'', 491</ref><ref>Kaiser, ''Leistungsstörungen'', 333</ref> [[Picha:SalemWitchcraftTrial.jpg|thumb|left|Picha inayoonyesha [[kesi]] ya uhalifu, kwa sababu ya [[uchawi]] katika eneo la [[Kesi za wachawi za Salem|Salem]]]] Mifano ya uhalifu ni [[mauaji]], [[kushambulia]], [[udanganyifu]] na [[wizi]]. Katika mifano maalum utetezi unaweza kutumika kwa vitendo maalum, kama zile kuuwa ili [[nadharia ya utetezi wa kibinafsi|utetezi wa kibinafasi]], au katika nyakati maalum kujitetea kuwa [[utetezi wa wazimi|wazimu]]. Mfano mwingine ni katika kesi ya karne ya 19 ya ''[[Jamhuri dhidi ya Dudley na Stephens]]'', iliyopima utetezi wa "[[kimahitaji]]". Meli ya ''Mignonette'', iliyokuwa ikisafiri kutoka mji wa [[Southampton]] kuelekea mji wa [[Sydney]], ilizama. Wafanyikazi watatu wa meli hiyo na Richard Parker, kijana aliyekuwa na umri wa miaka 17, walibaki katika meli iliyoundwa na vijiti. Walikuwa na njaa na kijana yule alikuwa karibu kufa. Kwa sababu ya kuwa na njaa iliyokithiri, wafanyikazi hao walimuuwa kijana yule na kumla. Wafanyikazi hao waliokolewa, lakini wakafikishwa mahakamani huku wakiwa na hatia ya mauaji. Walijitetea kwa kusema kwamba ilihitajika kwa lazima kwa wao kumuuwa kijana yule ili kuyaokoa maisha yao. [[John Coleridge, Baroni wa Kwanza Coleridge|Bwana Coleridge]], akieleza kukataa kukubwa, aliamua, "kuhifadhi maisha ya kibinafsi ni, kwa kuzungumza kijumla, wajibu, lakini inaweza kuwa jukumu kuu kuyatoa maisha hayo kama kafara." Wanaume hao walihukumiwa [[kunyongwa|nyonga]], lakini maoni ya umma uliunga mkono haki ya wafanyikazi wale wa meli kuyaokoa maisha yao. Mwishowe, [[Ufalme]] ulipunguza hukumu zao hadi miezi sita gerezani.<ref>About ''[[R v Dudley and Stephens]]'' [1884] [http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_bqb14040.html 14 QBD 273 DC] {{Wayback|url=http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_bqb14040.html |date=20050228224504 }}, see Simpson, ''Cannibalism and the Common Law'', 212–217, 229–237</ref> Makosa ya jinai yanatambulika si tu kama makosa dhidi ya waathirika binafsi, lakini jamii pia.<ref name="W2" /> Taifa, kawaida likisaidiwa na polisi, huongoza mashitaka, basi hiyo ndiyo sababu mbona katika nchi zenye sheria ya kawaida kesi hutajwa kama "''Watu'' dhidi ya..." au "''Jamhuri'' (kwa [[Ufalme|"Rex"]] au [[Malkia reginanti|Regina]]) dhidi ya..." Pia, [[jopo la waamuzi]] ambao hutokana na raia wa kawaida hutumika kuamua hatia ya washitakiwa kutokna na pointi zinazoweza kubainika ukweli: jopo la waamuzi haliwezi kubadilisha kanuni za kisheria. Baadhi ya nchi zilizostawi bado hutumia [[adhabu ya kifo]] kwa matendo ya jinai lakini adhabu ya kawaida ya uhalifu itakuwa ni [[gereza|kufungwa gereza]], [[faini]] usimamizi wa taifa (kama vile probesheni), au [[huduma ya kijamii]]. Sheria ya kisasa ya jinai imeathiriwa vilivyo na sayansi ya jamii, hasa kuhusu [[hukumu(sheria)|kuhukumu]], utafiti wa kisheria, kuunda sheria, na [[kuwasaidia wahalifu kurekesha mwenedo wao]].<ref>Pelser, ''Criminal Legislation'', 198</ref> Katika ngazi ya kimataifa, nchi 108 [[Mktaba wa Sheria ya Roma ya Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Jinai|wanachama]] wa [[Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Jinai]], ambayo ilianzishwa kuwahukumu watu kwa [[hatia dhidi ya ubinadamu]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20040605155639/http://www.icc-cpi.int/statesparties.html The States Parties to the Rome Statute], International Criminal Court</ref> === Sheria ya mkataba === {{Main|Mkataba}} [[Picha:carbolic smoke ball co.jpg|thumb|Tangazo maarufu la kampuni ya Carbolic Smoke Ball lidai kuwa lingeweza kutibu [[homa]]. Mahakama yaliamua kuwa tangazo hilo lilikuwa [[mkataba wa mtu yeyote]]]] Sheria ya mkataba inahusu ahadi zinazowezwa kutendwa, na inaweza kuandikwa kwa ufupi katika maneno ya Kilatini''[[pacta sunt servanda]]'' (ahadi lazima zitimizwe).<ref>Wenberg, ''Pacta Sunt Servanda'', 775</ref> Katika maeneo ya kimamlaka ya sheria ya kawaida, vipengele vitatu muhimu kuhusu utengenezaji wa mkataba vinahitajika: [[kutoa na kukubali]], [[kutilia maanani]] na nia ya kutengeneza uhusiano wa kisheria.Katika kesi ya ''[[Carlill shisi ya Kampuni ya Carbolic Smoke Ball]]'' kampuni ya matibabu ilitangaza kuwa dawa yake mpya ya ajabu, smokeball, ingewatibu watu kutokana na mafua, na ikiwa haingefaulu kuwatibu, wanunuzi wangepata [[paundi za Kistaling'i|£]] 100. Watu wengi waliwasilisha kesi mahakamani ili wapate £100 zao wakati dawa hiyo iliposhindwa kuwatibu. Ikiogopa [[kufilisika]], Kampuni ya Carbolic ilijitetea kwa kusema kuwa tangazo lile lilikuwa mzaha tu, na kwa hivyo halikuwa toleo lenye nguvu za kisheria. Lilikuwa [[karibisho]], mchezo tu. Lakini mahakama ya rufaa yaliamua kuwa kwa [[mtu mwenye kufikiria kwa kawaida]] kampuni ya Carbolic ilikuwa imefanya toleo. Watu walikuwa wametoa kusudi la kununua bidhaa ile kwa kupitia "shida bayana" ya kutumia bidhaa yenye hitilafu. "Soma tangazo vile utakavyo, na ulibadilishe tangazo hilo vile utakavyo", alisema [[Nathaniel Lindley, Baroni Lindley|Hakimu Lindley]], "haa kuna ahadi maalum ilitajwa katika lugha isyokuwa na utata wowote".<ref name="CCSBCE">About ''[http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_r9321042.html Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Company] {{Wayback|url=http://www.justis.com/titles/iclr_r9321042.html |date=20041205104916 }}'' [[Case citation|[1893] 1 QB 256]], and the element of consideration, see Beale and Tallon, ''Contract Law'', 142–143</ref> "Kutilia maanani" knaonyesha ukweli kwamba vyama vyote katika mkataba vimebadilisha kitu fulani chenye maana. Baadhi ya mifumo ya sheria ya kawaida, ikiwemo Australi, zinasonga mbali kutoka dhana ya kutilia maanani kama mojawapo ya mahitaji ya mkataba. Dhana ya "[[estoppel]]" au ''culpa in contrahendo'', inaweza kutumika kuunda wajibu wakati mazungumzo kabla ya kuingia mkataba<ref>''[[Austotel v Franklins]]'' (1989) 16 NSWLR 582</ref> Katika maeneo ya kisheria ya kiraia, kutilia maanani si lazima kwa mkataba kuwa na nguvu ya kisheria.<ref>e.g. In Germany, [http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/311.html § 311 Abs. II] [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|BGB]]</ref> Nchini Ufaransa, mkataba wa kawaida unasemekana kutokea ambapo "kukutana kwa akili" au kwa "kuwa na nia zinazowiana". [[Sheria ya Ujerumani|Ujerumani]] ina mtazamio maalum kuhusu mikataba, ambayo inayusisha sheria ya mali. [[Kanuni ya dhana ya kiakili]] (''Abstraktionsprinzip'' wanayoitumia, inamaanisha kuwa wajibu wa kibinafsi wa mkataba unaundwa kando na jina la mwenye mali yanayokabidhiwa. Wakati ambapo mikataba inavunjwa kwa sababu fulani (kwa mfano mnunuzi wa gari amelewa kiasi kwamba hana uwezo wa kisheria wa kufanya mkataba)<ref>[http://dejure.org/gesetze/BGB/105.html § 105 Abs. II] [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|BGB]]</ref> Wajibu wa kimkataba wa kulipa unaweza kuvunjwa tofauti na jina la mwenye gari. Sheria ya [[kutajirika kusio kwa haki]], badala ya sheria tya mkataba, basi inatumika kurudisha jina kwa mmiliki halali.<ref>Smith, ''The Structure of Unjust Enrichment Law'', 1037</ref> === Sheria ya ukiukaji wa wajibu === {{Main|Ukiukaji wa wajibu}} Sheria ya ukiukaji wa wajibu, ambayo wakati mwingine huitwa [[kosa la jinai]], ni makosa ya raia. Kuwa na kosa la ukiukaji wa wajibu, mtu lazima awe amekiuka wajibu aliukwa anafaa kumtendea mty mwingine, au kukiuka haki fulani ya awali ya kisheria. [[Bolton dhidi ya Stone|mfano]] unaweza kuwa kumgonga mtu kimakosa na mpira wa mchezo wa kriketi.<ref>''[[Bolton v Stone]]'' [1951] AC 850</ref> Chini ya sheria ya [[uzembe]], ambayo ndiyo aina ya ukiukaji wa wajibu maarufu zaidi, mtu aliyepatwa na madhara anaweza kuomba fidia kwa ya majeraha yake kutoka kwa mtu mwenye uwajibikaji. Kanuni za uzembe zinaonyeshwa na kesi ya ''[[Donoghue dhidi ya Stevenson]]''.<ref name="DvS">''[[Donoghue v Stevenson]]'' ([[Case citation#England and Wales|[1932] A.C. 532, 1932 S.C. (H.L.) 31, [1932] All ER Rep 1]]). See the original text of the case in [http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm UK Law Online] {{Wayback|url=http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/donoghue.htm |date=20070216044953 }}.</ref> Rafiki mmoja wa Bi. Donoghue aliagiza chupa isiyopenyeka nuru la [[pombe ya tangawizi]] (iliyokusudiwa kutumika na Bi. Donoghue) katika mkahawa katika eneo la [[Paisley]]. Baada ya kunya kunya nusu ya bia ile , Bi, Donoghue alimimina iliyosalia katika bilauri. Mabaki yaliyooza ya konokono yalielea juu ya pombe. Alidai kuwa alipigwa na bumbuwazi, na kupata ugonjwa wa kuchomeka ndani ya matumbo, na ilimbidi kumpeleka mtengenezaji pombe kwa kuruhusu kinywaji kuchafuka ovyo. [[Nyumba ya Mabwana]] iliamua kwamba mtengezaji pombe aliwajibika kwa ugonjwa wa Bi. Donoghue. [[Bwana Atkin]] alikuwa na mtazamo maalum wa kimaadili, na akasema, <blockquote>Dhima ya upuuzaji ... bila shaka ina msingi wake katika mawazo ya kijumla ya umma kuhusu makosa ya kimaadili amabyo mkosaji lazima alipe ... Kanuni ya kuwa unafaa kumpenda adui yako, kisheria inakuwa, haufai kumjeruhi jirani yako; na swali la wakili, nani ndiye jirani yangu? linapokea jibu lenye vikwazo. Lazima uwe na uwangalifu wa kuepuka na vitendo au visa ambapo hautendi lolote inapofaa, ambavyo unaweza kutazamia kuwa vikamjeruhi jirani yako.<ref>''[[Donoghue v Stevenson]]'' [1932] AC 532, 580</ref></blockquote> Huu ulikuwa msingi wa kanuni nne za upuuzaji; (1) Bwana Stevenson alimdai Bi. Donoghue [[wajibu wa kujali]] wa kuuza vinywaji salama (2) yeye [[Kuvuna kwa jukumu katika Sheria ya Kiingereza|alivunja]] wajibu wake wa kujali (3) madhara hayangefanyika [[usababishaji (sheria)|isipokuwa kwa]] kuvunja kwake kwa wajibu wa kujali na (4) tendo lake lilikuwa [[sababau ya karibu]], au haikuwa tokeo la [[Umbali katika Sheria ya Kiingereza|mbali]], la madhara yaliyompata mtu fulani.<ref name="DvS" /> Mfano mwingine wa ukikaji wa wajibu unaweza kuwa wa jirani ambaye anapiga kelele nyingi sana na na mashine katika nyumbani kwake.<ref name="Sturges">''[[Sturges v Bridgman]]'' (1879) 11 Ch D 852</ref> Chini ya dai la [[kero]] kelele hiyo inaweza kukomeshwa. Ukiukaji wa wajibu pia inaweza kuhusisha vitendo vya kimakusudi, kama vile [[ushambulizi (ukiukaji wa wajibu)|ushambulizi]], [[vita(ukiukaji wa wajibu)|vita]] au [[kuvuka na kuingia katka maeneo yaliyopigwa marufuku]]. Sheria ya ukiukaji wa wajibu inayofahamika vyema ni ile ya [[kumharibia mtu jina]], ambayo inafanyika, kwa mfano, wakati gazeti linapochapisha madai yasiyokuwa na msingi ambayo yanaharibu sifa ya mwanasiasa fulani.<ref>e.g. concerning a British politician and the Iraq War, ''[[George Galloway v Telegraph Group Ltd]]'' [2004] EWHC 2786</ref> Ukiukaji wa wajibu ambao ni mbaya zaidi ni zile wa kiuchumi, ambao huwa msingi wa [[sheria ya ajira]] katika baadhi ya nchi kwa kufanya vyama vya kibiashara kuwa na dhima kwa sababu ya migomo,<ref>''[[Taff Vale Railway Co v Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants]]'' [1901] AC 426</ref> Wakati ambapo amri ya kisheria haipatiani kinga.<ref>In the UK, [[Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992]]; c.f. in the U.S., [[National Labor Relations Act]]</ref> === Sheria ya mali === {{Main|Sheria ya mali}} [[Picha:South Sea Bubble.jpg|thumb|Picha ya [[Bubujiko la Bahari ya Kusini]], mojawapo ya majanga ya kiuchumi yalilotokana na [[uvumi]]. Janga hilo la kiuchumi lilisababisha kuundwa kwa kanuni kali kuhusu uuzaji wa hisa.<ref>Harris, ''The Bubble Act'', 610-627</ref>]] Sheria ya [[mali]] inatawala vitu vya thamani ambavyo watu huvitambua kama 'vyao'. [[Mali ya kweli]] wakati mwingine huitwa 'mali isiyohamishika' inahusu umiliki wa ardhi na vitu vilivyojikita katika ardhi hiyo.<ref>eg ''[[Hunter v Canary Wharf Ltd]]'' [1997] [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldjudgmt/jd970424/hunter01.htm 2 All ER 426]</ref> [[Mali ya kibinafsi]], inaashiria mambo mengineyo; vyombo vinavyowezwa kusongeshwa, kama vile tarakilishi, magari, mapambo na mikate au turathi haki, kama vile [[hisa (fedha)|akiba na hisa]]. Haki ya ''[[in rem]]'' ni haki ya kipande maalum cha mali, ikitofautishwa na haki ''[[in personam]]'' ambayo inaruhusu fidia kwa hasara, lakini si kwa kurudishiwa kitu fulani. Sheria ya ardhi inajumuisha msingi wa aina nyingi za sheria za mali, na ndiyo ngumu zaidi. Inahusisha [[mogeji]], [[mikataba ya kukodisha]], [[leseni]], [[maagano]], [[ruhusa]] na mifumo ya kisheria kwa usajili wa ardhi. Kanuni kuhusu [[matumizi ya ardhi]] ya kibinafsi chini ya [[haki miliki]], [[kampuni (law)|sheria ya kampuni]], [[sheria ya hifadhi|hifadhi]] na [[sheria ya biashara]]. Mfano wa kesi msingi ya ya sheria nyingii za mali ni ''[[Armory v Delamirie]]''.<ref>''[[Armory v Delamirie]]'' (1722) 93 ER 664, 1 Strange 505</ref> Kijana wa [[kufagia chimni]] alipata pambo lenye mawe ya thamani. Alichukua pambo lile kwa muundaji wa vifaa vya dhahabu ili thamani yake ikadiriwe. Mwanafunzi wa muundaji wa vifaa vya dhahabu aliangalia pambo lile, akaiba mawe yale ya thamani, ma kumuambia kijana yule kuwa thamani yake ilkuwa [[Nusu peni (Pesa ya Uingereza)|nusu peni]] tatu na kuwa angeinunua. Kijana yule alimwambia kuwa angepenga arudishiwe pambo lile, kwa hivyo mwanafunzi wa muundaji vifaa alimrudishia pambo, lakini bila mawe yale ya thamani. Kijana yule alimpeleka mtengenezaji wa vifaa vya dhahabu kotini kwa jaribio la mwanafunzi wake kumdanganya. [[Bwana Hakimu Mkuu Pratt]] aliamua kuwa ingawa kijana hangesemekana kuwa mumiliki wa pambo lile, angefaa kutazamwa kama mpataji aliyefaa ("mpataji muwekaji") hadi mumiliki wa kiasili anapopatikana. Kwa kweli mwanafunzi na kijana yule wote walikuwa na haki ya ''[[Umiliki (sheria)|umiliki]]'' wa pambo lile (dhana ya kiufundi, inayomaanisha kuwa kitu fulani ''kingeweza'' kumilikiwa na mtu fulani), lakini nia ya kijana yule ya kumiliki ilitazamiwa kuwa bora zaidi, kwa sababu ingeweza kudhihirishwa kuwa ya kwanza katika wakati. Umiliki unaweza kuwa sehemu tisa kwa kumi ya sheria, lakini si yote. Kesi hii hutumika kudhihirisha mtazamo wa mali katika maeneo ya kisheria ya kawaida, kuwa mtu anayeweza kuonyesha dai bora zaidi la kipande cha mali, dhidi ya chama kingine, ndiye mumiliki.<ref>Matthews, ''The Man of Property'', 251–274</ref> Kwa kulinganisha, mbinu ya kiklasiki ya sheria ya raia kuhusu mali, iliendelezwa na [[Friedrich Carl von Savigny]], ni kuwa ni haki nzuri dhidi ya Ulimwengu. Wajibu, kama mkataba na ukiukaji wa wajibu hutazamwa kama haki nzuri dhidi ya watu binafsi.<ref>Savigny, ''Das Recht des Besitzes'', [http://dlib-pr.mpier.mpg.de/m/kleioc/0010/exec/bigpage/%22235083_00000057%22 25] {{Wayback|url=http://dlib-pr.mpier.mpg.de/m/kleioc/0010/exec/bigpage/%22235083_00000057%22 |date=20080418181513 }}</ref> Dhana ya mali inaibua maswala mengi zaidi ya kifalsafa na kisiasa. Locke alidokeza kwamba "maisha, uhuru na nyumba" zetu ni mali yetu kwa sababu tunamiliki mali yetu na [[Nadharia ya ajira ya mali|tunachangayana ajira yetu]] na mazingira yetu.<ref>Locke, ''[[s:Two Treatises of Government/The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and End of Civil Government|Second Treatise on Civil Government]]'', Chap. IX. Of the Ends of Political Society and Government. Chapter 9, section 123.</ref> === Usawa na amana === {{Main|Usawa (sheria)|sheria ya amana}} [[Picha:Microcosm of London Plate 022 - Court of Chancery, Lincoln's Inn Hall edited.jpg|thumb|[[Mahakama ya Chancery]], London, mwanzoni mwa karne ya 19]] Usawa na amana ni mwili wa sheria ulioibuka nchini Uingereza kando na "shera ya kawaida". Sheria ya kawaida ilisimamiwa na mahakimu. [[Bwana Chansela]] kwa upnade mwingine, kama muwekaji dhamiri wa mfalme, angeweza kupuuza sheria iliyotengenezwa na hakimu ikiwa alifikiria kuwa ilikuwa sawa kufanya hivyo.<ref>McGhee, ''Snell's Equity'', 7</ref> Hili lilimaanisha kuwa usawa ulianza kufanya kazi zaidi kupitia [[Malengo ya usawa|kanuni]] bali si sheria ambazo hazikubadilika. Kwa mfano, ambapo mifumo ya sheria ya kawaida au sheria ya raia haiwaruhusu watu kugawa umiliki wa kutoka kwa udhibiti wa kipande kimoja cha mali, usawa unaruhusu hili kupitia mpango unaoitwa 'amana'. Kudhibitiwa kwa mali na 'wenye amana' ambapo kwa upande mwingine umiliki 'wenye manufaa' (au 'yenye usawa') wa mali ya amana inashikiliwa na watu wanojulikana kama 'wadhamini'. Wadhamini wana wajibu kwa walengwa wao wa kuyachuna vyema mali waliyokabidhiwa.<ref>c.f. ''[[Bristol and West Building Society v Mothew]]'' [1998] Ch 1</ref> Katika kesi ya awali ya ''[[Keech dhidi ya Sandford]]''<ref>''[[Keech v Sandford]]'' (1726) Sel Cas Ch 61</ref> mtoto alirithi haki ya [[kokodisha]] katika [[Soko la Romford|soko]] katika eneo la [[Ramford]], mjini London. Bw, Sandford alikabidhiwa mali hayo hadi wakati ambapo mtoto angekomaa. Lakini kabla ya hapo, kipindi cha kukodisha kilikwisha. Kabaila alikuwa (inaonekana) amemwambia Bw. Sandford kuwa hakutaka mtoto yule awe na kukodisha kupya. Lakini bado kabaila alikuwa amefurahi (inaonekana) kumpa Bw. Sandford fursa ya kukodisha. Bw Sandford aliichukua. Wakati ambapo mtoto (sasa Bw. Keech) alikuwa mkubwa, alimpeleka Bw. Sandford mahakamani kwa faida aliyokuwa akipata kwa kupata kukodisha kwa soko. Bw. Sandford alifaa kuaminika, lakini alijiweka katika nafasi ya [[mgongano wa maslahi]]. [[Bwana Kansela]], [[Peter King, Baroni wa Kwanza Mfalme|Bwana Mfalme]], alikubali na kumuamuru Bw. Sandford kutoa faida ile na kumlipa Bw. Keech. Aliandika, {{quote|Ninaona vizuri sana kuwa, ikiwa mdhamini, akikataa kufanya kukodesha upya, anaweza kuwa na kukodesha kwake mwenyewe mali chache ya kiamana yangesajiliwa upya ... Hili linaweza kuonekana kuwa gumu sana, kuwa mdhamini ndiye mtu wa kipekee kwa binadamu wote ambaye hatakuwa na kukodisha; lakini ni bora kanuni ifuatiliwe na isipuuzwe wakati wowote.}} Bila shaka, Bwana Mfalme LC alikuwa na wasiwasi kwamba wadhamini huenda wakatumia fursa ya kutumia mali ya amana wenyewe badala ya kuyachunga. Wadadisi wa kibiashara wanaotumia hifadhi walikuwa wamesababisha [[Mbubujiko wa Bahari ya Kusini|kuaguka kwa soko la hisa]] katika siku hizo. Wajibu mkali kwa wadhamini ulijumuishwa katika sheria ya serikali na kutumika kwa wakurugenzi wa makampuni na [[maafisa watendaji wakuu]]. Mfano mwingine wa jukumu la mdhamini unaweza kuwa kuwekeza mali vizuri au kuiuza.<ref>''[[Nestle v National Westminster Bank plc]]'' [1993] 1 WLR 1260</ref> Hii hasa ndiyo kesi kwa fedha za [[pensheni]] , aina muhimu kwa zote ya amana, ambapo wawekezaji ndio wadhamini wa akiba za watu hadi [[wastaafu]]. Lakini amana pia zinaweza kuundwa kwa [[hisani ya amana|madhumuni ya hisani]], mifano maarufu ikiwa [[Makavazi ya Uingereza]] au [[Shirika la Rockefeller]]. === Utaalamu zaidi === Sheria huenea mbali kuliko masomo ya msingi hadi karibu kila eneo la maisha. Ngazi tatu zimetajwa hapa ili kurahisiha majadiliano, ingawa masomo mbalimbali hufanana na kutegemeana. ;Sheria na jamii [[Picha:Unison strike rally Oxford 20060328.jpg|thumb|Chama cha wafanyikazi kilichoundwa na kikundi cha [[UNISON]] walipogoma]] * '''[[Sheria ya ajira]]''' ni somo la uhusiano wa mara tatu wa kiwandani kati ya mfanyikazi, muajiri na [[chama cha wafanyikazi]]. Hili linahusisha kupunguza [[kufanya biashara]] kwa pamoja, na haki ya [[kugoma]]. Sheria ya kuajiriwa kwa binafsi inaashiria haki za maeneo ya kazi, kama zile [[usalama wa kazi]], [[afya na usalama]] au [[mshahara wa chini zaidi]]. * '''[[Haki za kibinadamu]]''', [[Haki za kiraia na kisiasa|haki za kiraia]] na [[sheria ya haki za kibinadamu]] ni maeneo muhimu katika kumhakikishia kila mtu uhuru na haki za kimsingi, Haya yanapatikana katika maadiko kama vile [[Azimio la Ulimwenguni la Haki za Kibinadamu]], [[Mkataba wa Ulaya wa Haki za Kibinadamu]] (iliyoanzisha [[Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki za Kibinadamu]]) na [[Mswada wa Marekani wa Haki|Mswada wa Marekani wa Haki za Kibinadamu]]. [[Mkataba wa Lisbon]] unafanya [[Mkataba wa Haki za Msingi za Umoja wa Ulaya]] uwe na nguvu za kisheria katika nchi zote wanachama isipokuwa [[Polandi na Uingereza]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080910001253/http://www.lawsociety.org.uk/documents/downloads/guide_to_treaty_of_lisbon.pdf A Guide to the Treaty of Lisbon], The Law Society</ref> * '''[[Utaratibu wa Kiraia]]''' na '''[[utaratibu wa jinai]]''' unahusisha kanuni ambazo mahakama lazima yafuate kadiri [[trial]] na rufaa zinapoendelea. Yote yanahusu haki ya raia kupata [[kuhukumiwa kwa haki]] au kesi yake kusikizwa kwa haki. * '''[[Ushahidi (sheria)|Ushahidi]]'''. Sheria ya ushahidi inahusu vifaa vinavyofaa kutumika mahakamani ili kesi ijengwe. * '''[[Sheria ya Uhamiaji]]''' na '''[[sheria ya utaifa]]''' zinahusu haki za wageni kuishi na kufanya kazi katika taifa ambalo si lao na kupata na kupoteza [[uraia]]. Yote yanahusu [[haki ya hifadhi]] na shida ya watu [[wasiokuwa na nchi]] * '''[[Usalama wa Kijamii]]'''. Sheria ya usalama wa kijamii inahusu haki za watu kuwa na bima ya kijamii, kama vile pesa zinazopewa watafuta kazi au faida za makazi. * '''[[Sheria ya familia]]''' inahusu kesi za [[ndoa]] na [[talaka]] proceedings, haki za watoto na haki za kuwa na mali na pesa ikiwa wenye kufanya ndoa watatengana. ;Sheria na biashara * '''[[Sheria ya kikampuni]]''' ilitokana na sheria ya amana, ikitegemea kanuni ya kutenganisha umiliki na udhibiti.<ref>Berle, ''Modern Corporation and Private Property''</ref> Sheria ya kisasa ya [[kampuni (sheria)|kampuni]] ilianza na [[Sheria ya Kampuni za Pamoja za Akiba ya mwaka 1856]], iliyopitishwa nchini Uingereza, ambayo iliwapa wawekezaji mbinu rahisi ya usajili ili kupata [[dhima ya kupimika]] chini ya dhana ya [[Mtu wa kisheria|mtu tofauti]] wa kampuni. * '''[[Sheria ya kibiashara]]''' inahusu mkataba tata wa mkataba na mali. Sheria ya [[shirika (sheria)|shirika]], [[sheria ya bima]], [[bili za kubadilishana]], [[ufilisi]] na [[Sheria ya kuufungwa kwa biashara]] na sheria ya uuzaji zote ni muhimu, na zinarudi nyuma hadi dhana ya ''[[Mfanyibiashara wa sheria|Lex Mercatoria]]'' ya zama za kati. [[Sheria ya Kuuza Bidhaa na Ukahaba wa Watoto ya Mwaka 1979|Sheria ya Kuuza Bidhaa]] ya Uingereza na [[Kodi Sawa ya Biashara]] ya Marekani ni mifano ya kanuni za kibiashara ya sheria ya kawaida * '''[[Sheria ya maji]]''' na '''[[Mkataba wa Umoja wa Mataifa kuhusu Sheria ya Maji|Sjeria ya Maji]]''' zinaweka muundo msingi wa biashara huru na biashara Duniani kote Baharini, ambapo yamo nje ya eneo la udhibiti wa nchi fulani. Makampuni ya meli yanafanya kazi kwa kutumia kanuni za kawaida za sheria ya biashara, ambazo zimefanywa kuwa jumla kwa soko la kimataifa. Sheria ya maji inajumuisha masuala muhimu kama vile kama vile [[kuokoa vifaa kutoka baharini]], [[Lien#|lieni za maji]], na majeraha kwa abiria. * '''[[Miliki Sheria]]''' inalenga aims at safeguarding creators and other producers of intellectual goods and services. These are legal rights ([[copyright]]s, [[trademark]]s, [[patent]]s, and [[related right]]s) which result from intellectual activity in the industrial, literary and artistic fields.<ref>WIPO, ''Intellectual Property'', 3</ref> * '''[[Fidia]]''' inashughulika na kupata mapato ya mtu mwingine, bali si [[fidia]] kwa hasara ya kibinafsi * '''[[Kutajirika isipofaa]]''' ndiyo nguzo ya tatu ya sheria ya raia (pamoja na mkataba na ukiukaji wa wajibu). Wakati ambapo mtu fulani ametajirishwa isipofaa (au kuna "kutokuwepo kwa msingi" wa biashara) kwa gharama ya mawingine, tukio hili linazalisha haki ya fidia ili kugeuza faida hiyo. ;Sheria na vikwazo [[Picha:1930-67B.png|thumb| Sakafu ya biashara ya [[Soko la Hisa la New York]] baada ya [[kuanguka kwa Wall Street mnamo mwaka wa 1929]], kabla ya sheria kali zaidi za [[vikwazo vya kibenki]] vilipoanza kutumika]] * '''[[Sheria ya kodi]]''' inahusu kanuni kuhusu [[kodi ya thamani iliyoongezwa]], [[kodi ya kampuni]], [[kodi ya mapato]]. * '''[[Kanuni za kibenki|Sheria za kibenki]]''' na [[kanuni za kifedha]] zinaweka viwango vya chini zaidi kuhusu idadi ya mtaji ambao benki zinaweza kuwa nao, na sheria kuhusu utendaji bora wa uwekezaji. Hili ni kwa minajili ya kuhakikisha ulinzi dhidi ya taabu za kiuchumi, kama vile[[Kunguka kwa soko la Wall Street mnamo mwaka wa 1929]]. * '''[[Vikwazo]]''' vinashughulika na utoaji wa [[huduma za umma]] na usimamizi wa [[vifaa vya umma]].'''[[Sheria ya maji]]''' ni mfano mmoja. Hasa tangu [[ubinafshaji]] uwe maarufu na uchukue usimamizi wa huduma kutoka kwa sheria ya umma, makampuni ya kibinafsi ambayo hapo yalikuwa yakifanya kazi iliyodhitiwa na serikali hapo awali yamefungwa na vyeo mbalimbali vya wajibu wa kijamii. [[Sera za Nishati|Nishati]], [[Ofgem|gesi]], [[sera za mawasiliano|mawasiliano]] na [[sheria ya maji|maji]] zinadhibitiwa na viwanda katika nchi nyingi za [[Shirika la Muungano wa Maendeleo ya Kiuchumi|OECD]]. * '''[[Sheria ya mashindano]]''', nchini Marekani inajulikana kama sheria [[dhidi ya amana]], ni eneo linalozidi kubadilika ambalo lilianza katika kutokana na amri za [[Roma ya Kale|Kirumi]] dhidi ya [[kuweka bei]] na mafundisho ya Uingereza ya [[biashara ya makini]]. Sheria ya kisasa ya mashindano inatokana na sheria za Marekani dhidi ya biashara za magendo na dhidi ya ukiritimba ([[Sheria ya Sherman]] na [[Sheria ya Clyaton]]) ya mwisho wa karne ya 20. Inatumika kudhibiti biashara zinazojaribu kutumia ushawishi wao wa kiuchumi kubadilisha biashra za sokoni bila kujali [[maslahi ya mnunuzi]]. * '''[[Kumlinda mnunuzi|Sheria ya mnunuzi]]''' inaweza kujumuisha chochote kuanzia kanuni kuhusu [[vifungu vya mikataba]] ambavyo si sawa hadi maelekezo kuhusu bima ya mizigo ya ndege. * '''[[Sheria ya mazingira]]''' inazidi kuwa muhimu, hasa katika mwanga wa [[Itifaki ya Kyoto]] na hatari inayoweza kutokana na [[mabadiliko ya hali ya anga]]. Ulinzi wa kimazingira pia intumika kuwaadhibu [[uharibifu wa mazingira|wanaoharibu mazingira]] katika mifumo ya kisheria ya kiinchi == Mifumo ya sheria == {{Main|Mifumo ya sheria duniani}} Kwa ujumla, mifumo ya kisheria inaweza kugawanywa kati ya mifumo ya kisheria ya kiraia na mifumo ya kisheria ya kawaida.<ref>Modern scholars argue that the significance of this distinction has progressively declined; the numerous [[legal transplants]], typical of modern law, result in the sharing by modern legal systems of many features traditionally considered typical of either common law or civil law (Mattei, ''Comparative Law and Economics'', 71)</ref> Maneno "sheria ya kiraia" yanayoashiria mfumo wa kisheria hayapaswi kuchanganyishwa na "sheria ya kiraia" kama kundi la masomo ya kisheria ambayo ni tofauti na [[sheria ya umma]] au ya jinai. Aina ya tatu ya mfumo wa kisheria—inayokubalika bado na baadhi ya nchi ambazo zina [[utengano wa kanisa na taifa]]—ni sheria sheria ya kidini, ambayo ina msingi wake katika [[maandiko ya kidini]]. Aina ya mfumo amabo nchi inatumia kutawala mara nyingi kudhamiriwa na historia yake, uhusiano wake na nchi zingine au kushikilia kwake kwa viwango vya kimataifa. [[Vyanzo vya sheria|Vyanzo]] ambavyo maneneo fulani ya kisheria hutumia kama kama zenye uwezo wa kuwa nguvu za kisheria ndizo sifa fafanuzi za mfumo wowote wa kisheria. Hata hivyo, uainishaji ni jambo la umbo kuliko maana, kwani sheria sawa mara nyingi hutawala. === Sheria ya kiraia === {{Main|Sheria ya kiraia}} [[Picha:Code Civil 1804.png|thumb|Ukurasa wa kwanza wa toleo la mwaka wa 1804 la [[Sheria za Kinapoleoni]]]] Sheria ya kiraia ni mfumo wa kisheria unaotumika katika nchi nyingi Duniani. Katika sheria ya kiraia vyanzo vinavyotambulika kama kuwa na mamlaka, ni, haswa, uundaji wa sheria—haswa [[Kuandika sheria (sheria)|sheria zilizoandikwa]] katika [[katiba]] au [[amri]] zinazopitishwa na serikali—na tamaduni.<ref>Civil law jurisdictions recognise custom as "the other source of law"; hence, scholars tend to divide the civil law into the broad categories of "written law" (''ius scriptum'') or legislation, and "unwritten law" (''ius non scriptum'') or custom. Yet they tend to dismiss custom as being of slight importance compared to legislation (Georgiadis, ''General Principles of Civil Law'', 19; Washofsky, ''Taking Precedent Seriously'', 7).</ref> Sheria za kuandikwa zinapatikana hata katika miaka mingi ya awali , huku mfano mmoja ukiwa [[Sheria ya Hammurabi|Codex Hammurabi]] ya [[sheria ya Kibebeli|Kibabeli]]. Mifumo ya sheria za kiraia ya kisasa inatokana na mazoezi ya kisheria ya [[Dola la Kirumi]] ambalo maadiko yake yalipatikana katika Ulaya ya [[Zama za Kati]]. Sheria ya Kirumu katika siku za [[Jamhuri ya Kiruma]] na Dola la Kirumi lilitegemea sana utaratibu, na ilikosa daraja la kitaaluma.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 18</ref> Badala uake mtu wa kawaida aliyeitwa, ''iudex'', alichagukiwa kufanya uamuzi. Kesi za awali hazikuripotiwa, kwa hivyo sheria yoyote yenye msingi katika kesi iliyoibuka ilifichwa na hata kutotambulika.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 21</ref> Kila kesi ilikuwa ilimuliwe upya kutokana na sheria za nchi, ambayo ni sawa na kupungua kwa umuhimu (kinadharia) wa uamuzi wa mahakimu kwa kesi za siku za usoni kwa mufumo ya kisheria siku za leo. Katika kipindi cha karne ya 6 NK katika [[Dola la Kibaizanti|Dola la Mashariki la Roma]], Kaisari [[Justinian I]] aliandika na kuzikusanya pamoja sheria ambazo zilikuwa zinapatikana hapo awali katika Roma, ambapo kile kilichobakia kilikuwa sehemu moja juu ya ishirini ya kiwango cha maandiko ya kisheria kutoka awali.<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 32</ref> Hili ikawa inafahamika kama ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]''. Kwa mujibu wa mwanahistoria mmoja wa kisheria, "Justinian alitazama kwa uangalifu hadi miaka ya dhahabu ya nyuma ya sheria ya Kirumi na alilenga kuirejesha hadi upeo wake wa karne tatu za awali."<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 35</ref> Wakati uo huo, Ulaya ya Magharibi ilitumbukia polepole katika [[Zama za Giza]], na haikuwa hadi karne ya 11ambapo wasomi katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Bologna]] walipoyagundua upya maandiko yaliyokuwa yamepotea na kuyatumia kuzitafsiri sheria zao.<ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 43</ref> Maandiko ya sheria za kiraia yenye msingi unaofanana kwa karibu na sheria ya Kirumu, sambamba na ushawishi mchache kutoka [[sheria za kidini]] kama vile [[sheria ya Kikanoni]] na [[Sharia|sheria ya Kiislamu]],<ref name>Badr, ''Islamic Law'', 187–198 [196–8]</ref><ref name="Makdisi"/> iliendelea kuenea kote baranii Ulaya hadi [[Zama za Kutaalamika|Kutaalmika]]; kisha, katika karne ya 19, Ufaransa, na [[Sheria iliyoandikwa ya Kiraia]], na Ujerumani, [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]], zilifanya sheria zao zilizokuwa zimeandikwa kuwa za kisasa. Sheria hizi mbili zilizoandikwa zilisukuma vilivyo si tu mifumo ya kisheria ya nchi katika Bara Ulaya (kama vile Ugiriki), lakini pia tamaduni za kisheria za [[Sheria ya Ujapani|Ujapani]] na [[Korea ya Kusini|Kikorea]].<ref>Hatzis, ''The Short-Lived Influence of the Napoleonic Civil Code in Greece'', 253–263</ref><ref>Demirgüç-Kunt -Levine, ''Financial Structures and Economic Growth'', 204</ref> Leo, cnhi ambazo zina mifumo ya kisheria ya kiraia ni kama vile [[Sheria ya Urusi|Urusi]] na [[Sheria ya Demokrasia ya watu ya Uchina|Uchina]] na maeneo mengi ya Marekani ya [[Marekani ya Kati|Kati]] na [[Sheria ya Marekani ya Kusini|Marekani ya Kilatini]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html The World Factbook — Field Listing – Legal system] {{Wayback|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html |date=20181226012138 }}, CIA</ref> Marekani inafuata sheria ya kawaida inayofafanuliwa hapa chini. === Sheria ya kawaida na usawa === {{Main|Sheria ya kawaida}} [[Picha:King John signing the Great Charter (Magna Carta) by English School.png|thumb|Mfalme Yohana wa Uingereza anatia sahini Magna Carta]] Sheria ya kawaida na usawa ni mifumo ya kisheria ambapo uamuzi wa mahakama yanakubalika wazi kuwa vyanzo vya sheria."Mafundisho ya utangulizi", au ''[[stare decisis]]'' (Kilatini kwa "kusimama kwa uamuzi") unamaanisha kuwa sumauzi unaofanywa na mahakama yenye mamlaka kubwa yanafunga mahakama yenye mamlaka ya chini. Mifumo ya kisheria ya kawaida hutumia amri mara chache sana, zinazopitishwa na bunge, lakini huenda zikafanya jaribio ambalo si la kitaratibu kuandika sheria zao kuliko katika "mfumo wa sheria wa kiraia". Sheria ya kawaida ina asili yake nchini Uingereza na imerithiwa na karibu nchi zote ambazo hapo awali zilihusika na [[Dola la Uingereza]] (isipokuwa Malta, [[sHERIA YA|Scotland]], na jimbo la Marekani la [[Sheria ya Louisiana|Louisiana]], na jimbo la Kanada la [[sheria ya Quebec|Quebec]]). Katika Uingereza wakati wa zama za kati, [[Ushindi wa Norman dhidi ya Uingereza|ushindi wa Norman]] ulisababisha kuungana kwa desturi mbalimbali za kikabila na hivyo basi kuunda sheria ya "kawaida" ya nchi yote. Labda ikisukumwa na [[Sheria ya Kiislamu|mazoea ya kisheria ya Kiislamu]] wakati wa [[Krusedi]],<ref name=Makdisi>Makdisi, ''The Islamic Origins'', 1635–1739</ref> sheria ya kawaida iliendelea ambapo Mfalme wa Kiingereza alikuwa amefanywa kuwa dhaifu na gharama kubwa ya vita vywa kudhibiti sehemu kubwa za Ufaransa. [[Yohana wa Uingereza|Mfalme Yohana]] alikuwa amelazimishwa na mabaroni wake kutia saini hati iliyoweka vikwazo kwa mamlaka yake ya kupisha sheria. "Mkataba huu mkuu" au ''[[Magna Carta]]'' wa mwaka 1215 pia ulihitaji jopo la mahakimu wa Mfalme kufanya mikutano yao ya kimahakama na uamuzi wao katika "mahali maalum" badala ya kutoa haki ya kibepari katika maeneo yaliyokuwa magumu kutabiri kote.<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html Magna Carta] {{Wayback|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html |date=20140910155351 }}, Fordham University</ref> Kundi la mahakimu walsomi na waliokolea walipata jukumu muhimu katika kuunda sheria chini ya mfumo huu, na ikilinganishwa na wenzao Barani Ulaya mahakama ya Uingereza ilikuwa na urasimu mwingi zaidi. Kwa mfano, mnamo mwaka wa 1297, wakati ambapo mahakama kuu ya Ufaransa yalikuwa na mahakimu hamsini na wawili, [[Mahakama ya Uingereza ya Maombi ya Kawaida]] yalikuwa na watano.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 4</ref> Mahakama haya yenye nguvu na yaliyoshikamana yalisababisha mfumo wa kikiritimba.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 3</ref> Kufuatana na hilo, kadiri wakati ulivyopita, idadi iliyoongezeka ya raia waliomba Mfalme kupuuza sheria ya kawaida, na kwa niaba ya Mfalme [[Bwana Chansela]] alitoa uamuzi kufanya kile ambacho ni sawa kwa kila kesi. Kuanzia wakati wa [[Thomas More]], wakili wa kwanza kuteuliwa kama Bwana Chansela, mwili wa kimfumo wa usawa uliongezeka kando ya sheria ya kawaida yenye ukiritimba, na ilianzisha [[Mahakama yake ya Chancery]]. Mwanzoni, usawa ulikosolewa kuwa ulikosa kukosa utaratibu, na kuwa ulibadilika kulingana na urefu wa mguu wa Chansela.<ref>Pollock (ed) ''Table Talk of [[John Selden]]'' (1927) 43; "Equity is a roguish thing. For law we have a measure... equity is according to the conscience of him that is Chancellor, and as that is longer or narrower, so is equity. 'Tis all one as if they should make the stadard for the measure a Chancellor's foot."</ref> Lakini baada ya muda iliunda [[Kanuni za usawa|kanuni]], hasa chini ya [[John Scott, Ali wa kwanza wa Eldon|Bwana Eldon]].<ref>''[[Gee v Pritchard]]'' (1818) 2 Swans. 402, 414</ref> Katika karne ya 19 mifumo hiyo miwili iliunganishwa pamoja. Katika kuendeleza sheria ya kawaida na usawa, waandishi wa kitaaluma wamekuwa na jukumu muhimu. [[William Blackstone]], kuanzia kipindi cha 1760, alikuwa mwanachuoni wa kwanza kuelezea na kufunza usawa.<ref>Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/blackstone/bk1ch1.htm Book the First – Chapter the First] {{Wayback|url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/blackstone/bk1ch1.htm |date=20130329045450 }}</ref> Lakini kwa kuelezea tu, wasomi walitafuta melezo na miunso msingi walibadilisha polepole jinisi sheria ilivyofanya kazi.<ref>Gordley-von Mehren, ''Comparative Study of Private Law'', 17</ref> === Sheria ya kidini === {{Main|Sheria ya kidini}} Sheria ya kidini inatokana na maagizo ya [[dini]]. Baadhi ya mifano ni [[Halakha]] ya [[Uyahudi|Kiyahudi]] na [[Sharia]] ya [[Uislamu]] — ambazo zote mbili zinamaanisha "njia ya kufuata" — huku [[sheria za Kanisa]] za [[Ukristo]] nazo hutumika katika [[madhehebu]] machache, kama vile [[Kanisa Katoliki]], [[Kanisa la Kiorthodoksi]] na la [[Anglikana]]. Mara nyingi dini inadai kutobadilika kwa sheria, kwa sababu [[neno la Mungu]] haliwezi kufanyiwa marekebisho wala kupingwa na mahakimu au serikali. Hata hivyo mfumo fasaha wa sheria kwa jumla unahitaji upanuzi upande wa [[binadamu]]. Kwa mfano, [[Torati]] au Vitabu Vitano vya [[Musa]] katika [[Agano la Kale]]. Vitabu hivyo vina kanuni na sheria za msingi za Uyahudi, ambayo baadhi ya jamii ya Kiisraeli huchagua kutumia. [[Halakha]] ni kanuni ya sheria za Kiyahudi inayofanya muhtasari wa baadhi ya ufafanuzi wa kitabu cha [[Talmud]]. Hata hivyo, [[Sheria za Israeli]] zinaruhusu [[mlalamikaji]] kuchagua mbinu za kidini ikiwa tu anataka. Mfano mwingine ni [[Korani]] ambayo ina sheria, na inakuwa kama chanzo cha sheria zaidi kupitia ufafanuzi,<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 159</ref> ''[[Qiyas]]'' (kulinganisha), ''[[Ijma]]'' (kufikia muafaka) na [[yaliyokwishatokea]]. Hili hasa hupatikana katika mkusanyo wa sheria na falsafa ya kisheria inayojulikana kama [[Sharia]] na [[Fiqh]]. [[Picha:1879-Ottoman Court-from-NYL.png|thumb|left|Kesi katika [[Dola la Ottoman]], mwaka [[1879]], wakati sheria ya kidini ilitumika chini ya [[Mecelle]].]] Hadi [[karne ya 18]], Sharia ilitekelezwa kote katika [[Ulimwengu wa Kiislamu]] katika mfumo ambao haukuwa umeandikwa kwa ufasaha, huku sheria ya [[Mecelle]] ya [[Dola la Ottoman]] katika [[karne ya 19]] ilikuwa ya kwanza kuandika vipengele vya Sharia. Tangu miaka ya kati ya 1940, majaribio yamefanywa, katika nchi nyingi, kufanya sheria hizo zifanane zaidi na hali na dhana za kisasa.<ref name="AA">Anderson, ''Law Reform in the Middle East'', 43</ref><ref>Giannoulatos, ''Islam'', 274–275</ref> Katika nyakati za sasa, mifumo ya kisheria katika mataifa mengi ya Kiislamu hutegemea sheria za kiraia na sheria ya kawaida na pia sheria na tamaduni za Kiislamu. Katiba za baadhi ya nchi za Kiislamu, kama vile [[Misri]] na [[Afghanistan]], zinatambua [[Uislamu]] kama sheria ya taifa, hivyo kuyafanya mabunge katika nchi hizo yasiwe na budi kufuata Sharia.<ref>Sherif, ''Constitutions of Arab Countries'', 157–158</ref> [[Saudia]] inatambua Korani kama katiba, na inatawaliwa kwa msingi wa sheria ya Kiislamu.<ref name = Jurist>[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm Saudi Arabia] {{Wayback|url=http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/world/saudiarabia.htm |date=20060830232216 }}, Jurist</ref> [[Iran]] pia imeshuhudia kurudi kwa sheria ya Kiislamu katika mfumo wake wa kisheria baada ya mwaka [[1979]].<ref>Akhlagi, ''Iranian Commercial Law'', 127</ref> Katika miongo michache iliyopita, mojawapo ya tofauti kuu ya harakati ya [[mwamko wa Kiislamu]] imekuwa wito wa kuirejesha Sharia, wito ambao umeibua kiasi kikubwa cha maandishi na kuathiri [[siasa]] duniani.<ref name="H1">Hallaq, ''The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law'', 1</ref> == Nadharia ya sheria == === Historia ya Sheria === {{Main|Historia ya sheria}} [[Picha:Milkau Oberer Teil der Stele mit dem Text von Hammurapis Gesetzescode 369-2.jpg|thumb|Mfalme [[Hammurabi]] anaonyeshwa [[Sheria ya Hammurabi|mkusanyiko wa sheria]] na mungu wa jua wa Kimesopotamia [[Shamash]], ambaye pia anatambulika kama mungu wa haki]] Historia ya sheria inashikamana kwa karibu na [[maendeleo]] ya [[ustaarabu]]. Sheria ya [[Misri ya Kale]], iliyorudi nyuma mbali hadi mnamo [[3000 KK]], ilikuwa na mkusanyiko wa sheria ambao huenda ulikuwa umegawanjwa katika vitabu kumi na viwili. Ilizingatia dhana ya [[Ma'at]], iliyokuwa na sifa ya mapokeo, [[hotuba]] za [[kushawishi]], usawa wa kijamii na [[uaminifu]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Théodoridés|title = law | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt}}</ref><ref>VerSteeg, ''Law in ancient Egypt''</ref> Kufikia [[karne ya 22 KK]], [[mtawala]] wa zamani wa [[Wasumeri|Kisumeri]], [[Ur-Nammu]] alikuwa ameandaa [[Mkusanyiko wa sheria wa Ur-Nammu|mkusanyiko wa sheria]], ambao ulihusisha kauli za [[Mjadala|kimjadala]] ("ikiwa ... basi ..."). Kufikia mwaka wa [[1760 KK]], Mfalme [[Hammurabi]] aliboresha zaidi [[Sheria ya Babeli]], kwa kuikusanya na kujandika katika [[jiwe]] kubwa. Hammurabi aliweka nakala kadhaa za jiwe lile kote katika [[milki ya Babeli]] kama [[stelae]], ili watu wote waitazame; hii ilikuja kufahamika kama [[Mkusanyiko wa Sheria za Hammurabi]]. Nakala iliyobaki ambayo haijaharibika sana wa stelae hizi iligunduliwa katika [[karne ya 19]] na [[Waingereza]] wasomi wa mambo ya [[Assyria|milki ya Assyria]], na tangu wakati huo imenakiliwa upya na kutafsiriwa katika [[lugha]] mbalimbali, zikiwemo [[Kiingereza]], [[Kijerumani]] na [[Kifaransa]].<ref>Richardson, ''Hammurabi's Laws'', 11</ref> [[Agano la Kale]] lilianza mnamo [[1280 KK]], na linachukua umbo la [[amri]] za [[Maadili|kimaadili]] kama mapendekezo ya [[jamii]] nzuri. [[Miji-dola|Mji-dola]] wa [[Ugiriki ya Kale]], [[Atheni ya Kale]] kuanzia [[karne ya 8 KK]] ilikuwa jamii ya kwanza kuwa na msingi wake katika kuhusisha raia kwa upana; isipokuwa [[wanawake]] na daraja la [[watumwa]]. Hata hivyo, [[Atheni]] haikuwa na sayansi ya kisheria, na hapakuwa na neno la "sheria" isipokuwa kama dhana ya kiakili tu.<ref>Kelly, ''A Short History of Western Legal Theory'', 5–6</ref> Bado [[sheria ya Ugiriki wa Kale]] ilikuwa na uvumbuzi mkubwa wa [[Katiba ya Waatheni|kikatiba]] katika kuendeleza [[Demokrasia ya Atheni|demokrasia]].<ref>Ober, ''The Nature of Athenian Democracy'', 121</ref> [[Sheria ya Kirumi]] ilisukumwa sana na [[falsafa]] ya Kigiriki, lakini maelezo yake ya kina yaliendelezwa na wanasheria wa kitaaluma, na yalikuwa magumu sana.<ref>Kelly, ''A Short History of Western Legal Theory'', 39</ref><ref>Stein, ''Roman Law in European History'', 1</ref> Katika kipindi cha karne zilizopita kati ya kupanda na kushuka kwa [[Dola la Roma]], sheria imebadilishwa ili kukabiliana na hali za kijamii zilizokuwa zikibadilika, na ilikusanywa na kuandkiwa vilivyo wakati wa utawala wa [[kaisari]] [[Justinian I]].<ref name="St107">Kama mfumo wa kisheria, Sheria ya Kirumi imeathiri moja kwa moja sheria za duniani kote. Pia ni sehemu ya msingi ya mkusanyiko wa sheria wa nchi nyingi za [[Bara|barani]] [[Ulaya]], na imekuwa muhimu katika kuunda kwa dhana ya utamaduni sawa Ulaya (Stein, ''Sheria ya Kirumi katika Historia ya Ulaya'', 2, 104–107).</ref> Ingawa ilipungua kwa umuhimu mwanzoni mwa [[Karne za Kati]], Sheria ya Kirumi iligunduliwa upya wakati wa [[karne ya 11]] ambapo wasomi walianza kutafiti mkusanyiko wa sheria za Kirumi na kuyatumia mawazo yao. Katika Uingereza ya Zama za Kati, mahakimu wa Mfalme waliunda mwili wa [[utangulizi]], ambao baadaye ulijulikana kama [[sheria ya kawaida]]. ''[[Sheria ya biashara]]'' ya Ulaya mzima iliundwa ili kuwapa [[wafanyabiashara]] uwezo wa kufanya biashara kwa kutumia viwango sawa vya mazoezi; badala ya kutumia sheria za kimtaa zenye pande nyingi. Hiyo ''Lex Mercatoria'', mtangulizi wa sheria ya kisasa ya biashara, ilihimiza [[uhuru wa mkataba]] na kuwekwa mbali kwa mali.<ref>Sealey-Hooley, ''Commercial Law'', 14</ref> Kadiri [[utaifa]] ulipozidi katika [[karne za 18]] na 19, ndipo ''Lex Mercatoria'' ilipozidi kujumuishwa katika sheria za kimanispaa za nchi mbalimbali chini ya mkusanyiko mpya wa sheria za kiraia. [[Mkusanyiko wa Sheria za Napoleoni]] na sheria za [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|Kijerumani]] ulikuwa na ushawishi mkubwa zaidi. Ikitofautishwa na sheria ya kawaida ya Uingereza, ambayo ina idadi kubwa ya sheria za kesi, mikusanyiko ya sheria katika vitabu vidogo ni rahisi kuuza nje ili mahakimu waweze kuitumia. Hata hivyo, hivi leo kuna ishara kuwa sheria ya kiraia na sheria ya kawaida zinazidi kukaribiana.<ref>Mattei, ''Comparative Law and Economics'', 71</ref> Sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya imekusanywa katika mikataba, lakini huendelezwa kupitia utangulizi unaofanywa na [[Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki]]. [[Picha:Constitution of India.jpg|thumb|left|[[Katiba ya nchi ya Uhindi]] ndiyo katiba ndefu zaidi iliyoandikwa kwa nchi, ikiwa na Ibara 444, Ibara 12 ndogo, na marekebisho mengi na maneno 117,369]] [[Sheria ya Kiislamu]] na [[Fiqh|falsafa ya sheria]] zilianza katika kipindi cha Zama za Kati.<ref name="Badr">Badr, ''Islamic Law'', 187–198</ref> Mbinu ya kisheria ya utangulizi na kufikiria kupitia mlinganisho (''[[Qiyas]]'') iliyotumika katika sheria ya mapema ya Kiislamu ilifanana na na ile ya baadaye ya mfumo wa [[Sheria ya Uingereza|Sheria ya Kawaida ya Uingereza]].<ref name=Gamal>Justice Gamal Moursi Badr argues that Islamic law may "be called a [[lawyer]]'s law if common law is a [[judge]]'s law"(Badr, ''Islamic Law'', 187–198, El-Gamal, ''Islamic Finance'', 16).</ref> Hii ilitumika hasa katika shule ya [[Maliki]] ya sheria ya Kiislamu iliyopatikana sana katika eneo la Afrika Kasakazini, [[Al-Andalus|Uhispania wa Kiislamu]] na baadaye [[Sicily ya Kiemereti]]. Kati ya karne za 8 na 11, sheria ya Maliki iliendeleza [[taasisi]] nyingi zilizokuwa sambamba na taasisi za baadaye za sheria ya kawaida.<ref>The "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic ''Aqd'', the English [[assize of novel disseisin]] is identified with the Islamic ''Istihqaq'', and the English jury is identified with the Islamic ''Lafif''". Other parallels include "the [[scholastic method]], the license to teach" (''[[Ijazah]]''), the "[[law school]]s known as [[Inns of Court]] in England and ''[[Madrasah|Madrasas]]'' in Islam", and the [[Agency (law)|agency]] (''[[Hawala]]'') and [[trust law]] (''[[Waqf]]'') (Gaudiosi, ''The Influence of the Islamic Law '', 1231–1261; Makdisi, ''The Islamic Origins'', 1635–1739).</ref> Sheria ya kale ya [[Sheria ya Uhindi|Uhindi]] na [[Sheria ya uchina|Uchina]] zinawakilisha mapokeo tofauti ya sheria, na kihistoria yamekuwa na [[shule]] huru za kinadharia na mazoezi. ''[[Arthashastra]]'', ambayo pengine iliandikwa mnamo [[100]] [[BK]] (ingawa ina maandiko ya awali kidogo), na ''[[Manusmriti]]'' (100–[[300]]) yalikuwa mikataba ya uanzilishaji nchini Uhindi, na ilikuwa na maandiko yanayofikiriwa kuwa wongofu wenye mamlaka wa kisheria.<ref>For discussion of the composition and dating of these sources, see Olivelle, ''Manu's Code of Law'', 18-25.</ref> Falsafa kuu ya Manu ilikuwa kuvumiliana na [[Mfumo wa Viama Vingi (falsafa ya kisheria)|Mfumo wa Vyama Vingi]], na ilitajwa kote katika eneo la Asia ya Kusini Mashariki.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 276</ref> Mapokeo haya ya [[Uhindi|Kihindu]], pamoja na sheria ya Kiislamu, yalibadilishwa na na sheria ya kawaida wakati ambapo Uhindi ilifanywa kuwa sehemu ya [[Dola la Uingereza]].<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 273</ref> [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], [[Singapore]] na [[Hong Kong]] pia ilianza kutumia sheria ya kawaida, Mapokeo ya sheria ya [[Asia ya Kusini]] yanaangazia mkusanyiko maalum wa ushawishi wa kidunia na kidIni.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 287</ref> [[Ujapani]] ilikuwa nchi ya kwanza kuufanya mfumo wake wa sheria uwe wa kisasa sambamba na ule wa nchi za magharibi, kwa kuagiza sehemu za mkusanyiko wa sheria za [[Mkusanyiko wa Sheria|Ufaransa]], lakini hasa mkusanyiko wa sheria za Kijerumani.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 304</ref> Hili lilionyesha kwa kiwango fulani hadhi ya Ujerumani kama nguvu yenye uwezo mkubwa zaidi katika kipindi cha mwisho cha karne ya 19. Pia, [[sheria ya mapokeo ya Uchina]] ilifungua njia kwa kubadilishwa na nchi za magharibi kuelekea miaka ya mwisho ya [[Nasaba ya Qing|nasaba ya Ch'ing]] kupitia njia ya mkusanyiko wa sheria tatu za kibinaFsi zilizokuwa na msingi katika muundo wa Ujapani wa sheria ya Ujerumani.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 305</ref> Leo sheria ya [[Taiwan]] inabaki na mshikamano wa karibu zaidi na mkusanyiko wa sheria kutoka kipindi hicho, kwa sababu ya mgawanyiko kati ya wanataifa wa [[Chiang Kai-shek]], ambao walitoroka kutoka sehemu hiyo, na [[wakomunisti]] wa [[Mao Zedong]] waliopata ushindi wa kudhibiti bara mnamo mwaka wa [[1949]]. Muundombinu wa sasa wa Jamhuri ya Watu wa Uchina ilishawishika pakubwa na [[Sheria ya Kisoshalisti]] ya [[Umoja wa Kisovyeti]], inayopea sheria ya utawala umuhimu mwingi kuliko haki za sheria ya kibinafsi.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 307</ref> Kwa sababu ya kuongezeka kwa kasi kwa viwanda, leo Uchina inapitia machakato wa wa marekebisho, angalau katika nyanja ya haki za kiuchumi, ikiwa si haki za kijamii na kisiasa. Sheria mpya ya mkataba ya mwaka wa 1999 ilikuwa ishara ya kusonga mbali na kuwa na utawala mwingi.<ref>Glenn, ''Legal Traditions of the World'', 309</ref> Isitoshe, baada ya mazungumzo yaliyodumu miaka kumi na mitano, mnamo mwaka 2001 Uchina ilijiunga na [[Shirika la Biashara Duniani]].<ref>Farah, ''Five Years of China WTO Membership'', 263–304</ref> === Falsafa ya sheria === {{Main|Falsafa ya sheria}} [[Falsafa]] ya sheria kwa kawaida inaitwa jurisprudensi. Jurisprudensi unaozidi kuongezka wenyewe ni [[falsafa ya kisiasa]], na unauliza "sheria inafaa kuwa nini?", huku jurisprudensia ya uchambuzi inauliza "sheria ni nini?". Jibu la [[utumikaji|kiutumikaji]] la [[John Austin (mwanafalsafa wa kisheria)|John Austin]] linajibu kuwa sheria ni "amri, zinazoandamana na matishio ya vkwazo, kutoka kwa mtawala, ambaye watu wote wamezoea kumtii".<ref name="jap">Bix, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/austin-john/#3 John Austin]</ref> Mawakili wa [[sheria ya kimaumbile]] kwa upande mwingine, kama vile [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], wanadokeza kwamba sheria inaangazia sheria isiyobadilika ya tabia ya kimaumbile. Dhana ya "sheria ya kimaumbile" iliibuka katika [[falsafa ya Kigiriki]] ya zamani kwa wakati mmoja na kwa pamoja na dhana ya haki, na iliingia mkondo wa [[utamaduni wa Magharibi]] kupitia maandiko ya [[Thomas Aquinas]] na maoni ya [[Falsafa ya mapema ya Kiislamu|mwanafalsafa wa Kiislamu]] na mwanasheria [[Averroes]].<ref>Roeber, ''What the Law Requires'', 887</ref><ref>Stone, ''Human Law and Human Justice'', 14, 51</ref> [[Hugo Grotius]], mwanzilishi wa mfumo uliotegemea dhana za kiakili pekee ya sheria ya kimaumbile, alidokeza kuwa sheria inatokana na msukumo wa kijamii—jinsi Aristotle alivyokuwa amesema—na kufikiria.<ref>[[Fritz Berolzheimer]], ''The World's Legal Philosophies'', 115–116</ref> [[Immanuel Kant]] aliamini kuwa amri ya kimaadili inahitaji sheria "zichaguliwe kana kwamba zinafaa kushikilia kama sheria za ilimwenguni kote za kimaumbile".<ref>[[Immanuel Kant|Kant, Immanuel]], ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'', 42 (par. 434)</ref> [[Jeremy Bentham]] na mwanafunzi wake Austin, wakimfuata [[David Hume]], waliamini kuwa hili liliongeza utata wa [[Utata wa kilicho-na kinachofaa kuwepo|"kilicho" na kile ambacho "kinafaa kuwepo"]]. Bentham na Austin walisisitiza kuwe na sheria ya [[Uchanya wa sheria|uchanya]]; na kuwa sheria ya kweli ni tofauti kabisa na "maadili".<ref>Green, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legal-positivism/ Legal Positivism]</ref> Kant pia alikosolewa na [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], ambaye alikataa kanuni ya usawa, huku akiamini kuwa sheria hutokana na [[nia kwa nguvu]], na haiwezi fanywa kuwa ya "kimaadili" au "utovu wa nidhamu".<ref>Nietzsche, ''Zur Genealogie der Moral'', Second Essay, 11</ref><ref>Kazantzakis, ''Friedrich Nietzsche and the Philosophy of Law'', 97–98</ref><ref>Linarelli, ''Nietzsche in Law's Cathedral'', 23–26</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 1934, mwanafalsafa wa Kiaustria, [[Hans Kelsen]], alizidi na mapokeo ya uchanya katika kitabu chake ''[[Nadharia Safi ya Sheria]]''.<ref>Marmor, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lawphil-theory/ The Pure Theory of Law]</ref> Kelsen aliamini kuwa ingawa sheria ni tofauti na maadili, inapewa "ukawaida"; kumaanisha kuwa tunfaa kuitii. Ingawa sheria ni taarfa chanya za "ni" (k.m. faini ya kuendesha kwa kurudi nyuma katika barabara kuu ''ni'' [[Euro|€]]500); hii sheria inatuelezea kile "tunachofaa" kutenda. Kwa hivyo kila mfumo wa sheria unaweza kudadisiwa kuwa na kanuni ya msingi (''[[Grundnorm]]'') ianyotupea amri ya kutii. Mpinzani mkuu wa Kelsen, [[Carl Schmitt]], alikataa uchanya na dhana ya [[utawala wa sheria]] kwa sababu hakukubali umuhimu wa kanuni za kidhana za Uchanya badala ya mitazamo na uamuzi bayana wa kisiasa.<ref name=">Bielefeldt, ''Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism'', 25–26</ref> Kwa hiyo, Schmitt alipendekeza falsafa ya sheria ya maalum ([[hali ya dharura]]), ambayo ilikanusha kuwa kanuni za kisheria zingezunguka uzoefu wote wa kisiasa.<ref name="F171">Finn, ''Constitutions in Crisis'', 170–171</ref> [[Picha:Jeremy Bentham by Henry William Pickersgill detail.jpg|thumb|Nadharia za Bentham za utumikiaji zilibaki kimya katika sheria hadi karne ya 20]] Baadaye katika karne ya 20, [[H. L. A. Hart]] alimshambulia Austin kwa kurahisisha kwake kwa suala hilo na Kelsen kwa kutunga kwake kwa mambo ya kihadithi katika kitabu cha ''[[Dhana ya Sheria]]''.<ref>Bayles, ''Hart's Legal Philosophy'', 21</ref> Hart alidokeza kuwa sheria ni mfumo wa kanuni, zilizogawanywa kuwa (kanuni za maadili) ambazo ndizo za kimsingi na sheria za upili (zinazowalenga maafisa kusimamia kanuni msingi). Kanuni za upili zimegawanywa zaidi kuwa sheria za uamuzi (kutatua migogoro ya kisheria), kanuni za mabadiliko (zinazoruhusu sheria kuwa tofauti) na sheria ya utambuzi(inayoruhusu sheria kutambulika kama halali). Wawili kati ya wanafunzi wa Hart waliendeleza mjadala: Ktaika kitabu chake ''Dola la Sheria'', [[Ronald Dworkin]] alimshabulia Hart na wachanya kwa kukataa kwao la kufanya sheria iwe suala la kimaadili. Dworkin anadokeza kuwa sheria ni dhana ya "[[utafsirishaji (sheria)|kitafsiri]]",<ref>Dworkin, ''Law's Empire'', 410</ref> inayowataka mahakimu kupata suluhisho bora zaidi kwa mgogoro wa kisheria, kwa mujibu wa mila zao. [[Joseph Raz]], kwa upande mwingine, anawataka alitetea mtazamo wa kichanya na kukosoa mtazamo wa Hart wa "nadharia laini ya kijamii" katika kitabu chake ''Mamlaka ya Sheria''.<ref name="jra">Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 3–36</ref> Raz anadokeza kuwa sheria ni mamlaka, yanayotambulika kupitia vyanzo vya kijamii na bila kurejelea hoja za kimaadili. Katika maoni yake, uainishaji wowote wa kanuni zozote zaidi ya majukumu yao kama vifaa vya kimamlaka katika upatanisha ni bora yaachiwe [[elimu ya jamii]], badala ya falsafa ya sheria.<ref>Raz, ''The Authority of Law'', 37 etc.</ref> === Uchambuzi wa kiuchumi wa sheria === {{Main|Sheria na uchumi}} Katika karne ya 18 [[Adam Smith]] aliwasilisha msingi wa kifalsafa wa kuelezea uhusiano kati ya sheria na uchumi.<ref>According to Malloy (''Law and Economics'', 114), Smith established "a classical liberal philosophy that made individuals the key referential sign while acknowledging that we live not alone but in community with others".</ref> Taaluma hiyo ilitokana na mchango wa ukosoaji dhidi ya vyama vya wafanyikazi na [[sheria dhidi ya amana]] nchini Marekani. Watetezi wa taaluma hii waliokuwa na ushawishi mkubwa zaidi, kama vile [[Richard Posner]] na [[Oliver E. Williamson|Oliver Williamson]] na kinachojulikana kama [[Shule ya Chicago (uchumi)|Shule ya Chicago]] ya wanauchumi na mawakili ikiwemo [[Milton Friedman]] na [[Gary Becker]], kwa jumla ni watetezi wa [[uouguzaji wa udhibiti]] na [[ubinafsishaji]], na ni maadui wa udhibiti wa serikali au kile wanachokiona kuwa vikwazo dhidi ya unedeshaji wa ma[[soko huru]].<ref>Jakoby, ''Economic Ideas and the Labour Market'', 53</ref> [[Picha:Richard-A-Posner.jpg|thumb|left|[[Richard Posner]], mmoja wa watetezi wa [[Chuo cha Chicago (uchumi)|Chuo cha Chicago]], huandika blogu pamoja na [[Gary Becker]] mwanauchumi ambaye ni mshindi wa [[Tuzo la Benki ya Uswidi]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/ |title=The Becker-Posner Blog |accessdate=2007-02-03 |archive-date=2011-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110223220214/http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>]] Mchambuzi maarufu zaidi wa kiuchumi wa sheria ni mshindi wa [[Tujo la Nobel la Uchumi|Tuzo la Nobel]] la mnamo 1991 [[Ronald Coase]], ambaye makala yake makuu ya kwanza, ''[[Hali ya Kampuni]]'' (1937), kulidokeza sababu za kuwepo kwa makampuni mbalimbali (makampuni, ubia, n.k.) ndiyo kuwepo kwa [[gharama za biashara]].<ref>Coase, ''The Nature of the Firm'', 386–405</ref> [[Homo economicus|Binadamu ambao hufikiria kawaida]] hufanya biashara kupitia mikataba ya bilaterala katika masoko wazi hadi wakati ambapo gharama ya biashara kunamaanisha kuwa kutumia makampuni ya kihalmasahhuri ili kuzalisha bidha ni ya ufanisi mwingi zaidi.Makala yake makuu ya pili, ''[[Shida ya Gharama ya Kijamii]]'' (1960), yalidokeza kuwa tunaishi katika Dunia bila gharama za kibiashara, watu ambao [[kuongea kuhusu gharama|huongea kuhusu gharama]] pamoja wanatengeneza mgao sawa wa rasilimali, buila kujali jinsi mahakama yanavyoweza kuamua katika migogoro kuhusu mali.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', 1–44</ref> Coase alitumia mfano wa kesi ya [[kero]] iliyoitwa ''[[Sturges dhidi ya Bridgman]]'', ambapo mtengenezaji peremende ambaye alipiga kelele nyingi na daktari mtulivu walikuwa majirani na walienda mahakamani ili wajue nani kati yao ndiye angefa kuhama.<ref name="Sturges"/> Coase alisema kuwa bila kujali ikiwa hakimu aliamua kuwa mtengenezaji peremende angefaa kuwacha kutumia mashine zake, au ikiwa ingembidi daktari kuvumilia kelele ile, wote wawili wangefikia mapatano ya pamoja kuhusu nani ndiye angefaa kuhama ambayo yanafikia matokeo sawa na mgawanyo wa rasilimali. Ni kuwepo tu kwa [[bei za biashara]] kunaoweza kuzuia hili.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', IV, 7</ref> Kwa hivyo sheria infaa kutazamia kile ambacho ''huenda kikafanyika'', na kuongozwa na ufumbuzi wenye [[ufanisi (uchumi)|ufanisi]]. Wenye kuunda mipango serikalini wanaamini wazo kwamba sheria na vikwazo si muhimu au zenye ufanisi katika kuwasaidia watu.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', V, 9</ref> Coase na wengine kama yeye walitaka mabadiliko ya mbinu, ili kuweka mzigo wa ushahidi katika serikali iliyokuwa ikiingilia soko, kwa kuchambua gharama za hatua.<ref>Coase, ''The Problem of Social Cost'', VIII, 23</ref> === Elimujamii ya sheria === {{Main|Elimujamii ya sheria}} Somo la kijamii la sheria ni taaluma pana ya masomo inayotazama mwingiliano kati ya sheria na jamii na inahusiana kwa karibu na falsafa ya sheria, uchambuzi wa kiuchumi wa sheria na masomo maalum zaidi kama [[somo la jinai]].<ref name="Jary">Jary, ''Collins Dictionary of Sociology'', 636</ref> Taasisi za [[ujenzi wa jamii]] na mifumo ya kisheria ni maeneo muhimu ya uchunguzi wa taaluma hii. Mwanzoni, wananadharia wa kisheria walishuku taaluma hii. Kelesen alimshambuliwa mmoja wa waanzilishi wake, [[Eugen Ehrlich]], ambaye alitaka kuweka wazi tofauti kati ya sheria ya uchanya, ambayo mawakili wanajifunza na kutumia, na aina zingine za 'sheria' au kanuni za kijamii zinazodhibiti maisha ya kila siku, na kwa jumla kuzuiwa migogoro isiwafikie mawakili mahakamani.<ref>Rottleuthner, ''La Sociologie du Droit en Allemagne'', 109</ref><ref>Rottleuthner, ''Rechtstheoritische Probleme der Sociologie des Rechts'', 521</ref> [[Picha:Max Weber 1917.jpg|thumb|left|[[Max Weber]] mnamo mwaka wa 1917, Weber alianza kazi yake kama wakili, na antazamwa kama mmoja wa waanzilishi wa somo la jamii na somo la jamii la kisheria]] Katika kipindi cha mwaka 1900 [[Max Weber]] alifafanua mbinu yake ya "kisayansi" ya sheria, huku akitambua "umbo la kimantiki ya sheria" kama aina ya utawala, ambao si chanzo cha watu lakini kwa dhana za kiakili.<ref>Rheinstein, ''Max Weber on Law and Economy in Society'', 336</ref> [[Mamalaka ya kimantiki ya sheria|Umantiki wa kisheria]] yalikuwa maneno yake aliyoyatumia kuelezea mwili wa sheria zinazoeleweka na zinazoweza kuhesabika na zilikuwa hatua ya kwanza ya maendeleo ya kisasa ya kisiasa na taifa la ukiritimba la kisasa na kuibuka sambamba na [[ubepari]].<ref name="Jary"/> Msomi mwingine wa somo la jamii, [[Émile Durkheim]], aliandika katika ''Mgawanyo wa Ujira na Jamii'' kuwa kadiri jamii inavyozidi kuwa kubwa, ndivyo mwili wa sheria ya kiraia unaohusika hasa na fidia unapozidi kukuwa kwa gharama ya sheria za jinai na vikwazo vya kisheria.<ref>Johnson, ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology, 156</ref> Wasomi wengine wa somo la jamii ni [[Hugo Sinzheimer]], [[Theodor Geiger]], [[Georges Gurvitch]] na [[Leon Petrażycki]] Barani Ulaya, na [[William Graham Sumner]] nchini Marekani<ref>Gurvitch, ''Sociology of Law'', 142</ref><ref>Papachristou, ''Sociology of Law'', 81–82</ref> == Taasisi za kisheria == Sheria si mwili wa kanuni zisizobadilika bali ni "machakato badilifu wa kanuni zinazobadilishwa kila wakati, kuundwa, na kupewa umbo ili kuambatana na hali fulani."<ref>Hamilton and Spiro, ''The Dynamics of Law'', 3</ref> Mabadiliko yanafanywa kila wakati na taasisi mbalimbali katika jamii. Taasisi kuu za sheria katika [[Demokrasia huru]] ni [[Mahakama huru]], [[Haki ya jinai|mifumo ya haki]], [[bunge]], serikali yenye [[uwajibikaji]], na ukiritimba wenye uwezo na usiokuwa na ufisadi , kiksoi cha polisi, [[kudhibitiwa kwa jeshi na raia]] na taaluma ya kisheria yenye nguvu inayohakikisha watu wanapta haki na jamii ya kiraia mbalimbali—neno linalotumika kuashiria taasisi za kijamii, jamii na ushirikiano unaunda msingi wa kisiasa wa sheria.<ref>Jakobs, ''Pursuing Equal Opportunities'', 5–6</ref><ref>Karkatsoulis, ''The State in Transition'', 275 etc.</ref> John Locke, katika ''[[Maandiko Mawili kuhusu Serikali]]'', na [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Baron de Montesquieu]] katika ''[[Roho ya Sheria]]'', walitetea [[mgawanyo wa madaraka]] kati ya miili ya kisiasa ya bunge na serikali.<ref>[[Montesquieu]], ''The Spirit of Laws'', [http://www.constitution.org/cm/sol_11.htm#006 Book XI: Of the Laws Which Establish Political Liberty, with Regard to the Constitution, Chapters 6–7]</ref> Kanuni yao ilikuwa kuwa hakuna mtu anayefaa kuwa na uwezo wa kuchukua mamlaka yote ya [[Taifa huru|taifa]], ikitofautishwa na nadharia ya [[uimla]] ya [[Thomas Hobbes]]' ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]''.<ref name="H17">Thomas Hobbes, ''Leviathan'', [https://carvercantin.com/thomas-hobbes-leviathan-xvii/ XVII]</ref> [[Max Weber]] na wengine walibadilisha mawazo kuhusu taifa. Jeshi la kisasa, upolisi na mamalaka ya ukiritimba juu ya masiha ya raia wa kawaida husababisha matatizo maalum ya uwajibikaji ambayo waandishi wa awali kama vile Locke au Montesquieu hawangeweza kutabiri. Mashirika ya kisasa ya kimataifa huzingatia umuhimu wa utawala wa sheria na [[utawala mzuri]], huku waandishi wengine hutafiti uhsusiano kati ya utawala wa sheria na utawala wa ufanisi katika nchi za kisasa.<ref>Curtin–Wessel, ''Good Governance'', 73</ref><ref>Fukuyama, ''State-Building'', 132</ref> === Mahakama === {{Main|Mahakama}} Mahakama ni idadi ya [[mahakimu]] wanaosikiza migogoro ili kuamua matokeo. Nchi nyingi zina mfumo wa mahakama ya [[rufaa]], yanayojibu kwa mamlaka makuu ya kisheria. Nchini Marekani haya ni [[Mahakama Kuu ya Marekani]];<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20000711024627/http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/briefoverview.pdf A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court], Supreme Court of the United States</ref> nchini Australia, [[Mahakama Kuu ya Australia]]; nchini Uingereza , ni [[Mahakama Kuu ya Uingereza]]<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.supremecourt.gov.uk/ |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2010-01-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016151227/http://www.supremecourt.gov.uk/ |archivedate=2009-10-16 }}</ref> (tangu tarehe1 Oktoba 2009; hapo awali yalikuwa, [[Nyumba ya Mabwana]]);<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20000711024627/http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/briefoverview.pdf House of Lords Judgements], House of Lords</ref> nchini Ujerumani ni ''[[Bundesverfassungsgericht]]''; nchini Ufaransa ni ''[[Cour de cassation (Ufaransa)|Cour de Cassation]]''.<ref>[http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/entscheidungen.html Entscheidungen des Bundesverfassungsgerichts] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/entscheidungen.html |date=20061121164330 }}, Bundesverfassungsgericht</ref><ref>[http://www.courdecassation.fr/jurisprudence_publications_documentation_2/ Jurisprudence, publications, documentation] {{Wayback|url=http://www.courdecassation.fr/jurisprudence_publications_documentation_2/ |date=20070209144055 }}, Cour de cassation</ref> Kwa nchi nyingi za Ulaya Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki nchini Luxembourg inaweza kuukataa umauzi wa kitaifa, wakati ambapo sheria ya Umoja wa Ulaya inafaa. Mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki za Kibinadamu inayopatikana Strasbourg inawaruhusu raia wa nchi wanachama za [[Baraza la Ulaya]] kuleta kesi zao zinzohusiana na haki za kibinadamu mbele yake.<ref>Goldhaber, ''European Court of Human Rights'', 1–2</ref> Baadhi ya nchi huruhusu mamlaka yao makuu ya mahakama kukataa sheria wanayopata kuwa [[kinyume na katiba]]. Katika kesi ya ''[[Roe dhidi ya Wade]]'', Mahakama Kuu ya Marekani ilipindua sheria ya jimbo la Texas iliyopiga marufuku kutoa msaada kwa wanawake wenye nia ya [[Kuavya mimba]].<ref>''[[Roe v Wade]]'' (1973) [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=410&page=113 410 U.S. 113] Retrieved 2007-01-26</ref> [[Marekebisho ya Kumi na Nne ya Katiba ya Marekani|Marekebisho ya Kumi na Nne]] ya katiba ya Marekani yalikuwa yametafsiriwa kuwapa ya [[faragha]], na kwa hivyo haki ya mwanamke kuchagua kuavya mimba. Mahakama kinadharia yamefundwa na katiba, kama tu miili ya bunge. Katika nchi nyingi, mahakimu wana uwezo tu wa [[utafsiri (sheria)|kutafsiri]] katiba na sheria zingine zote. Lakini katika nchi zasheria ya kawaida, ambapo mambo si ya kikatiba, mahakama pia yanweza kuunda sheria chini ya [[mafundisho ya utangulizi]]. Uingereza, Finland na New Zealand hutumia dhana ya [[uhuru wa bunge]], ambapo mahakama ambayo hayajachaguliwa hayawezi kupindua sheria iliyopitishwa na bunge la kidemokrasia.<ref>Dicey, ''Law of the Constitution'', 37–82</ref> Katika [[Ukomiunisti|nchi za kikomiunisti]], kama vile Uchina, mahakama mara nyingi hutazamwa kama sehemu ya serikali, au kuwa chini ya bunge; taasisi za kiserikali na watendaji mbalimbali basi wana ushawishi tofauti kwa mahakama.<ref>E.g., the court president is a political appointee (Jensen–Heller, ''Introduction'', 11–12). About the notion of "judicial independence" in China, see Findlay, ''Judiciary in the PRC'', 282–284</ref> Katika nchi za Kiislamu, mahakama mara nyingi huchunguza ikiwa sheria za nchi zinafuata Sharia: [[Mahakama Kuu ya Kikatiba ya Misri]] inaweza kuoinga sheria kama hizo,<ref name="ReferenceA">Sherif, ''Constitutions of Arab Countries'', 158</ref> Na nchini Iran [[Baraza la Ulinzi]] linahakikisha uwiano wa sheria zinazopitishwa na "vigezo vya Uislamu".<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Rasekh, ''Islamism and Republicanism'', 115–116</ref> === Bunge === {{Main|Bunge}} [[Picha:European-parliament-brussels-inside.JPG|thumb|Chumba cha mjadala cha [[Bunge la Ulaya]]]] Mifano maarufu ya bunge ni [[Majumba ya Bunge]] mjini London, [[Bunge la Marekani|Kongresi]] mjini Washingtin D.C., [[Bundestag]] mjini Berlin na [[Duma]] nchini Moscow, [[Bunge la Italia|Parlamento Italiano]] mjini Roma na [[Bunge la Ufaransa|''Assemblée nationale'']] mjini Paris. Kwa kanuni ya serikali wakilishi watu hupigia kura wanasiasa ili watimize ''matakwa'' yao. Ingawa nchi kama Israeli, Ugiriki, Uswidi na Uchina zina [[nyumba moja ya bunge]], nchi nyingi zina [[nyumba mbili za bunge]], kumaanisha kuwa zina nyumba mbili za kibunge zinazochaguliwa tofauti. Katika 'nyumba ya chini' wanasiasa wanachaguliwa kuwakilisha [[Eneo wakilishi bungeni|maeneo wakilishi bungeni]]. 'Nymba ya juu' kawaida huchaguliwa kuwakilisha majimbo katika mfumo wa [[Jamhuri ya majimbo|majimbo]] (kama vile nchii Australia, Ujerumani au Marekani) au upigaji kura tofauti katika katika mfumo wa umoja (kama vile nchini Ufaransa). Nchini Uingereza nyumba ya juu inachaguliwa na na serikali kama [[Nyumba ya mabwana|nyumba ya marudio]]. Ukosoaji mmoja wa mifumo yenye nyumba mbili yenye nyumba mbili zilizochaguliwa ni kuwa nyumba ya juu na ya chini huenda zikafanana. Utetezi wa tangu jadi wa mifumo ya nyumba mbili nni kuwa chumba cha juu huwa kama nyumba ya marekebisho. Hili linaweza kupunguza uonevu na dhuluma katika hatua ya kiserikali'', 101</ref> Ili kupitisha sheria, idadi kubwa ya [[Wabunge]] lazima [[wapige kura]] ili [[muswada (sheria inayopendekezwa)]] upitishwe katika kila nyumba. Kawaida kutakuwa na kusoma kwingi na marekebesho mengi yaliyopendekezwa na makundi tofaiti ya kisiasa. Ikiwa nchi ina katiba inayofuatiliwa vyema, idadi maalum ya mabadiliko katika katiba yanahitajika, hivyo kufanya iwe gumu kubadilisha sheria. Serikali kwa kawaida huongoza mchakato huo, ambao unaweza kujumuisha [[Wabunge]] (k.m. nchini Uingereza na Ujerumani). Lakini katika mfumo wa kiraisi, serikali inachagua [[Baraza la mawaziri (serikali)|baraza la mawaziri]] kutawala kutoka kwa washirika wake [[kisiasa]] ikiwa wamechaguliwa au la (k.m. nchini Marekani au Brazili), na jukumu la bunge linapunguza liwe [[kukubali]] au [[kukataa]].<ref>About "cabinet accountability" in both presidential and parliamentary systems, see Shugart–Haggard, ''Presidential Systems'', 67 etc.</ref> === Serikali === {{Main|Serikali}} [[Picha:Dmitry Medvedev 2 April 2009-1.jpg|right|thumb| Mikutano ya [[G20]] inahusisha wawakilishi wa serikali ya kila nchi]] Mtendaji katika mfumo wa kisheria hutumika kama kituo cha [[serikali]] cha [[mamlaka]] ya kisiasa. Katika [[mfumo wa kibunge]], kama vile nchini Uingereza, Italia, Ujerumani na Ujapani, mtendaji hujulikana kama [[Baraza (serikali)|serikali]], na huwa na wanachama wa bunge. Mtendaji huchaguliwa na [[Waziri Mkuu]] au [[Chansela]], ambaye ofisi yake ina nguvu za chini ya [[Kura ya kutokuwa na imani|imani]] ya bunge. Kwa sababu uchaguzi wenye watu wengi huteua vyama vya kisiasa kutawala, kiongozi a chama anaweza kubadilika katika kipindi kabla ya uchaguzi mwingine. [[Mkuu wa Taifa]] ni kando na mtendaji, na kimfano hupitisha sheria na huwa kama mwakilishi wa nchi. Baadhi ya mifano ni [[Rais wa Ujerumani]] (anayeapishwa na Bunge); [[Malkia wa Uingereza]] (wadhifa wa [[kurithi]]), na [[Rais wa Austria]] (anachaguliwa kwa kura ya wengi). Mfano mwingine muhimu ni [[mfumo wa kirais]], unaopatikana nchini Ufaransa, Marekani na Urusi. Katika mifumo ya kirais, mtrndaji huwa kama mkuu wa taifa na mkuu wa serikali, na ana nguvu za kuchagua baraza la mawaziri pekee yake. Chini ya mfumo wa kirais, tawi la mtendaji ni kando na bunge ambapo haiwajibiki mbele ya bunge.<ref>Haggard, ''Presidents, Parliaments and Policy'', 71</ref><ref>Olson, ''The New Parliaments of Central and Eastern Europe'', 7</ref> Ingawa jukumu la mtendaji ni tofauti toka nchi moja hado nyingine, kawaida itapendekeza wingi wa sheria, na kupendekeza ajenda ya serikali. Katika mifumo ya kirais, mtendaji mara nyingi ana nguvu za kukataa sheria. Mara nyingi mtendaji katika mifumo yote ana wajibu wa [[sera za mahusiano ya nje]], jeshi na polisi na urasimu. [[Mawaziri]] au maafisa wengine wanasimamia ofisi za nchi, kama vile [[Waziri wa nje|wizara ya nje]] au [[Waziri wa ndani|wizara ya ndani]]. Uchaguzi wa mtendaji tofauti kwa hivyo ina uwezo wa kupindua mtazamo wa nchi nzima wa serikali. === Jeshi na polisi === {{Main|Jeshi|Polisi}} [[Picha:US Customs and Border Protection officers.jpg|thumb|Maafisa wa [[Marekani wa Forodha na Ulinzi wa Mipaka]]]] Ingawa mashirika ya kijeshi yamekuwepo kwa muda mrefu kama serikali yenyewe, dhana la kikosi cha polisi kilicho tayari ni dhana ya kisasa. Mfumo wa [[Uingereza ya Zama za Kati]] ya [[mahakama ya jinai]] ya kusafiri, au [[Mahakama ya assize|assize]], ilitumia [[kesi za maonyesho]] na unyongaji hadharani kufanya jamii ziwe na hofu na hivyo kudumisha udhibiti.<ref>See, eg ''[[Tuberville v Savage]]'' (1669), 1 Mod. Rep. 3, 86 Eng. Rep. 684, where a knight said in a threatening tone to a layman, "If it were not assize time, I would not take such language from you."</ref> Polisi wa kwanza wa kisasa pengine walikuwa wale wa Paris wa karne ya 17, katika mahakama ya [[Louis XIV wa Ufaransa|Louis XIV]],<ref>[http://www.history.com/encyclopedia.do?articleId=219522 History of Police Forces], History.com Encyclopedia</ref> ingawa Polisi wa Mkoa wa Paris ndio wanadai kuwa wao ndio waliokuwa wa kwanza kuvaa sare.<ref>[http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm Des Sergents de Ville et Gardiens de la Paix à la Police de Proximité] {{Wayback|url=http://www.prefecture-police-paris.interieur.gouv.fr/documentation/bicentenaire/theme_expo4.htm |date=20080506215949 }}, La Préfecture de Police</ref> Weber yu maarufu kwa kudokeza kwamba taifa ni lile ambalo linadhibiti kihalali utumizi wa kipekee wa vurugu.<ref name="mwp154">Weber, [[s:Politics as a Vocation|Politics as a Vocation]]</ref><ref>Weber, ''The Theory of Social and Economic Organisation'', 154</ref> Majeshi na askari wanalinda usalama kufuatana na amri ya serikali au mahakama. Maneno [[taifa lililopangarayika]] yanaashiria taifa ambalo haliwezi kutekeleza au kulazimisha sera; askari wao na majeshi hawana uwezo wa kulinda usalama na amani na jamii inaelekea [[vurugu pekee]], wakati serikali inapokosekana.<ref>In these cases sovereignty is eroded, and often warlords acquire excessive powers (Fukuyama, ''State-Building'', 166–167).</ref> === Urasimu === {{Main|Urasimu}} [[Picha:UN Headquarters 2.jpg|thumb| Makao makuu ya [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] mjini New York yana watumishi wa kiserikali wanaotoa huduma kwa mataifa wanachama 192 ya shirika hilo.]] Asili ya neno "Urasimu" kwa Kiingereza (bureaucracy) ni neno la Kifaransa la "ofisi" (''bureau'') na neno la [[Kigiriki cha Zamani]] cha "nguvu" (''kratos'').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=bureaucracy&searchmode Bureaucracy], Online Etymology Dictionary</ref> Kama tu wanajeshi na polisi, watumishi wa mfumo wa kisheria wa serikali na miili inayounda urasimu wake hufuata maagizo ya Mtendaji. Mojawapo ya marejeo kwa dhana yalifanywa [[Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm|Baron de Grimm]], mwandishi wa Kijerumani aliyeishi nchini Ufaransa. Mnamo mwaka wa 1765 aliandika, <blockquote>Roho halisi ya sheria nchini Ufaransa ni urasimu amabo marehemu Monsieur de Gournay alikuwa akilalamika sana kuhusu; hapa ofisi, makarani, makatibu, wasimamizi na ''wanaonuia kufanya kazi fulani'' hawaapishwi kufaidi maslahi ya umma, kwa hakika maslahi ya ummayanaonekana kuanzishwa ili ofisi hizo ziwepo.<ref>Albrow, ''Bureaucracy'', 16</ref></blockquote> Wasiwasi kuhusu "utawala wa kiofisi" bado ni kawaida, na utendaji wa watumishi wa umma kawaida hutofautishwa na wa [[kampuni za kibinafsi]] zinazoendeshwa na lengo la [[faida]].<ref>Mises, ''Bureaucracy'', II, [http://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy/section2.asp Bureaucratic Management]</ref> Kwa kweli kampuni za kibinafsi, hasa zile kubwa, pia zina urasimu.<ref name="K367">Kettl, ''Public Bureaucracies'', 367</ref> Mtazamo mbaya wa "[[urasimu]]" kando, huduma za umma kama vile elimu, afya na shughuli za polisi au [[uchukuzi wa umma]] ni kazi muhimu nchi hivyo basi kufanya urasimu wa umma chanzo cha nguvu za serikali.<ref name="K367" /> Akiandika mapema katika karne ya 20, Max Weber aliamini kuwa sifa muhimu ya nchi iliyoendelea ilikuwa imekuwa msaada wake wa kirasimu.<ref name="mwp393">Weber, ''Economy and Society'', I, 393</ref> Weber aliandika kuwa sifa za kawaida za urasimu wa kisasa ni kuwa maafisa wanafafanua lengo lake, wigo wa kazi umefungwa na kanuni, usimamizi unajumuisha wataalamu wa wataalamu wa kitaaluma, amabo ambao husimamia kuanzia juu kuenda chini, wakiwasiliana kupitia kuandika na kufunga uwezo wa wafanyikazi wa umma kufanya watakavyo kwa kutumia kanuni.<ref>Kettl, ''Public Bureaucracies'', 371</ref> === Taaluma ya sheria === {{Main|Taaluma ya sheria}} [[Picha:Quentin_Massys_-_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_National_Gallery_of_Scotland.jpg|thumb|Katika mifumo ya sheria ya kiraia kama ile ya Ufaransa, Ujerumani, Italia, Uhispania na Ugiriki, kuna aina maalum ya [[Karani wa sheria ya kiraia]], afisaa wa umma mwenye ufunzi wa kisheria, anayelipwa fidia na wanaofanya biasharaa.<ref>Hazard–Dondi, ''Legal Ethics'', 22</ref> Hii ni picha ya karne ya 16 ya karani wa sheria ya kiraia kama huyo ya mchoraji wa Kiflemi [[Quentin Massys]].]] Hitimisho la utawala wa sheria ni kuwepo kwa taaluma ya kisheria yenye uhuru wa kutosha wa kuweza kuomba mamlaka ya mahakama huru; haki ya usaidizi kusaidiwa na [[wakili]] mahakamani uanatokana na hitimisho hili—nchini Uingereza kazi ya wakili inatofautishwa na ile ya mshauri wa kisheria.<ref>Hazard–Dondi, ''Legal Ethics'', 1</ref> Kama mahakama ya Ulaya ya Haki za Binadamu yanavyosema, sheria inafaa kupatikana na kila mtu na waty wanfaa kutabiri jinsi sheria itakavyowaathiri.<ref>''[[The Sunday Times v The United Kingdom]]'' [1979] [http://www.worldlii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1979/1.html ECHR 1 at 49] {{Wayback|url=http://www.worldlii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1979/1.html |date=20060916131454 }} Case no. 6538/74</ref> Ili kudumisha utaaluma, [[zoezi la sheria]] kawaida linachungwa na serikali au mwili huru kama vile [[chama cha mawikili]], [[baraza la mawakili]] au [[jamii ya sheria]]. Mawakili wa kisasa wanapata utambulisho maalum wa kisheria kupitia taratibu maalum za kisheria (k.m. mafanikio katika mitihani), yanahitajika na sheria ili kuwa na cheti maalum (elimi ya kisheria inayompa mwanafunzi [[Shahada ya Sheria]], [[Shahada ya Sgeria ya Kiraia]], au [[Shahada]] ya [[Juris Doctor]]<ref>Higher academic degrees may also be pursued. Examples include a [[Master of Laws]], a [[Master of Legal Studies]] or a [[Doctor of Laws]].</ref>), na zinawekwa ofisini kwa kutumia fomu za kisheria za kuapishwa ([[kukubaliwa katika baraza la mawakili]]). Nchi nyingi za Kiisalmu zina sheria sawa kuhusu elimu ya kisheria na taaluma ya kisheria, lakini zingine bado zinaruhusu mawakili wenye mafunzo katika sheria ya Kiislamu ya jadi katika taaaluma ua sheria katika mahakama ya hadhi ya kibinasfi.<ref>Ahamd, [https://web.archive.org/web/20081001195205/http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf Lawyers: Islamic Law]</ref> Nchini Uchina na katika nchi zingine za ulimwengu unaoendelea hakuna watu wa kutosha wenye mafunzo ya kisheria kufanya kazi katika mifumo ya mahakama iliyopo katika nchi hizo, na, kufuatana na hilo, viwango rasmi si vikali sana.<ref>Hazard–Dondi, ''Legal Ethics'', 22–23</ref> Baada ya kupata kukubalika, wakili mara nyingi atafanya kazi katika [[kampuni ya sheria]], katika [[vyumba (sheria)|vyumba]] kama wakili wa kipekee, katika wadhifa wa kiserikali au katika shirika la kibinafsi kama [[mshauri]] wa ndani. Isitoshe wakili anaweza kuwa [[|utafiti wa kisheria|mtafiti wa kisheria]] anayepeana uatafiti wa kisheria unapoitishwa kupitia maktaba, huduma ya kibiashara au kazi isiyokuwa na muajiri mmoja. Watu wengi wenye mafunzo katika sheria walitumia utafiti wao katika taaluma nyingine tofauti kabisa. Adhimu kwa zoezi la sheria katika mapokeo ya sheria ya kawaida ni utafiti wa kisheria kujua hali ya wakati wa sasa wa sheria. Hili linahushisha kuchunguza [[ripoti za sheria|ripoti za kesi]], [[majarida ya kisheria]] na sheria. Zoezi la sheria pia inahusu kuandika hati kama vile [[kuiitia]] kwa mahakama, [[brifu [sheria)|brifu]], mikataba, au [[amana]]. Majadiliano na ujuzu wa [[kusuluhisha migogoro]] (ikijumuisha mbinu za [[Mbinu za Masuluhisho ya Kimbadala|ADR]]) pia ni muhimi kwa zoezi la sheria, ikitegemea na aina ya taaluma.<ref>Fine, ''The Globalisation of Legal Education'', 364</ref> === Mashirika ya kijamii === {{Main|Mashirika ya kijamii}} [[Picha:1963 march on washington.jpg|thumb|Maandamano mjini Washington D.C. wakati wa [[Harakati za Haki za Kiraia za Wamarekani wenye asili ya Kiafrika (1955–1968)|Harakati ya Haki za Kiraia ya Marekani]] mnamo mwaka wa 1963]] Dhana ya [[Kiripablikani wakati kulipokuwa na madaraja mbalimbali ya kijamii]] ya "mashirika ya kijamii" ilianzia wakati wa Hobbes na Locke.<ref>Warren, ''Civil Society'', 3–4</ref> Locke aliona mashirika ya kijamii kama watu wenye "sheria sawa na mahakama [[kurejelea]] , yenye mamlaka ya kuamua utata baina yao."<ref>Locke, ''[[s:Two Treatises of Government/The Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Origin, Extent, and End of Civil Government|Second Treatise]]'', Chap. VII, Of Political or Civil_Society. Chapter 7, section 87</ref> Mwanafalsafa wa Kijerumani [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] alitofautisha "taifa" na "mashirika ya kijamii" (''burgerliche Gesellschaft'') katika kitabu chake ''[[Vipengele vya Falsafa ya Sawa]]''.<ref>Hegel, ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right'', 3, II, [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/pr/prcivils.htm 182]; Karkatsoulis, ''The State in Transition'', 277–278</ref> Hegel aliamini kuwa [[mashirika ya kijamii]] na [[Taifa huru|taifa]] zilikuwa kinyume kabisa, katika mpangilio wa nadharia yake ya historia. Taifa la kisasa lenye pande hizi mbili–mashirika ya kijamii lilizaliwa tena katika nadharia za [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] na [[Karl Marx]].<ref>(Pelczynski, ''The State and Civil Society'', 1–13; Warren, ''Civil Society'', 5–9)</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Zaleski | first = Pawel | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality | journal = Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte | volume = 50 | issue = | pages = | publisher = Felix Meiner Verlag | location = | year = 2008 | url = | issn = | doi = | id = | accessdate = }} </ref> Siku hizi katika nadharia ya wakati wa baada ya kisasa za mashirika la kijamii lazima iwe chanzo cha sheria, kwa kuwa msingi ambapo watu wanaunda maoni na kushwishi yale wanayoamini sheria inafaa kuwa. Kama wakili wa Kiaustralia na mwandishi [[Geoffrey Robertson QC]] alivyoandika kuhusu sheria ya kimataifa, <blockquote>... mojawapo ya vyanzo vyake vya kisasa inapatikana katika majibu ya kawaida ya wanaume na wanawake, na mashirika yasiyo ya kiserikali, amabyo wengi huunga, kwa ukiukaji wa haki za kibinadamu amabyo wengi huona kwenye runinga wakiwa sebuleni nyumbani mwao.<ref>Robertson, ''Crimes Against Humanity'', 98–99</ref></blockquote> [[Uhuru wa kujieleza]], [[uhuru wa kujumuika]] na sheria zingine nyingi za kibinafsi zinawaruhusu watu kukusanyika, kujadili, kukosoa na kufanya serikali zao kuwajibika, ambapo msingi wa [[demokrasia ya majadiliano]] inaibuka. Watu wanapozidi kujihusisha mamlaka ya kisheria na na kuwa na uwezo wa kubadilisha jinsi mamlaka ya kisiasa yanapotumika maishani mwao; ndivyo sheria inapozidi kuwa [[Uhalali (kisiasa)|halali]] kwa watu. Taasisi ambazo ni za kawaida sana za mashirika ya kijamii ni masoko ya kibiashra, kampuni zenye malengo ya kupata faida, familia, [[vyama vya kibiashara]], hospitali, vyuo vikuu, shule, mashirika ya msaada, [[vilabu vya kujadili]], [[mashirika yasiyokuwa ya kiserikali]], vitongoji, makanisa, na vyama vya kidini.<ref>There is no clear legal definition of the civil society, and of the institutions it includes. Most of the institutions and bodies who try to give a list of institutions (such as the [[European Economic and Social Committee]]) exclude the political parties. For further information, see Jakobs, ''Pursuing Equal Opportunities'', 5–6; Kaldor–Anheier–Glasius, ''Global Civil Society'', ''[http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/Yearbooks/2003/2003Chapter1a.pdf passim] {{Wayback|url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Publications/Yearbooks/2003/2003Chapter1a.pdf |date=20070817130457 }}'' (PDF); Karkatsoulis, ''The State in Transition'', 282–283.</ref> {{-}} == Tazama pia == {{portal}} {{Main|Muhtasari wa sheria}} * [[Haki za kibinadamu]] * [[Uchumi]] * [[Historia]] * [[Sayansi ya Kisiasa]] * [[Falsafa]] == Tanbihi == {{Marejeo|2}} https://www.path-2-happiness.com/sw == Marejeo == ; Printed sources: * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Ahmad|first=Ahmad Atif|title=Lawyers: Islamic Law|encyclopedia=Oxford Encyclopedia of Legal History|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf|format=PDF|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001195205/http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf|archivedate=2008-10-01|access-date=2010-01-15}}{{Wayback|url=http://www.macalester.edu/~ahmad/Lawyers.pdf |date=20090326034212 }} * {{cite book|last=Akhlaghi|first=Behrooz|title=The Sharīʻa in the Constitutions of Afghanistan, Iran, and Egypt|year=2005|isbn=3-161-48787-7|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|editor=Yassari, Nadjma|chapter=Iranian Commercial Law and the New Investment Law FIPPA}} * {{cite book|last=Albrow|first=Martin|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=London|title=Bureaucracy (Key Concepts in Political Science)|url=https://archive.org/details/bureaucracy0000mart|year=1970|isbn=0-333-11262-8}} * {{cite journal|last=Anderson |first=J.N.D.|year=1956|month=Januari |title=Law Reform in the Middle East journal=International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944—) |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=43–51|url=http://www.jstor.org/pss/2607811 |accessdate=2007-03-04 |doi=10.2307/2607811}} * {{Cite wikisource|Constitution of the Athenians|[[Aristotle]]}}. 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system|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html|publisher=[[CIA]]|accessdate=2007-10-13|archivedate=2018-12-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226012138/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2100.html}} {{Refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{sisterlinks|Law}} * [http://www.law.com/ Legal news and information network for attorneys and other legal professionals] * [http://jurispedia.org/ Encyclopaedic project of academic initiative] {{Wayback|url=http://jurispedia.org/ |date=20210408132428 }} in [[Jurispedia]] * [http://www.lawserver.com/ Legal articles, news, and interactive maps] {{Wayback|url=http://www.lawserver.com/ |date=20130302152628 }} * [http://www.worldlii.org/ WorldLII - World Legal Information Institute] {{Wayback|url=http://www.worldlii.org/ |date=20200922075055 }} * [http://www.commonlii.org/ CommonLII - Commonwealth Legal Information Institute]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * [http://www.asianlii.org/ AsianLII - Asian Legal Information Institute (AsianLII)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.asianlii.org/ |date=20210417174626 }} * [http://www.austlii.edu.au/ AustLII - Australasian Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.bailii.org/ BaiLII - British and Irish Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.canlii.org/ CanLII - Canadian Legal Information Institute] * [http://www.nzlii.org/ NZLII - New Zealand Legal Information Institute] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nzlii.org/ |date=20210417174640 }} * [http://www.paclii.org/ PacLII - Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute] {{Wayback|url=http://www.paclii.org/ |date=20040103005659 }} [[Jamii:Sheria| ]] [[Jamii:Elimu jamii]] [[Jamii:Historia]] [[Jamii:Falsafa]] 1hcjsp7myxs2o74khapehz9asrotzwy 0 1169 1580243 1578176 2026-07-18T01:44:16Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580243 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg|thumb|350px|Mtume Muhammed jinsi alivyotengeneza [[Kaaba]] huko [[Makka]] - picha mnamo mwaka 1315 kutoka Asia ya Kati]] [[Picha:Siyer-i_Nebi_151b.jpg|thumb|350px|Mtume Muhammed jinsi alivyosali mbele ya Kaaba - (katika picha za Kiosmani uso wa mtume hufichwa mara nyingi tangu karne ya 16 BK)]] '''Muhammad''' (''kwa [[Kiarabu]] "Mwenye kusifika sana"; jina kamili kwa kirefu ni ''<br />محمد بن عبد الله بن عبد ﺍﻟﻤﻄﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﺷﻤﻲ '' Muhammad bin 'Abd Allāh bin 'Abd al-Muţţalib al-Hāshimī''; [[570]] hivi - [[8 Juni]] [[632]]) anaaminika katika [[dini]] ya [[Uislamu]] kuwa ni [[mtume]] wa mwisho wa [[Mungu]] ([[Allah]]) kwa [[binadamu]]. == Utoto wake == Muhammad alizaliwa yatima kwani baba yake alifariki kabla yeye hajazaliwa. Hakuishi sana na mama yake (Amina), kwa kuwa naye alifariki dunia Muhammad akiwa na umri wa miaka sita. Baadaye akachukuliwa na babu yake [[Abdul Muttalib]] na kuishi naye kwa muda wa miaka miwili, kisha babu yake naye akafariki. Kazi ya kumlea Muhammad ilimwangukia ami yake Abu Talib ambaye ndiye aliyeishi naye mpaka ukubwa na kumuoza na kumpa himaya wakati alipoanza kazi ya kufikisha ujumbe wa Mwenyezi Mungu kwa watu. Kadiri ya hadithi za Kiislamu, ilipokua karibu atadhihiri Mtume ma[[padri]] wa [[Ukristo|Kinasara]] na ma[[kuhani]] wa [[Uyahudi|Kiyahudi]] waliokuwa wakikaa [[Bara Arabu]] walikuwa wakiwatahayarisha majirani wao wa Kiarabu waliokuwa wakiabudu [[sanamu]], wakiwaambia: “Karibu ataletwa Mtume katika nchi yenu hii, abatilishe hii [[ibada]] yenu mbovu ya sanamu”. Walipoambiwa hivi wale [[Waarabu]] waliwauliza jina la Mtume huyo, wakawajibu kuwa jina lake litakuwa Muhammad. Kwa hivyo kila mwenye kusadiki hayo alimwita mwanawe Muhammad. Lakini hayakusikilizana majina haya ila kwa baadhi ya Waarabu waliokua wakikaa [[Shamu]] tu na [[Najran]] ([[Yaman]]) ambako mapadri wengi walikaa, na vilevile katika [[Madina]] ambayo nusu ya wakazi wake walikuwa Wayahudi. Hata lilipoanza kutangaa jina la Mtume, waliokuwa wamekwisha kuitwa kwa jina hilo walikuwa wachache tu Bara Arabu nzima. Inasemekana Mtume aliinukia tangu utotoni kwake juu ya sifa zake nzuri na [[ukomavu]] wa [[akili]] ya kiutu uzima, hakupata kufanya vitendo vya utoto umri wake, wala kuazimia kuvifanya ila mara mbili tu, ambazo mara mbili zote hizo Mwenyezi Mungu alimhifadhi navyo. Kitendo chenyewe alichokiazimia kukifanya mara mbili zote hizo na Mwenyezi Mungu akamhifadhi nacho ni kutaka kwenda kukesha katika [[ngoma]] za [[arusi]] mbili za marafiki wake waliooa katika [[mji]] wa [[Makka]]. Lakini Mungu alimpa usingizi mkubwa katika masiku yote hayo mawili hata hakuweza kufumbua jicho, wala kunyanyua miguu kwenda mahali. Hajapata kuhudhuria hata mara moja katika ibada za kuabudu sanamu wala kula chakula kilichochinjwa kwa ajili yao. Moyo wake ulichukizwa na hayo na mambo mengine yaliyo mabaya. Tangu udogo wake Mtume aliondokea na sifa nzuri ambazo hapana hata mmoja katika hirimu zake aliyekuwa nazo zote. Kila sifa zinazohesabiwa kuwa ni njema na Waislamu ndizo alizokuwa nazo tangu utoto wake. Mkewe [[Aisha]] alipoombwa kutaja kidogo sifa za Mtume, alisema hivi: “Sifa zake ni zile sifa nzuri zinazosifiwa na [[Kurani]]” na katika Kurani zimetajwa chungu ya sifa zilizo nzuri. Mtume mara nyingi alikuwa akisema: “Sikupata kufanya hata siku moja yale mambo waliyokuwa wakiyafanya makafiri”. Kwa hivyo yeye hakupata kuabudu sanamu, kulewa, kuzini, kucheza kamari wala hakumdhulumu mtu kitu chake na kama haya. Lakini alikuwa msemakweli, mwaminifu, mpole na mwenye haya na sifa nyingi nyinginezo bora kama hizi. Watu wa Makka walikuwa wakimsifu kwa tabia zake, hata wakampa jina la Muhammad Al-Amin (mwaminifu). Alikuwa hatajikani ila kwa jina la Al-Amin. Wakubwa na wadogo walikuwa wakimheshimu na kumpa amana zao kuwawekea, hata baada ya [[utume]]. == Hali yake kabla ya kupewa utume == Makureshi ni watu wa [[biashara]], kila Kureshi alipata kufanya kazi hii. Safari moja baadhi yao walipokuwa wakienda Yaman katika biashara zao, baba yake mdogo wa pili Bwana Zubeyr alimshauri ikiwa atapenda kusafiri. Mtume aliridhia akenda naye mpaka Yaman, wakakaa huko muda wa siku tatu tu kisha wakarejea, wakati huu Mtume alikuwa mtoto wa miaka tisa. Hata alipotimia miaka 12 mwaka [[582]], alisafiri tena pamoja na baba yake mdogo mwingine, Bwana Abu Talib; safari hii waliazimia kwenda Shamu, lakini walipofika [[Busra]] – mji wa kusini kabisa katika nchi ya Shamu – walikutana na padri jina lake Bahyra ambaye alimkataza asisogee na mwanawe zaidi kuliko hapo, akamwambia: “Mtoto huyu namwona ana alama zote za Mtume aliyetabiriwa kuwa atakuja, basi naona ni hatari kubwa akienda Shamu, asije akauawa na Wayahudi huko. Nakusihi sana urejee naye, au umpe mtu mwaminifu arejee naye, nawe uende katika biashara zako”. Abu Talib alimpa mtu arejee naye Makka naye akaendelea na safari yake. Huyu padri Bahyra alikuwa mwanachuoni wa Kinasara, na alimbashiri Mtume lakini hakuwahi kumwamini alipoanza utume, ila mwanafunzi wake Salman Al-Farsy Mwajemi mara alipopata habari ya kupata utume wake alisilimu, na aliusaidia [[Uislamu]] katika mambo mengi. Baada ya kutimia miaka 15 Mtume aliingia katika kufanya biashara ndogondogo yeye na mwenziwe Saib bin Yazid, lakini biashara yao walikuwa wakiifanyia katika miji iliyokuwa karibu na Makka tu. Alipata sifa kubwa ya [[uaminifu]] na [[ukweli]] katika biashara zake hizi. Mshirika wake huyu alisilimu siku ilipotekwa Makka, na Mtume alifurahi sana kwa kusilimu rafiki yake huyu. == Kuanza utume == {{Islam}} Muhammad hakuwa akihudhuria sikukuu za [[Wapagani]] tangu kufahamu kwake. Alikuwa akipenda kukaa peke yake. Kufanya haya kulikuwa kukimwonjesha raha kubwa kuliko kutoka mbele za watu akaona yale mambo yao mabaya aliyokuwa akiyachukia. Kila usiku ukicha alikuwa akizidi kuyachukia. Lakini alikuwa hajui la kufanya. Hata alipotimiza miaka 38 hakuweza tena kustahimili kuona zile ibada za sanamu na tabia mbovu walizokuwa nazo wenziwe, ilivyokuwa hana la kufanya katika kuzizuia, alifanya shauri kuuacha mji wa Makka na kwenda porini kukaa. Akapata [[pango]] zuri katika [[Jabal Hira]] Kaskazini ya Makka, inapata [[maili]] 3 toka huko Makka. Akawa akikaa huko kwenye Jabal Hira kwa muda wa wiki nyingi, kisha hurejea Makka kuja kumtazama mkewe, wanawe na jamaa zake wengine, na vile vile kwa ajili ya kuchukua chakula kinapokuwa kimekwisha. Wakati mwingine akikaa siku nyingi sana huko porini hata humpasa mkewe [[Khadija]] kwenda kumsikiliza na mara nyingine alikuwa akifuatana naye, pamoja na watoto wao. Alidumu katika hali hii muda wa miaka miwili na kitu. Baadaye alisimulia kuwa katika mwezi wa Ramadhani 17, Jumatatu katika mwaka wa 40 unusu wa umri wake alimuona mtu kamsimamia mbele yake bila ya kumuona wapi katokea, akamwambia: “Soma”. Mtume akamjibu: “Mimi sijui kusoma kwani sijapata kujizunza”. Akaja, akamkamata, akambana, akamwambia tena: “Soma”. Mtume akamjibu jawabu yake ileile. Hata mara ya tatu akamwambia: “Soma – Iqraa Bismi Rabbik - ” akamsomea sura ya 96 mpaka kati yake, kisha Mtume akaisoma kama alivyosomewa. Hii ndiyo sura ya kwanza kushuka katika Kurani, ingawa haijawekwa mwanzo. Mara yule mtu ([[malaika]]) akaondoka machoni pake asimwone kaenda wapi, naye akarejea kwake [[hofu]] imemshika. Alipofika nyumbani, Khadija alidhani ana [[homa]], akamfunika nguo gubigubi akakaa mbele yake akimsikiliza anavyoweweseka. Homa ilipomwachia alimweleza Khadija yote yaliyomtokea, naye akamtuliza moyo wake, akamyakinishia ya kuwa hapana lolote baya litakalomzukia. Mara Bibi huyu akaondoka akaenda kwa jamaa yake Waraqa bin Naufal akampa habari yote iliyompata mumewe. Naye akamwamrisha amwite, na Mtume akaenda akamweleza habari yake yote. Bwana Waraqa akamwambia: “Huyo ndiye [[Jibril]] aliyemshukia [[Nabii]] [[Musa]] na Nabii [[Isa]]. Basi jibashirie kuwa wewe ni Mtume wa Umma huu! Nami natamani kuwa hai nikuone unavyosimama kuwatengeneza jamaa zako, Inshaalla nitakuwa mkono wako wa kulia!”. Wakarejea kwao hofu yote imemtoka Baada ya kuazimia kuwa hatakwenda tena kule pangoni. Pale pale akaondoka akenda pangoni mwake ili aonane na malaika tena, ingawa alikaa huko muda mrefu. Siku ile ya kupata Utume inawafiki mwezi wa Desemba [[610]]. Huyu Waraqa hakuwa akiabudu [[dini]] ya sanamu bali alikuwa Mkristo, alipokuwa akisoma vitabu aliona kutatokea Mtume mwingine, ndiyo maana alipohadithiwa habari ile mara moja akaamini kuwa aliyemjia Mtume ni Jibril. == Maisha yake Makka == Muhammad aliishi Makka kwa muda wa miaka 53, arubaini (40) katika hiyo akiwa ni mtu wa kawaida kabla ya kupewa utume, na 13 akiwa ni mjumbe wa Mwenyezi Mungu. Maisha yake Makka yalikuwa ya taabu tangu utotoni mwake, kwani alizaliwa yatima kisha alipokuwa katika ujana wake alikuwa akifanya kazi ya kuchunga mbuzi na kondoo wa watu wa Makka kwa vijipesa kidogo mpaka alipofika umri wa miaka ishirini na tano akapata kazi ya kumfanyia biashara Khadija, bibi mtukufu wa Kikureshi ambaye baadaye alikuja kuwa mkewe, na kuzaa naye aghlabu ya watoto wake. == Miaka 13 ya utume Makka == Katika miaka 13 aliyoyaishi hapo Makka baada ya kupewa utume, Muhammad alipata kila aina ya mateso na masumbuko, juu ya nafsi yake na juu ya wafuasi wake, naye alisubiri na kustahimili kila aina ya taabu na shida kwa ajili ya Mola wake, mpaka Mwenyezi Mungu alipompa amri ya kuhama mji huo na kuelekea Madina. Katika muda huu alipokuwa Makka, wengi katika jamaa zake na watu wa makabila mengine wa matabaka mbalimbali za jamii waliingia dini yake. Mwaka [[622]] Wakureshi, wakiona hasara katika mafungamano yao na Waarabu wengine wenye kuabudu miungu mingi, kwa dukuduku zao zilimfanya Muhammad ahame pamoja na sahibu wake [[Abubakar]] Assiddiq na wafuasi wake 70 hivi akaishi Yathrib, mji ambao ulikaliwa na Waarabu na Wayahudi pamoja na ambao baadaya ukaitwa Madinat al-Nabi (yaani Mji wa Nabii, kifupi [[Madina]]). Mwaka huo ukawa wa kwanza katika [[Kalenda ya Kiislamu]] inayotumika tangu wakati wa [[halifa]] 'Omar ibn al-Khattàb hadi leo. == Kuhamia Madina na mwanzo wa Umma == Mtume Muhammad, baada ya kupewa amri ya kuguria [[Madina]], aliondoka na kuhamia mji huo ambao ulimpokea na kumkubali na kumsaidia na kumtukuza na kumlinda na maadui. Ingawa [[Wayahudi]] wa Madina walikataa kumsadiki kuwa nabii kama wale wa [[Biblia]], aliendelea kuhubiri huko na tangu mwaka wa kwanza alitunga Hati ya Agano iliyokubaliwa na Wamadina wote: ndiyo asili ya [[Umma]], jamii ya waumini. Mtume Muhammad aliishi Madina kwa muda wa miaka 10 mingine akitangaza dini ya Mwenyezi Mungu na huko watu wengi na makabila mbali mbali ya Kiarabu yaliingia dini ya Uislamu kwa makundi makundi. Wakati huohuo alianza kushambulia misafara ya Wamakka wapagani na kuwashinda kwanza huko Badr (624), akashindwa huko Uhud (625), hatimaye akapata ushindi mkuu huko Madina katika vita vya handaki (627): hapo alifukuza na hatimaye akaangamiza kama wasaliti Wayahudi wote wa Madina na wanaume wote wa Waqurayza, wakati wanawake wao pamoja na watoto wakauzwa kama watumwa huko [[Syria]]. Mwaka 630 Muhammad akiwa na nguvu za kutosha aliweza kurudi Makka na kuiteka, akairudisha [[Kaaba]] ambayo ndiyo kibla cha Waislamu wote ulimwenguni katika mambo ya [[Sala]] na [[Hija]]. Hata hivyo akarudi kuishi Madina na kutoka huko akaeneza kazi yake ya kisiasa na ya kidini katika [[Hijaz]] yote. Baada ya ushindi wake huko Hunayn dhidi ya Waawazin na wenzao, aliteka au kusilimisha vijiji mbalimbali vya maana upande wa uchumi au wa vita kwa mfululizo wa mapigano kwenye Wadi al-qura. Kwa jumla alihudhuria [[vita]] 27, akiua kwa mkono wake mtu mmoja tu. Akiendelea kuishi Madina, alinadhimu kwa [[Sharia]] na hukumu nyingi maisha ya jamii ya Waislamu huko, na kuweka chanzo cha dola ya kiislamu ulimwenguni. Sharia na hukumu hizo zinapatikana katika kitabu kitakatifu cha ([[Kurani]]), ambacho leo Waislamu wote ulimwenguni wananadhimu maisha yao kulingana nacho. == Wake zake == Ingawa Kurani inaruhusu wake 4 tu, Muhammad alisema ana idhini ya kuvuka kiwango hicho. Jumla alioa wake 11, ambao majina yao yamepangwa hapa chini kufuatana na tarehe ya ndoa. 1. Khadija binti Khuwaylid (tangu 595 hadi kifo chake Januari 620) ambaye aliwahi kuolewa na waume wawili na kuwazalia watoto 5. Katika maisha mazuri ya ndoa alimzalia Muhamad mabinti 4 (Ruqayya, Umm Khulthūm, Zaynab na Fatima), mbali na watoto 2 wa kiume (Qàsim na ‘Abd Allah) ambao lakini walikufa wakiwa bado wadogo. 2. Sawda binti Zam’a (tangu Machi 620) aliyewahi kuolewa na mume mmoja. 3. Aysha binti Abu Bakr (tangu Januari 623) aliyeolewa na Mohamed akiwa na umri wa miaka 9. 4. Hafsa binti Umar (tangu Novemba 624), aliyewahi kuolewa na mume mmoja. 5. Zaynab binti Khuzayma (tangu Juni 625 hadi kifo chake Agosti 625). 6. Hindi Umm Salama binti Abi Umayya (tangu Februari 626), aliyewahi kuolewa na mume mmoja na kuachiwa watoto wengi. Alikuwa mtoto wa kambo wa shangazi ya Mohamed. 7. Zaynab binti Jahsh (tangu Juni 626) aliyeachwa na mume wake. Alikuwa binamu wa Mohamed. 8. Juwayriya binti Al Harith (tangu Desemba 626). 9. Ramla Umm Habība binti Abi Sufyan (tangu Agosti 628) alipoachana na mumewe aliyeingia Ukristo. 10. Safiyya binti Huyay (tangu Septemba 628) ambaye alikuwa Myahudi akatekwa nyara katika vita vya Khybar. 11. Maymuna binti Harith (tangu Februari 629) aliyekuwa na umri wa miaka 51. Kati yao, wa kwanza tu alimzalia Muhammad watoto, lakini wana wote walifariki kabla ya baba yao, isipokuwa Fatma aliyekufa miezi sita baada yake. Aliwaoa pia, lakini bila ya kulala nao, Asma’ binti Al Nu‘man (mkoma) na ‘Amra binti Yazid (aliyekataa katakata ndoa hiyo akapewa mara talaka). Mbali na wake rasmi, Kurani inaruhusu kuwa na masuria wasio na idadi (dhāt al-yamīn, "waliomilikiwa na mkono wa kuume", yaani watumwa, hasa waliotekwa vitani). Muhammad alikuwa nao 16: kati yao Marya (Mkristo) alimzalia mtoto wa kiume: Ibrahim, aliyefariki mdogo sana, kwa huzuni kubwa ya baba yake aliyemfuata kaburini muda mfupi baadaye. ==Marejeo== * Kadhi Sheikh Abdulla Saleh Farsy, Maisha ya Nabii Muhammad - Mulla Karimjee Mulla Mohamedbhai & Son, Zanzibar 1942 == Viungo vya nje == <div class="references-small"> ;Visivyotolewa na Waislamu * [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105853/Muhammad Muhammad], article on ''Enyclopaedia Britannica Online'' * [http://www.pbs.org/muhammad Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet - PBS Site] * [http://www.upf.tv/upf06/Projects/MuhammadDocumentary/tabid/175/Default.aspx Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet - UPF (Producer's Site)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.upf.tv/upf06/Projects/MuhammadDocumentary/tabid/175/Default.aspx |date=20090205025734 }} * [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553918/Muhammad_(prophet).html/ Encarta Encyclopedia] {{Wayback|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761553918/Muhammad_(prophet).html/ |date=20060623201920 }} * [http://31.1911encyclopedia.org/M/MA/MAHOMET.htm 1911 Encyclopedia article on Mahomet] * [http://www.answering-islam.org.uk/Books/Muir/Life1/index.htm William Muir: The Life of Mahomet] * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1091 The Hero as Prophet] A passionate championship of Prophet Muhammad as a Hegelian agent of reform. by Carlyle, Thomas (1795-1881) On Heroes and the Heroic in History. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1966. ;Vilivyoandikwa na Waislamu * [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/SM_tsn/index.htm Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar)] {{Webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011214185113/http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/books/sm_tsn/index.htm |date=2001-12-14 }} * [http://comp.uark.edu/~muslim/publications/Ar-Raheeq%20Al-Makhtum.pdf PDF version of Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum] {{Wayback|url=http://comp.uark.edu/~muslim/publications/Ar-Raheeq%20Al-Makhtum.pdf |date=20070205094211 }} * [http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MH_LM/default.htm The Life of Muhammad] {{Wayback|url=http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/MH_LM/default.htm |date=20070809201742 }} by Muhammad Husayn Haykal * [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/ About the Prophet Muhammad (University of Southern California)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/prophet/ |date=20060612062303 }} </div> ==Kujisomea== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal|journal = [[signs (journal)|Signs]]|author = Ahmed, Leila|title = Women and the Advent of Islam|url = https://archive.org/details/sim_signs_summer-1986_11_4/page/n52|volume = 11|date = Summer 1986|pages = 665–91|doi = 10.1086/494271|issue = 4}} * {{cite book|author=Ali, Kecia|title=The Lives of Muhammad|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-oWYBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|date= 2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-74448-6}} * {{cite book | author-link = Muhammad Mohar Ali|author = Ali, Muhammad Mohar | year = 1997 | title = The Biography of the Prophet and the Orientalists | publisher = King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Qur'an | isbn = 9960-770-68-0 |url = http://www.islamhouse.com/p/51772}} * {{cite book | last=Armstrong| first= Karen| authorlink = Karen Armstrong| year = 1992 | title = [[Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet]] | publisher = Harpercollins | isbn = 0-06-250886-5 |url = }} * {{cite book | last=Awde | first=Nicholas| title= Women in Islam: An Anthology from the Quran and Hadith| publisher=Routledge | year=2000 | isbn=0-7007-1012-4}} * {{cite book | last=Ballard | first=Harold Wayne |author2=Donald N. 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Donner|title=Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing | url=https://archive.org/details/narrativesofisla0000donn | publisher=Darwin Press | year = 1998 | isbn=0-87850-127-4}} * {{cite book | last=Ernst | first=Carl | authorlink=Carl Ernst | year = 2004 | title = Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World | url=https://archive.org/details/followingmuhamma0005erns | publisher = University of North Carolina Press | isbn = 0-8078-5577-4}} * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | authorlink=John Esposito | year=1998 | title=Islam: The Straight Path | url=https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat0000espo | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-511233-4}} * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | year=1999 | title=The Islamic Threat: Myth Or Reality? | url=https://archive.org/details/islamicthreatmyt00espo | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-513076-6}} * {{cite book | last=Esposito | first=John | year=2002 | title=What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam | url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoneneed0000espo | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-515713-3}} * {{cite book | last=Farah | first=Caesar | authorlink=Caesar E. Farah | title=[[Islam: Beliefs and Observances]] | publisher=Barron's Educational Series | year=1994 | edition=5th | isbn=978-0-8120-1853-0}} * {{cite book | last=Glubb | first=John Bagot | authorlink=John Bagot Glubb | title=The Life and Times of Muhammad | publisher=Hodder & Stoughton | origyear=1970| year=2002 | isbn=0-8154-1176-6}} * {{cite book | last=Goldman | first=Elizabeth | authorlink=Elizabeth Goldman | title=Believers: spiritual leaders of the world | url=https://archive.org/details/believersspiritu00gold | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1995 | isbn=0-19-508240-0}} * {{cite book | last=Goldman| first=Ann |author2=Richard Hain|author3=Stephen Liben | title= Oxford Textbook of Palliative Care for Children| url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordtextbookof0000unse_g7j0| publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | isbn=0-19-852653-9}} * {{cite book | last=Haaren| first=John Henry |author2=Addison B. Poland| title=Famous Men of the Middle Ages| url=https://archive.org/details/famousmenmiddle00haargoog| publisher=University Publishing Company | year=1904 | isbn=1-882514-05-X}} * Al-Hibri, Azizah Y. (2003). "An Islamic Perspective on Domestic Violence". ''27 Fordham International Law Journal'' 195. * {{cite book | last=Holt | first=P. M. | authorlink=P. M. Holt | author2=Ann K. S. Lambton | author3=Bernard Lewis| author3-link=Bernard Lewis | title=The Cambridge History of Islam (Paperback) | year=1977 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-29135-4}} * {{cite book | last=Hourani | first=Albert | authorlink=Albert Hourani |author2=Ruthven, Malise |authorlink2=Malise Ruthven | title=A History of the Arab Peoples | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarabpeo0122hour_06BYS | year=2003 | publisher=Belknap Press; Revised edition | isbn=978-0-674-01017-8}} * {{cite book | last=ibn Isa |first=Muhammad (Imam Tirmidhi) | authorlink=Imam Tirmidhi | title=Syama'il Muhammadiyah: KeanggunanMu Ya Rasulullah | year=2011 | publisher=PTS Islamika Sdn. Bhd. | location=Malaysia | isbn=978-967-3-66064-3 | page=388 | language=Arabic with Malay translation | type=Hardcover}} * {{cite book | last=Ishaq | first=Ibn | authorlink=Ibn Ishaq | coauthor=[[Alfred Guillaume|Guillaume, Alfred]], ed. | title=The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah | url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofmuhammadtr0000ibnh | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-19-636033-1}} * {{cite book | last=Jacobs | first=Louis| authorlink=Louis Jacobs|title=The Jewish Religion: A Companion | url=https://archive.org/details/jewishreligionco0000jaco | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1995 | isbn=0-19-826463-1}} * {{cite book | last=Kelsay | first=John| authorlink=John Kelsay|title=Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics | url=https://archive.org/details/islamwarstudyinc0000kels | publisher=Westminster John Knox Press | year=1993 | isbn=0-664-25302-4}} * {{cite book | last=Khan | first=Majid Ali | authorlink=Majid Ali Khan | title=Muhammad The Final Messenger | publisher=Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India) | year=1998 | isbn=81-85738-25-4}} * {{cite book | last=Kochler | first=Hans | authorlink=Hans Köchler | title=Concept of Monotheism in Islam & Christianity | url=https://archive.org/details/conceptofmonothe0000unse | publisher=I.P.O. | year=1982 | isbn=3-7003-0339-4}} * {{cite book | last = Lapidus| first = Ira | title = A History of Islamic Societies | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofislamic0000lapi_t2d2| publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2002 | edition = 2nd | isbn = 978-0-521-77933-3}} * {{cite book | last=Larsson| first=Göran | title= Ibn Garcia's Shu'Ubiyya Letter: Ethnic and Theological Tensions in Medieval Al-Andalus| publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=2003 | isbn=90-04-12740-2}} * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | origyear=1993| year=2002 | title=[[The Arabs in History]] | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-280310-7}} * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | authorlink=Bernard Lewis | title=[[Race and Slavery in the Middle East|Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry]] | publisher=Oxford University Press, USA | edition=Reprint | year=1992 | isbn=978-0-19-505326-5}} * {{cite news | last=Lewis | first=Bernard | title=Islamic Revolution |date=21 January 1998 | publisher=The New York Review of Books | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1988/jan/21/islamic-revolution/}} * {{cite book | last=Lings | first=Martin | authorlink=Martin Lings | title=[[Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources]] | publisher=Islamic Texts Society.| year=1983 | isbn=978-0-946621-33-0}} US edn. by Inner Traditions International, Ltd. * {{cite book | last = Madelung | first = Wilferd | authorlink = Wilferd Madelung | title = [[The Succession to Muhammad|The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate]] | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-521-64696-0}} * {{cite book | last=Momen| first=Moojan | authorlink=Moojan Momen | title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism | url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontosh0000unse_d5k7| publisher=Yale University Press| year=1985 | isbn=0-300-03531-4}} * {{cite book | last=Neusner| first=Jacob | title=God's Rule: The Politics of World Religions | url=https://archive.org/details/godsrulepolitics0000unse| publisher=Georgetown University Press| year=2003 | isbn=0-87840-910-6}} * {{cite book | last=Nigosian | first=S. A. | authorlink=S. A. Nigosian | title= Islam:Its History, Teaching, and Practices | url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo | publisher=Indiana University Press | year=2004 | isbn=0-253-21627-3}} * {{cite book | last=Ordoni | first=Abu Muhammad |author2=Muhammad Kazim Qazwini | title=[[Fatima the Gracious]] |publisher=Ansariyan Publications |year=1992| asin=B000BWQ7N6}} * {{cite book | last=Peters | first=Francis Edward | authorlink=F. E. Peters | year=2003 | title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians| url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe | publisher=Princeton University Press | isbn=0-691-11553-2}} * {{cite book | last=Peters | first=Francis Edward | year=2003b | title=The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition| url=https://archive.org/details/monotheistsjewsc00pete_0 | publisher=Princeton University Press | id=ASIN: B0012385Z6 | isbn=0-691-11461-7}} * {{cite book | last=Peters | first=Francis Edward | authorlink=F. E. Peters | year=1994 | title=Muhammad and the Origins of Islam| url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadorigins00pete | publisher=SUNY Press | isbn=0-7914-1876-6}} * {{cite journal|journal = [[International Journal of Middle East Studies]]|author = Peters, F. E.|title = [[The Quest of the Historical Muhammad (Peters)|The Quest of the Historical Muhammad]]|volume = 23|number = |year = 1991|pages = 291–315|doi =10.1017/S0020743800056312|issue = 3 }} * {{cite book | last=Peterson | first=Daniel | authorlink=Daniel C. Peterson | year=2007 | title=Muhammad, Prophet of God| url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadpropheto0000pete | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company | isbn=0-8028-0754-2}} * {{cite book | last=Rahman | first=Fazlur | authorlink=Fazlur Rahman | year=1979 | title= Islam | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780226702810 | publisher= University of Chicago Press | isbn=0-226-70281-2}} * {{cite book | last=Ramadan | first=Tariq | authorlink=Tariq Ramadan | year=2007 | title= In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad | url=https://archive.org/details/infootstepsofpro00rama | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-530880-8}} * {{cite book | last = Razwi | first = Ali Asgher | title =A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims | url = https://archive.org/details/restatementofhis0000razw | publisher = World Federation of K S I Muslim Communities Islamic Centre | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-9509879-1-3}} * {{cite book | last=Reeves | first=Minou | authorlink=Minou Reeves | title=Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making | url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadineurope0000mino | year=2003 | publisher=NYU Press | isbn=978-0-8147-7564-6}} * {{cite book | last=Robinson | first=David | title=Muslim Societies in African History | url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsocietiesi0000robi | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2004 | isbn=0-521-82627-6}} * {{cite book | author-link=Maxime Rodinson|author=Rodinson, Maxime | title=Muhammad: Prophet of Islam | publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks | year=2002 | isbn=1-86064-827-4}} * {{cite book | last=Rue | first=Loyal | authorlink=Loyal Rue | title=Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological | url=https://archive.org/details/religionisnotabo0000ruel | publisher=Rutgers | year=2005 | isbn=0-8135-3955-2}} * {{cite book | last=Serin | first=Muhittin | title= Hattat Aziz Efendi | publisher=Istanbul | year=1998 | isbn=975-7663-03-4 | oclc=51718704}} * {{cite book | last=Sikand |first=Yoginder |title=Muslims in India since 1947: Islamic perspectives on inter-faith relations | url=https://archive.org/details/muslimsinindiasi0000sika |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |location=London |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-31486-0}} * {{cite book | last = Tabatabae | first = Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn | authorlink = Allameh Tabatabaei | title = [[Tafsir al-Mizan|AL-MIZAN:AN EXEGESIS OF THE QUR'AN]], translation by S. Saeed Rizvi| publisher = WOFIS| isbn =964-6521-14-2}} * {{cite book | last=Teed | first=Peter | title= A Dictionary of Twentieth Century History | url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoftwen00teed | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1992 | isbn=0-19-211676-2}} * {{cite book | last=Turner | first=Colin | title= Islam: The Basics | url=https://archive.org/details/islambasics0000turn | publisher=Routledge | year=2005 | isbn=0-415-34106-X}} * {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | authorlink=William Montgomery Watt | title=Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman | url=https://archive.org/details/muhammadprophets0000watt | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1961 | isbn=0-19-881078-4}} (New edition 1974) * {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery | title=[[Muhammad at Medina (book)|Muhammad at Medina]] | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1956 | isbn=0-19-577307-1}} * {{cite book | last=Watt | first=W. Montgomery| title=[[Muhammad at Mecca (book)|Muhammad at Mecca]] | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1953 | id=ASIN: B000IUA52A | isbn=0-19-577277-6}} * {{cite journal |last1 = Weil |first1 = Gustav |authorlink1= Gustav Weil |last2 = Sanders |first2 = Frank K. |last3 = Dunning |first3 = Harry W. | year = 1895 |title = An Introduction to the Quran I |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_biblical-world_1895-03_5_3/page/181 |journal = The Biblical World |publisher = The University of Chicago Press |volume = 5 |issue = 3 |pages = 181–191 |jstor = 3135387 |doi = 10.1086/471621}} * {{cite journal |last1 = Weil |first1 = Gustav |authorlink1= Gustav Weil |year = 1895 |title = An Introduction to the Quran II |url = https://archive.org/details/sim_biblical-world_1895-04_5_4/page/273 |journal = The Biblical World |publisher = The University of Chicago Press |volume = 5 |issue = 4 |pages = 273–286 | jstor = 3135160 |doi = 10.1086/471639}} {{refend}} ===Kamusi elezo=== {{refbegin}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian | encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-9743091-0-1}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-02-865603-8}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, [[Clifford Edmund Bosworth|C. E. Bosworth]], E. van Donzel, [[Wolfhart Heinrichs|W. P. Heinrichs]] | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] Online | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | issn=1573-3912}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Lindsay Jones | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion | publisher=MacMillan Reference Books | edition=2nd | year=2005 | isbn=978-0-02-865733-2}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of the Qur'an]] | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | year=2005 | isbn=978-90-04-12356-4}} * {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World History | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | isbn=0-19-860223-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=The New Encyclopædia Britannica | publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated | edition=Rev | year=2005 | isbn=978-1-59339-236-9}} {{refend}} {{BD|570|632}} [[Jamii:Muhammad]] [[Jamii:Uislamu]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Kurani]] [[Jamii:Mitume katika Uislamu]] qaglmoelisclxxpa04m40waniieb0p2 0 1759 1580269 1577666 2026-07-18T02:05:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580269 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Internet map 1024.jpg|thumb|300px|Picha ya njia mbalimbali katika sehemu ya intaneti.]] '''Intaneti''' (kutoka [[Kiingereza]] '''Internet''') ni mfumo wa kushirikiana kwa [[tarakilishi]] nyingi unaowezesha watu mbalimbali [[duniani]] kuwasiliana baina yao. Kupitia [[mtandao]] huo, [[watu]] huweza kutembelea [[tovuti]] mbalimbali, kupiga gumzo, na kuandikiana [[barua pepe]]. Intaneti ni mfumo wa kimataifa wa [[mitandao ya tarakilishi]] inayotumia [[itifaki]] inayokubalika ya intarnet Suite (TCP/IP). Intaneti hubeba safu kubwa ya huduma na [[rasilimali]] za [[habari]] hasa hati za [[HyperText]] zilizoshikanishwa za [[wavuti wa ulimwengu mzima]] (www) na miundombinu ya kusaidia [[barua pepe]]. [[Mbinu]] nyingi za jadi za mawasiliano ya habari, kama vile [[huduma]] za [[rununu]] na [[runinga]], zimeundwa upya kutumia teknolojia za tovuti, na kusababisha huduma kama vile itifaki ya [[kupitisha sauti kwa kutumia tovuti]] (VoIP) na [[IPTV]]. [[Uchapishaji]] [[magazeti]] umeundwa upya katika [[tovuti]], [[ubadilishanaji maoni]], na kupatikana habari zinapotokea tu. Intaneti imewezesha au kuharakisha [[uundaji]] wa aina mpya za mafungamano za [[kibinadamu]] kupitia [[ujumbe mbashara]], [[majukwaa ya tovuti]] na [[mitandao ya kijamii]]. Kuna [[mawasiliano]] ya tarakilishi pamoja na [[habari]] zinazotunzwa kwenye [[mashine]] na kupatikana kwa [[programu]] za kutafuta wavuti (kama [[google]]) au kwa [[kamusi elezo]] kama [[wikipedia]]. Asili ya intaneti ina mizizi katika [[miaka ya 1960]] wakati [[Marekani]] ilifadhili miradi ya [[utafiti]] wa makala zake za kijeshi na kujenga mitandao iliyosambaa ya tarakilishi ambazo zina uwezo wa kustahimili mabadiliko na ni vumilivu kwa makosa. Kipindi hiki cha utafiti na [[ufadhili]] wa [[raia]] wa Marekani wa [[uti mpya wa mgongo]] uliofanywa kwa msingi wa kitaifa wa sayansi, ulisababisha [[dunia]] yote kushiriki katika [[maendeleo]] ya teknolojia mpya. Pia ulisababisha [[ufanyajibiashara]] wa tovuti za kimataifa katikati ya [[miaka ya 1990]], na kusababisha kujulikana kwa [[zana]] nyingi karibu kila uwanja wa [[maisha]] ya kisasa ya binadamu. Kufikia mwaka wa [[2009]], [[wastani]] wa [[robo]] ya [[idadi]] ya watu duniani hutumia huduma ya tovuti. == Istilahi == Maneno ''intaneti''<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.yiqiweb.com/ |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2021-04-23 |archivedate=2021-01-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116110920/http://yiqiweb.com/ }}</ref> na ''mtandao wa ulimwengu mzima'' mara nyingi hutumika bila tofauti kubwa. Hata hivyo, intaneti na mtandao wa ulimwengu mzima si kitu kimoja, wala hazina maana sawa. Intaneti ni mfumo wa kimataifa wa mawasiliano ya [[data]]. Ni miundombinu ya vifaa na programu ambayo huwezesha mawasiliano kati ya [[kompyuta]]. Kwa kulinganisha, mtandao ni mojawapo ya huduma inayowasilishwa na intaneti. Ni mkusanyiko wa nyaraka zilizounganishwa na [[rasilimali]] nyingine, zilizoshikanishwa na [[viungo]] na [[URL]]. <ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.w3.org/TR/html401/struct/links.html#h-12.1|title= Links |accessdate=2008-08-13 |work=HTML 4.01 Specification |publisher=World Wide Web Consortium |date=HTML 4.01 Specification | quote = [T]he link (or hyperlink, or Web link) [is] the basic hypertext construct. A link is a connection from one Web resource to another. Although a simple concept, the link has been one of the primary forces driving the success of the Web. }}</ref> == Historia == {{Main|Historia ya Intaneti}} Uzinduzi wa [[Sputnik]] na [[USSR]] ulichochea Marekani kuanzisha shirika la utafiti wa juu wa miradi, iliyojulikana kama ARPA, katika mwezi Februari [[1958]] ili kuongoza kiteknolojia.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.darpa.mil/body/arpa_darpa.html | title=ARPA/DARPA | accessdate=2007-05-21 | publisher=Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407064829/http://www.darpa.mil/body/arpa_darpa.html | archivedate=2007-04-07 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.darpa.mil/body/overtheyears.html | title=DARPA Over the Years | accessdate=2007-05-21 | publisher=Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407182222/http://www.darpa.mil/body/overtheyears.html | archivedate=2007-04-07 }}</ref> ARPA ilitengeneza ofisi ya teknolojia za kuchambua habari (IPTO) ili kuendeleza utafiti wa programu inayojitekeleza ya mazingira ya chini (Sage), ambayo iliunganisha mifumo ya [[rada]] za nchi nzima kwa mara ya kwanza. [[J. C. R Licklider]] alichaguliwa kuwa kiongozi wa IPTO. Licklider alihama kutoka [[maabara]] ya masomo yanayochunguza jinsi [[ubongo]] wa binadamu unavyofasiri [[sauti]] katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Harvard MIT]] mwaka [[1950]], baada ya kuvutiwa na [[teknolojia ya habari]]. Akiwa MIT, alikuwa kwenye [[kamati]] iliyoanzisha [[Maabara ya Lincoln]] na kufanya kazi ya mradi wa Sage. Mwaka wa [[1957]] akawa Makamu wa Rais katika [[BBN]], ambapo alinunua kompyuta ya kwanza ya [[PDP-1]] na kuongoza maonyesho ya kwanza ya [[ugawanaji muda]]. Akiwa IPTO, Licklider alimleta [[Lawrence Roberts]] ili aanzishe mradi wa kutengeneza mtandao, na Roberts alikita msingi wa teknolojia katika kazi ya [[Paulo Baran]], <ref>{{cite book|last=Baran|first=Paul|title=On Distributed Communications|date=1964|url=http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/RM3767}}</ref> ambaye alikuwa ameandika masomo kamili kwa [[Wanajeshi wa waangani wa Marekani]] akipendekeza [[ubadilishaji pakiti]] (badala ya [[ubadilishaji mzunguko)]] ili kupata mtandao bora unaobadilika na unaoweza KUstahimili janga. [[Profesa]] wa UCLA [[Leonard Kleinrock]] alikuwa ametoa msingi wa [[nadharia]] ya [[pakiti]] za mitandao mwaka 1962, na baadaye, katika mwaka 1970, wa [[upitishaji wa kiviwango]], dhana ambazo zimekuwa msingi wa maendeleo ya intaneti ya leo. Baada ya kazi nyingi, sehemu mbili za kwanza ambazo zingekuwa [[ARPANET]] ziliunganishwa kati ya [[Shule ya Uhandisi na Sayansi Tumikizi]] ya UCLA na [[Taasisi ya Kimataifa ya Utafiti ya Stanford]] (SRI) katika [[bustani ya Menlo]], [[California]], tarehe [[29 Oktoba]] [[1969]]. ARPANET ilikuwa moja ya mitandao tangulizi ya mtandao wa intaneti ya leo. Kufuatia maonyesho kuwa ubadilishaji pakiti ulifanya kazi kwa ARPANET, kituo cha posta cha [[Uingereza]], [[Telenet]], TRANSPAC na [[DATAPAC]] zilishirikiana kuunda mtandao wa kwanza wa huduma ya ubadilishaji pakiti. Nchini Uingereza, hii ilikuwa inajulikana kama [[huduma ya kimataifa ya ubadilishaji pakiti]] (IPSS), mwaka [[1978]]. Mkusanyiko wa mitandao yenye msingi wa [[X.25]] ilikua kutoka [[Ulaya]] na Marekani na kutanda [[Kanada]], [[Hong Kong]] na [[Australia]] kufikia mwaka [[1981]]. Sheria ya ubadilishaji pakiti ya X.25 ilitengenezwa katika CCITT (sasa inaitwa [[ITU-T)]] mwaka [[1976]]. X.25 ilikuwa huru kutoka itifaki ya TCP/IP ambayo iliinuka kutokana na kuwa kazi ya majaribio ya [[DARPA]] kwenye ARPANET, mtandao wa Pakiti za Redio na Mtandao wa Pakiti ya Setilaiti wakati mmoja. [[Vinton Cerf]] na [[Robert Kahn]] walitengeneza maelezo ya kwanza ya itifaki ya TCP mwaka 1973 na kuchapisha karatasi kuhusu mada hii katika mwezi Mei 1974. Matumizi ya neno "Internet" kuelezea mtandao mmoja wa kiulimwengu wa TCP/IP yalianza katika mwezi Desemba 1974 na uchapishaji wa RFC 675, yakiwa maelezo kamili ya kwanza ya TCP iliyoandikwa na Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal na Carl Sunshine, waliokuwa katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Stanford]]. Katika miaka tisa iliyofuata, kazi iliendelea kurekebisha itifaki hizo na kuzitekeleza katika mifumo ya oparesheni ya aina mbalimbali. Mtandao wa Kwanza wenye upana mkubwa wa msingi wa [[TCP / IP]] ulikuwa ukifanya kazi kufikia tarehe 1 Januari 1983 wakati ambapo viwekaji vyote vya ARPANET vilibadilishwa kutoka itifaki za hapo awali za NCP. Mwaka 1985, [[Wakfu wa Sayansi wa kitaifa Marekani]] (NSF) uliamuru ujenzi wa [[NSFNET]], [[uti wa mgongo]] wa mtandao wa [[chuo kikuu]] wenye [[kasi]] ya [[kilobaiti]] 56 kwa [[sekunde]] kwa kutumia kompyuta zilizoitwa "[[fuzzballs]]" na [[mvumbuzi]] wake, [[David L. Mills]]. Mwaka uliofuata, NSF ilifadhili ubadilishaji hadi mtandao wenye kasi ya juu zaidi ya [[megabaiti]] 1.5 kwa sekunde. Maamuzi muhimu kutumia itifaki za [[DARPA TCP/IP]] ulifanywa na [[Dennis Jennings]], aliyekuwa msimamizi wa programu ya kompyuta zenye nguvu huko NSF. Ufunguzi wa mtandao huo kwa maslahi ya kibiashara ulianza mwaka wa 1988. Baraza ya Mitandao ya Kimajimbo Marekani ilikubali ushikanishaji wa NSFNET na mfumo wa [[barua wa MCI]] katika mwaka huo, kiungo kilifanywa katika msimu wa joto wa mwaka wa 1989. Huduma zingine za kielektroniki za kibiashara zilishikanishwa zikiwemo: OnTyme, Telemail na Compuserve. Katika mwaka huo, watoaji wa huduma ya Intanet watatu waliundwa: [[UUNET, PSINet]] na CERFNET. Muhimu, mitandao tofauti iliyotoa viingilio, na baadaye kuungana na Intanet ilikuwa [[BITNET na Usenet]]. Mitandao mingine ya kibiashara na elimu kama [[Telenet]], [[Tymnet]], [[Compuserve]] na [[JANET]] iliunganishwa na Intanet iliyokuwa ikikua. [[Telenet]] (iliyoitwa Sprintnet baadaye ) ulikuwa mtandao mkubwa wa kompyuta wa kitaifa uliofadhiliwa kibinafsi, wenye [[upigaji simu ya intaneti bure]]katika miji, kote Marekani na uliyokuwa ukifanya kazi tangu mwongo wa 1970. Hatimaye, mtandao huu uliunganishwa na mingine katika mwongo wa 1980 wakati ambapo itifaki ya TCP / IP iliendelea kuwa maarufu zaidi. Uwezo wa TCP/IP kufanya kazi kwa karibu mtandao wowote wa mawasiliano uliruhusu ukuaji rahisi, ingawa ukuaji wa haraka wa Intanet ulikuwa juu ya upatikanaji rahisi wa safu ya vielekezi vya kibiashara kutoka makampuni mengi, upatikanaji wa vifaa vya kibiashara vya [[Ethanet]] ya mitandao ya mitaa, na kuenea kwa utekelezaji na uwekaji sheria mkali wa TCP / IP katika [[UNIX]] na karibu kila mfumo mwingine wa oparesheni. Ingawa vifaa msingi na miongozo vinavyofanya uwezekanaji wa intanet vimekuwepo kwa karibu miongo miwili, mtandao huo haukupata kuona nyuso za umma mpaka mwongo wa 1990. Tarehe 6 Agosti 1991, [[CERN]], shirika ya Ulaya ya utafiti wa chembe, ulieleza umma kuhusu mradi mpya wa [[matandao wa dunia nzima]]. Mtandao ulizuliwa na mwanasayansi wa[[Kiingereza Tim Berners-Lee]] mwaka wa 1989. [[Kivinjari cha mtandao]] kilichokuwa cha kwanza na chenye umaarufu sana kilikuwa [[ViolaWWW]], iliyofuata mtindo wa [[HyperCard]] na kujengwa kwa kutumia [[mfumo wa X Window]]. Hatimaye ilichujwa na umaarufu wa [[tovuti ya Mosaic]]. Mwaka wa 1993, [[Kikao kikuu cha zana za kompyuta zenye nguvu]] katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Illinois]] ilitoa aina ya kwanza 1.0 ya Mosaic, na mwisho wa mwaka wa 1994 hamu ya umma iliongezeka Intanet ambayo hapo awali ilikua ya taaluma na ufundi. Kufikia mwaka 1996 matumizi ya neno ''Intaneti'' yalikuwa kawaida, na kwa hiyo, hata matumizi yake kama [[kisawe]] cha mtandao wa ulimwengu mzima. Muongo huo ulipoendelea, intaneti ilifanikiwa kushughulikia mitandao mingi binafsi wa awali (ingawa baadhi ya mitandao, kama [[FidoNet]], vimebaki tofauti). Katika [[miaka ya 1990]], ilikuwa inakadiriwa kwamba intaneti ilikua kwa [[asilimia]] 100 kila mwaka, na kipindi kifupi cha mwaka wa 1996 na 1997 ukuaji wake ulilipuka. <ref>{{cite paper | url=http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/doc/internet.size.pdf |format=PDF| title=The size and growth rate of the Internet | accessdate=2007-05-21 | author=Coffman, K. G; [[Odlyzko]], A. M. | publisher=AT&T Labs | date=1998-10-02}}</ref> Ukuaji huo ulitokana na ukosefu wa utawala mkuu, ambao unaruhusu ukuaji wa kikaboni wa mtandao, na pia ukosaji ubinafsi na huru katika itifaki za intaneti, ambao unahamasisha ubadilishaji wauzaji na kuzuia [[kampuni]] yoyote kuwa na udhibiti mkubwa wa mtandao. <ref>{{cite book | last = Comer | first = Douglas | title = The Internet book | url = https://archive.org/details/internetbookever00come_0 | publisher = Prentice Hall | page = [https://archive.org/details/internetbookever00come_0/page/65 64] | isbn = 0132335530 | year = 2006}}</ref> Makadirio ya idadi ya [[watumiaji wa internet]] ni bilioni 1.67 kufikai 30 Juni 2009. <ref name="stats1">{{cite web |url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm |title=World Internet Users and Population Stats |work=Internet World Stats |publisher=Miniwatts Marketing Group |date=2009-06-30 |accessdate=2009-11-06 |archive-date=2011-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623200007/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> == Teknolojia == === Itifaki === Ugumu wa miundombinu ya mawasiliano ya Intanet unahusisha vipengele vya vifaa vyake na sehemu za mfumo wa progamu inayodhibiti tabaka mbalimbali za usanifu. Ingawa vifaa vinaweza kutumika kusaidia mifumo mingine ya programu, ni urasimu na mifumo ya sheria za usanifu wa programu zinazoainisha Intanet na hutoa msingi wa ukubwa wake na mafanikio yake. Wajibu wa urasimu wa usanifu wa mifumo ya programu za Intanet umepewa [[tume ya uhandis wa Intanet]] (IETF). <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ietf.org/ |title=IETF Home Page |publisher=Ietf.org |date= |accessdate=2009-06-20}} </ref> IETF huongoza makundi ya kuweka sheria, wazi kwa mtu yeyote, kuhusu masuala mbalimbali ya usanifu wa Intanet. Majadiliano yanayotokea na amri za mwisho huchapishwa katika mfululizo wa machapisho, iitwayo [[Kuomba kwa Maoni]] (RFC),ipatikanayo bure kwenye tovuti ya IETF. Mbinu muhimu za utengenezaji wa mitandao zinazowezesha Intanet ziko katika RFC teule yenye [[sheria za Intanet]]. Sheria hizi hueleza msingi unaojulikana kama [[Itifaki ya Intanet]]. Hii ni kielelezo cha usanifu unaogawanya huduma kuwa visehemu katika itifaki ya mfumo(RFC 1122, RFC 1123). Visehemu hivi vina uhusiano na mazingira au upeo ambao huduma zao hufanya kazi. Sehemu ya juu ni [[Sehemu ya zana]], nafasi iliyotengwa kwasababu ya mbinu za utenegnezaji mitandao zinazotumika katika zana za programu, mfano, kivinjari. Chini ya sehemu hii ya juu, kuna sehemu ya [[Usafiri]] iunganishayo zana katika ''kompyuta tofauti'' kupitia mtandao (mfano, [[client-server]]) na mbinu sahihi za kubadilishana takwimu. Chini ya sehemu hizi ndipo kulipo na msingi wa teknolojia ya mitandao, linalojumuisha sehemu mbili. [[Sehemu ya Intanet]] inayowezesha kompyuta kutambuana kupitia [[anwani za Itifaki ya internet(IP)]], na huziwezesha kuungana pamoja kwa kutumia mitandao zilizo karibu. Mwisho, chini ya usanifu huu, ni sehemu ya programu , na [[sehemu ya uunganishaji]], ambayo huwezesha kuungana kwa kompyuta zilizo katika kiunganishi sawa wa mtandao ya mtaa , kama vile mtandao wa eneo([[LAN]]) au [[uunganishi wa kupiga]]. Mfano huu, ujulikanao pia kama [[TCP / IP]], ni iliyoundwa isitegemee vifaa inavyotumia, kwa hivyo mfano huu hauna haja ya kujishughulisha na maelezo yoyote. Mifano mingine vimeundwa, kama vile [[mfano wa mifumo ya kiunganishi kilichofunguka]] (OSI) , lakini si sawa katika maelezo ya ufafanuzi, wala utekelezaji, lakini kufanana kupo n itifaki ya TCP / IP hujumuishwa katika majadiliano ya mitandao ya OSI . Sehemu maarufu zaidi ya picha simamizi ya Intanet ni [[Itifaki ya Intanet]] (IP) ambayo hushughulikia upeanaji wa [[(anwani za IP]]) kwa kompyuta zilizo katika Intanet. IP inawezesha [[ushikanishaji wa mitandao]] na kimsingi hujenga Intanet yenyewe. Toleo ya 4 ya IP ([[IPv4]]) ni toleo lililotumiwa katika kizazi cha kwanza cha Intanet ya leo na bado yatumika vikubwa. Iliundwa kushughulikia hadi watumiaji billioni~ 4,3 (10 ⁹) wa intanet. Hata hivyo, kulipuka kwa ukuaji wa Intanet umesababisha [[kuisha kwa anwani za IPv4]] ambayo inakadiriwa kuingia hatua yake ya mwisho katika takriban mwaka wa 2011. <ref>{{cite web | last=Huston | first=Geoff | title=IPv4 Address Report, daily generated | url=http://www.potaroo.net/tools/ipv4/index.html | accessdate=2009-05-20 | archive-date=2011-08-06 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806020416/http://www.potaroo.net/tools/ipv4/index.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Toleo ya itifaki mpya, [[IPv6]], iliundwa katikati ya mwongo wa 1990. Toleo hili linauwezo mkubwa wa kupeana anwani na mbinu bora zaidi ya uelekezaji wa trafiki ya Intanet. [[IPv6]] kwa sasa ipo katika awamu ya kuachiliwa kibiashara duniani mashirika ya kuweka anwani za intanet[[(RIR)]] yameanza kuwahimiza mameneja wote wa rasilimali kupanga uchukuzi na uongofu wa haraka. <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.arin.net/knowledge/about_resources/ceo_letter.pdf |title=Notice of Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) Address Depletion |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2009-08-07 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107095025/https://www.arin.net/knowledge/about_resources/ceo_letter.pdf |archivedate=2010-01-07 }}</ref> IPv6 haishirikiani kikazi na IPv4. Kimsingi toleo la IPv6 hutengeneza toleo "sambamba" la Intanet ambalo halipatikani moja kwa moja na IPv4. Hii ina maanisha uboreshaji wa Programu au vifaa vya ukalimani ni muhimu kwa kila kifaa cha mtandao ambacho linahitaji kuwasiliana kupitia Intanet ya IPv6. Mifumo ya kuendesha kompyuta ya kompyta za kisasa tayari vimebadilishwa ili vifanye kazi na toleo zote za itifaki ya Intanet. Miundombinu ya mtandao , hata hivyo, bado yamebaki nyuma katika maendeleo hayo. Mbali na tata za viungo vinavyotengeneza miundombinu yake, Intanet imewezeshwa na mikataba ya kibiashara (mfano, [[mkataba wa kujitakia]]), na kwa ufundi maalum au [[itifaki]] zinazoeleza jinsi ya kubadilishana [[data]] kwa kupitia mtandao. Hakika Intanet ina ainishwa na viungo vyake na sheria za uelekezaji. === Muundo === Muundo wa Intanet na sifa za matumizi yake vimekuwa vikisomwa kwa undani. Imedhamiria kuwa muundo wa uelekezaji katika Intanet ya IP na viungo vya hypertext vya mtandao wa dunia nzima ni mifano ya [[mitandao isiyo na kipimo]]. Sambamba na jinsi watoa huduma, wa kibiashara za Intanet huwasiliana kwa kupitia [[sehemu za ubadilishanaji habari, ]]mitandao ya utafiti kwa kawaida huunganishwa kupitia mitandao mikubwa kama [[GEANT, GLORIAD, Internet2]] (halifa wa [[Mtandao wa Abilene )]], na [[mtandao wa utafiti na kitaifa na elimu wa Uingereza, JANET]]. Mitandao hii imeundwa kutoka kwa mitandao mingine midogo (pia tazama orodha ya mashirika ya kiakademia ya mitandao ya kompyuta). Wanasayansi wengi wa Kompyuta huelezea Intanet kama "mfano halisi wa mfumo uliyo mkubwa, wenye uhandisi wa hali ya juu lakini changamano zaidi.". <ref> Walter Willinger, Ramesh Govindan, Sugih Yamini, Vern Paxson, na Scott Shenker (2002). [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/suppl_1/2573 Scaling phenomena in the Internet,] katika ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, uk.99,'' suppl. 1, 2573-2580</ref> Intanet ina tofauti nyingi mno, kwa mfano, [[kiwango cha kuhamisha data]] na sifa za kiumbo za uunganishaji vinatofautiana sana. Intanet inaonyesha "[[tukio ibuka]]" linalotegemea muundo wake mkubwa. Kwa mfano, takwimu za viwango vya kuhamisha data [[vinaonyesha]] kufanana[[kwa muda]]. Kanuni za mbinu za uelekezaji na utoaji anwani kwa trafiki katika Intanet zinarejelea asili yake katika mwongo wa 1960 wakati ukubwa na umaarufu wa mtandao haukuweza kutarajiwa. Kwa hivyo, uwezekano wa kujenga miundo mbadalia unachunguzwa. <ref> [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2003667811_btrebuildnet16.html "internet Makeover?][http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2003667811_btrebuildnet16.html Some Urge its time ".] Gazetti la Seattle Times, tarehe 16 Aprili 2007.</ref> == Utawala == [[Picha:Icannheadquarters.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Makao makuu ya ICANN huko Marina Del Rey, California, Marekani]] Internet ni [[mtandao uliyosambaa duniani]] ulioundwa na mitandao mingi tofauti iliyoshikanishwa. Hufanya kazi bila kitengo cha serikali kuu. Hata hivyo, ili kudumisha uwezo wa mifumo tofauti kufanya kazi pamoja, nyanja zote za kifundi na sera ya msingi wa miundombinu na [[nafasi za jina]] kuu husimamiwa na [[Shirika la Intanet linalotoa majina na nambari]] (ICANN), lililo na makao makuu huko [[Marina del Rey, California]]. ICANN ndiyo yenye mamlaka ya kusitiri utaratibu wa utoaji wa vitambulisho vya kipekee kwa matumizi ya Intanet, pamoja na [[majina ya vikundi]], anwani za Itifaki ya Intanet (IP), nambari ya vipenyezo katika itifaki ya usafiri, na takwimu zingine nyingi. Nafasi ya iliyounganishwa ya majina ya ulimwengu, ambapo majina na nambari za kipekee hutolewa, ni muhimu kwa mataifa katika kupata huduma za Intanet. ICANN huongozwa na halmashauri ya wakurugenzi wa kimataifa wanaotolewa kutoka jamii za, ufundi wa Intanet, biashara, elimu, na mengine yasiyo ya kibiashara. Serikali ya Marekani inaendelea kuwa na jukumu la msingi katika kuidhinisha mabadiliko katika shina la [[DNs]]lililoko katika kitovu cha mfumo wa eneo la majina. Jukumu la ICANN katika kuratibu zoezi la utoaji vitambulisho vya kipekee hulitofautisha kama shirika la kipekee lenye madaraka ya kuratibu Intanet ya kimataifa. Tarehe 16 Novemba 2005, [[Mkutano wa Dunia juu ya Jamii ya Habari]], uliofanyika [[Tunis]], uliunda [[Fora ya Utawala wa Intanet]] (IGF) kujadili masuala yanayohusiana na Intanet. == Matumizi ya kisasa == Intaneti inaruhusu mabadiliko makubwa katika masaa na maeneo ya kufanyia kazi, hasa kwa kuenea kwa viunganishi vya kasi visivyopimwa na [[zana za mtandao]]. Intaneti kwa sasa yaweza kupatikana karibu popote kwa njia mbalimbali, hasa kupitita [[vifaa vinavyobebwa mkononi]]. [[Simu za mkononi]], [[kadi za data]], [[michezo ya video]] na [[vielekezaji vya mkononi]] vinaruhusu watumiaji kujiunganisha na intanet kutoka popote pale walipo na mtandao usiotumia waya unaoruhusu teknolojia ya kifaa hiki. Ndani ya mipaka inayowekwa na skrini ndogo vifaa vingine pungufu kama vifaa vya mfukoni, huduma za Intanet, pamoja na barua pepe na mtandao, huweza kupatikana. Watoa huduma za Intanet huweza kuzuia huduma zinazotolewa na malipo ya usafirishaji wa data bila kutumia nyaya yaweza kuwa ya juu zaidi kuliko mbinu zingine za kupata intanet. Intaneti pia imekuwa soko kubwa kwa makampuni; baadhi ya makampuni makubwa leo yamekua kwa kuchukua faida ya gharama nafuu ya [[matangazo na biashara]]kwa kupitia Intanet, pia inajulikana kama [[biashara kupitia intaneti]] (e-commerce). Ni njia ya haraka sana katika kueneza habari kwa idadi kubwa ya watu kwa ujumla. Intaneti pia imebadilisha [[ununuzi]] - kwa mfano, mtu anaweza kuagiza [[CD]] kupitia intaneti na kuipokea katika [[barua]] baada ya siku kadhaa, au kuitoa kwa mtandao moja kwa moja katika baadhi ya kesi. Intaneti pia imewezesha [[uuzaji wa kibinafsi]] ambao unaruhusu kampuni kuuza bidhaa kwa mtu fulani au kundi maalum la watu, zaidi ya njia zingine za matangazo. Mifano ya uuzaji binafsi hujumuisha jamii zilizo katika Intanet kama vile [[MySpace]], [[Friendster]], [[Orkut]], [[Facebook]], na nyingine yznye maelfu ya watumizi wa Intanet ambao hujiunga kujitangaza wenyewe na kufanya urafiki kupitia Intanet. Wengi wa watumiaji hawa ni vijana na waliobaleghe wenye kati ya miaka 13-25. Kwa upande mwingine, wakati wanapojitangaza wao wenyewe hao pia hutangaza maslahi na mazoea yao, ambayo makampuni ya uuzaji katika Intanet yanaweza kutumia kama habari ili kujua kile ambacho watumiaji hawa watanunua kupitia Intanet, na kutangaza bidhaa za makampuni kwa watumiaji hao. Gharama ya chini na ubadilishanaji wa haraka wa mawazo, maarifa, na ujuzi vimefanya kazi [[shirikishi]] kuwa rahisi sana, kwa msaada wa [[programu shirikishi]]. Makundi hayawezi tu kuwasiliana kwa bei ya chini, bali upana wa Intanet unaruhusu makundi kama hayo kujiunda kwa urahisi. Mfano wa makundi hayo ni [[harakati ya programu za bure]], ambazo zimetengeneza, miongoni mwa programu nyingine, [[Linux]], [[Mozilla Firefox]], na [[OpenOffice.org]]. "Kuongea" kupitia intaneti, iwe katika fomu ya vyumba vya kuongea vya [[IRC]], au kupitia [[mfumo wa ujumbe wa moja kwa moja]] , kunaruhusu mfanyikazi na wenzake kuwasiliana kwa njia rahisi sana wakati wanapofanya kazi katika kompyuta zao wakati wa mchana. Ujumbe unaweza kubadilishwa kwa njia ya haraka na inayofaa zaidi kuliko barua pepe. Maongezo katika mifumo hii huweza kuruhusu ubadilishanaji wa faili, michoro ya "ubao mweupe" au mawasiliano ya sauti na video kati ya wanachama wa timu moja. [[Mifumo ya kudhibiti toleo]] unaruhusu timu zinazoshirikiana kufanya kazi kwa seti za hati zenye umiliki mmoja, bila ajali ya kufuta kazi za timu nyingine au wanachama kusubiri hadi kupata hati "zilizotumwa" ili kuweza kutoa michango yao. Biashara na timu za miradi zinaweza kushirikiana katika kalenda vilevile nyaraka na taarifa nyingine. Ushirika kama huo hutokea katika maeneo mbalimbali ikiwa ni pamoja na utafiti wa kisayansi, maendeleo ya programu, kupanga mikutano , wanaharakati wa kisiasa na uandishi wa bunifu. Ushirikiano wa kijamii na kisiasa pia unaenea wakati upatikanaji wa Intanet na [[idadi ya watu waliosoma kompyuta]] inapoongezeka. Kutoka 'matukio' [[ya makundi yanayoundwa haraka na watu]] mwanzo wa miaka ya 2000 na [[matumizi ya mitandao ya kijamii katika maandamano ya uchaguzi wa 2009 huko Iran]], Intanet inaruhusu watu kufanya kazi pamoja kwa ufanisi zaidi na kwa njia nyingi zaidi kuliko iwezekanavyo bila Intanet. Intanet inaruhusu watumiaji wa kompyuta kufikia kompyuta zingine, na habari huhifadhiwa kwa urahisi, popote walipo duniani. Wanaweza kufanya hivi pamoja na, au, bila matumizi ya [[usalama]], kujitambulisha na teknolojia za kuficha, kutegemea na mahitaji yao. Hii inahimiza njia mpya ya kufanya kazi kutoka nyumbani, kushirikiana na kubadilishana habari katika viwanda vingi. [[Mhasibu]] aliyeketi nyumbani anaweza kukagua vitabu vya kampuni iliyo katika nchi nyingine, kupitia [[kitumishi]] kilicho katika nchi nyingine ya tatu, ambayo inahifadhiwa na wataalamu wa IT katika nchi ya nne. Akaunti hizi zinaweza kuwa ziliundwa na waweka vitabu wafanyao kazi nyumbani, katika maeneo mengine, kwa kuzingatia habari-e waliyopata kupitia barua pepe waliyotumiwa kutoka ofisi za duniani kote. Baadhi ya mambo haya yalikuwa yanawezekana kabla ya kuenea kwa matumizi ya Intanet, lakini gharama ya [[laini binafsi ya kukodisha]] ingefanya mamboo hayo yasiweze kufanyika. Mfanyakazi wa ofisi akiwa mbali na dawati lake, labda upande mwingine wa ulimwengu katika safari ya kibiahsara au likizo, anaweza kufungua kikao katika kompyuta yake binafsi iliyoko ofisini mwake kwa kupitia [[mtandao binafsi wenye usalama]] (VPN) kwa kupitia Intanet. Hii inampa mfanyakazi upatikanaji kamili wa faili zake zote za kawaida na data, pamoja na barua pepe na zana nyingine za matumizi , wakati akiwa mbali na ofisi. Dhana hii pia inajulikana na baadhi ya watu wa usalama wa mitandao kama mtandao binafsi wa kidhahania wenye ndoto za kutisha, kwa sababu inapeleka mzunguko salama wa mtandao wa shirika ndani ya nyumba za wafanyakazi wa shirika hilo. == Huduma == === Habari === Watu wengi hutumia maneno ''Intaneti'' na ''mtandao wa ulimwengu mzima'' (au ''Web'' tu ) kama visawe, lakini, kama tulivyojadiliana awali, maneno haya mawili yana maana tofauti. Mtandao wa Dunia Nzima ni seti ya [[nyaraka]], [[picha]] na rasilimali nyingine, zinazotazamwa na kushikanishwa na [[kitafuta rasilimali sawa]] (URL) na [[viungo]]. URL hizi huruhusu watumiaji kuvipatia anwani [[vijakazi vya mtandao]] na vifaa vingine vinavyohifadhi rasilimali hizi na kuvipata vinapohitajika kwa kutumia [[HyperText Transfer itifaki ya kupelekea hati]] (HTTP). HTTP ni itifaki ya kipekee ya mawasiliano inayotumika katika mtandao wa Intanet. [[Huduma za mtandao]] huweza pia kutumia HTTP kuruhusu mifumo ya programu kuwasiliana ili kuweza kushiriki na kubadilishana mantiki ya biashara na data. Bidhaa za programu zinazoweza kupata rasilimali za Mtandao mara nyingi huitwa ''[[ajenti wa matumizi]].'' Katika matumizi ya kawaida, tovuti za mtandao, kama [[Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera, Apple Safari]], na [[Google Chrome]], huwaruhusu watumiaji kuvuka kutoka kurasa ya mtandao mmoja hadi nyingine kupitia viungo vya hyper. Hati kwenye mtandao huweza kuwa na mchanganyiko wowote wa [[data ya kompyuta]], zikiwemo, picha, sauti, [[maandishi, video, mchanganyiko wa picha na sauti]] na mambo yanayomhusisha mtumiaji wa Intanet kama [[michezo, zana ofisi]] na maonyesho ya kisayansi. Kupitia utafiti wa Intanet unaoendeshwa na [[maneno maalum]] kwa kutumia [[mitambo ya utafutaji]] kama [[Yahoo!]] na [[Google]], watumiaji duniani kote huweza kupata habari nyingi, kwa urahisi na moja kwa moja kutoka kwa Intanet. Ikilinganishwa na [[kamusi elezi]] zilizochapishwa na[[maktaba za kawaida]], Mtandao wa Dunia Nzima umewezesha kusambaa ghafla kwa habari na data. Kwa kutumia mtandao, pia ni rahisi kuliko awali kwa watu binafsi na mashirika [[kuchapisha]] mawazo na habari kwa [[watazamaji]] wengi wanaotarajiwa. Kuchapisha kurasa ya mtandao, [[kibadilishanaji maoni - blogu]], au kujenga tovuti inahusisha [[gharama]] ndogo za awali na huleta kupatikana kwa huduma nyingi zisizo na gharama. Kuchapisha na kudumisha idadi kubwa ya, mitandao ya kitaalamu yenye kuvutia, habari tofauti na ya moja kwa moja bado ni swala gumu na ghali, hata hivyo. Watu wengi na baadhi ya makampuni na vikundi-vitumizi hutumia ''mitandao ya ubadilishanaji maoni '' au [[blogu]] ambayo hutumika kama jarida zenye urahisi wakati wa kuongeza habari. Baadhi ya mashirika ya kibiashara huwahimiza [[wafanyakazi]] kuwasilisha ushauri katika maeneo yao maalum katika matumaini ya kuwa wageni watafurahishwa na maarifa ya mtaalam na habari za bure, na kuvutiwa kwa shirika hilo kama matokeo. Mfano mmoja wa zoezi hili ni [[Microsoft]], ambayo [[watengenezaji bidhaa zake]] huchapisha mitandao ya ubadilishanaji binafsi katika blogu ili kuvutia umma kwa kazi zao. Mikusanyo ya kurasa binafsi za mtandao zilizochapishwa na watoa huduma wakubwa hubakia maarufu, na imeendelea kuwa ya kipekee. Ingawa oparesheni kama vile [[Angelfire]] na [[GeoCities]] zimekuwepo tangu siku za mwanzo wa Tovuti, oparesheni mpya, kwa mfano, Tovuti Facebook na [[MySpace]] kwa sasa vina wafuasi wengi. Oparesheni hizi mara nyingi hujionyesha kama [[mtandao ya huduma za kijamii]] kuliko viwekaji vya kurasa za mtandao. Kuweka [[matangazo]] katika kurasa za tovuti pendwa huwa na faida, biashara-e (biashara ya mtandao)([[e-commerce]]) au uuzaji wa bidhaa na huduma moja kwa moja kupitia tovuti inaendelea kukua. Katika siku za mwanzo, kurasa za mtandao kwa kawaida zilitengenezwa kama seti za faili za nakala kamilifu na zilizo peke za [[HTML]] zikihifadhiwa kwenye tovuti ya huduma. Hivi karibuni, tovuti hutengenezwa kwa kutumia [[kisimamizi cha yaliyomo]] au [[kifaa ororo cha wiki]], ambacho huwa na maudhui machache sana mwanzoni. Wachangiaji wa mifumo hii, ambao wanaweza kuwa wafanyakazi wanaolipwa, wanachama wa klabu au shirika zingine au wanachama wa umma, hujaza vihifadhi-data na maudhui kutumia kurasa zilizoundwa kwa kusudi hilo, ilhali wageni huangalia na kusoma yaliyomo katika ombo lake la mwisho la HTML. Kuna uwezekano wa kuwa au kutokuwa na mifumo ya uhariri, kibali na mifumo ya usalama iliyojengwa katika mchakato wa kuchukua maudhui mpya iliyoingizwa na kuifanya ipatikane na wageni wanaolengwa. === Mawasiliano === [[Barua pepe]] ni huduma muhimu ya mawasiliano inayopatikana kwenye Intanet. Dhana ya kutuma ujumbe wa kielektroniki wa maandishi kati ya wahusika kwa njia iliyosawa na kutuma barua au memo ilitangulia utengenezaji wa Intanet. Leo inaweza kuwa muhimu kutofautisha kati ya Intanet na mifumo ya kindani ya barua pepe. Barua pepe ya Intanet inaweza kusafiri na kuhifadhiwa kimaandishi katika mitandao mingine mingi na mashine zilizo nje ya udhibiti wa mtumaji na mpokeaji. Kwa wakati huu kunauwezekano wa yaliyomo kusomwa na kubadilishwa na mhusika wa tatu, ikiwa kuna mtu yeyote anayefikiri kuwa una umuhimu wa kutosha. Mifumo ya barua za kindani, ambapo habari haipaswi kamwe kutoka nje ya mtandao wa kampuni au shirika , ni salama zaidi, ingawa katika shirika lolote kutakuwa na wafanyikazi wa [[IT]] na wafanyakazi wengine ambao kazi yao inahusu ufuatiliaji, na mara chache kufikia, barua pepe za wafanyikazi wengine ambazo hawajatumiwa hao. Picha, nyaraka na faili nyingine zinaweza kutumwa kama [[viungo vya barua pepe]]. Barua pepe zinaweza [[kutumwa]] kwa [[anwani nyingi za barua pepe]]. [[Telefoni ya intaneti]] ni huduma nyingine la mawasiliano ya kawaida iliyowezekana kwa uundaji wa a Intanet. [[VoIP]] husimamia [[itifaki ya kupitisha sauti kupitia Intanet]], ikirejelea itifaki msingi ya mawasiliano ya Intanet. Wazo hili lilianza mwanzo wa mwongo wa 1990 na [[zana zilizofanana na simu za polisi]] za kompyuta binafsi. Katika miaka ya hivi karibuni mifumo mingi ya VoIP imekuwa rahisi kutumia na kuwa na manufaa kama simu ya kawaida. Faida ni kwamba, Intanet inapobeba trafiki ya sauti, VoIP inaweza kuwa bure au kuwa na gharama ndogo sana kuliko upigaji simu wa jadi, hasa juu ya umbali mrefu na hasa kwa wale wenye viunganishi vinanvyowaka wakati wowote kama vile [[Cable]] au [[ADSL]]. VoIP inapevuka na kujitokeza kama mshindani mbadalia wa huduma za simu za jadi. Uwezo wa kubadilishana ujumbe kati ya watoa huduma mbalimbali imeboreshwa na uwezo wa kupiga au kupokea simu kutoka kwa simu ya jadi unapatikana. Vibadilisha mtandao vya VoIP ambavyo ni rahisi na vya bei nafuu vinapatikana na vinaondoa haja ya kuwa na kompyuta binafsi. Ubora wa sauti unatofautiana kutoka wito moja hadi mwingine lakini mara nyingi ni sawa, na huweza hata kuzidi ule wa simu za jadi. Matatizo yaliyobakia kwa VoIP hujumuisha [[upigaji simu kwa nambari ya dharura]] na utumainikaji. Hivi sasa, watoa VoIP wachache hutoa huduma ya dharura, lakini haipatikani na wote. Simu za jadi huwezeshwa na nguvu za laini na hufanya kazi wakati stima zinapopotea; VoIP haifanyi hivyo bila [[chanzo kingine cha nguvu]] kwa vifaa vya simu na vifaa vya upatikanaji wa Intanet. VoIP pia imekuwa maarufu kwa zana za michezo , kama njia ya mawasiliano kati ya wachezaji. Wateja wa VoIP wanaojulikana katika michezo ni kama vile [[Ventrilo]] na [[Teamspeak]]. [[Wii]], [[PlayStation 3]], na [[Xbox 360]] pia hutoa sifa za VoIP za kuongea kupitia mtandao . === Kuhamisha data === [[Kugawana faili]]ni mfano wa uhamishaji wa kiasi kikubwa cha data kupitia Intanet. Faili ya [[kompyuta]] inaweza [[kutumwa kwa kutumia barua pepe]] kwa wateja, waenzi na marafiki kama [[kiungo]]. Inaweza kuwekwa kwenye [[tovuti]] au tumishi ya [[FTP]] kwa upakuaji rahisi na watu wengine. Inaweza kuweka ndani ya "eneo lenye wamiliki wengi" au ndani ya [[tumishi ya faili]]kwa ajili ya matumizi ya haraka na washikadau. Mzigo wa upakuaji mzito kwa watumiaji wengi unaweza kupunguzwa na matumizi ya "[[vioo]]" vya huduma au mitandao [[ya viwango aina moja]]. Katika hali hizi zote, upatikanaji wa faili unaweza kudhibitiwa na [[kujitambulisha kwa watumiaji]], usafiri wa faili katika ya Intanet unaweza kuborongwa kwa [[kupewa maana fiche]], na hongo ya pesa yaweza kutumiwa ili kuzipata faili. Bei inaweza kulipwa kutoka eneo tofauti kwa njia isiyokuwa wazi, kwa mfano, kutoka kwa kadi ya deni(krediti) ambayo maelezo yake hupitishwa pia - kwa kawaida hupewa maana fiche kabisa- kupitia Intanet. Asili na dhibitisho la faili iliyopokewa inaweza kuangaliwa kupitia [[saini za dijitali]] au kwa [[MD5]] au aina nyingine ya ujumbe. Sifa hizi rahisi za intanet, juu ya msingi wa dunia nzima, zinabadilisha uzalishaji, mauzo, na usambazaji wa kitu chochote ambacho kinaweza kupunguzwa na kuwa faili ya kompyuta kwa usafirishaji. Hii ni pamoja na kila namna ya machapisho ya magazeti , bidhaa za programu, habari, muziki , filamu, video, picha, grafiki na sanaa zingine. Hili kwa upande mwingine limesababisha mabadiliko katika kila moja ya viwanda ambavyo awali vilidhibiti uzalishaji na usambazaji wa bidhaa hizi. [[Utabakishaji wa vyombo vya habari]] unahusu kitendo ambacho watangazaji wengi wa redio na televisheni wanatumia kukuza lishe ya Intanet ya habari za moja kwa moja kutumia sauti, na tabaka za video (kwa mfano, [[BBC]]). Wanaweza pia kuruhusu maonyesho na usikilizaji kulingana na mabadiliko ya wakati kama kuangalia mbele, picha klasiki na sifa za kusikiliza tena. Watoaji huduma hawa wameungwa na anuwai ya "watangazaji" halisi wa Intanet ambao kamwe hawakuwa na leseni za kutoa habari moja kwa moja. Hii ina maanaisha kuwa kifaa kilichounganishwa na intanet, kama vile kompyuta au kitu kingine maalum, kinaweza kutumika kupata vyombo vya habari vilivyounganishwa na Intanet kwa njia ile ile kama ilivyowezekana tu na mpokezi wa [[televisheni]] au [[redio]]. Aina ya matini ni pana sana, kutoka kwa [[ponografia hadi tovuti za ufundi na utaaluma wa juu]]. Podcasting ni aina fulani katika mada hii, ambapo - kwa kawaida ni sauti- matini zinapakuliwa na kuchezwa tena kwenye kompyuta au kubadilishwa kwenye chombo cha habari kinachobebeka ili kisikilizwe matu anapotembea. Hizi mbinu za kutumia vifaa rahisi vinaruhusu mtu yeyote, aliye na udhibiti ufichaji au udhibiti wa leseni, kutangaza picha , muziki na video kote ulimwenguni. [[Kamera za mtandao]] zinaweza kuonekana kama ongezeko ya chini ya bajeti ya jambo hili. Ingawa baadhi ya kamera za mtandao zinaweza kutoa video za kiima kizima, picha huwa ndogo au hujiongeza pole pole. Watumiaji wa intanet wanaweza kuangalia wanyama waliyozunguka kidimbwi cha maji huku Afrika, meli katika [[kipisho cha Panama]], trafiki katika mzunguko wa barabara za mtaa au kufuatilia wanapoishi katika muda halisi. [[Vyumba vya kuongea vya video]] na [[mikutano ya video]] pia ni maarufu, matumizi mengi yakipatikana ya kamera kibinafsi za mtandao, zilizo na, au zisizo na sauti inayotamba pande zote mbili. [[YouTube]] ilianzishwa tarehe 15 Februari 2005 na sasa ni tovuti inayoongoza kwa maonyesho ya video za bure pamoja na idadi kubwa ya watumiaji. Inatumia mtandao wenye msingi wa [[kichezaji cha flashi]] kuonyesha faili za video. Watumiaji waliojiandikisha huweza kuongeza idadi isiyo na kipimo ya video na kutengeneza vitambulishi vyao binafsi. YouTube inadai kuwa watumiaji wake hutazama mamia ya mamilioni, na huongeza mamia ya maelfu, ya video kila siku. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.youtube.com/t/fact_sheet|title=YouTube Fact Sheet|publisher=YouTube, LLC |accessdate=2009-01-20}}</ref> == Upatikanaji == Lugha ya iliyoenea katika mawasiliano ya Intanet ni [[Kiingereza]]. Hii inayotumika zaidi katika intaneti ni Kiingereza. Hili latokana na kuwa ndiyo lugha asilia ya intanet na pia nafasi yake kama lingu-franca = lugha sambazi. Pia inaweza kuhusiana na upungufu wa utendaji wa kompyuta za awali, kiasi kikubwa zikitoka Marekani, kushughulikia maandishi mengine kuliko yale ya lahaja ya Kiingereza ya [[alfabeti ya Kilatin]]. Baada ya Kiingereza (asilimia 29 ya wageni wa Tovuti) lugha zilizohitajika zaidi katika [[Tovuti ya Dunia Nzima]] ni [[Kichina]] (asilimia 22), [[Kihispania]] (asilimia 8), [[Kijapani]] (asilimia 6), [[Kifaransa]] (asilimia 5), [[Kireno]] na [[Kijerumani]] (kila moja asilimia 4 ), [[Kiarabu]] (asilimia 3) na [[Kirusi]] na [[Kikorea]] (kila moja asilimia 2 ). <ref>[http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm internet World Stats,] {{Wayback|url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm |date=20120426122721 }} zilizichapishwa upya tarehe 30 Juni 2009</ref> Katika kanda, asilimia 42 ya [[watumiaji wa intaneti]] duniani wana makao [[Barahindi]], asilimia 24 [[Ulaya]], asilimia 15 [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]], asilimia 11 [[Amerika Kusini]] na [[Caribbean]] zikichukuliwa kwa pamoja, asilimia 4 [[Afrika]], asilimia 3 [[Mashariki]] ya [[Kati]] na asilimia 1 [[Australia]] / [[Oceania]]. <ref name="inetstats">[http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm World Internet Usage Statistics News and Population Stats] {{Wayback|url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm |date=20110623200007 }} zilizoandikwa upya 30 Juni 2009</ref> Teknolojia za Intanet zimeendelea ya kutosha katika miaka ya hivi karibuni, hasa katika matumizi ya [[Unicode]], kwamba vifaa vizuri vinapatikana kwa maendeleo na mawasiliano katika lugha zinazotumiwa kwa wingi. Hata hivyo, baadhi ya matatizo kama ''[[mojibake]]'' (uonyeshaji usiosahihi wa maandishi ya lugha za kigeni , pia inajulikana kama ''kryakozyabry)'' bado hubakia. Njia za kawaida za [[kupata Intaneti]] nyumbani ni [[kwa kupiga]], laini za [[broadband]] (kupitia waya za koax, [[nyuzinyuzi za optiki]] au waya za shaba), [[Wi-Fi, setilaiti]] na teknolojia ya rununu ya 3G. Maeneo ya umma kwa matumizi ya Intaneti ni maktaba na [[mikahawa ya Intaneti]], ambamo kompyuta zilizounganishwa na Intaneti hupatikana. Pia kuna [[sehemu za kupata Intaneti]] katika maeneo mengi ya umma kama vile kumbi za uwanja wa ndege na maduka ya kahawa, katika baadhi ya sehemu hizi kwa matumizi mafupi wakati umesimama. Maneno mbalimbali hutumiwa kama vile "kiosk za umma za interneti", "pahala pa upatikanaji intaneti pa umma", na "simu za kulipia za Mtandao". Hoteli nyingi sasa pia huwa na pahala pa umma, ingawa hizi hulipiwa kulingana na matumizi. Sehemu hizi hutumika kwa matumizi mbalimbali kama ununuzi tiketi , amana za benki, malipo kupitia mtandao nk. Wi-Fi hutoa upatikanaji usiotumia waya wa mitandao ya kompyuta, na kwa hiyo yaweza kufanya hivyo kwa Intanet yenyewe. [[Sehemu moto]] zinazotoa upatikanaji kama huo hujumuisha [[mikahawa ya Wi-Fi]], ambapo watumiaji hupaswa kuleta vifaa vyao visivyotumia waya kufikia Intaneti kama vile [[Kompyuta za pajani]] au [[PDA]]. Huduma hizi huweza kuwa bure kwa wote, bure kwa wateja tu, au waliolipishwa. Eneo moto halina haja ya kuwa finyu katika eneo ndogo. Kampasi nzima au bustani, au hata mji mzima unaweza kuwezeshwa. Juhudi za [[mashinani]] zimesababisha[[mitandao ya kijamii]] [[isiyotumia waya]]. Huduma za Wi-Fi za kibiahsara zinazofunika maeneo ya miji mikubwa zinapatikana [[London]], [[Vienna]], [[Toronto]], [[San Francisco]], [[Philadelphia]], [[Chicago]] na [[Pittsburgh]]. Intanet huweza kupatikana kutoka sehemu hizo kama kiti cha bustani.<ref>[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000082&amp;sid=aQ0ZfhMa4XGQ&amp;refer=canada "Toronto Hydro to Install Wireless Network in Downtown Toronto".] Bloomberg.com. Ilichukuliwa tarehe 19-Mar-2006.</ref> Mbali na Wi-Fi, kumekuwa na majaribio na mitandao ya simu ya kibiashara isiyotumia waya kama [[Ricochet]], huduma mbalimbali za kasi za data kupitia mitandao ya simu za mkononi na, huduma zisizotumia waya zisizobadilika. Simu za mkononi za hali ya juu kama vile [[smartphone]] kwa ujumla huja na upatikanaji wa Intaneti kwa kupitia mtandao wa simu. Vivinjari cha mitandao kama vile [[Opera]] hupatikana katika simu hizi za mkononi zilizoendelea, ambazo pia huweza kutekeleza aina nyingie tofauti ya programu za Intaneti. Simu nyingi za mkononi huweza kupata Intanet kuliko PC ingawa hii haitumiki kwa upana. Kinachotoa huduma za upatikanaji wa Intaneti na muundo wa mfanyiko wa itifaki hutofautisha mbinu zinazotumika kupata Intaneti. == Taathira za kijamii == Intaneti imefanya kuwe na uwezekano mkubwa kabisa wa aina mpya za mahusiano ya kijamii, shughuli na upangaji, kutokana na sifa zake msingi kama vile kuenea katika matumizi na upatikanaji. [[Tovuti za kijamii]] kama vile [[Facebook na MySpace]] vimetengeneza aina mpya ya ufahamianaji na mwingiliano. Watumiaji wa tovuti hizi huweza kuongeza vitu mbalimbali kwa kurasa zao binafsi, kuonyesha maslahi yao ya kawaida, na kuungana na watu wengine. Inawezekana kupata mzunguko mkubwa wa marafiki, hasa kama tovuti inaruhusu watumiaji kutumia majina yao halisi, na kuruhusu mawasiliano kati ya makundi makubwa ya watu waliomo. Tovuti kama [[meetup.com]] zipo ili kuruhusu matangazo mapana ya makundi ambayo yanaweza kuwepo hasa kwa mikutano ya ana-kwa-ana, lakini ambayo inaweza kuwa na mahusiano mbalimbali madogo katika tovuti ya kundi lao katika meetup.org, au tovuti zingine zenye kufanana. Kizazi cha kwanza kwa sasa kinakuzwa na upatikanaji ulioenea wa kujiunga na Intaneti, unaosababisha utovu wa faragha, utambulisho, na wasiwasi wa kimiliki. "[[Wenyeji wa dijitali]]" hukumbwa na wasiwasi tofauti ambao haukuwa na vizazi vya mwanzoni. Katika jamii za kidemokrasia, mtandao umepata uhusiano mpya kama chombo cha kisiasa, kupelekea [[udhibiti wa Intaneti]] na baadhi ya nchi. Kampeni ya urais wa [[Howard Dean]] mwaka 2004 huko Marekani ulikuwa mashuhuri kwa uwezo wake wa kutoa michango kupitia Intaneti. Makundi mengi ya kisiasa hutumia interneti ili kufanikisha utaratibu mpya wa kujiandaa , ili kutimiza [[wanaharakati wa Intaneti]]. Baadhi ya serikali, kama zile za [[Iran]], [[Korea ya Kaskazini]], [[Myanmar]], [[Jamhuri]] ya [[Watu wa China]], na [[Saudi Arabia]], zinaudhibiti wa juu wa yale watu katika nchi zao wanayoweza kupata kwenye Intanet, hasa maudhui ya kisiasa na kidini. Hii inakamilishwa kwa kupitia programu inayoficha makundi na maudhui ili yasipatikane kwa urahisi bila mbinu ya kitaaluma zaidi. Nchini [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]] <ref name="The Register">{{cite web | title=Finland censors anti-censorship site | work=[[The Register]] | url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/02/18/finnish_policy_censor_activist/ | date=2008-02-18 | accessdate=2008-02-19}}</ref> na [[Uswidi]], watoa huduma za Intaneti kwa hiari yao(pengine kuepuka mpangilio kama huo kuwa sheria) walikubali kudhibiti upatikanaji wa tovuti zilizotajwa na polisi. Ingawa orodha hii ya URL haramu inapaswa kuwa na anwani za tovuti zinazojulikana zenye kuonyesha ponografia ya watoto, yaliyomo katika orodha hii ni siri. Nchi nyingi, ikiwemo Marekani, zimepitisha sheria zinazofanya umiliki au usambazaji wa nyenzo fulani, kama vile [[ponografia ya watoto]], iliyoharamu, lakini hazitumii programu ya kuficha. Kuna programu nyingi za bure na zinazouzwa ziitwayo, [[programu za udhibiti wa maudhui]], na ambazo mtumiaji anaweza kuchagua kuzuia tovuti zinazokera katika kompyuta binafsi au mitandao, kama kuzuia uwezekano wa mtoto kupata habari za kimapenzi au vurugu. Intaneti imekuwa chanzo kikuu cha burudani tangu kabla ya mtandao wa dunia nzima, kukiwa na majaribio ya kijamii yanayofurahisha kama vile [[MUD]] na [[MOO]]yaliyofanywa katika vitoa nhuduma vya vyuo vikuu, ambapo makundi ya [[Usenet]]ya vichekesho yalipokea kiasi kikubwa cha trafiki kuu. Leo, [[majukwaa mengi ya Intaneti]] yana sehemu ya michezo na video za kuchekesha; katuni(vibonzo) fupi katika mfano wa [[sinema za flashi]] pia ni maarufu. Zaidi ya watu milioni 6 hutumia vibadilishanaji maoni (blogu) au mbao za ujumbe kama njia ya mawasiliano na kwa ajili ya kubadilishana mawazo. Viwanda vya [[sinema za watu wazima]] na [[kamari]] vimechukua faida kamili ya mtandao wa dunia nzima, na mara nyingi hutoa chanzo muhimu ya mapato ya matangazo kwa tovuti zingine. Ingawa serikali nyingi zimejaribu kuweka vikwazo katika matumizi ya Intaneti katika viwanda hivi, zilishindwa kupunguza kuenea umaarufu wa viwanda hivi. Eneo moja kuu la burudani kwenye interneti ni [[Michezo yenye wahusika wengi]]. Aina hii ya burudani inajenga jamii, kuwaleta watu wa umri fofauti na asili zote kufurahia mwendo wa kasi wa ulimwengu wa michezo ya wahusika wengi. Hii inaanza kutoka [[MMORPG hadi mfyatua risasi wa kwanza]] , kutoka [[michezo ya kusawiri mhusika]] hadi [[kamari ya Intaneti]]. Hii imebadilisha njia ambayo watu wengi huweza kuingiliana na jinsi wao wanvyoweza kutumia muda wao wa bure katika Interneti. Wakati michezo ya Intaneti imekuwapo tangu mwongo wa 1970, aina ya kisasa ya michezo ya Intaneti ilianza na huduma kama [[GameSpy]] na [[MPlayer]], ambayo wachezaji wa michezo kwa kawaida walijiunga nayo. Wasiyojiunga walikubaliwa kucheza baadhi ya aina za mchezo iliyochezwa au baadhi ya michezo. Wengi hutumia Intaneti kwa kupata na kuchukua muziki, sinema na vitu vingine kwa starehe zao na utulivu. Kama ilivyojadiliwa hapo awali, kuna vyanzo za kulipia na vya bure kwa haya yote, kwa kutumia vitoa huduma vikuu na teknolojia za viwango vinavyolingana. Baadhi ya vyanzo hivi hujali zaidi haki za wasanii wa awali na juu ya sheria za kimiliki kuliko wengine. Wengi hutumia mtandao wa dunia nzima kupata habari, taarifa za michezo na hali ya hewa na, kupanga likizo na kujua zaidi kuhusu mawazo na maslahi yao. Watu hutumia [[maongezi kupitia mtandao, utumaji wa ujumbe]] na barua pepe kuwasiliana na marafiki duniani kote, wakati mwingine kwa njia sawa na jinsi baadhi ya watu awali walivyokuwa na [[marafiki ambao walifahamiana kwa barua tu]]. [[Mitandao ya kijamii]] kama [[MySpace, Facebook]] na mingineo, pia huwasaidia watu kuwasiliana kwa starehe zao. Intaneti imeshuhudia kuongezeka kwa idadi ya [[kopyuta binafsi za mtandao]], ambapo watumiaji wanaweza kupata faili zao, folda, na masharti kupitia Intaneti. [[Matumizi ya Intaneti yamesababisha]] upungufu mkubwa kwenye rasilimali ya kampuni; mfanyikazi wastani wa Uingereza hutumia dakika 57 kwa siku akipitia mtandao wa dunia nzima wakati akifanyakazi, kulingana na utafiti wa mwaka wa 2003 uliofanywa na Huduma za Kibiashara za Peninsula. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=914&id=1001802003 |title=Scotsman.com News - Net abuse hits small city firms |publisher=News.scotsman.com |date= |accessdate=2009-08-07}}</ref> == Hatari za Intaneti == Wavuti wa Webmd umesema kuwa mtu aliyepatwa na ashiki ya kuwa kwa mitandao kila wakati (addicted) huenda akawa na maswala mengine ya kiafya kwa [[ubongo]] (mental health issues). Wavuti pia umefanya watu wawe na uchu wa kuangalia filamu za ponografia kwa sababu hili hufanyika kwa urahisi. Vijana wengi pia wamejipata kwa hatari baada ya jumbe katika vyombo vya habari vya kijamii (social media) baada ya kutapeliwa au hata kutekwa nyara na watu waliojifanya marafiki. Kumekuwa pia na michezo mibaya iliyowafanya vijana kujiua kama vile [https://www.forbes.com/sites/andrewrossow/2018/02/28/cyberbullying-taken-to-a-whole-new-level-enter-the-blue-whale-challenge/ Blue Whale challenge] ambapo wachezaji walikuwa wakishawishiwa wajitoe uhai baada ya kushiriki katika mchezo. Kumekuwa pia na michezo ya kamari (online betting) ambapo watu wapoteza pesa na hata kugeukia kuwa wezi ili waweze kuendelea kucheza michezo ile. == Jinsi ya kudhibiti intaneti kama mzazi == Wazazi wana jukumu la kuhakikisha kuwa wanao hawaingii katika wavuti baya za [[ponografia]], [[ugaidi]], zinazofunza [[itikadi kali]] au zinazohimiza au kuwashawishi [[watoto]] kushiriki katika [[tabia]] mbovu. Wanaweza kufanya hivi kwa kuweka "rotating proxies" ambazo hudhibiti kinachoonwa kwa wavuti ile. Pia wanafaa waongee na watoto na kuwaambia madhara ya mitandao. Kama una [[uraibu]] wa Intaneti, inafaa uchukue likizo usitumie mitandao ili uweze kuongea na watu moja kwa moja. == Tazama pia == * [[Blogu]] * [[Wiki]] * [[Tovuti]] * [[Uhuru wa habari]] == Tanbihi== {{Marejeo|2}} ==Marejeo== * Rehmeyer, Julie J. 2007. Mapping a medusa: Intaneti inasambaza mizizi yake Science News 171 (23 Juni) :387-388. Inapatikana http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20070623/fob2.asp {{Wayback|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20070623/fob2.asp |date=20080419102915 }}. * Castells, M. 1996. Rise of the Network Society. 3 vols. Vol. 1. Cambridge, MA: Wachapishaji wa Blackwell . * Castells, M. (2001), “Lessons from the History of Internet”, in “The Internet Galaxy”, Ch. 1, ukurasa 9-35. Uchapishaji wa Chuo Kikuu cha Oxford. * RFC 1122, Requirements for Internet Hosts—Communication Layers, IETF, R. Braden (Ed.), Oktoba 1989 * RFC 1123, Requirements for Internet Hosts—Application and Support, IETF, R. Braden (Ed.), Oktoba 1989 == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.kilinux.udsm.ac.tz/kiblog/sw_TZ_glossary_klnX_1.html Orodha ya maneno ya tarakishi ya mradi wa Kilinux kwenye Chuo Kikuu cha Dar es Salaam] {{Wayback|url=http://www.kilinux.udsm.ac.tz/kiblog/sw_TZ_glossary_klnX_1.html |date=20070315122634 }} ===Kwa Kiingereza=== * [http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/internet.htm Intanet] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/internet.htm |date=20080907002515 }} (Wakfu wa sayansi wa Kitaifa) * [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.08/intro.html "Miaka 10 iliyobadilisha dunia" - Wired anaangalia nyuma mageuzi katika Intanet kwa miaka 10 iliyopita] * [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/home/ Makao ya Intanet na jamii ya Berkman yaliyo Harvard] * [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-1738/science_technology/internet/ Hifadhi za Dijital za CDC-Uzushi wa umri wa Intanet] * [http://www.internetvalley.com/archives/mirrors/cerf-how-inet.txt Jinsi Intanet ilikuja kuwa jinsi ilivyo.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.internetvalley.com/archives/mirrors/cerf-how-inet.txt |date=20060701050011 }} * [http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml Kurasa ya nyumbani ya tovuti la Shirika la Intanet. ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml |date=20070604153304 }} * [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc801.txt RFC 801, Upangaji wa ubadilishanaji katika TCP/IP] * [http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/eeurope/i2010/mid_term_review_2008/index_en.htm Kutayarisha masuala ya dijitali ya usoni ya Ulaya - i2010 Upitiaji tena wa kati ya muhula] * Manjoo, Farhad - [http://www.slate.com/id/2212108/pagenum/all/ The Unrecognizable internet of 1996] - ''[[Slate]]'' * [http://www.heinosoft.nl/nl/46_no_cure_no_pay.htm No cure no pay zoekmachine optimalisatie] {{Wayback|url=http://www.heinosoft.nl/nl/46_no_cure_no_pay.htm |date=20120323223237 }} * [http://www.osce.org/item/13570.html Media Freedom Internet Cookbook] {{Wayback|url=http://www.osce.org/item/13570.html |date=20220305200404 }} ulioandikwa na [[Mwakilishi wa OSCE kuhusu uhuru wa vyombo vya habari]] huko Vienna mwaka wa 2004 * [http://www.firstmonday.org/ First Monday] Jarida lililochunguzwa na wasomi wa kiwango kimoja katika Intaneti. * [http://discovermagazine.com/2007/jun/how-much-does-the-internet-weigh How Much Does The Internet WEIGH?] ulioandikwa na Stephen CASS, [[Discover]] 2007 * [https://gadgetmeetsguy.com/dns-probe-finished-no-internet Fixing ‘DNS Probe Finished No Internet’ Error] {{Wayback|url=https://gadgetmeetsguy.com/dns-probe-finished-no-internet |date=20200804233833 }} [[Jamii:Intaneti]] [[Jamii:Habari]] [[Jamii:Mawasiliano]] [[Jamii:Teknolojia]] dkmn2muej4h3j01gqez4ib51yac8yoy 0 1778 1580266 1522039 2026-07-18T02:03:09Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580266 wikitext text/x-wiki {{infobox officeholder |name=Nelson Mandela |image=Nelson Mandela.jpg |office=Rais wa [[Afrika Kusini]] (1994-1999) |deputy=[[Thabo Mbeki]]<br />[[F. W. de Klerk]] |predecessor=[[F. W. de Klerk]] |successor=[[Thabo Mbeki]] |party=[[African National Congress]] |birth_date=18 Julai 1918 |birth_place=[[Mvezo]], [[Afrika Kusini]] |death_date=5 Desemba 2013 |death_place=[[Johannesburg]], [[Afrika Kusini]] |spouse=Evelyn Ntoko Mase (1944–1958)<br />Winnie Madikizela (1958–1996)<br />Graça Machel (1998–2013) |children=6 (Makgatho, Makaziwe, Zenani, Zindziswa) |alma_mater=University of Fort Hare<br />University of London<br />University of South Africa<br />University of the Witwatersrand}} [[Picha:Tuzo Nobel.png|left|80px]] '''Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela''' ([[18 Julai]] [[1918]] - [[5 Desemba]] [[2013]]) alikuwa [[mwanasiasa]] nchini [[Afrika Kusini]], kiongozi wa mapambano dhidi ya [[siasa]] ya [[ubaguzi wa rangi]] ([[apartheid|Apartheid)]], mfungwa [[jela]] kwa miaka 27 halafu [[rais]] wa kwanza aliyechaguliwa [[Demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] katika nchi yake. Alikuwa [[mwanasheria]] na mwanachama, baadaye kiongozi wa [[Chama cha kisiasa|chama]] cha [[ANC]] kilichopigania [[haki za binadamu]] wote nchini Afrika Kusini. ==Maisha== === Utoto na ukoo === Mandela alizaliwa tarehe 18 Julai 1918 katika [[familia]] ya [[kabila]] la [[Waxhosa]] kwenye [[kijiji]] cha [[Mvezo]] karibu na [[Mthatha|Umtata]] iliyokuwa kwenye [[Jimbo la Rasi]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=3|2a1=Boehmer|2y=2008|2p=21|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=17|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=3}} Alipewa [[jina]] la Rolihlahla linalomaanisha "anayevuta [[tawi]] la [[mti]]" kwa maana ya "mwenye kuleta matata" katika [[lugha]] ya [[Kixhosa]]<ref>[http://africanhistory.about.com/od/mandelanelson/a/bio_mandela.htm Biography ya Mandela] {{Wayback|url=http://africanhistory.about.com/od/mandelanelson/a/bio_mandela.htm |date=20140710194548 }}, tovuti ya africanhistory, iliangaliwa 16 Novemba 2016</ref>. Baadaye alijulikana kwa jina la [[ukoo]] wake "Madiba". Jina la Nelson alilipokea kutoka kwa [[mwalimu]] wake siku alipoanza kwenda [[shule]]. Alitoka katika familia ya [[Ufalme|kifalme]]. [[Baba]] wa [[babu]] yake [[Ngubengcuka]] alikuwa [[mfalme]] wa [[Wathembu]] katika maeneo ya [[Transkei]] wa jimbo la kisasa la [[Rasi Mashariki]] la Afrika Kusini. Baba yake Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa alikuwa [[chifu]] na mshauri wa mfalme tangu mwaka [[1915]] hadi [[1926]]. [[Mama]] yake Nelson, Nosekeni Fanny, alikuwa [[mke]] wa [[tatu]]. <ref>Mandela: Long Walk to Freedom Volume I: 1918–1962. Little, Brown and Company, New York City 1994, ISBN 978-0-7540-8723-6, uk 15</ref> Miaka ya kwanza aliishi kijijini alipojifunza [[mila]] na [[desturi]] za Waxhosa na kutunza [[mifugo]] pamoja na [[wavulana]] wengine. Baba aliaga [[dunia]] Nelson alipokuwa na [[umri]] wa miaka [[tisa]]. [[Ubatizo|Alibatizwa]] katika [[Kanisa la Kimethodisti]] akawa [[Mkristo]] wa [[kanisa]] hilo hadi [[kifo]] chake. Baada ya kifo cha baba, mama alimpeleka kwa chifu mkuu wa Wathembu aliyemlea kama [[mtoto]] wake. Pamoja na [[wazazi]] wake wapya alihudhuria [[ibada]] za kanisani kila Jumapili zilizoimarisha [[imani]] yake ya Kikristo. Akaendelea kusoma katika shule ya Kimethodisti aliposoma [[Kiingereza]], [[Kixhosa]], [[historia]] na [[jiografia]]. Katika [[ikulu]] ya chifu alisikia masimulizi mengi kuhusu historia ya Waafrika kutoka wageni waliokuja kumwaona [[baba wa kambo]]. ===Elimu=== Mwaka [[1925]] babake alimtuma kusoma shule ndogo ya Kimethodisti alipofanyikiwa vema. Baada ya [[kifo]] cha baba aliishi kwa chifu wa Watembo na hapo kwene [[umri]] wa miaka 16 alishiriki katika [[sherehe]] ya [[jando]] alipotahiriwa na kupokea jina ''Dalibunga''.{{sfnm|1a1=Benson|1y=1986|1p=17|2a1=Mandela|2y=1994|2pp=36–42|3a1=Lodge|3y=2006|3p=8|4a1=Smith|4y=2010|4pp=29–31|5a1=Meredith|5y=2010|5pp=9–11|6a1=Sampson|6y=2011|6p=14}} Baadaye aliendelea kusoma kwenye [[shule ya sekondari]] ya „Clarkebury Boarding Institute“ huko [[Engcobo]] iliyokuwa shule ya [[bweni]] kubwa kwa ajili ya [[vijana]] kutoka Wathembo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=45–47|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=27, 31|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=12–13|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=15}} [[File:Young Mandela.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Picha ya Mandela, akiwa [[Umtata]] mwaka [[1937]].]] Hapa alianza mazoezi ya [[michezo]] na kupenda [[kazi]] ya [[bustani]] aliyoendelea kwa [[maisha]] yote.{{sfnm|Mandela|1994|pp=48–50}} Baada ya miaka miwili alipokea [[cheti]] kidogo cha elimu ya sekondari.{{sfnm|Sampson|2011|p=17}} Mwaka [[1937]] kwenye umri wa miaka 19 aliendelea kwenye [[chuo]] cha Wamethodisti huko [[Fort Beaufort]]{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=52|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=31–32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=14|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=17–18}}. Hapo alikuwa mara ya kwanza [[rafiki]] na kijana nje ya kabila lake aliyekuwa [[Wasotho|Msotho]] akaathiriwa na mwalimu mpendwa Mxhosa aliyevunja [[mwiko]] kwa kumwoa mke kutoka kwa Wasotho {{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=53–54|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=14–15|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=18–21}} Mandela alitumia muda mwingi huko Healdtown kwa kufuata michezo ya kukimbia na [[bondia]].{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=56|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=32|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=15}} Tangu [[1939]] alianza masomo kwa shahada ya kwanza kwenye [[Chuo Kikuu cha Fort Hare]], chuo kwa ajili ya wanafunzi [[Waafrika]] katika jimbo la [[Rasi Mashariki]]. Masomo yake yalikuwa Kiingereza, [[anthropolojia]], siasa na [[sheria]]. Wakati ule alitaka kuendelea kuwa mfasiri au [[afisa]] katika Idara ya Shughuli za Wazalendo (kitengo cha serikali ya Kizungu kwa maeneo ya Waafrika katika Afrika Kusini).{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–65|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=9|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3pp=33–34|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4pp=15–18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5pp=21, 25}} Katika bweni lake alikuwa rafiki wa [[Kaiser Matanzima]] na [[Oliver Tambo]] aliyeendelea kuwa rafiki yake kwa miaka mingi ijayo.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=62–63|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2pp=33–34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3pp=17–19|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4pp=24–25}} Pamoja na kupenda michezo Mandela alijifunza [[dansi]] ya Kizungu{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1pp=67–69|2a1=Smith|2y=2010|2p=34|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Sampson|4y=2011|4p=25}}, alishiriki tamthiliya kuhusu about [[Abraham Lincoln]],{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Smith|3y=2010|3p=35|4a1=Meredith|4y=2010|4p=18|5a1=Sampson|5y=2011|5p=25}} akatoa darasa la [[Biblia]] katika kanisa.{{sfnm|1a1=Mandela|1y=1994|1p=68|2a1=Lodge|2y=2006|2p=10|3a1=Meredith|3y=2010|3p=18|4a1=Forster|4y=2014|4p=93}} ==Harakati dhidi ya ubaguzi wa rangi== Mandela alihukumiwa [[kifungo]] cha maisha kwa miaka 27 kutokana na [[harakati]] zake za kuupinga [[ubaguzi wa rangi]]. Alifungwa katika [[kisiwa cha Robben]]. Baada ya kuachiliwa huru mwaka [[1990]] alianzisha [[sera]] ya maridhiano au sera ya [[amani]] baina yake na watu weupe nchini [[Afrika Kusini]], jambo ambalo watu wengi hawakulitegemea. Mwaka wa [[1993]], pamoja na [[Frederik Willem de Klerk]] alikuwa mshindi wa '''[[Tuzo ya Nobel]] ya Amani''' ambayo ni [[tuzo]] ya nadra kutolewa [[duniani]]. Baada ya kutengana na mke wake, [[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|Winnie Madikizela]], alimuoa [[Graca Machel]] aliyewahi kuwa mke wa rais wa [[Msumbiji]], [[Samora Machel]]. ==Marejeo== {{marejeo}} == Ujisomea == {{Refbegin|33em|indent=yes}} :{{cite book |last=Barber |first=James |title=Mandela's World: The International Dimension of South Africa's Political Revolution 1990–99 |url=https://archive.org/details/mandelasworldint0000barb |year=2004 |location=Athens, OH |publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=978-0-8214-1566-5 |ref=harv}} :{{cite contribution |contribution=Introduction |last=Barnard |first=Rita |year=2014 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Nelson Mandela |pages=1–26 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-107-01311-7 |editor=Rita Barnard (ed.) |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Benneyworth |first=Garth |title=Armed and Trained: Nelson Mandela's 1962 Military Mission as Commander in Chief of Umkhonto we Sizwe and Provenance for his Buried Makarov Pistol |journal=South African Historical Journal |year=2011 |volume=63 |number=1 |pages=78–101 |doi=10.1080/02582473.2011.549375 |ref=harv}} :{{cite book |title=Nelson Mandela |url=https://archive.org/details/nelsonmandela0000bens |last=Benson |first=Mary |publisher=Penguin Books |location=Harmondsworth |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-14-008941-7 |ref=harv}} :{{cite contribution |contribution=Afterword: Living Legend, Living Statue |last=Battersby |first=John |year=2011 |title=Mandela: The Authorised Biography |editor=Anthony Sampson |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |pages=587–610 |isbn=978-0-00-743797-9 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Boehmer |first=Elleke |title=Postcolonial Terrorist: The Example of Nelson Mandela |journal=Parallax |volume=11 |issue=4 |year=2005 |doi=10.1080/13534640500331666 |pages=46–55 |ref=harv}} :{{cite book |last=Boehmer |first=Elleke |author-mask={{long dash}} |year=2008 |title=Nelson Mandela: A Very Short Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/nelsonmandelaver0000boeh |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-280301-6 |ref=harv}} : {{cite journal |last=Bromley |first=Roger |title='Magic Negro', Saint or Comrade: Representations of Nelson Mandela in Film |journal=Altre Modernità |year=2014 |number=12 |pages=40–58 |ref=harv}} :{{cite book |last=Broun |first=Kenneth S. |year=2012 |title=Saving Nelson Mandela: The Rivonia Trial and the Fate of South Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/savingnelsonmand0000brou |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-974022-2 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |title=The Genesis of the ANC's Armed Struggle in South Africa 1948–1961 |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |last=Ellis |first=Stephen |volume=37 |pages=657–676 |year=2011 |ref=harv |issue=4 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2011.592659}} : {{cite journal |last=Ellis |first=Stephen |author-mask={{long dash}} |title=Nelson Mandela, the South African Communist Party and the origins of Umkhonto we Sizwe |journal=Cold War History |volume=16 |number=1 |year=2016 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1080/14682745.2015.1078315 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |title=Mandela and the Methodists: Faith, Fallacy and Fact |last=Forster |first=Dion |journal=Studia Historiae Ecclesiasticae |year=2014 |volume=40 |pages=87–115 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Freund |first=Bill |title=The Shadow of Nelson Mandela, 1918–2013 |journal=African Political Economy |volume=41 |issue=140 |year=2014 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2014.883111 |pages=292–296 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last1=Glad |first1=Betty |last2=Blanton |first2=Robert |title=F. W. de Klerk and Nelson Mandela: A Study in Cooperative Transformational Leadership |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_presidential-studies-quarterly_summer-1997_27_3/page/565 |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |year=1997 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=565–590 |jstor=27551769 |ref=harv}} :{{cite book| last=Guiloineau |first=Jean |last2=Rowe |first2=Joseph |year=2002 |title= Nelson Mandela: The Early Life of Rolihlahla Madiba | url=https://archive.org/details/nelsonmandelaear0000guil |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nelsonmandelaear0000guil/page/9 9]–26 |isbn=1-55643-417-0 |ref=harv}} :{{cite contribution|contribution=The Nature of South African Democracy: Political Dominance and Economic Inequality |last=Herbst |first1=Jeffrey |year=2003 |title=The Making and Unmaking of Democracy: Lessons from History and World Politics |editor=Theodore K. Rabb |editor2=Ezra N. Suleiman (eds.) |publisher=Routledge |location=London |pages=206–224 |isbn=978-0-415-93381-0 |ref=harv}} :{{cite contribution|contribution=Democracy and Governance in Transition |last1=Houston |first1=Gregory |last2=Muthien |first2=Yvonne |year=2000 |title=Democracy and Governance Review: Mandela's Legacy 1994–1999 |editor=Yvonne Muthien |editor2=Meshack Khosa |editor3=Bernard Magubane (eds.) |publisher=Human Sciences Research Council Press |location=Pretoria |pages=37–68 |isbn=978-0-7969-1970-0 |ref=harv}} :{{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Barbara |title=Robben Island: Symbol of Resistance |url=https://archive.org/details/robbenislandsymb0000hutt |year=1994 |publisher=Pearson South Africa |location=Bellville |isbn=0-86877-417-0 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |title=The Political Philosophy of Nelson Mandela: A Primer |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-social-philosophy_winter-1995_26_3/page/161 |journal=Journal of Social Philosophy |last=Kalumba |first=Kibujjo M. |year=1995 |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=161–171 |ref=harv |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9833.1995.tb00092.x}} : {{cite book |title=Mandela: A Critical Life |url=https://archive.org/details/mandelacriticall0000lodg |last=Lodge |first=Tom |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-921935-3 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Lukhele |first=Francis |year=2012 |title=Post-Prison Nelson Mandela: A 'Made-in-America Hero' |journal=Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=289–301 |doi=10.1080/00083968.2012.702088 |ref=harv}} :{{cite contribution |contribution=The Revelation of African Culture in ''Long Walk to Freedom'' |last=Mafela |first1= Munzhedzi James|year=2008 |title= Indigenous Biography and Autobiography |editor=Anna Haebich |editor2=Frances Peters-Little |editor3=Peter Read (eds.) |publisher=Humanities Research Centre, Australian National University |location=Sydney |url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/aborig_history/indigenous_biog/mobile_devices/ch08.html#d0e6318 |pages=99–107 |ref=harv}} :{{Rejea kitabu|last=Mandela |first=Nelson |title=Long Walk to Freedom Volume I: 1918–1962 |year=1994 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |location= |isbn=978-0-7540-8723-6 |ref=harv}} :{{Rejea kitabu |last=Mandela |first=Nelson |author-mask={{long dash}} |title=Long Walk to Freedom Volume II: 1962–1994 |url=https://archive.org/details/longwalktofreedo0000mand_i6u7 |edition=large print |year=2004 |origyear=1994 |publisher=BBC AudioBooks and Time Warner Books Ltd |location=London |isbn=978-0-7540-8724-3 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Mangcu |first=Xolela |year=2013 |title=Retracing Nelson Mandela through the Lineage of Black Political Thought |journal=Transition |volume=112 |pages=101–116 |doi=10.2979/transition.112.101 |ref=harv}} :{{cite book |last=Meer |first=Fatima |title=Higher than Hope: The Authorized Biography of Nelson Mandela |url=https://archive.org/details/higherthanhopebi0000meer |year=1988 |location=London |publisher=Hamish Hamilton |isbn=0-241-12787-4 |ref=harv}} :{{Rejea kitabu |last=Meredith |first=Martin |authorlink=Martin Meredith |title=Mandela: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/mandelabiography0000mere |publisher=PublicAffairs |location=New York |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-58648-832-1 |ref=harv}} :{{cite contribution |contribution=Democracy and Governance in Transition |last1=Muthien |first1=Yvonne |last2=Khosa |first2=Meshack |last3=Magubane |first3=Bernard |year=2000 |title=Democracy and Governance Review: Mandela's Legacy 1994–1999 |editor=Yvonne Muthien |editor2=Meshack Khosa |editor3=Bernard Magubane (eds.) |publisher=Human Sciences Research Council Press |location=Pretoria |pages=361–374 |isbn=978-0-7969-1970-0 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Ndlovu-Gatsheni |first=Sabelo J. |year=2014 |title=From a 'Terrorist' to Global Icon: A Critical Decolonial Ethical Tribute to Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela of South Africa |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=35 |number=6 |pages=905–921 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2014.907703 |ref=harv}} : {{cite journal |last=Oppenheim |first=Claire E. |title=Nelson Mandela and the Power of Ubuntu |journal=Religions |year=2012 |volume=3 |number=2 |pages=369–388 |doi=10.3390/rel3020369 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Soudien |first=Crain |title=Nelson Mandela, Robben Island and the Imagination of a New South Africa |year=2015 |doi=10.1080/03057070.2015.1012915 |journal=Journal of Southern African Studies |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=353–366 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Suttner |first=Raymond |year=2007 |title=(Mis)Understanding Nelson Mandela |journal=African Historical Review |volume=39 |number=2 |pages=107–130 |doi=10.1080/17532520701786202 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Suttner |first=Raymond |author-mask={{long dash}} |title=Nelson Mandela's Masculinities |journal=African Identities |year=2014 |volume=12 |issue=3–4 |pages=342–356 |doi=10.1080/14725843.2015.1009623 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Suttner |first=Raymond |author-mask={{long dash}} |title='I Was Not Born With a Hunger to Be Free': Nelson Mandela's Early Journeys towards Political Awareness |year=2016 |journal=Journal of Asian and African Studies |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=17–31 |doi=10.1177/0021909614541973 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Nelson |first=Steven |title=Nelson Mandela's Two Bodies |journal=Transition |volume=116 |year=2014 |pages=130–142 |doi=10.2979/transition.116.130 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last=Read |first=James H. |title=Leadership and power in Nelson Mandela's ''Long Walk to Freedom'' |journal=Journal of Power |volume=3 |number=3 |pages=317–339 |doi=10.1080/17540291.2010.524792 |year=2010 |ref=harv}} :{{Rejea kitabu|last=Sampson |first=Anthony |authorlink=Anthony Sampson |title=Mandela: The Authorised Biography |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |year=2011 |origyear=1999 |isbn=978-0-00-743797-9 |ref=harv}} :{{Rejea kitabu|last=Smith |first=David James |authorlink=David James Smith |title=Young Mandela |url=https://archive.org/details/youngmandela0000smit |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-297-85524-8 |ref=harv}} :{{cite journal |last1=Tomaselli |first1=Keyan |last2=Tomaselli |first2=Ruth |year=2003 |title=The Media and Mandela |journal=Safundi: The Journal of South African and American Studies |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1080/17533170300404204 |ref=harv}} {{refend}} {{Marais wa Afrika Kusini}} {{Muungano wa Afrika}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Mandela, Nelson}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1918]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2013]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Marais wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Viongozi wa Afrika]] [[Jamii:Tuzo ya Nobel ya Amani]] [[Jamii:Nelson Mandela]] gjvp7ywndeizprb1o3xdeap0sly9xl3 0 1871 1580020 1546563 2026-07-17T23:07:36Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580020 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Jedwali la nchi | jina_rasmi = Jamhuri ya Liberia | jina_asili = ''Republic of Liberia'' | bendera = Flag of Liberia.svg | nembo = Coat of arms of Liberia.svg | kaulimbiu = "The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here"<br>("Upendo wa Uhuru Umetuleta Hapa") | wimbo = ''All Hail, Liberia, Hail!'' ("Salamu, Liberia!") | ramani = Liberia (orthographic projection).svg | mji_mkubwa_na_mkuu = [[Monrovia]] | lugha_rasmi = [[Kiingereza]] | mwaka_dini = 2018 | dini = {{plainlist| * 85.1% [[Ukristo]] * 12.2% [[Uislamu]] * 1.4% Hakuna dini * 1.3% Dini nyingine }} | kiongozi1 = [[Joseph Boakai]] | kiongozi2 = [[Jeremiah Koung]] | cheo_kiongozi1 = [[Rais]] | cheo_kiongozi2 = [[Makamu wa Rais]] | muundo_uhuru = '''Historia''' | tukio1 = Makazi ya Jumuiya ya Makoloni ya Marekani | tukio2 = Uhuru | tukio3 = Muungano wa Jamhuri ya Maryland | tukio1_tarehe = 7 Januari 1822 | tukio2_tarehe = 26 Julai 1847 | tukio3_tarehe = 18 Machi 1857 | eneo_jumla = 111,370 | cheo_eneo = 102 | maji = 13.5% | watu_kadirio = 5,437,249 | mwaka_kadirio = 2024 | msongamano = 35.5 | plt_ppp = {{increase}} $9.718 bilioni | plt_ppp_kwa_mtu = {{increase}} $1,789 | cheo_plt_kawaida_kwa_mtu = 184 | plt = {{increase}} $4.347 bilioni | mwaka_pato = 2023 | plt_kwa_mtu = {{increase}} $800 | cheo_plt_kawaida = 171 | cheo_plt_kawaida_kwa_mtu = 180 | mwaka_maendeleo = 2023 | maendeleo = {{increase}} 0.510 </br>- {{chini}} | gini = 35.3 | mwaka_gini = 2016 | fedha = [[Dola ya Marekani]] (USD), [[Dola ya Liberia]] (LRD) | majira_saa = ±00:00 (GMT) | msimbo_simu = 231 | tld = .lr }} '''Liberia''', rasmi '''Jamhuri ya Liberia''', ni nchi iliyoko katika Magharibi mwa [[Afrika]], inapakana na [[Sierra Leone]] upande wa magharibi, [[Guinea]] upande wa kaskazini, na [[Kodivaa]] upande wa mashariki, ikiwa na pwani ya [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] upande wa kusini. Kwa idadi ya watu takribani milioni 5.5, inashika nafasi ya 104 duniani kwa idadi ya watu. Mji mkuu na mji mkubwa zaidi wa Liberia ni [[Monrovia]]. Liberia inajulikana kwa kuwa jamhuri ya kwanza ya Kiafrika kupata uhuru, iliyoanzishwa na watumwa wa [[Amerika]] waliorudi nyumbani katika [[karne ya 19]]. [[Liberia#Historia|Historia ya Liberia]] inahusiana kwa karibu na kuanzishwa kwake na Jumuiya ya Ukoloni ya Marekani mwanzoni mwa [[karne ya 19]], jambo lililosababisha makazi ya Waafrika-Wamarekani waliokuwa huru na watu waliokuwa wameachwa huru kutoka utumwani katika pwani ya [[Afrika Magharibi]]. <ref name="LoC">{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/maps-of-liberia-1830-to-1870/articles-and-essays/history-of-liberia/ |title=History of Liberia |website=Library of Congress |publisher=Library of Congress |date=2021 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Mwaka 1847, Liberia ilitangaza uhuru, na kuwa [[jamhuri]] ya kwanza ya kisasa barani [[Afrika]]. <ref name="StateDept">{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/liberia |title=Founding of Liberia, 1847 |website=Office of the Historian |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=2021 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Kadri muda ulivyopita, mgawanyiko wa kisiasa na kijamii uliibuka kati ya walowezi wa Amerika-Liberia na makundi ya asili ya kikabila, hali iliyoathiri utawala na miundo ya kijamii kwa sehemu kubwa ya historia ya awali ya nchi. <ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Liberia/History |title=History of Liberia |website=Britannica |publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> [[Karne ya 20]] ilishuhudia mabadiliko ya taratibu ya kisiasa, lakini pia kuongezeka kwa misuguano iliyochangia vipindi vya ukosefu wa utulivu. Kuanzia mwaka 1989 hadi 2003, Liberia ilikumbwa na vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe viwili vilivyoharibu sana, vilivyosababisha vifo vingi, watu kuhama makazi yao, na uharibifu mkubwa wa miundombinu. <ref name="BBC">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13732188 |title=Liberia profile - Timeline |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC |date=May 10, 2023 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Migogoro hii ilimalizika kwa Mkataba wa Amani wa Kina wa Accra mwaka 2003, uliofuatiwa na kuundwa kwa serikali ya mpito na msaada wa walinda amani wa [[Umoja wa Mataifa]]. <ref name="UN">{{cite web |url=https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmil |title=United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) |website=UN Peacekeeping |publisher=United Nations |date=2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 |archive-date=2026-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260328141826/https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/mission/unmil |url-status=dead }}</ref> Tangu wakati huo, Liberia imekuwa ikijenga upya taasisi zake za kisiasa, uchumi, na huduma za umma, huku ikifanya uchaguzi wa kidemokrasia na kudumisha utulivu wa kiasi ikilinganishwa na kipindi cha vita. <ref name="HRW">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2024/country-chapters/liberia |title=World Report 2024: Liberia |website=Human Rights Watch |publisher=HRW |date=2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Historia== {{main|Historia ya Liberia}} Liberia ni nchi iliyoundwa na ma[[kabila]] 16 ya asili nchini humo na [[wahamiaji]] [[Waamerika weusi|Weusi]] toka [[Marekani]] na [[Karibi]] (5%), mbali na [[chotara|machotara]] wa aina mbalimbali. Wamarekani Weusi hao walikuwa [[watumwa]] waliopata [[uhuru]] ambao kwa kushirikiana na [[chama]] cha [[American Colonization Society]] waliunda [[taifa]] hili na kutangaza uhuru wa nchi hiyo tarehe [[26 Julai]] [[1847]]. Wamarekani Weusi hao waliichukulia nchi hiyo kama nchi ya ahadi kutokana na asili yao kuwa [[Afrika]], ambako ndiko [[babu|mababu]] zao walikotokea kabla ya kupelekwa utumwani Marekani. Hata hivyo, wahamiaji hao waliendelea kujitambulisha kama Wamarekani na hawakujenga mahusiano ya karibu na wenyeji. [[Alama]] za taifa hili ([[bendera]], [[kauli mbiu]], na [[nembo]]) na hata [[muundo]] wa [[serikali]] vilikuwa vikionyesha mahusiano ya karibu kati ya nchi hizo mbili. Liberia ilikuwa katika [[vita ya wenyewe kwa wenyewe]] kati ya miaka [[1989]]-[[1996]] na [[1999]]-[[2003]]. Hivi karibuni umefanywa kwa mara ya pili [[uchaguzi]] kwa [[amani]] na kuweza kumchagua [[George Weah]] kushika nafasi ya [[mwanamke]] wa kwanza kuwa [[Rais]] [[Bara|barani]] [[Afrika]], [[Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf]]. ==Demografia== === Lugha === [[Lugha rasmi]] ni [[Kiingereza]], ambacho kinatumiwa na [[asilimia]] 15 za wakazi. [[Lugha ya taifa|Lugha za taifa]] ni 4: [[Kiingereza ya Kiliberia|Kiingereza cha Kiliberia]], [[Kikpelle]], [[Kimeriko]] na [[Krioli]]. === Dini === Upande wa [[dini]], wakazi kwa [[asilimia]] 85.5 ni [[Wakristo]], hasa [[Waprotestanti]], halafu [[Wakatoliki]] (5.8%). [[Waislamu]] ni 12.2%. Wanaoendelea kufuata [[dini asilia za Kiafrika]] ni 0.5% tu. ==Tazama pia== * [[Orodha ya lugha za Liberia]] * [[Orodha ya nchi kufuatana na wakazi]] * [[Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na idadi ya watu]] * [[Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na msongamano wa watu]] * [[Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na pato la taifa]] * [[Demografia ya Afrika]] ==Marejeo== {{Marejeo}} == Bibliografia== {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book |title=Africa in World History, From Prehistory to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/africainworldhis0000reyn |author=Gilbert, Erik & Reynolds, Jonathan T |edition=Paperback |date=October 2003 |publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-092907-5}} * {{cite book |title=Merriam Webster's Geographical Dictionary: 3rd Edition |edition=Paperback |year=1997 |publisher=Merriam Webster Inc., Springfield |isbn=0-87779-546-0}} * {{cite book |author=Tim Hetherington |title=Long Story Bit By Bit: Liberia Retold |year=2009 |publisher=New York: Umbrage |isbn=978-1-884167-73-7}} * {{cite book |author=[[Graham Greene]] |title=[[Journey Without Maps]] |year=1936 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-0-09-928223-5}} * {{cite book |author=Gabriel I. H. Williams |title=Liberia: The Heart of Darkness |date=July 6, 2006 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=1-55369-294-2}} * {{cite book |author=Alan Huffman |title=Mississippi in Africa: The Saga of the Slaves of Prospect Hill Plantation and Their Legacy in Liberia Today |url=https://archive.org/details/mississippiinafr00huff |year=2004 |publisher=Gotham Books |isbn=978-1-59240-044-7}} * {{cite book |author=John-Peter Pham |title=Liberia: Portrait of a Failed State |url=https://archive.org/details/liberiaportraito00pham |date=April 4, 2001 |publisher=Reed Press |isbn=1-59429-012-1}} * {{cite book |author=Barbara Greene |title=Too Late to Turn Back |url=https://archive.org/details/toolatetoturnbac00gree |date=March 5, 1991 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0-14-009594-2}} * Wilton Sankawulo, ''Great Tales of Liberia''. Dr. Sankawulo is the compiler of these tales from Liberia and about Liberian culture. Published by Editura Universitatii "Lucian Blaga"; din Sibiu, Romania, 2004. ISBN 973–651–838–8. * ''Sundown at Dawn: A Liberian Odyssey'' by Wilton Sankawulo. Recommended by the Cultural Resource Center, Center for Applied Linguistics for its content concerning Liberian culture. ISBN 0-9763565-0-3 * Victoria Lang, ''To Liberia: Destiny's Timing'' (Publish America, Baltimore, 2004, ISBN 1-4137-1829-9). A fast-paced gripping novel of the journey of a young Black couple fleeing America to settle in the African motherland of Liberia. * [[Godfrey Mwakikagile]], ''Military Coups in West Africa Since The Sixties'', Chapter Eight: Liberia: 'The Love of Liberty Brought Us Here,' pp.&nbsp;85–110, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Huntington, New York, 2001; Godfrey Mwakikagile, ''The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation'', Chapter One: The Collapse of A Modern African State: Death and Rebirth of Liberia, pp.&nbsp;1–18, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., 2001. * Elma Shaw, ''Redemption Road: The Quest for Peace and Justice in Liberia'' (a novel), with a Foreword by President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (Cotton Tree Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-9800774-0-7) * Helene Cooper, ''House at Sugar Beach: In Search of a Lost African Childhood'' (Simon & Schuster, 2008, ISBN 0-7432-6624-2) {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{commons}} *[http://www.emansion.gov.lr/ Serikali ya Liberia] {{Wikivoyage}} *[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/LI.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] {{Wayback|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/LI.html |date=20201017024954 }} *{{CIA World Factbook link|li|Liberia}} *[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/liberia.htm Liberia] {{Wayback|url=http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/liberia.htm |date=20080607085129 }} from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''. *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/Liberia}} *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13729504 Liberia profile] from the [[BBC News]]. *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/liberia.html "Liberia Maps"], Perry-Castañeda Library, University of Texas at Austin. *{{wikiatlas|Liberia}} {{Afrika}} {{African Union}} [[Jamii:Liberia|*]] [[Jamii:Nchi za Afrika]] [[Jamii:Umoja wa Afrika]] [[Jamii:Nchi]] lwkhda7vx1vp6ptp63phef27ehbdz7n 0 1899 1579973 1578173 2026-07-17T17:48:56Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579973 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Hiv budding.jpg| thumb |Namba virusi vya UKIMWI vinavyotoka katika [[seli]].]] '''Upungufu wa Kinga Mwilini''' (kwa kifupi '''UKIMWI'''; [[kifupisho]] cha [[Kiingereza]] '''AIDS''') ni [[ugonjwa]] unaotokana na [[virusi]] ambavyo kwa [[Kiswahili]] vinaitwa kifupi [[VVU]] ("Virusi vya UKIMWI"; kwa Kiingereza: HIV, yaani "Human Immunodeficiency Virus") na vinashambulia [[mwili]] kwa kuondoa nguvu zake za kupambana na [[maambukizi nyemelezi]] yanayosababisha [[maradhi]]. Ukimwi ni ugonjwa hatari sana katika [[maisha]] ya [[binadamu]] kwa kuwa husababisha [[kifo|vifo]] (yaani kupotea kwa [[uhai]] wa watu hao). Kwa mujibu wa [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]], kufikia mwaka [[2014]] ugonjwa huu umeua watu [[milioni]] 39, hasa kati ya wanaoishi [[Bara|barani]] [[Afrika]] upande wa [[kusini]] kwa [[Sahara]]. Kwa [[mwaka]] [[2015]] pekee wamefariki watu milioni 1.2 na kati yao [[watoto]] wengi. UKIMWI umekuwa na madhara makubwa katika [[jamii]], kama ugonjwa wa mwili na kama chanzo cha [[Ubaguzi wa watu wanaoishi na UKIMWI|ubaguzi]]. Kuna sintofahamu kuhusu UKIMWI kama vile kwamba eti, unaweza kusambazwa kwa kugusana tu bila [[ngono]]. Ugonjwa huu pia unasababisha [[madhara ya kiuchumi]] ambayo ni makubwa, hasa kwa nchi maskini. Hadi hivi sasa, UKIMWI hauna [[chanjo]] wala [[tiba]], lakini ugonjwa huu unaweza kuepukika kwa kuachana na ngono, ambayo ndiyo husababisha sana ugonjwa huu. Pia, watu wanaweza kujikinga kutokana na ugonjwa huu kwa kuepuka kuchangia vifaa au vitu vyenye [[ncha]] kali. Kimsingi zaidi ni kwamba ugonjwa huo umetokana na kuenezwa hasa na [[maadili]] mabovu. Dhidi yake watu wanahitaji kuelewa tangu [[Utoto|utotoni]] na [[Ujana|ujanani]] maana ya [[jinsia]] na [[maisha]] kwa jumla, kwamba vinadai [[upendo]], [[nidhamu]] na [[uwajibikaji]], si kufuata [[tamaa]] tofautitofauti daima<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/thirty-years-after-aids-discovery-appreciation-growing-for-catholic-approach/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+catholicnewsagency%2Fdailynews+%28CNA+Daily+News%29|title=Thirty years after AIDS discovery, appreciation growing for Catholic approach|publisher=Catholicnewsagency.com|date=June 5, 2011|accessdate=November 1, 2011|archive-date=2011-09-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912204558/http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/thirty-years-after-aids-discovery-appreciation-growing-for-catholic-approach/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+catholicnewsagency%2Fdailynews+%28CNA+Daily+News%29|url-status=dead}}</ref>. Tarehe [[1 Desemba]] kila [[mwaka]] ni [[Siku ya Ukimwi duniani|siku ya UKIMWI duniani]]. ==Maana ya jina== '''UKIMWI''' ni kifupisho cha "'''Upungufu wa Kinga Mwilini'''" *'' Upungufu'' maana yake UKIMWI unaharibu uwezo wa [[mwili]] kupambana na magonjwa. Si UKIMWI moja kwa moja unaoweza kuua lakini mashambulio ya magonjwa ambayo kwa kawaida yasingekuwa tatizo kubwa. *'' Kinga'' inahusu [[mfumo wa kingamwili]] ambao ni uwezo wa mwili kujitetea dhidi ya [[ugonjwa]]. *'' Mwili'' usio na kinga unapatwa na matatizo mbalimbali kwa sababu mfumo wa kinga umeharibika, na hauwezi kupigana na ugonjwa wowote. [[Jina]] la Kiingereza ni '''AIDS = Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome'''. * acquired - maana mtu hawezi kuwa na hali hii kiasili, ameipata * immuno - hii inataja ya kwamba tatizo linahusu "immune system" yaani mfumo wa kingamwili * deficiency - inamaanisha ya kwamba kuna kasoro * syndrome - ni mkusanyiko wa matatizo ya kiafya; ilhali kingamwili haufanyi kazi tena, mgonjwa anaathiriwa na magonjwa mbalimbali na kuonyesha [[dalili]] za magonjwa hayo yote. ==Mfumo wa kingamwili na VVU== Kila mtu huwa na [[Mfumo wa kingamaradhi|mfumo wa kingamwili]] ndani yake. [[Seli]] za ulinzi zinazunguka mwilini na kutafuta [[vidubini]] vya nje vinavyoweza kuleta mvurugo na zinaviharibu. Kati ya seli hizi za [[ulinzi]] ni [[seli nyeupe za damu]] (lukosaiti) ambazo ni muhimu sana. Ukimwi unasababishwa na VVU. Kama virusi vyote, VVU vinaingia katika mwili kwa kusudi la kuzaa. Virusi haviwezi kuzaa peke yake: vinahitaji seli vinapoweza kuingia ndani yake na kutumia mfumo wa seli kwa kunakili [[DNA]] yake. Kwa kawaida virusi vinashambuliwa na mfumo wa kingamwili na kuharibika. Lakini VVU vina tabia mbili za pekee ambazo zinavifanya vvya hatari hasa: * vinafaulu mara nyingi kuepukana na seli za ulinzi mwilini * vinaingia hasahasa katika seli nyeupe za damu za aina "seli za T". VVU vikianza kuongezeka katika seli nyeupe ya damu vinadhoofisha na hatimaye kuharibu seli hii. Maana yake VVU vinashambulia moja kwa moja seli ambazo ni sehemu ya kingamwili na zinazohusika kukinga mwili. Kuenea kwa VVU mwilini kunapunguza idadi ya seli za ulinzi na hivyo kupunguza kiwango cha kingamwili. Baada ya kupungua kwa kingamwili vidubini vingine vinaendelea kufika mwilini lakini sasa vinaenea zaidi kwa sababu seli za ulinzi zimekuwa chache. Kila [[ambukizo]] linaendelea kwa muda mrefu zaidi na hivyo mwili kwa jumla unateswa kwa muda mrefu zaidi. Kadiri Ukimwi unavyoendelea vipindi vya magonjwa vinakuwa virefu zaidi na nguvu za mwili zinapunguapungua. Katika ngazi za mwisho [[idadi]] ya maambukizo inazidi uwezo wa mwili wa kupambana nayo na hapo mtu unakaribia kifo. == Dalili == UKIMWI ni [[ugonjwa]] wa [[mfumo wa kingamwili]] wa [[binadamu]] unaosababishwa na virusi vya ukosefu wa kinga mwilini.<ref name="pmid11396444">{{Rejea jarida|author=Sepkowitz KA|title=AIDS—the first 20 years|journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=344|issue=23| pages=1764–72|year=2001|month=June|pmid=11396444|doi=10.1056/NEJM200106073442306}}</ref>Mwanzoni, baada ya kuambukizwa, mtu anaweza kukumbwa na kipindi kifupi cha [[maradhi]] ya aina ya [[mafua]]. Kwa kawaida, hali hii hufuatwa na kipindi kirefu kisicho na [[dalili]]. Ugonjwa huu huendelea kutatiza [[kingamwili]] jinsi unavyozidi, hivyo kumfanya mtu kuwa katika hatari zaidi ya kupata [[maambukizi]], ikiwa ni pamoja na [[maambukizi nyemelezi]], na [[kansa]] ambayo kwa kawaida hayawaathiri watu walio na kingamwili njema. Kuna awamu tatu kuu za maambukizi ya VVU: maambukizi makali, awamu fiche na UKIMWI.<ref name=M121>Mandell, Bennett, and Dolan (2010). Chapter 121.</ref><ref name=AIDS2010GOV>{{cite web|title=Stages of HIV|url=http://aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/diagnosed-with-hiv-aids/hiv-in-your-body/stages-of-hiv/|work=U.S. Department of Health & Human Services|accessdate=13 June 2012|date=Dec 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513062533/http://www.aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/diagnosed-with-hiv-aids/hiv-in-your-body/stages-of-hiv/|archivedate=2012-05-13}}</ref> === Maambukizi makali === [[File:Symptoms of acute HIV infection.svg|thumb|alt=Mchoro wa kiwiliwili cha binadamu kinachoonyesha dalili zinazotokea mara nyingi za maambukizi makali ya VVU|275px|Dalili kuu za maambukizi makali ya VVU]] Kipindi cha kwanza kufuatia maambukizi ya VVU huitwa VVU vikali, VVU vya kimsingi au dalili kali za kudhibiti virusi. <ref name=M121/><ref name=WHOCase2007/> Watu wengi hupata [[maradhi ya mfano wa mafua]] au [[mononyukleosi ambukizi|maambukizi ya mfano wa mononukleosi]] wiki 2 - 4 baada ya kuambukizwa ilhali wengine hawana dalili zozote kuu.<ref>{{cite book|title=Diseases and disorders.|year=2008|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|location=Tarrytown, NY|isbn=978-0-7614-7771-6|page=25|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=-HRJOElZch8C&pg=PA25}}</ref><ref name=M118/>Dalili hutokea katika asilimia 40-90 ya visa vyote na mara nyingi hujumuisha [[homa]], [[limfadenopathia|tezi kubwa na chungu za limfu]], [[faringitisi|inflamesheni ya koo]], [[upele]], maumivu ya kichwa, na/au vidonda vya kinywa na sehemu za uzazi.<ref name=WHOCase2007/><ref name=M118/>Upele huu, unaotokea katika asilimia 20 - 50 ya visa, hutokea katika kiwiliwili, na kwa kawaida huwa wa [[makiulopapula]].<ref name=Deut2010/> Baadhi ya watu pia hupata [[maambukizi nyemelezi]] katika awamu hii.<ref name=WHOCase2007/>Dalili za tumboni na utumboni kama vile kichefuchefu, kutapika au [[kuharisha]] zinaweza kutokea, sawa na dalili za kinuroni za [[niuropathia ya pembeni]] au [[sindromu ya Guillain-Barre]].<ref name=M118/> Muda ya dalili hutofautiana, ingawa kwa kawaida huwa wiki 1 - 2.<ref name=M118/> Kufuatia sifa zake za kutokuwa dalili maalum, hizi mara nyingi haziwezi kutambulika kama dalili za maambukizi ya VVU. Hata visa vinavyotambuliwa na [[daktari]] wa [[familia]] au katika [[hospitali]] mara nyingi hutambulika vibaya kama baadhi ya visababishi vingi vya [[magonjwa ambukizi]] yaliyo na dalili zinazoingiliana. Kwa hivyo, inapendekezwa kuchunguza VVU katika watu wanaoonyesha homa isiyoelezeka ambao wanaweza kuwa na vipengele hatari vya kuambukizwa.<ref name=M118>Mandell, Bennett, and Dolan (2010). Chapter 118.</ref> === Awamu fiche === Dalili za kwanza hufuatwa na awamu fiche (VVU visivyo na dalili au VVU vya muda mrefu).<ref name=AIDS2010GOV/>Bila ya matibabu, awamu hii ya pili ya historia asilia ya maambukizi ya VVU inaweza kudumu kutoka miaka 3 <ref>{{cite book|last=Evian|first=Clive|title=Primary HIV/AIDS care: a practical guide for primary health care personnel in a clinical and supportive setting|year=2006|publisher=Jacana|location=Houghton [South Africa]|isbn=978-1-77009-198-6|page=29|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=WauaC7M0yGcC&pg=PA29|edition=Updated 4th}}</ref> hadi zaidi ya miaka 20;<ref>{{cite book|first=J. W. A. J. Reeders; P. C. Goodman (ed.). With contributions by J. Bedford|title=Radiology of AIDS|year=2001|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin [u.a.]|isbn=978-3-540-66510-6|page=19|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=xmFBtyPGOQIC&pg=PA19}}</ref> (wastani wa miaka 8).<ref>{{cite book|last=Elliott|first=Tom|title=Lecture Notes: Medical Microbiology and Infection|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-37226-5|page=273|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=M4q3AyDQIUYC&pg=PA273}}</ref>Ingawa kwa kawaida mwanzoni kuna dalili chache, au hata zisiwemo, karibu mwishoni mwa awamu hii, watu wengi hupatwa na homa, kukonda, matatizo ya tumbo na utumbo, na maumivu ya misuli. <ref name=AIDS2010GOV/>Kati ya asilimia 50 na 70 ya wagonjwa pia hupata [[limfadenopathia]] ya mwili wote inayorejea, ambayo hudhihirika kwa uvimbe usio na kisababishi na usio chungu wa zaidi ya kikundi kimoja cha tezi za [[limfu]] (ila katika sehemu za uzazi) kwa zaidi ya miezi 3 hadi 6.<ref name=M121/> Ingawa watu wengi walioambukizwa [[VVU-1]] wana kiwango cha virusi kinachoweza kutambulika, na ambacho bila matibabu kitaendelea na kuwa UKIMWI, idadi ndogo (5%) huwa na kiwango kikubwa cha seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP>([[seli saidizi za T]]) bila [[Udhibiti wa VVU/UKIMWI|matibabu ya kudhibiti virusi]] kwa zaidi ya miaka 5. <ref name=M118/><ref name=LT2010/>Watu hao huainishwa kama wadhibiti wa VVU au watu wasioendeleza kwa muda mrefu, ilhali wale ambao pia hudumisha kiwango cha chini au kisichotambulika cha virusi bila matibabu hujulikana kama "wadhibiti hodari" au "wagandamizaji hodari" <ref name=LT2010>{{cite journal|last=Blankson|first=JN|title=Control of HIV-1 replication in elite suppressors|journal=Discovery medicine|date=2010 Mar|volume=9|issue=46|pages=261–6|pmid=20350494}}</ref>. === Ukosefu wa Kinga Mwilini=== [[File:Symptoms of AIDS.svg|thumb|275px|alt=Mchoro wa kiwiliwili cha binadamu kinachoonyesha dalili zinazotokea mara nyingi za maambukizi makali ya UKIMWI|Dalili kuu za maambukizi makali ya UKIMWI.]] Ukosefu wa Kinga Mwilini (UKIMWI) hufasiliwa kwa msingi wa kiwango cha seli za CD4 <SUP>+</SUP> cha chini ya seli 200 kwa kila µL au kutokea kwa magonjwa maalumu yanayohusiana na maambukizi ya VVU. <ref name=M118/> Bila matibabu maalum, takriban nusu ya watu walioambukizwa VVU hupata UKIMWI katika muda wa miaka 10.<ref name=M118/>Hali zinazotokea mara nyingi zaidi kudhihirisha uwepo wa UKIMWI ni [[numonia ya numosistisi]] (40%), [[kakeksi]] kwa muundo wa dalili dhoofishi za VVU (20%) na [[kandidiasi ya umio]].<ref name=M118/>Dalili nyingine ni pamoja na maambukizi ya [[njia ya pumzi]]<ref name=M118/>. [[Maambukizi nyemelezi]] yanaweza kusababishwa na [[bakteria]], [[virusi]], [[kuvu]] na [[vimelea]] ambavyo kwa kawaida hudhibitiwa na mfumo wa kingamwili.<ref name=Holmes>{{Rejea jarida|author=Holmes CB, Losina E, Walensky RP, Yazdanpanah Y, Freedberg KA|title= Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_2003-03-01_36_5/page/n153|journal=Clin. Infect. Dis.|year=2003|pages=656–662|volume=36|issue=5|pmid=12594648|doi=10.1086/367655}}</ref>Maambukizi yanayotokea hutegemea, kwa upande mmoja, aina ya [[viumbehai]] vinavyopatikana kwa wingi katika [[mazingira]] ya mtu.<ref name=M118/>Maambukizi hayo yanaweza kudhuru karibu kila [[mfumo wa kibayolojia|mfumo wa viungo]].<ref name=Complications2011>{{cite journal|last=Chu|first=C|coauthors=Selwyn, PA|title=Complications of HIV infection: a systems-based approach|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2011-02-15_83_4/page/395|journal=American family physician|date=2011-02-15|volume=83|issue=4|pages=395–406|pmid=21322514}}</ref> Watu walio na UKIMWI wako katika hatari kuu zaidi ya kupata saratani nyingi zinazosababishwa na virusi, kama vile: [[Sakoma ya Kaposi]], [[limfoma ya Burkitt]], [[limfoma ya mfumo mkuu wa neva]] na [[saratani ya seviksi]].<ref name=Deut2010/>Sakoma ya Kaposi ndiyo saratani inayotokea mara nyingi, yaani katika asilimia 10 hadi 20 ya watu wenye VVU.<ref name=M169>Mandell, Bennett, and Dolan (2010). Chapter 118.</ref>Saratani inayoifuata ni limfoma, ambayo imesababisha vifo vya karibu 16% ya watu wanaoishi na UKIMWI, na ndiyo dalili ya kwanza ya UKIMWI katika asilimia 3 - 4 ya watu.<ref name=M169/>Saratani hizi mbili huhusishwa na [[virusi vya hepesi]] ya binadamu aina ya 8.<ref name=M169/>Saratani ya seviksi hutokea mara nyingi zaidi katika watu walio na UKIMWI kwa sababu ya jinsi inavyohusiana na [[virusi vya papiloma ya binadamu]].<ref name=M169/> Isitoshe, watu hao mara nyingi huwa na dalili za kimfumo, kama vile homa ya muda mrefu, [[jasho la usiku|jasho]] (hasa usiku), tezi za limfu zilizofura, ubaridi, udhaifu na [[kupoteza uzito]].<ref>{{cite web|title=AIDS|url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000594.htm|work=MedlinePlus|publisher=A.D.A.M.|accessdate=14 June 2012}}</ref>Kuharisha ni dalili nyingine inayotokea katika takriban 90% ya watu wenye UKIMWI.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sestak K |title=Chronic diarrhea and AIDS: insights into studies with non-human primates |journal=Curr. HIV Res. |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=199–205 |year=2005 |month=July |pmid=16022653 |doi= 10.2174/1570162054368084|url=}}</ref> == Lini na wapi VVU vilianza == UKIMWI huchukuliwa kama [[janga]] — yaani [[mlipuko wa ugonjwa]] katika eneo kubwa, na ambao ungali unaenea.<ref name=Kallings/> UKIMWI ulitambuliwa mara ya kwanza na Vituo vya Kuzuia na Kudhibiti Magonjwa huko Marekani mwaka [[1981]]<ref name=M169/>, ilhali kisababishi chake - VVU - kilitambuliwa mwanzoni mwa [[muongo]] huo nchini huko. <ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Gallo RC|title=A reflection on HIV/AIDS research after 25 years|journal= Retrovirology|volume=3|page=72|year=2006|pmid=17054781|doi=10.1186/1742-4690-3-72|url=http://www.retrovirology.com/content/3//72|pmc=1629027}}</ref> Matukio ya kwanza yalikuwa katika kikundi kidogo cha [[Uraibu|waraibu]] wa dawa za kudungia na [[wanaume]] [[shoga]] wasiokuwa na visababishi bayana vya udhaifu wa kingamwili na walioonyesha dalili za [[numonia]] ya ''[[Pneumocystis carinii]]'', maambukizi nyemelezi yanayotokea kwa nadra na maarufu katika watu wenye kingamwili dhaifu sana.<ref name=MMWR2>{{Rejea jarida| author=Gottlieb MS| title=Pneumocystis pneumonia—Los Angeles. 1981| journal=Am J Public Health| volume=96| issue=6| pages=980–1; discussion 982–3| year=2006| pmid=16714472| url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/june_5.htm| accessdate=March 31, 2009| pmc=1470612| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422042240/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/june_5.htm| archivedate=2009-04-22| deadurl=no}}</ref> Punde baadaye, idadi isiyotarajiwa ya mashoga wakapata [[Sakoma ya Kaposi]] (SK), [[saratani ya ngozi]] iliyokuwa nadra sana hapo awali.<ref name="pmid7287964">{{cite journal|author=Friedman-Kien AE|title=Disseminated Kaposi's sarcoma syndrome in young homosexual men|journal=J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.|volume=5|issue=4|pages=468–71|year=1981|month=October|pmid=7287964|doi=10.1016/S0190-9622(81)80010-2|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-academy-of-dermatology-journal_1981-10_5_4/page/468}}</ref><ref name="pmid6116083">{{cite journal|author=Hymes KB|title=Kaposi's sarcoma in homosexual men-a report of eight cases|journal=Lancet|volume=2|issue=8247|pages=598–600|year=1981|month=September|pmid=6116083|doi=|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_1981-09-19_2_8247/page/n4|author-separator=,|author2=Cheung T|author3=Greene JB|display-authors=3|last4=Prose|first4=NS|last5=Marcus|first5=A|last6=Ballard|first6=H|last7=William|first7=DC|last8=Laubenstein|first8=LJ}}</ref>Visa vingine vingi vya NPC na SK vilitokea huku vikitahadharisha Vituo vya Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa nchini Marekani, hivyo kikosi cha kiutendaji kikaundwa ili kuudhibiti mzuko huu.<ref name="Basavapathruni_2007">{{cite journal | title=Reverse transcription of the HIV-1 pandemic | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_faseb-journal_2007-12_21_14/page/3795 | last1=Basavapathruni |first1=A | last2=Anderson | first2=KS | journal=The FASEB Journal |year=2007 | month=December | volume=21 | issue=14 |pages=3795–3808 | doi=10.1096/fj.07-8697rev | pmid=17639073}}</ref> Katika siku za kwanza, kituo hicho hakikuwa na jina rasmi la ugonjwa huu, mara nyingi wakitumia majina ya magonjwa mengine yaliyohusishwa nao, kwa mfano, [[limfadenopathi]], jina ambalo baadaye wavumbuzi wa VVU waliviita virusi hivi.<ref name=MMWR1982a>{{Rejea jarida | author=Centers for Disease Control (CDC) |title=Persistent, generalized lymphadenopathy among homosexual males|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00001096.htm | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. | year=1982 |pages=249–251 | volume=31| issue=19 | pmid=6808340 | accessdate =August 31, 2011}}</ref><ref name=Barre>{{Rejea jarida|author=Barré-Sinoussi F | title=Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1983-05-20_220_4599/page/n103 | journal=Science | year=1983 | pages=868–871 | volume=220 | issue=4599 | pmid=6189183 |doi=10.1126/science.6189183 | bibcode=1983Sci...220..868B| author-separator=,| author2=Chermann JC| author3=Rey F|display-authors=3| last4=Nugeyre| first4=M.| last5=Chamaret| first5=S| last6=Gruest| first6=J| last7=Dauguet| first7=C|last8=Axler-Blin| first8=C| last9=Vezinet-Brun| first9=F }}</ref> Wavumbuzi pia walitumia “Sakoma ya Kaposi na Maambukizi nyemelezi”, jina lililokuwa la kikosi cha kiutendaji kilichoanzishwa mwaka wa 1981.<ref name=MMWR1982b>{{Rejea jarida | author=Centers for Disease Control (CDC) | title=Opportunistic infections and Kaposi's sarcoma among Haitians in the United States |url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00001123.htm | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. | year=1982 |pages=353–354; 360–361 | volume=31 | issue=26 | pmid=6811853 | accessdate =August 31, 2011}}</ref> Wakati mmoja, Kituo cha Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa kiliunda msemo "ugonjwa wa 4H", kwani [[sindromu]] hii ilionekana kuwaathiri watu wa [[Haiti]], mashoga (homosexuals), wenye [[hemofilia]] na watumiaji wa [[heroini]].<ref name=SciRep470b>{{cite web| publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]| date=July 28, 2006| url=http://www.scienceonline.org/cgi/reprint/313/5786/470b.pdf| title=Making Headway Under Hellacious Circumstances| accessdate=June 23, 2008| format=PDF| archivedate=2008-06-24| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624235131/http://www.scienceonline.org/cgi/reprint/313/5786/470b.pdf| =https://web.archive.org/web/20080624235131/http://www.scienceonline.org/cgi/reprint/313/5786/470b.pdf}}</ref> Katika vyombo vikuu vya habari liliundwa neno "[[GRID]]" (lililosimamia "gay-related immune deficiency", yaani "ukosefu wa kinga uliohusishwa na mashoga".<ref name=Altman>{{Rejea habari |author=Altman LK |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/11/science/new-homosexual-disorder-worries-health-officials.html?scp=1&sq=New%20homosexual%20disorder%20worries%20officials&st=cse | title=New homosexual disorder worries health officials | work=The New York Times | date=May 11, 1982 | accessdate =August 31, 2011}}</ref> Hata hivyo, baada ya kutambua kuwa VVU havikuwaathiri jamii ya mashoga pekee,<ref name=MMWR1982b/> ilibainika kuwa neno GRID lilikuwa likipotosha, hivyo neno UKIMWI likaanzishwa kwenye mkutano mnamo Julai 1982.<ref name=Kher>{{Rejea habari| author=Kher U| title=A Name for the Plague| work=Time| date=July 27, 1982| url=http://www.time.com/time/80days/820727.html| accessdate=March 10, 2008| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307015307/http://www.time.com/time/80days/820727.html| archivedate=2008-03-07| deadurl=no}}</ref> Kufikia Septemba 1982, Kituo cha Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa kilianza kuuita UKIMWI.<ref name=MMWR1982c>{{Rejea jarida | author=Centers for Disease Control (CDC) | title=Update on acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)—United States| journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. | year=1982 | pages=507–508; 513–514 | volume=31 | issue=37 | pmid=6815471}}</ref> [[File:Robert Gallo.jpg|thumb|Alt=Mwanaume aliyevalia shati nyeupe na tai, huku akizingizirwa na wanawake watatu na vifaa vya maabara|Robert Gallo, mzinduzi mwenza wa VVU katika miaka ya kwanza ya 1980, akiwa pamoja na (kushoto kwenda kulia) Sandra Eva, Sandra Colombini, na Ersell Richardson.]] Mnamo 1983, vikundi viwili tofauti vya watafiti vilivyoongozwa na [[Robert Gallo]] na [[Luc Montagnier]] bila kutegemeana vilitangaza kuwa [[retrovirusi]] mpya ilikuwa ikiwaambukiza wagonjwa wa UKIMWI, hivyo wakachapisha matokeo yao katika [[jarida]] la ''[[Science (jarida)|Science]]''.<ref name=Gallo>{{cite journal | author=RC Gallo, PS Sarin, EP Gelmann, M Robert-Guroff, E Richardson, VS Kalyanaraman, D Mann, GD Sidhu, RE Stahl, S Zolla-Pazner, J Leibowitch, and M Popovic |journal=Science |title=Isolation of human T-cell leukemia virus in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1983-05-20_220_4599/page/n100 |year=1983 | pages=865–867 | volume=220 | doi=10.1126/science.6601823 | pmid=6601823 | issue=4599|bibcode = 1983Sci...220..865G }}</ref><ref name=Montagnier >{{cite doi|10.1126/science.6189183}}</ref> Gallo alidai kuwa virusi vilivyokuwa vimetambuliwa kwa mara ya kwanza na kikundi chake kilikuwa sawa katika [[muundo wa virusi|umbo]] na [[virusi vya binadamu vya limfotrophia-T]]. Kikundi cha Gallo kiliviita virusi hivi HTLV-III. Wakati huohuo, kikundi cha Montagnier kilitambua virusi kutoka kwa mgonjwa aliyekuwa na [[uvimbe]] wa [[tezi za limfu]] kwenye [[shingo]] na [[asthenia|udhaifu wa mwili]] ambazo ni dalili mbili bainifu za UKIMWI. Huku wakikanusha ripoti ya kikundi cha Gallo, Montagnier na wenzake walionyesha kuwa viini vya [[protini]] vya virusi hivyo vilikuwa tofauti na HTLV-I kiukingamwili. Kikundi cha Montagnier kiliviita virusi walivyovitambua virusi vinavyohusishwa na limfadenopathi.<ref name="Basavapathruni_2007"/> Virusi hivi vilibainika kuwa sawa mwaka wa 1986 na kubadilishwa na kuitwa VVU.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aldrich|first=ed. by Robert|title=Who's who in gay and lesbian history.|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=9780415229746|pages=154|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=9KA7_1s6w-QC&pg=PA154|coauthors=Wotherspoon, Garry}}</ref> Leo [[wanasayansi]] wengi wanaamini VVU-1 na VVU-2 vimetokana na [[jamii ya sokwe]] huko [[Afrika Magharibi]] na [[Afrika ya Kati|ya Kati]] mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 19]] au mwanzoni mwa [[karne ya 20]], wakati virusi vya [[SIV]] kutoka kwa [[nyani]] au [[sokwe]] vilikwenda kwa binadamu.<ref name=Orgin2011>{{cite journal|last=Sharp|first=PM|coauthors=Hahn, BH|title=Origins of HIV and the AIDS Pandemic|journal=Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine|date=2011 Sep|volume=1|issue=1|pages=a006841|pmid=22229120|doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a006841|pmc=3234451}}</ref> VVU-1 vinaaminika kutoka kusini mwa [[Cameroon]] kupitia kugeuka kwa VSVU(cpz), (virusi vya sokwe vinavyosababisha ukosefu wa kinga mwilini) vinavyoambukiza sokwe wa mwituni (VVU-1 hutokana na mzuko wa magonjwa ya VSVUcpz katika [[nususpishi]] ya sokwe iitwayo ''[[Pan]] troglodytes troglodytes'').<ref name="pmid9989410">{{cite journal |author=Gao F |title=Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes |journal=Nature |volume=397 |issue=6718|pages=436–41 |year=1999 |month=February |pmid=9989410|doi=10.1038/17130 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1999-02-04_397_6718/page/436|bibcode = 1999Natur.397..436G |author-separator=, |author2=Bailes E |author3=Robertson DL|display-authors=3 |last4=Chen|first4=Yalu |last5=Rodenburg |first5=Cynthia M. |last6=Michael |first6=Scott F.|last7=Cummins |first7=Larry B. |last8=Arthur |first8=Larry O. |last9=Peeters |first9=Martine }}</ref><ref name=Keele>{{cite journal | author=Keele, B. F., van Heuverswyn, F., Li, Y. Y., Bailes, E., Takehisa, J., Santiago, M. L., Bibollet-Ruche, F., Chen, Y., Wain, L. V., Liegois, F., Loul, S., Mpoudi Ngole, E., Bienvenue, Y., Delaporte, E., Brookfield, J. F. Y., Sharp, P. M., Shaw, G. M., Peeters, M., and Hahn, B. H. | title=Chimpanzee Reservoirs of Pandemic andNonpandemic HIV-1 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-07-28_313_5786/page/523 | journal=Science | date=28 July 2006| volume=313 | issue=5786 | pages=523–6 | doi = 10.1126/science.1126531 | pmc=2442710 | pmid=16728595|bibcode = 2006Sci...313..523K }}</ref> Virusi vinavyohusiana kwa karibu na VVU-2 ni VSVU(smm) ambavyo ni virusi vya [[mangabi mwenye masizi]] (''Cercocebus atys atys''), [[tumbili]] wa kale anayeishi Afrika Magharibi (kutoka [[kusini]] mwa [[Senegali]] hadi [[magharibi]] mwa [[Côte d'Ivoire]]).<ref name="Reeves" /> [[Tumbili wa kisasa]] kama vile [[tumbili wa Usiku|tumbili bundi]] wana ukinzani wa maambukizi ya [[VVU-1]] kwa sababu ya [[uunganishaji jeni|uunganishaji]] wa [[jeni]] [[mbili]] zinazokinzana na virusi.<ref name=Goodier>{{cite journal | author=Goodier, J., and Kazazian, H. | title=Retrotransposons Revisited: The Restraint and Rehabilitation of Parasites | url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2008-10-03_135_1/page/23 | journal=Cell |year=2008 | pages=23–35 | volume=135 | issue=1 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.022 | pmid=18854152}}(subscription required)</ref> VVU-2 inadhaniwa kuruka kizuizi cha spishi katika angalau matukio matatu tofauti, hivyo kupelekea vikundi vitatu vya virusi hivi ambavyo ni M, N na O. <ref name=Kalish2005>{{cite journal |author=Kalish ML |title=Central African hunters exposed to simian immunodeficiency virus |journal=Emerg Infect Dis |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=1928–30 |year=2005 |pmid=16485481|doi=10.3201/eid1112.050394 |author-separator=, |author2=Wolfe ND |author3=Ndongmo CD |author4=McNicholl J|author5=Robbins KE |display-authors=5 |last6=Aidoo |first6=Michael |last7=Fonjungo |first7=Peter N. |last8=Alemnji|first8=George |last9=Zeh |first9=Clement |pmc=3367631}}</ref> Kuna ushahidi kuwa wanadamu wanaoshughulikia [[nyama za mwituni]] kwa kuwinda au kuziuza, kwa kawaida hupata VSVU.<ref name=Kalish2005/>Hata hivyo, virusi hivyo ni dhaifu na hukandamizwa na mfumo wa kingamwili baada ya wiki kadhaa za kuambukizwa. Inadhaniwa kuwa maambukizi kadhaa ya virusi hivyo kutoka kwa mtu hadi mwingine katika mfululizo wa haraka huhitajika ili vipate wakati unaotosha kubadilika na kuwa VVU.<ref name=Marx2001>{{cite journal |author=Marx PA, Alcabes PG, Drucker E |title=Serial human passage of simian immunodeficiency virus by unsterile injections and the emergence of epidemic human immunodeficiency virus in Africa |volume=356 |issue=1410 |pages=911–20 |year=2001 |pmid=11405938 |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |pmc=1088484 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.0867 |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/356/1410/911.full.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-09 |access-date=2017-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309105853/http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/356/1410/911.full.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Zaidi ya hayo, kwa sababu ya kiwango chake kidogo cha kuambukiza kutoka kwa mtu hadi mwingine, virusi hivyo vinaweza tu kuenea katika wingi wa watu iwapo kuna njia moja au mbili za hatari ya kuambukizana ya kiwango cha juu. Njia hizi zinadhaniwa kutokuwepo barani Afrika kabla ya karne ya 20. Njia maalumu za hatari kubwa ya maambukizi zinazoruhusu virusi hivi kubadilika ili kuweza kuishi katika wanadamu na kuenea katika jamii yote hutegemea wakati uliopendekezwa wa kuvuka kutoka kwa mnyama hadi mwanadamu. Tafiti za kijeni za virusi hivi zinadokeza kuwa chanzo cha hivi karibuni zaidi cha VVU-1 ya kikundi M kilitokea mnamo 1910. <ref name=Worobey2008>{{cite journal|last1=Worobey |first1=Michael |last2=Gemmel |first2=Marlea |last3=Teuwen |first3=Dirk E. |last4=Haselkorn|first4=Tamara |last5=Kunstman |first5=Kevin |last6=Bunce |first6=Michael |last7=Muyembe |first7=Jean-Jacques|last8=Kabongo |first8=Jean-Marie M. |last9=Kalengayi |first9=Raphaël M. |title=Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960 |journal=Nature |volume=455 |issue=7213 |pages=661–4 |year=2008 |pmid=18833279| doi=10.1038/nature07390|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v455/n7213/pdf/nature07390.pdf |bibcode = 2008Natur.455..661W }} (subscription required)</ref> Wanaotaja kipindi hicho maalumu huhusisha mzuko wa janga la VVU na kuibuka kwa [[ukoloni]] na ukuaji wa [[miji]] mikubwa ya kikoloni ya Afrika, huku ukisababisha mabadiliko ya jamii pamoja na kiwango kikubwa cha [[uasherati]], uenezi wa [[ukahaba]] na matukio mengi ya [[vidonda vya viungo vya uzazi]] (kama vile [[kaswende]]) katika miji iliyochipuka.<ref name=Sousa2010>{{cite journal |last1=Sousa |first1=João Dinis de|last2=Müller |first2=Viktor |last3=Lemey |first3=Philippe |last4=Vandamme |first4=Anne-Mieke |last5=Vandamme|first5=Anne-Mieke |title=High GUD Incidence in the Early 20th Century Created a Particularly Permissive Time Window for the Origin and Initial Spread of Epidemic HIV Strains |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=e9936 |year=2010|pmid=20376191 |pmc=2848574|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0009936|url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0009936|editor1-last=Martin |editor1-first=Darren P.}}</ref> Ingawa viwango vya uambukizaji wakati wa ngono ya kupitia [[uke]] viko chini katika hali ya kawaida, kuna ongezeko kubwa iwapo mmoja wa wapenzi hao ana [[ugonjwa wa zinaa]] unaosababisha vidonda vya [[viungo vya uzazi]]. Miji ya kikoloni ya [[Miaka ya 1900|miaka ya kwanza ya 1900]] ilijulikana kwa maambukizi ya viwango vya juu kutokana na ukahaba na [[vidonda vya viungo vya uzazi]], hivi kwamba, kufikia mwaka [[1928]], 45% ya [[wanawake]] wakazi wa mashariki mwa [[Kinshasa]] walidhaniwa kuwa makahaba. Kufikia mwaka [[1933]], takriban 15% ya wakazi wote wa mji huo walikuwa wameambukizwa aina mojawapo ya kaswende.<ref name=Sousa2010 /> Maoni mengine yanadokeza kuwa hatua zisizo salama za [[uuguzi]] barani Afrika katika miaka ya baada ya [[Vita vya pili vya dunia]], kama vile kutumia tena na tena [[sindano]] zisizosafishwa kuchanja [[umati]], [[antibayotiki]] na kampeni dhidi ya [[malaria]] ndizo njia za kwanza zilizoruhusu virusi hivyo kujibadilisha vikiwa ndani ya wanadamu kisha kuenea.<ref name=Marx2001 /><ref name=Chitnis2000>{{cite journal |last1=Chitnis |first1=Amit |last2=Rawls |first2=Diana |last3=Moore |first3=Jim|title=Origin of HIV Type 1 in Colonial French Equatorial Africa? |journal=AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses|volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=5–8 |year=2000 |pmid=10628811 |doi=10.1089/088922200309548}}(subscription required)</ref><ref name=McNeil>{{cite news |author=[[Donald G. McNeil, Jr.]] |coauthors= |title=Precursor to H.I.V. Was in Monkeys for Millennia |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/17/health/17aids.html?_r=1&src=me&ref=general|quote=Dr. Marx believes that the crucial event was the introduction into Africa of millions of inexpensive, mass-produced syringes in the 1950s.&nbsp;... suspect that the growth of colonial cities is to blame. Before 1910, no Central African town had more than 10,000 people. But urban migration rose, increasing sexual contacts and leading to red-light districts.|work=[[New York Times]] |date=September 16, 2010 |accessdate=2010-09-17 }}</ref> Visa vilivyonakiliwa vyema vya VVU katika mwanadamu ni vya mwaka [[1959]] katika eneo la nchi ya [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo|Kongo]].<ref name=Zhu>{{cite journal|author=Zhu, T., Korber, B. T., Nahmias, A. J., Hooper, E., Sharp, P. M. and Ho, D. D.|title=An African HIV-1 Sequence from 1959 and Implications for the Origin of the epidemic|journal=Nature|year=1998|pages=594–7|volume=391|issue=6667|pmid=9468138|doi=10.1038/35400|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v391/n6667/full/391594a0.html|bibcode = 1998Natur.391..594Z }}</ref> Kuna uwezekano kuwa virusi hivyo vilikuwemo huko Marekani mwaka [[1966]],<ref>{{cite news | last = Kolata | first = Gina |title = Boy's 1969 Death Suggests AIDS Invaded U.S. Several Times | publisher = The New York Times | date = 28 October 1987 | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFD6173AF93BA15753C1A961948260&sec=health&pagewanted=all | accessdate = 11 February 2009}}</ref>lakini maambukizi mengi yanayotokea nje ya [[Kusini kwa Sahara]] yanaweza kufuatiliwa hadi kwa mtu mmoja aliyeambukizwa na VVU katika nchi ya [[Haiti]] na kisha kuyapeleka maambukizi hayo nchini Marekani takriban mwaka [[1969]].<ref name="Thomas_Gilbert">{{cite journal |last1=Gilbert |first1=M. Thomas P. |last2=Rambaut |first2=Andrew |last3=Wlasiuk |first3=Gabriela |last4=Spira |first4=Thomas J. |last5=Pitchenik |first5=Arthur E. |last6=Worobey |first6=Michael |title=The emergence of HIV/AIDS in the Americas and beyond |journal=PNAS |date=November 20, 2007 |volume=104 |issue=47 |pages=18566–18570 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18566.full.pdf |format=PDF |doi=10.1073/pnas.0705329104 |pmid=17978186 |pmc=2141817 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10418566G |access-date=2017-04-01 |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924144548/http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18566.full.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Janga hili kisha lilienea kwa haraka katika vikundi vilivyo katika hatari kubwa ya kuambukizwa (mwanzoni ilikuwa ni wanaume waliofanya ngono na wanaume). Kufikia mwaka [[1978]], maambukizi ya VVU-1 katika mashoga wenyeji wa [[New York]] na [[San Francisco]] yalikadiriwa kuwa 5%, kuonyesha kuwa maelfu ya watu nchini Marekani tayari walikuwa wameambukizwa.<ref name="Thomas_Gilbert" /> ==Uambukizaji== VVU husambaa hasa kupitia njia tatu kuu: [[ngono]] (ikiwa ni pamoja na [[ulawiti]] na hata [[ngono ya mdomoni]]), kuingiliana na viowevu vya mwili vilivyoambukizwa (hasa [[kuongezewa damu]] au kudungwa [[sindano]]) na [[usambazaji wima|kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto]] wakati wa [[ujauzito]], kuzaa au kunyonyesha<ref name=TransmissionM2007>{{cite book|last=Markowitz|first=edited by William N. Rom ; associate editor, Steven B.|title=Environmental and occupational medicine|year=2007|publisher=Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-6299-1|page=745|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=H4Sv9XY296oC&pg=PA745|edition=4th}}</ref>Baadhi ya [[viowevu vya mwili]], kama vile [[mate]] na [[machozi]], havisambazi VVU.<ref name=CDCtransmission>{{cite web|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|year=2003|url=http://www.cdc.gov/HIV/pubs/facts/transmission.htm|title=HIV and Its Transmission|accessdate=May 23, 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050204141148/http://www.cdc.gov/HIV/pubs/facts/transmission.htm|archivedate=2005-02-04}}</ref> === Kupitia ngono === Kufanya [[ngono zembe]] kumepelekea visa vingi zaidi vya maambukizi ya VVU kote ulimwenguni, huku mwingiliano baina ya watu wa [[jinsia]] tofauti ukichangia visa zaidi ya mwingiliano wa mashoga kote ulimwenguni (kwa sababu mashoga ni wachache zaidi).<ref name=TransmissionM2007/> Hata hivyo, mtindo wa usambazaji hutofautiana pakubwa baina ya mataifa mbalimbali. Nchini Marekani, visa vingi zaidi vya usambazaji wa kingono vilitokea katika [[wanaume]] wanaofanya ngono na wanaume (kwa sababu huko ushoga umeenea zaidi)<ref name=TransmissionM2007/>huku idadi hii ikichangia 64% ya visa vyote vipya.<ref name=TransmissionCDC2012>{{cite web|title=HIV in the United States: An Overview|url=http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/factsheets/us_overview.htm|work=Center for Disease Control and Prevention|date=March 2012}}</ref> Kuhusu ngono zembe baina ya watu wa jinsia tofauti, makadirio ya hatari ya kusambazwa kwa VVU kwa kila kitendo cha ngono yanaonekana kuwa zaidi kwa mara 10 katika mataifa yasiyostawi kuliko mataifa yaliyostawi.<ref name=Boily2009/>Katika mataifa yasiyostawi, hatari ya usambazaji wa mwanamke hadi mwanamume imekadiriwa kuwa 0.38% kwa kila kitendo, huku usambazaji wa mwanamume hadi mwanamke ukiwa 0.30%; makadirio mbadala katika mataifa yaliyostawi ni 0.04% kwa kila kitendo katika usambazaji wa mwanamke hadi mwanamume, na 0.08% kwa kila kitendo katika maambukizi ya mwanamume hadi mwanamke.<ref name=Boily2009/> Hatari ya kuambukizwa kutokana na ngono ya kinyeo (ulawiti) iko juu sana, ikikadiriwa kuwa 1.4{{ndash}}1.7% kwa kila kitendo (katika ngono ya watu wa jinsia moja na tofauti pia).<ref name=Boily2009/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Beyrer|first=C|coauthors=Baral, SD; van Griensven, F; Goodreau, SM; Chariyalertsak, S; Wirtz, AL; Brookmeyer, R|title=Global epidemiology of HIV infection in men who have sex with men.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_july-28-august-3-2012_380_9839/page/367|journal=Lancet|date=2012 Jul 28|volume=380|issue=9839|pages=367-77|pmid=22819660}}</ref> Ingawa hatari ya kuambukizwa kupitia [[ngono ya mdomoni]] iko chini, bado ipo. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Yu|first=M|coauthors=Vajdy, M|title=Mucosal HIV transmission and vaccination strategies through oral compared with vaginal and rectal routes|journal=Expert opinion on biological therapy|date=2010 Aug|volume=10|issue=8|pages=1181–95|pmid=20624114|doi=10.1517/14712598.2010.496776|pmc=2904634}}</ref>Hatari ya kila kitendo imekadiriwa kuwa 0{{ndash}}0.04% kwa ngono pokezi ya mdomoni.<ref name=Dosekun2010>{{cite journal|last=Dosekun|first=O|coauthors=Fox, J|title=An overview of the relative risks of different sexual behaviours on HIV transmission|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|date=2010 Jul|volume=5|issue=4|pages=291–7|pmid=20543603|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32833a88a3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Stürchler|first=Dieter A.|title=Exposure a guide to sources of infections|year=2006|publisher=ASM Press|location=Washington, DC|isbn=9781555813765|pages=544|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=MWa5or3Xa9EC&pg=PA544}}</ref> kwa kuwa visa vichache vimeripotiwa.<ref>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=edited by Richard Pattman ... [et|title=Oxford handbook of genitourinary medicine, HIV, and sexual health|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780199571666|pages=95|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Jm1H4EeULmYC&pg=PA95|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Katika miktadha inayohusisha [[ukahaba]] kote ulimwenguni, hatari ya maambukizi ya mwanamke hadi mwanamume imekadiriwa kuwa 2.4% kwa kila kitendo, huku maambukizi ya mwanamume kwa mwanamke yakiwa 0.08% kwa kila kitendo.<ref name=Boily2009>{{cite journal|author=Boily MC, Baggaley RF, Wang L, Masse B, White RG, Hayes RJ, Alary M |title=Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies|journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases|volume=9|issue=2|pages=118–129|year=2009|month=February|pmid=19179227|doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70021-0}}</ref> Hatari ya kuambukizwa huongezeka katika wingi wa [[magonjwa ya zinaa]]<ref name=CochraneSTI2012>{{cite journal|last=Ng|first=BE|coauthors=Butler, LM; Horvath, T; Rutherford, GW|title=Population-based biomedical sexually transmitted infection control interventions for reducing HIV infection|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2011-03-16|issue=3|pages=CD001220|pmid=21412869|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001220.pub3|editor1-last=Butler|editor1-first=Lisa M}}</ref> na [[vidonda vya uzazi]].<ref name=Boily2009/>Vidonda vya sehemu za uzazi vimekisiwa kuongeza hatari hadi mara tano. <ref name=Boily2009/> Maambukizi mengine ya zinaa, kama vile [[kisonono]], [[klamidia]], [[trikomoniasi]], [[vaginosi ya kibakteria]], huhusishwa na aghalabu ongezeko dogo la hatari ya kuambukizwa.<ref name=Dosekun2010/> [[Wingi wa virusi]] kwa mtu aliyeambukizwa ni suala kuu la hatari katika usambazaji wa kingono na pia wa kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Anderson|first=J|title=Women and HIV: motherhood and more|journal=Current opinion in infectious diseases|date=2012 Feb|volume=25|issue=1|pages=58–65|pmid=22156896|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e32834ef514}}</ref> Katika miezi 2.5 ya kwanza baada ya kuambukizwa VVU, uwezo wa mtu kuambukiza ni mara 12 zaidi kwa sababu ya wingi wa virusi. <ref name=Dosekun2010/> Iwapo mtu yuko katika awamu za mwisho za VVU, viwango vya kuambukizana ni takriban mara 8 zaidi.<ref name=Boily2009/> [[Usadomasoki|Ngono shari]] inaweza kuwa suala linalochangia ongezeko la hatari ya kuambukizwa. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Klimas|first=N|coauthors=Koneru, AO; Fletcher, MA|title=Overview of HIV|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychosomatic-medicine_2008-06_70_5/page/523|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|date=2008 Jun|volume=70|issue=5|pages=523–30|pmid=18541903|doi=10.1097/PSY.0b013e31817ae69f}}</ref> [[Ubakaji]] pia unaaminika kuongezeka hatari ya kusambaza VVU kwa sababu ni nadra [[kondomu]] kutumika, huwa na uwezekano wa kujeruhiwa ukeni au kinyeo, na pia kuna uwezekano wa magonjwa ya zinaa yanayoambatana na VVU. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Draughon|first=JE|coauthors=Sheridan, DJ|title=Nonoccupational post exposure prophylaxis following sexual assault in industrialized low-HIV-prevalence countries: a review|journal=Psychology, health & medicine|year=2012|volume=17|issue=2|pages=235–54|pmid=22372741|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.579984}}</ref> ===Viowevu vya mwili === [[File:AIDS Poster If You're Dabbling in Drugs 1989.jpg|thumb|alt=Bango la rangi nyeusi na jipya la kijana wa Kiafrika akiwa na taulo kwenye mkono wa kushoto iliyo na maneno "Kucheza na madawa ni kucheza na maisha" juu yake|Bango la mwaka 1989 likisisitiza tishio la UKIMWI unaohusiana na kutumia madawa ya kulevya.]] Njia ya pili maarufu zaidi ya usambazaji wa VVU ni kupitia kwa [[damu]] na mazao yake.<ref name=TransmissionM2007/> Usambazaji wa kupitia damu unaweza kuwa kupitia sindano inayotumiwa na watu wengi wanapoongezwa viowevu mwilini, majeraha ya sindano, kuongezwa damu chafu au mazao ya damu, au kudungwa kwa vifaa visivyotakaswa. Hatari inayotokana na kutumia sindano baina ya watu wengi wakati wa [[kudungwa dawa]] ni kati ya 0.63-2.4% kwa kila kitendo, wastani wake ukiwa 0.8%<ref name=Risk2006>{{cite journal|last=Baggaley|first=RF|coauthors=Boily, MC; White, RG; Alary, M|title=Risk of HIV-1 transmission for parenteral exposure and blood transfusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=AIDS (London, England)|date=2006-04-04|volume=20|issue=6|pages=805–12|pmid=16549963|doi=10.1097/01.aids.0000218543.46963.6d}}</ref> Hatari ya kuambukizwa VVU kwa sindano iliyotumiwa na mtu aliyeambukizwa VVU hukadiriwa kuwa 0.3% (takriban mara 1 kwa 133) kwa kila kitendo, ilhali hatari inayofuatia [[tando za ute]] kuingiliana na damu iliyoambukizwa ni 0.09% (takriban 1 kwa 1000) kwa kila kitendo.<ref name=AFP2007>{{cite journal|last=Kripke|first=C|title=Antiretroviral prophylaxis for occupational exposure to HIV|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2007-08-01_76_3/page/375|journal=American family physician|date=2007-08-01|volume=76|issue=3|pages=375–6|pmid=17708137}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, watu wanaodungwa dawa ndani ya [[misuli]] walichangia 12% ya visa vyote vipya vya VVU mwaka wa 2009, <ref name=TransmissionCDC2012/> huku 80% ya watu katika sehemu fulani wanaodungwa dawa wakiwa wameambukizwa VVU. <ref name=TransmissionM2007/> [[Kuongezewa damu]] iliyoambukizwa huchangia maambukizi kwa takriban 93% ya visa vyote.<ref name=Risk2006/>Katika mataifa yaliyostawi, hatari ya kuambukizwa VVU kutokana na kuongezewa damu iko chini sana (chini ya 1 kwa 500,000) ambapo viwango vya juu vya kuchagua mtu atakayetoa damu na pia upimaji VVU hufanywa.<ref name=TransmissionM2007/> Kule Uingereza, hatari iliyoripotiwa ni 1 kwa milioni 5.<ref>{{cite web|title=Will I need a blood transfusion?|work=NHS patient information|year=2011|url=http://hospital.blood.co.uk/library/pdf/2011_Will_I_Need_English_v3.pdf|publisher=National Health Services|accessdate=August 29, 2012}}</ref> Hata hivyo, katika mataifa yenye mapato ya chini, [[nusu]] tu ya damu inayoongezwa huwa imepimwa vyema (kufikia mwaka wa 2008). <ref name=UN2011Seventy>UNAIDS 2011 pg. 60–70</ref>Inakadiriwa kuwa hadi 15% ya maambukizi ya VVU katika maeneo hayo hutokana na kuongeza damu au mazao ya damu yaliyoambukizwa, hii ikiwa ni asilimia 5 - 10 ya maambukizi ya ulimwengu mzima. <ref name=TransmissionM2007/><ref name=WHO070401>{{cite web |publisher=[[World Health Organization|WHO]] |year=2001 |url=http://www.who.int/inf-pr-2000/en/pr2000-25.html |title=Blood safety&nbsp;... for too few |accessdate=January 17, 2006 |archivedate=2005-01-17 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050117092135/http://www.who.int/inf-pr-2000/en/pr2000-25.html }}</ref> Sindano za tiba zisizo salama huchangia pakubwa katika kueneza UKIMWI katika eneo la Kusini kwa Sahara. Mnamo 2007, kati ya 12% na 17% ya maambukizi katika eneo hilo yalichangiwa na matumizi ya sindano hizo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reid|first=SR|title=Injection drug use, unsafe medical injections, and HIV in Africa: a systematic review|journal=Harm reduction journal|date=2009-08-28|volume=6|page=24|pmid=19715601|doi=10.1186/1477-7517-6-24|pmc=2741434}}</ref> [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] linakadiria hatari ya kuambukizwa kupitia sindano hizo barani Afrika kuwa 1.2%. Hatari kuu huhusishwa na taratibu vamizi, kusaidiwa kuzaa na utunzaji wa [[meno]] katika sehemu hii ya dunia. Watu wanaochanja au kuchanjwa [[chale]], [[chale za mwili]] na [[kutia kovu]] hudhaniwa kuwa katika hatari ya kuambukizwa, ingawa hakuna visa vilivyothibitishwa ambavyo vimenakiliwa.<ref name=CDCBasics2012>{{cite web|title=Basic Information about HIV and AIDS|url=http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/basic/|work=Center for Disease Control and Prevention|date=April 2012}}</ref> Haiwezekani [[mbu]] au wadudu wengine kusambaza VVU. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/%7Einsects/aids.htm|title=Why Mosquitoes Cannot Transmit AIDS [HIV virus&#93;|publisher=Rci.rutgers.edu|date=|accessdate=2010-07-28|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329183346/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/aids.htm|archivedate=2014-03-29|=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329183346/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/aids.htm}}</ref> Mtu anaweza pia kupata VVU kwa kuchanga [[sindano]] na wenzake. Hii ina maana ya kutumia sindano ambayo haijawahi kusafishwa baada ya mtu mwingine kuitumia. Baadhi ya watu ambao, kinyume cha [[sheria]], huchukua madawa ya kulevya kama [[heroin]] na [[cocaine]] huchukua dawa hizo kwa sindano. Baadhi yao wanachanga sindano moja. Kama mmojawao ana virusi ya UKIMWI na anashirikisha sindano yake, anaweza kuambukiza HIV kwa watu wengine. === Mama hadi mtoto === VVU vinaweza kusambazwa kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto wakati wa ujauzito, kuzaa au kunyonyesha.<ref name=Mother2010/><ref name="fluids of transmission">{{cite web|url=http://www.aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/prevention/reduce-your-risk/fluids-of-transmission/|title=Fluids of transmission|date=1 November 2011|work=AIDS.gov|publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services|accessdate=14 September 2012|archivedate=2013-04-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403053447/http://aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/prevention/reduce-your-risk/fluids-of-transmission/}}</ref> Njia hii ni ya tatu kwa umaarufu wa kusambaza VVU kote duniani.<ref name=TransmissionM2007/> Bila matibabu, hatari ya kusambazwa wakati wa au baada ya kuzaliwa ni takriban 20%, na 35% kwa watoto wanaonyonya.<ref name=Mother2010/>Kufikia mwaka wa 2008, usambazaji wima ulichangia takriban 90% ya visa vya VVU katika watoto.<ref name=Mother2010/> Hatari ya kusambazwa kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto inaweza kupunguzwa hadi 1% kwa kutumia matibabu mwafaka.<ref name=Mother2010/> Matibabu ya kukinga hujumuisha mama kutumia dawa za kudhibiti virusi wakati wa ujauzito na kuzaa, kuchagua [[kuzaa kwa kupasuliwa]], kutonyonyesha na kumpa mtoto dawa za kudhibiti VVU.<ref name=MTC2007>{{cite journal|last=Thorne|first=C|coauthors=Newell, ML|title=HIV|journal=Seminars in fetal & neonatal medicine|date=2007 Jun|volume=12|issue=3|pages=174–81|pmid=17321814|doi=10.1016/j.siny.2007.01.009}}</ref>Hata hivyo, idadi kubwa ya mbinu hizi hazipatikani katika mataifa yanayostawi.<ref name=MTC2007/> Iwapo damu itachafua [[chakula]] wakati wa mtoto kutafuna, itaongeza hatari ya kuambukiza.<ref name=CDCBasics2012/> == VVU na UKIMWI == ===Virusi vyenyewe=== [[File:HI-virion-structure en.svg|thumb|alt= Muundo wa duara ulio na miundo ya rangi ya waridi inayochipuka kutoka kwake, na michoro kadhaa ndani ya duara hii ikionyesha vipengele tofauti vya virusi |Mchoro unaoonyesha muundo wa virusi vya VVU]] VVU ndivyo kisababishi cha mkusanyiko wa magonjwa yanayojulikana kijumla kama VVU/UKIMWI. VVU ni [[retrovirusi]] ambavyo hasa huambukiza vipengele vya [[mfumo wa kingamwili]] ya binadamu kama vile seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP>T, [[makrofaji]] na [[seli za dendraiti]]. Virusi hivi huharibu seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP> T moja kwa moja au vinginevyo.<ref name=Alimonti>{{Rejea jarida |author=Alimonti JB, Ball TB, Fowke KR | title=Mechanisms of CD4+ T lymphocyte cell death in human immunodeficiency virus infection and AIDS | journal=J. Gen. Virol. | year=2003 | pages=1649–1661 | volume=84 | issue=7 | pmid=12810858 |doi=10.1099/vir.0.19110-0}}</ref> VVU ni mshirika wa [[jenasi]] ya ''[[Lentivirus]]'',<ref name=ICTV61.0.6>{{cite web | author=[[International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]] | publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]] | year=2002 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61060000.htm | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060418135608/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61060000.htm | title=61.0.6. Lentivirus | accessdate=2012-06-25 | archivedate=2006-04-18 }}</ref> sehemu ya [[Familia (biolojia)|familia]] ya [[Retroviridae]].<ref name=ICTV61.>{{cite web |author=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses |publisher=National Institutes of Health |year=2002 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61000000.htm |title=61. Retroviridae |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629180810/http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61000000.htm |accessdate=2012-06-25 |archivedate=2006-06-29 }}</ref> Virusi vyote vya lenti huwa na sifa sawa za [[mofolojia (bayolojia)|kimofolojia]] na [[biolojia]]. Spishi nyingi za [[mamalia]] huambukizwa na virusi vya lenti, ambavyo haswa huwa ndivyo visababishi vya maradhi ya muda mrefu yaliyo na [[kipindi cha kupevuka]] kirefu.<ref name=Levy>{{cite journal | author=Lévy, J. A. | title=HIV pathogenesis and long-term survival | journal=AIDS | year=1993 | pages=1401–10| volume=7 | issue=11 | pmid=8280406 | doi=10.1097/00002030-199311000-00001}}</ref>Virusi vya lenti husambazwa kama [[virusi vya RNA]] chanya za uzi mmoja [[hisia]] zilizo ndani ya kigamba. Inapoingia ndani ya seli iliyolengwa, [[jenomu]] ya [[RNA]] ya virusi hugeuzwa (hubadilishwa kinakala) na kuwa [[DNA]] ya nyuzi mbili ambayo husafirishwa pamoja na jenomu ya virusi katika chembe ya virusi vile. DNA ya virusi inayoundika huingia katika kiini cha seli ambapo huchangamana na seli ya DNA kwa kutumia [[integresi]] iliyofasiliwa kama virusi, na pia vipengele husika vya kiini kikuu.<ref name="JASmith">{{cite journal | author= Smith, Johanna A.; Daniel, René (Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for Human Virology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia)|title= Following the path of the virus: the exploitation of host DNA repair mechanisms by retroviruses |journal=ACS Chem Biol|volume=1|issue=4 |pages= 217–26 |year= 2006 |pmid= 17163676 |doi=10.1021/cb600131q |url= }}</ref> Vinapochangamana na DNA ya seli, virusi hivi vinaweza kuingia katika [[kipindi cha kupevuka|awamu fiche]], hivyo kuwezesha virusi hivi pamoja na seli inayovipokea kuepuka kutambuliwa na mfumo wa kingamwili.<ref>{{cite book|last=Martínez|first=edited by Miguel Angel|title=RNA interference and viruses : current innovations and future trends|year=2010|publisher=Caister Academic Press|location=Norfolk|isbn=9781904455561|pages=73|url=</ref> Aina mbili [[Aina ndogo za VVU|za VVU]] zimetambulika: VVU-1 na VVU-2. VVU-1 ni virusi vilivyotambulika kwanza (na ambavyo mwanzoni vilijulikana pia kama LAV au HTLV-III). Virusi hivi vina [[sumu kali]], vyenye [[uambukizaji|kuambukiza]],<ref>{{cite journal | title=Comparison of HIV-1 and HIV-2 infectivity from a prospective cohort study in Senegal | last=Gilbert | first=PB |journal=Statistics in Medicine | date=28 February 2003| volume=22 |issue=4 | pages=573–593 | pmid=12590415 |doi=10.1002/sim.1342 | last2=McKeague | first2=IW | last3=Eisen | first3=G |last4=Mullins | first4=C | last5=Guéye-Ndiaye| first5=A | last6=Mboup | first6=S | last7=Kanki | first7=PJ |display-authors=1}}</ref> na ndivyo visababishi vikuu vya visa vingi vya maambukizi ya VVU kote ulimwenguni. Kiwango cha chini zaidi cha uambukizaji wa VVU-2 ikilinganishwa na VVU-1 huonyesha kuwa watu wachache zaidi walio katika hatari ya VVU-2 wataambukizwa kila wanapokumbana na virusi hivi. VVU-2 hupatikana zaidi [[Afrika Magharibi]] kwa sababu ya uwezo wake wa chini wa kuambukiza.<ref name="Reeves">{{cite journal | author=Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W | title=Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 | journal=J. Gen. Virol. |year=2002 | pages=1253–65 | volume=83 | issue=Pt 6 | pmid=12029140 | doi=10.1099/vir.0.18253-0}}</ref> [[File:HIV-budding-Color.jpg|thumb|alt= Kifaa kikubwa cha duara cha rangi ya buluu, na kifaa chekundu kilichounganishwa nacho. Vifaa vyote viwili vina madoa ya kijani yaliyotapakaa juu yake.|[[Darubini ya elektroni ya ukaguzi|Mikrografu ya elektroni ya ukaguzi]] wa VVU-1, vya rangi ya kijani, vinavyochipuka kutoka kwa [[limfositi]] iliyokaguliwa.]] Baada ya virusi kuingia mwilini, kuna kipindi cha [[kugawanyika kwa virusi]], hali inayopelekea wingi wa virusi katika damu ya pembeni. Katika kipindi cha kwanza cha maambukizi, kiwango cha VVU kinaweza kufika milioni kadhaa za chembe za virusi kwa kila [[mililita]] ya damu.<ref name=Piatak>{{cite journal | author=Piatak, M., Jr, Saag, M. S., Yang, L. C., Clark, S. J., Kappes, J. C., Luk, K. C., Hahn, B. H., Shaw, G. M. and Lifson, J.D. | title=High levels of HIV-1 in plasma during all stages of infection determined by competitive PCR |journal=Science | year=1993 |pages=1749–1754 |volume=259 |issue=5102 | pmid=8096089 | doi=10.1126/science.8096089|bibcode = 1993Sci...259.1749P }}</ref> Mwitikio huu huandamana na kiwango kikubwa cha kushuka kwa idadi ya seli za CD4⁺ T zinazozunguka. [[Viremia]] kali mara nyingi huhusishwa na kuwezeshwa kwa [[seli za T angamizi|CD8⁺ seli za T]], ambazo huangamiza seli zilizoambukizwa VVU na kisha kuhusishwa na kuzalishwa kwa zindiko, au [[kuzalishwa kwa zindiko mpya]]. Mwitikio wa seli za CD8⁺ T huchukuliwa kuwa muhimu katika kudhibiti viwango vya virusi, ambavyo hupanda na kushuka, huku viwango vya seli za CD4⁺ T vikirejea. Mwitikio bora wa seli za CD8⁺ T umehusishwa na kupungua kwa mwendo wa ugonjwa na pia prognosi bora zaidi, ingawa mwitikio huu hauondoi virusi.<ref name=Pantaleo1998>{{cite journal| author=Pantaleo G, Demarest JF, Schacker T, Vaccarezza M, Cohen OJ, Daucher M, Graziosi C, Schnittman SS, Quinn TC, Shaw GM, Perrin L, Tambussi G, Lazzarin A, Sekaly RP, Soudeyns H, Corey L, Fauci AS. | title=The qualitative nature of the primary immune response to HIV infection is a prognosticator of disease progression independent of the initial level of plasma viremia | journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. | year=1997 |pages=254–258 | volume=94 | issue=1 | pmid=8990195 | doi=10.1073/pnas.94.1.254|pmc=19306|bibcode = 1997PNAS...94..254P }}</ref> Pathofisiolojia ya UKIMWI ni tata.<ref name="pmid8040596">{{Rejea jarida| author=Guss DA| title=The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 1| journal=J Emerg Med| volume=12| issue=3|pages=375–84| year=1994| pmid=8040596| doi=10.1016/0736-4679(94)90281-X}}</ref> Mwishowe, VVU husababisha UKIMWI kwa kuharibu [[seli T saidizi|CD4⁺seli za T]]. Hali hii hudhoofisha mfumo wa kingamwili hivyo kuwezesha [[mambukizi vamizi]]. Seli za T ni muhimu kwa mwitikio wa kingamwili, hivyo bila ya seli hizi, mwili hauwezi kukabiliana na maambukizi wala kuharibu seli za saratani. Utendakazi wa kuharibiwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T hutofautiana katika awamu kali na za muda mrefu.<ref name="pmid16679064">{{Rejea jarida|author=Hel Z, McGhee JR, Mestecky J |title=HIV infection: first battle decides the war |journal=Trends Immunol. |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=274–81 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=16679064|doi=10.1016/j.it.2006.04.007 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-immunology_2006-06_27_6/page/274}}</ref> Katika awamu kali, lisisi ya seli inayosababishwa na VVU, na pia kuangamizwa kwa [[seli za T angamizi]] huchangia katika kuharibiwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T, ingawa [[apoptosi]] pia inaweza kuchangia hali hii. Katika awamu ya muda mrefu, matokeo ya uwezeshaji wa kijumla wa kingamwili ukiandamana na udhaifu wa pole pole wa uwezo wa mfumo wa kingamwili kuzalisha seli mpya za T hukisiwa kuchangia kupungua kwa pole pole kwa idadi ya seli za CD4⁺ T. <ref>{{cite book|author=Arie J. Zuckerman et al. (eds)|title=Principles and practice of clinical virology|year=2007|publisher=Wiley|location=Hoboken, N.J.|isbn=978-0-470-51799-4|page=905|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=4il2mF7JG1sC&pg=PA905|edition=6th}}</ref> Ingawa dalili za udhaifu wa kingamwili kama ulivyo katika UKIMWI hazitokei kwa miaka mingi baada ya kuambukizwa, kiwango kikubwa cha kuharibika kwa seli za CD4⁺ T hutokea katika wiki za kwanza baada ya kuambukizwa, hasa katika ute wa utumbo, ambao huwa na kiwango kikubwa cha limfosaiti zote za mwili.<ref name="pmid15365095">{{Rejea jarida|author=Mehandru S, Poles MA, Tenner-Racz K, Horowitz A, Hurley A, Hogan C, Boden D, Racz P, Markowitz M|title=Primary HIV-1 infection is associated with preferential depletion of CD4⁺ T cells from effector sites in the gastrointestinal tract |journal=J. Exp. Med. |volume=200 |issue=6 |pages=761–70 |year=2004 |month=September|pmid=15365095 |doi=10.1084/jem.20041196 |url= |pmc=2211967}}</ref> Sababu ya kiwango hiki kikubwa cha kuharibiwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T ni kuwa kiwango kikubwa cha seli za ute za CD4⁺ T huzalisha protini ya [[CCR5]] inayotumika na VVU kama [[kipokezi kishiriki]] ili kuweza kufikia seli hizo, ilhali kipande kidogo tu cha seli za CD4⁺ T katika mkondo wa damu hufanya hivyo.<ref name="pmid15365096">{{Rejea jarida|author=Brenchley JM, Schacker TW, Ruff LE, Price DA, Taylor JH, Beilman GJ, Nguyen PL, Khoruts A, Larson M, Haase AT, Douek DC |title=CD4⁺ T cell depletion during all stages of HIV disease occurs predominantly in the gastrointestinal tract |journal=J. Exp. Med. |volume=200 |issue=6|pages=749–59 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15365096 |doi=10.1084/jem.20040874 |url= |pmc=2211962}}</ref> VVU hutafuta na kuharibu CCR5 inayotolesha seli za CD4⁺ T katika awamu kali ya maambukizi. <ref name=Julio2011>{{cite book|last=editor|first=Julio Aliberti,|title=Control of Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses During Infectious Diseases.|publisher=Springer Verlag|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-4614-0483-5|page=145|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=TKMpo5aINVIC&pg=PA145|year=2011}}</ref> Mwitikio mkubwa wa kingamwili hatimaye huyadhibiti maambukizi hayo kisha kuanzisha awamu fiche ya kiutambuzi. Seli za CD4⁺ T katika tishu za ute husalia zikiwa zimeathiriwa sana. <ref name=Julio2011/> Ugawanyikaji endelevu wa VVU husababisha hali ya uwezeshaji wa kijumla wa kingamwili, ambao hudumu katika awamu yote ya muda mrefu.<ref name="pmid18161758">{{Rejea jarida|author=Appay V, Sauce D |title=Immune activation and inflammation in HIV-1 infection: causes and consequences|journal=J. Pathol. |volume=214 |issue=2 |pages=231–41 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18161758 |doi=10.1002/path.2276|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-pathology_2008-01_214_2/page/231}}</ref> Uwezeshaji wa kingamwili, ambao hutambulika kwa ongezeko la uwezeshaji wa hali ya seli za kingamwili na kutoleshwa kwa [[saitokini]] inayosababisha inflemesheni, husababishwa na utendakazi wa [[zao la jeni]] na mwitikio wa kingamwili dhidi ya ugawanyikaji wa VVU unaoendelea. Uwezeshaji wa kingamwili pia huhusishwa na kuharibika kwa mfumo wa uchunguzi wa kingamwili wa kizuizi cha ute wa tumbo na utumbo, hali inayosababishwa na kuangamizwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T za ute katika awamu kali ya ugonjwa huu.<ref name="pmid17115046">{{Rejea jarida|author=Brenchley JM, Price DA, Schacker TW, Asher TE, Silvestri G, Rao S, Kazzaz Z, Bornstein E, Lambotte O, Altmann D, Blazar BR, Rodriguez B, Teixeira-Johnson L, Landay A, Martin JN, Hecht FM, Picker LJ, Lederman MM, Deeks SG, Douek DC |title=Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV infection |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=1365–71 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17115046|doi=10.1038/nm1511 |url=}}</ref> Hivyo si kila mtu aliye na VVU ana UKIMWI. Wakati watu wanapata VVU, wanaweza kuwa na [[afya]] kwa miaka mpaka akakutwa na aina maalumu ya magonjwa na vipimo vya [[damu]] vikionyesha kuwa ina idadi ndogo sana ya [[seli nyeupe za damu]] ambazo ndizo zinazopambana na maambukizi. Kuna maradhi ambayo kwa kawaida ni ishara kwamba mtu ana UKIMWI kwa kuwa watu wenye afya njema hawapati magonjwa haya, kwa sababu mfumo wa kinga mwilini una nguvu ya kutosha ya kupigana na magonjwa hayo. Hivyo kupata ugonjwa wa aina hiyo ni ishara kwamba mfumo wa kinga umeharibika. Baadhi ya magonjwa hayo ni: * [[Sarkoma ya Kaposi]] - aina ya [[kansa]] ambayo kwa kawaida huathiri [[ngozi]] (mara nyingi husababisha vi[[donda]] vyekundu au [[zambarau]], au ma[[jeraha]] juu ya ngozi). Wakati mwingine huathiri tu ngozi, bali pia mifumo mingine katika mwili. * [[Retinitis]] - [[virusi]] zinashambulia nyuma ya [[jicho]]. * [[Pneumocystis carinii]] ([[kifupi]] PCP) - aina ya [[pneumonia]], [[magonjwa ya kuambukiza]] ya [[mapafu]]. PCP ni maambukizi ya kawaida kwa wagonjwa wa UKIMWI. * [[Toxoplasmosis]] - ugonjwa unaosababishwa na [[vimelea]], ambao unaweza kusababisha matatizo katika mifumo ya [[ubongo]] na mingine katika mwili. * [[Kansa ya kizazi]] - ambayo huwa inaenea. ==Utambuzi== [[File:Hiv-timecourse.png|thumb|alt=Grafu iliyo na mistari miwili. Mstari wa buluu unapanda kuelekea kulia kisha kushuka kuelekea kushoto huku ukipanda kidogo katikati. Mstari wa pili mwekundu unapanda kutoka sufuri hadi juu sana, kisha kushuka hadi chini halafu kupanda pole pole hadi juu tena |300px| Grafu ya ujumla ya uhusiano wa nakala za VVU (wingi wa virusi) na viwango vya seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP> T katika wastani wa kipindi cha maambukizi yasiyotibiwa ya VVU.{{legend-line|blue solid 2px|CD4⁺ T Lymphocyte count (cells/mm³)}} {{legend-line|red solid 2px|HIV RNA copies per mL of plasma}}]] VVU hutambuliwa kupitia uchunguzi wa kimaabara kisha kuainishwa kiawamu kwa msingi wa uwepo wa dalili au ishara fulani.<ref name=WHOCase2007/> Watu walio katika hatari kubwa ya kuambukizwa hupendekezwa kupimwa VVU, ikiwa ni pamoja na mtu yeyote aliye na ugonjwa wa zinaa<ref name=Deut2010/> Katika maeneo mengi ya ulimwengu, 1/3 ya watu wenye VVU hutambua kuwa wameambukizwa katika awamu za mwishoni mwa ugonjwa huu wakati UKIMWI au ukosefu mkuu wa kingamwili umekuwa wazi.<ref name=Deut2010/> === Uchunguzi wa VVU === Watu wengi walioambukizwa VVU huzalisha [[zindiko]] maalum (yaani [[uzalishaji zindiko mpya|kuzalisha zindiko mpya]]) katika wiki 3 hadi 12 tangu maambukizi ya kwanza. <ref name=M118/> Utambuzi wa VVU vya kimsingi hufanywa kabla ya kuzalishwa kwa zindiko mpya kwa kupima [[RNA]] ya VVU au [[antijeni ya P24 #vipimo vya antijeni|antijeni ya p24]].<ref name=M118/> Matokeo chanya yanayopatikana kwa kupima [[msururu wa athari za polima|MAP]] au zindiko huthibitishwa kwa zindiko au MAP tofauti.<ref name=WHOCase2007/> Vipimo vya zindiko kwa watoto wa umri wa chini ya miezi 18&nbsp; kwa kawaida huwa kasoro kwa sababu ya uwepo endelevu wa [[Kingamwili Kimya ya Mama#Kingamwili kimya iliyopokezwa kiasilia|zindiko za mama]].<ref name=ChildDiag2010>{{cite journal|last=Kellerman|first=S|coauthors=Essajee, S|title=HIV testing for children in resource-limited settings: what are we waiting for?|journal=PLoS medicine|date=2010 Jul 20|volume=7|issue=7|pages=e1000285|pmid=20652012|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1000285|pmc=2907270}}</ref> Kwa hivyo, maambukizi yanaweza kutambulika tu kwa vipimo vya MAP vya VVU, RNA au DNA, au kupitia kupima uwepo wa antijeni ya p24.<ref name=WHOCase2007/>Sehemu kubwa ya ulimwengu haina uwezo wa kupata vipimo bora vya MAP huku watu wa sehemu nyingi wakisubiri hadi dalili za watoto wao kuendelea au watoto hao kukua hadi kuwa na uwezo wa kupimwa kikamilifu.<ref name=ChildDiag2010/> Kufikia mwaka wa 2007-2009 katika eneo la Kusini mwa Jangwa la Sahara, kati ya asilimia 30-70 ya watu walikuwa wakifahamu hali yao ya VVU.<ref name=UN2011Eighty>UNAIDS 2011 pg. 70–80</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2009, kati ya asilimia 4-42 ya watu hawa walipimwa. <ref name=UN2011Eighty/> Takwimu hizi zinaonyesha ongezeko kubwa kutoka miaka ya awali.<ref name=UN2011Eighty/> ===Uainishaji wa maambukizi ya VVU=== Mifumo miwili mikuu ya uainishaji hutumika kuainisha VVU na magonjwa husika kwa ajili ya [[uchunguzi wa magonjwa|uchunguzi]]: mfumo wa uainishaji wa magonjwa wa [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]],<ref name=WHOCase2007/> na [[mfumo wa VKM]] wa uainishaji wa maambukizi ya VVU.<ref name=CDCCase2008/> The [[Vituo vya Kukinga na Kudhibiti Magonjwa|VKM]] hutumika zaidi katika mataifa yaliyostawi. Kwa vile mfumo wa uainishaji wa SAD hauhitaji vipimo vya mahabara, mfumo huu ni mwafaka kwa mataifa yanayostawi ambayo kwa kawaida yana upungufu wa vifaa, ambapo unaweza pia kutumika kuongoza udhibiti wa kimatibabu. Ingawa mifumo hii miwili ni tofauti, yote huwezesha ulinganishaji kwa ajili ya malengo ya kitakwimu.<ref name=M121/><ref name=WHOCase2007/><ref name=CDCCase2008/> Shirika la Afya Duniani lilipendekeza ufasili wa UKIMWI mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1986.<ref name=WHOCase2007/> Tangu hapo, ufasili wa Shirika hili umedurusiwa na kurefushwa mara kadhaa, toleo la hivi karibuni likiwa la mwaka wa 2007. <ref name=WHOCase2007>{{cite book|title=WHO case definitions of HIV for surveillance and revised clinical staging and immunological classification of HIV-related disease in adults and children.|pages=6–16|url=http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/HIVstaging150307.pdf|format=PDF|year=2007|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=978-92-4-159562-9}}</ref> Mfumo wa SAD hutumia vikundi vifuatavyo: * Maambukizi ya kimsingi ya VVU: Yanaweza kuwa bila dalili au yakihusishwa na sindromu kali ya retrovirusi. <ref name=WHOCase2007/> * Awamu ya I: Maambikizi ya VVU huwa [[bila dalili]] yakiwa na kiwango cha seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP> T (ambacho pia huitwa kiwango cha CD4) cha zaidi ya 500/uL.<ref name=WHOCase2007/> Maambukizi haya yanaweza kujumuisha kuvimba kwa tezi za mwili wote.<ref name=WHOCase2007/> * Awamu ya II: Dalili ndogo zinaweza kuhusisha kiwango cha chini cha kudhihirika kwa [[tando za ute|za tando za ute]] na maambukizi yanayorejea ya [[sehemu ya juu ya njia ya pumzi]]. Kiwango cha seli za CD4 cha chini ya 500/uL..<ref name=WHOCase2007/> *Awamu ya III: Dalili kuu zinazoweza kujumuisha hali ya [[kuharisha]][[ya muda mrefu (kimatibabu)|ya muda mrefu]] isiyo na kisababishi maalum kwa zaidi ya mwezi mmoja, maambukizi makali ya bakteria ikiwa ni pamoja na tiibii ya mapafu na pia kiwango cha seli za CD4 cha chini ya 350/uL. <ref name=WHOCase2007/> *Awamu ya IV ya UKIMWI: dalili kali zinazojumuisha [[toksoplasmosi]] ya ubongo, [[ukungu]] wa [[umio]], [[Vetebra ya trakea|trakea]], [[bronkasi| bronkasi]] au [[mapafu]] na [[sakoma ya Kaposi]]. Kiwango cha seli za CD4 cha chini ya 500/uL..<ref name=WHOCase2007/> Kituo cha Kukinga na Kudhibiti Magonjwa cha Marekani pia kilianzisha mfumo wa uainishaji wa VVU, kilichoudurusu mwaka wa 2008.<ref name=CDCCase2008>{{cite journal|last=Schneider|first=E|coauthors=Whitmore, S; Glynn, KM; Dominguez, K; Mitsch, A; McKenna, MT; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (CDC)|title=Revised surveillance case definitions for HIV infection among adults, adolescents, and children aged <18 months and for HIV infection and AIDS among children aged 18 months to <13 years--United States, 2008|journal=MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control|date=2008-12-05|volume=57|issue=RR–10|pages=1–12|pmid=19052530}}</ref> Katika mfumo huu, maambukizi ya VVU yameainishwa kulingana na kiwango cha CD4 na dalili za kiutambuzi, <ref name=CDCCase2008/> nayo hueleza maambukizi kwa awamu tatu: *Awamu ya 1: Kiwango cha CD4 cha seli ≥ 500&nbsp;/uL na hakuna hali zinazoashiria UKIMWI *Awamu ya 2: Kiwango cha seli za CD4 200 hadi 500&nbsp;/uL na hakuna hali zinazoashiria UKIMWI *Awamu ya 3: Kiwango cha seli za CD4≤ 200&nbsp;cells/uL au hali zinazoashiria UKIMWI. *Tashwishi: iwapo habari iliyopo haitoshi kufanya uainishaji uliopo juu Kwa sababu za kiuchunguzi, utambuzi wa UKIMWI hubakia iwapo baada ya matibabu kiwango cha seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP> T kitapanda zaidi ya 200 kwa kila µL ya damu au iwapo maradhi mengine yanayoashiria UKIMWI yataponywa.<ref name="M121"/> == Matibabu == Hakuna tiba au [[chanjo dhidi ya VVU|chanjo]]; hata hivyo, matibabu ya kudhibiti [[virusi]] yanaweza kupunguza mwendo wa ugonjwa huu na huenda yakapelekea [[urefu]] wa [[maisha]] kuwa karibu na kawaida. Ingawa [[matibabu]] ya kupunguza makali hupunguza hatari ya kifo na matatizo yanayotokana na ugonjwa huu, matibabu haya ni ya bei ghali, hivyo yanaweza kuhusishwa na madhara mbadala. Kuna dawa za kusaidia watu wenye UKIMWI. Hizi zinaitwa ''dawa za kurefusha maisha''. Dawa za kurefusha maisha haziwezi kutibu UKIMWI. Hii ina maana kwamba haziwezi kufanya virusi vyote kuondoka mwili wa mtu. Lakini zinaweza kuwasaidia watu kupambana na virusi vya UKIMWI kwa mifumo yao ya kinga kufanya kazi vizuri zaidi. Hivyo dawa za kurefusha maisha si tiba kabili kwa virusi ya UKIMWI. Watu wenye VVU/UKIMWI ambao huchukua dawa za kurefusha maisha wanaweza kuishi muda mrefu, bila kupata maradhi yanayothibitisha UKIMWI. Lakini baada ya muda mrefu, virusi za HIV zisizouawa na dawa hizo hujifunza jinsi ya kupambana nazo na hivyo zinakuwa ''sugu'' kwa dawa hizo. Wakati mwingine VVU ni sugu kwa dawa moja, lakini dawa nyingine inaweza kutumika. Ili kupunguza uwezekano wa upinzani kutokea, watu wenye UKIMWI huchukua dawa zaidi ya moja kwa wakati mmoja. Wanaweza kuchukua madawa 2-4 kwa mara moja. Hii wakati mwingine inaitwa ''cocktail'' ya UKIMWI. Lakini baada ya muda mrefu, VVU kujifunza kuwa sugu kwa dawa nyingi. Hapo hakuna zaidi ya kuwatibu. Hivyo [[wanasayansi]] kuendelea kujaribu kupata dawa mpya ya kupambana na VVU. Dawa [[tano]] muhimu za wenye VVU ni: * D4T (stavudine) * 3TC (Lamivudine) * NVP (nevirapine) * AZT (zidovudine) * EFZ (efavirenz) Bila dawa hizo, kwa kawaida mtu mwenye VVU anaweza akaishi miaka 9-11. == Njia za kujikinga na UKIMWI == [[Picha: Red Ribbon.svg|thumb|haki|Utepe mwekundu, ishara ya mapambano dhidi ya UKIMWI.]] [[File:AIDS Clinic, McLeod Ganj, 2010.jpg|thumb|alt=Onyesho la jumba la ghorofa mbili lililo na mabango kadhaa yanayohusiana na kuzuia UKIMWI |Matibabu ya UKIMWI, [[McLeod Ganj]], Himachel Pradesh, India, 2010]] Kuna njia nyingi za watu kupambana na [[janga]] hilo. Kuzuia maambukizi ya VVU, hasa kupitia [[kondomu]] na miradi ya kubadilishabadilisha sindano, ni mikakati mikuu inayotumika kudhibiti kuenea kwa ugonjwa huu. Lakini wengine wanahoji kwamba bila kubadili tabia, [[teknolojia]] peke yake haitaweza kushinda ugonjwa huo. === Chanjo === Njia bora ya kuzuia VVU ni wazo la kuwa na [[chanjo]]. Wanasayansi wengi wanatafuta [[chanjo ya VVU]] ili kuokoa [[uhai]] wa mamilioni ya watu, lakini kufikia mwaka [[2012]], hakuna chanjo mwafaka dhidi ya VVU/UKIMWI.<ref>{{cite news|title=The quest for an HIV vaccine|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2012/may/20120518vaccinesday/|date=May 18, 2012|author=UNAIDS|accessdate=2017-04-01|archivedate=2012-05-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524051113/http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2012/may/20120518vaccinesday/}}</ref>Jaribio moja la chanjo ya [[RV 144]] iliyotolewa mwaka 2009 lilipelekea kupunguza hatari ya kuambukiza kwa takriban 30%, hivyo kuchochea matarajio ya jamii ya utafiti ya kutengeneza chanjo mwafaka zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reynell|first=L|coauthors=Trkola, A|title=HIV vaccines: an attainable goal?|journal=Swiss medical weekly|date=2012-03-02|volume=142|pages=w13535|pmid=22389197|doi=10.4414/smw.2012.13535}}</ref> Majaribio zaidi ya chanjo ya RV 144 yanaendelea.<ref>{{cite web| author = U.S. Army Office of the Surgeon General| title = HIV Vaccine Trial in Thai Adults| publisher = ClinicalTrials.gov| date = March 21, 2011| accessdate = June 28, 2011| url =http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00223080}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author = U.S. Army Office of the Surgeon General|title = Follow up of Thai Adult Volunteers With Breakthrough HIV Infection After Participation in a Preventive HIV Vaccine Trial| publisher = ClinicalTrials.gov| date = June 2, 2010| url =http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00337181}}</ref> ===Kondomu=== Vitendo vya kijinsia ni njia kuu ya kupata VVU. Kama watu wanatumia [[kondomu]] wanapofanya mapenzi, kuna nafasi ndogo zaidi ya kuambukizana VVU, lakini [[ukweli]] kamili ni kwamba hakuna [[ngono salama]] kwa hakika. Matumizi ya [[kondomu]] ya kila mara hupunguza hatari ya kuambukizana UKIMWI kwa takriban 80% katika muda mrefu wa usoni.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Crosby|first=R|coauthors=Bounse, S|title=Condom effectiveness: where are we now?|journal=Sexual health|date=2012 Mar|volume=9|issue=1|pages=10–7|pmid=22348628|doi=10.1071/SH11036}}</ref> Iwapo mwenzi mmoja ameambukizwa, kutumia kondomu kila mara hupelekea viwango vya chini ya 1% kwa mwaka vya huyo mwingine kuambukizwa.<ref name=WHOCondoms>{{cite web| publisher=[[World Health Organization|WHO]]| month=August |year=2003|url=http://www.wpro.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs_200308_Condoms/en/index.html | title=Condom Facts and Figures|accessdate=January 17, 2006 }}</ref> Kuna ushahidi mdogo unaoonyesha kuwa [[kondomu za wanawake]] una kiwango sawa cha kinga.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gallo|first=MF|coauthors=Kilbourne-Brook, M; Coffey, PS|title=A review of the effectiveness and acceptability of the female condom for dual protection|journal=Sexual health|date=2012 Mar|volume=9|issue=1|pages=18–26|pmid=22348629|doi=10.1071/SH11037}}</ref> ===Dawa za ukeni=== Kutumia mafuta ya ukeni yanaliyo na [[tenofovir]] muda mfupi kabla ya ngono hukisiwa kupunguza viwango vya maambukizi kwa takriban 40% miongoni mwa wanawake wa Kiafrika.<ref name=VagGel2012>{{cite journal|last=Celum|first=C|coauthors=Baeten, JM|title=Tenofovir-based pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: evolving evidence|journal=Current opinion in infectious diseases|date=2012 Feb|volume=25|issue=1|pages=51–7|pmid=22156901|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e32834ef5ef|pmc=3266126}}</ref> Kinyume na hili, matumizi ya [[spemisidi]] [[nonoxynol-9]] yanaweza kuongeza hatari ya kuambukizwa kwa sababu ya uwezo wake wa kuleta mwasho wa uke na [[rektamu]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baptista|first=M|coauthors=Ramalho-Santos, J|title=Spermicides, microbicides and antiviral agents: recent advances in the development of novel multi-functional compounds|journal=Mini reviews in medicinal chemistry|date=2009-11-01|volume=9|issue=13|pages=1556–67|pmid=20205637|doi=10.2174/138955709790361548}}</ref> ===Tohara=== [[Tohara]] katika eneo la [[Kusini kwa Sahara]] "hupunguza uambukizaji wa VVU katika wanaume wanaohusiana na wanawake kimapenzi kwa kati ya 38% na 66% kwa muda wa miezi 24". <ref>{{cite journal|last=Siegfried|first=N|coauthors=Muller, M; Deeks, JJ; Volmink, J|title=Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2009-04-15|issue=2|pages=CD003362|pmid=19370585|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003362.pub2|editor1-last=Siegfried|editor1-first=Nandi}}</ref> Kwa msingi wa tafiti hizi, mashirika ya SAD na UNAIDS yalipendekeza tohara kama mbinu ya kuzuia uambukizaji VVU kutoka kwa mwanamke hadi mwanamume mwaka 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=WHO and UNAIDS announce recommendations from expert consultation on male circumcision for HIV prevention |publisher=World Health Organization |date=Mar 28, 2007 |url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2007/pr10/en/index.html |accessdate=2017-04-01 |archivedate=2011-07-03 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703140439/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2007/pr10/en/index.html }}</ref> Haijabainika wazi iwapo njia hii huzuia uambukizaji kutoka kwa mwanamume hadi mwanamke<ref>{{cite journal|last=Larke|first=N|title=Male circumcision, HIV and sexually transmitted infections: a review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-nursing_2010-05-27_19_10/page/n11|journal=British journal of nursing (Mark Allen Publishing)|date=2010 May 27 – Jun 9|volume=19|issue=10|pages=629–34|pmid=20622758}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Eaton|first=L|coauthors=Kalichman, SC|title=Behavioral aspects of male circumcision for the prevention of HIV infection|journal=Current HIV/AIDS reports|date=2009 Nov|volume=6|issue=4|pages=187–93|pmid=19849961|doi=10.1007/s11904-009-0025-9}}(subscription required)</ref> na iwapo mbinu hii ina manufaa katika [[mataifa yaliyostawi]] na haijabainika miongoni mwa mashoga.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kim|first=HH|coauthors=Li, PS, Goldstein, M|title=Male circumcision: Africa and beyond?|journal=Current opinion in urology|date=2010 Nov|volume=20|issue=6|pages=515–9|pmid=20844437|doi=10.1097/MOU.0b013e32833f1b21}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Templeton|first=DJ|coauthors=Millett, GA, Grulich, AE|title=Male circumcision to reduce the risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men|journal=Current opinion in infectious diseases|date=2010 Feb|volume=23|issue=1|pages=45–52|pmid=19935420|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e328334e54d}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Wiysonge | first1 = CS. | last2 = Kongnyuy | first2 = EJ. | last3 = Shey | first3 = M. | last4 = Muula | first4 = AS.|last5 = Navti | first5 = OB. | last6 = Akl | first6 = EA. | last7 = Lo | first7 = YR. | title = Male circumcision for prevention of homosexual acquisition of HIV in men | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume = | issue = 6 | pages = CD007496 | month = | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007496.pub2 | pmid = 21678366 | editor1-last = Wiysonge |editor1-first = Charles Shey }}</ref> Baadhi ya wataalamu wanahofia kuwa dhana ya kiwango cha chini cha hatari miongoni mwa wanaume waliotahiriwa inaweza kupelekea mienendo hatari zaidi, hivyo wanapinga faida ya mbinu hii katika kukinga.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Eaton LA, Kalichman S |title=Risk compensation in HIV prevention: implications for vaccines, microbicides, and other biomedical HIV prevention technologies |journal=Curr HIV/AIDS Rep |volume=4 |issue=4|pages=165–72 |year=2007|month=December|pmid=18366947|pmc=2937204 |doi=10.1007/s11904-007-0024-7}}</ref> Wanawake waliofanyiwa [[ukeketaji]] wana hatari zaidi ya kuambukizwa.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Utz-Billing I, Kentenich H|title=Female genital mutilation: an injury, physical and mental harm |journal=J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol|volume=29|issue=4 |pages=225–9|year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19065392 |doi=10.1080/01674820802547087 |url=}}</ref> ===Mawaidha na elimu=== Njia muhimu ya kuzuia VVU/UKIMWI ni [[elimu]] kwa kuwa hiyo inawezesha kuelewa maana ya [[jinsia]] na kukwepa sababu za maambukizi yake. Ni kwamba watu wanaweza kupata VVU kutokana na [[ngono]] na kutokana na [[damu]]. Watoto wanaweza pia kupata VVU kutoka kwa [[mama]] zao (wakati wa kukua ndani ya akina mama wajawazito na wakati wa kunyonya [[maziwa]] ya mama.) Kuna baadhi ya watu ambao hawataki watu wajue kuhusu kondomu na sindano safi, au hawataki wawe na kondomu au sindano safi. Hao wanaamini kuwa watu wakijua kuhusu kondomu na kuwa na kondomu watafanya ngono zaidi na hivyo kuzidisha maambukizi badala ya kuyapunguza kwa sababu kinga hiyo si madhubuti. Vilevile wanaamini kuwa watu wakiwa na sindano safi watatumia dawa za kulevya zaidi. Wengi wa wanaodhani hivyo ni pia kwa sababu ya [[dini]] zao kukataza [[uzinifu]] na [[ulevi]] kama tabia zinazoharibu binadamu binafsi na jamii kwa jumla. Hao huhimiza [[upendo]] na [[uaminifu]] katika [[ndoa]], [[usafi wa moyo]] na utunzaji wa afya. Miradi inayohimiza [[kujinyima ngono]] haijatambulika inaathiri vipi hatari ya kupata VVU.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Underhill K, Operario D, Montgomery P |title= Abstinence-only programs for HIV infection prevention in high-income countries |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=4 |pages= CD005421|year=2008|pmid= 17943855|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005421.pub2|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/o/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD005421/frame.html|editor1-last= Operario|editor1-first= Don}}</ref> Ushahidi wa manufaa ya [[elimu ya rika]] pia hautoshi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tolli|first=MV|title=Effectiveness of peer education interventions for HIV prevention, adolescent pregnancy prevention and sexual health promotion for young people: a systematic review of European studies|journal=Health education research|date=2012-05-28|pmid=22641791|doi=10.1093/her/cys055}}</ref> [[Elimu ya ngono]] inayotolewa [[Shule|shuleni]] inaweza kupunguza mitindo hatari,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ljubojević|first=S|coauthors=Lipozenčić, J|title=Sexually transmitted infections and adolescence|journal=Acta dermatovenerologica Croatica : ADC|year=2010|volume=18|issue=4|pages=305–10|pmid=21251451}}</ref> lakini inaweza pia kuchochea wanafunzi wakajaribu wenyewe ngono. [[Vijana]] wengi wanajihusisha katika vitendo hatari licha ya kufahamu kuhusu VVU/UKIMWI, huku wakipuuza hatari ya kuambukizwa.<ref name="Patel2008">{{Rejea jarida| author=Patel VL, Yoskowitz NA, Kaufman DR, Shortliffe EH | title=Discerning patterns of human immunodeficiency virus risk in healthy young adults | journal=Am J Med | year=2008 | pages=758–764 |volume=121|issue=4 | pmid=18724961 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2008.04.022 | pmc=2597652 }}</ref> ===Dawa kabla ya hatari=== Asilimia 96 ya watu walikingwa dhidi ya maambukizi iwapo wenzi wao walioambukizwa walipata mapema dawa za kudhibiti VVU<ref>National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2011/Pages/HPTN052.aspx "Treating HIV-infected People with Antiretrovirals Protects Partners from Infection"], NIH News, 2011 May</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Anglemyer|first=A|coauthors=Rutherford, GW; Baggaley, RC; Egger, M; Siegfried, N|title=Antiretroviral therapy for prevention of HIV transmission in HIV-discordant couples|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2011-08-10|issue=8|pages=CD009153|pmid=21833973|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009153.pub2|editor1-last=Rutherford|editor1-first=George W}}</ref> Proflaksisi ya kabla ya hatari pamoja na kipimo cha kila siku cha dawa ya [[tenofovir]] (ikiwa na au bila [[emtricitabine]]) ni mwafaka kwa vikundi fulani, ikijumuisha: mashoga, wachumba wa wenye VVU na vijana wa Afrika wanaovutiwa na watu wa jinsia tofauti. <ref name=VagGel2012/> Hadhari za jumla katika mandhari ya utunzaji wa afya zinaaminika kufaulu kupunguza hatari ya VVU.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|title=Recommendations for prevention of HIV transmission in health-care settings|journal=MMWR|volume=36 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1S–18S |year=1987|month=August|pmid=3112554|url=http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/PREVIEW/MMWRHTML/00023587.htm |author1= Centers for Disease Control (CDC)}}</ref> Matumizi ya dawa zinazodungwa mishipani ni kipengele muhimu cha hatari, hivyo mikakati ya [[kupunguza madhara]] kama vile [[miradi ya kubadilisha sindano]] na [[matibabu ya kubadilisha opioidi]] yanaonekana kufaulu kupunguza hatari.<ref name=Kurth2011>{{cite journal|last=Kurth|first=AE|coauthors=Celum, C; Baeten, JM; Vermund, SH; Wasserheit, JN|title=Combination HIV prevention: significance, challenges, and opportunities|journal=Current HIV/AIDS reports|date=2011 Mar|volume=8|issue=1|pages=62–72|pmid=20941553|doi=10.1007/s11904-010-0063-3|pmc=3036787}}</ref> ===Dawa baada ya hatari=== Vipimo vya dawa za kudhibiti VVU zinazotolewa kati ya saa 48 hadi 72 baada ya hatari kwa damu yenye VVU au viowevu vya uzazi hujulikana kama proflaksisi ya baada ya hatari.<ref name=Prevention2012/> Matumizi ya dawa moja ya [[zidovudine]] hupunguza mara tano hatari ya kupata VVU kutokana na jeraha la sindano.<ref name=Prevention2012>{{cite journal |author= |title=HIV exposure through contact with body fluids |journal=Prescrire Int|volume=21 |issue=126 |pages=100–1, 103–5 |year=2012 |month=April |pmid=22515138 |doi= |url= |author1= [No authors listed]}}</ref> Matibabu hupendekezwa baada ya [[ubakaji]] iwapo mshukiwa anatambulika kuwa na VVU lakini yanakumbwa na utata iwapo hali yake haijulikani.<ref name=NEJM2011Sex>{{cite journal|last=Linden|first=JA|title=Clinical practice. Care of the adult patient after sexual assault|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2011-09-01_365_9/page/834|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=2011-09-01|volume=365|issue=9|pages=834–41|pmid=21879901|doi=10.1056/NEJMcp1102869}}</ref> Taratibu za matibabu ya sasa hutumia [[lopinavir/ritonavir]] na [[lamivudine/zidovudine]] au [[emtricitabine/tenofovir]] na yanaweza kupunguza hatari zaidi.<ref name=Prevention2012/> Kwa kawaida, muda wa matibabu huwa wiki nne <ref name=CochranePEP2007>{{cite journal|last=Young|first=TN|coauthors=Arens, FJ; Kennedy, GE; Laurie, JW; Rutherford, G|title=Antiretroviral post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for occupational HIV exposure|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2007-01-24|issue=1|pages=CD002835|pmid=17253483|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002835.pub3|editor1-last=Young|editor1-first=Taryn}}</ref>na mara nyingi huhusishwa na athari kali (zidovudine ikiwa na takriban 70% ya visa, ikijumuisha 24% kichefuchefu, 22% uchovu, 13% mafadhaiko na 9% maumivu ya kichwa.<ref name=AFP2007/> === Kuzuia maambukizi ya mama kwa mtoto === Hatua za kuzuia kusambaza VVU kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto zinaweza kupunguza kiwango cha maambukizi kwa asilimia 92-99.<ref name=Mother2010>{{cite journal|last=Coutsoudis|first=A|coauthors=Kwaan, L; Thomson, M|title=Prevention of vertical transmission of HIV-1 in resource-limited settings|journal=Expert review of anti-infective therapy|date=2010 Oct|volume=8|issue=10|pages=1163–75|pmid=20954881|doi=10.1586/eri.10.94}}</ref><ref name=Kurth2011/> Kimsingi, hatua hizi hujumuisha kutumia mwungano wa dawa za kudhibiti VVU katika ujauzito na baada ya kuzaa, na pia [[kunywesha kwa chupa]] badala ya [[kunyonyesha]].<ref name=Mother2010/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Siegfried|first=N|coauthors=van der Merwe, L; Brocklehurst, P; Sint, TT|title=Antiretrovirals for reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2011-07-06|issue=7|pages=CD003510|pmid=21735394|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003510.pub3|editor1-last=Siegfried|editor1-first=Nandi}}</ref>Ikiwa itakubaliwa kulisha, inafaidi, inawezekana kumudu gharama yake, na ni salama, kina mama hawapaswi kuwanyonyesha watoto wao. Hata hivyo, iwapo haiwezekani, kina mama hushauriwa kunyonyesha tu katika miezi ya kwanza.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/Infantfeedingconsensusstatement.pf.pdf |format=PDF |year=2006 |accessdate=March 12, 2008 |title=WHO HIV and Infant Feeding Technical Consultation Held on behalf of the Inter-agency Task Team (IATT) on Prevention of HIV – Infections in Pregnant Women, Mothers and their Infants –Consensus statement |date=October 25–27, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409065845/http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/Infantfeedingconsensusstatement.pf.pdf |archivedate=2008-04-09 |deadurl=no }}</ref> Ikiwa kunyonyesha pekee kutatekelezwa, kumpa mtoto proflaksisi ya kudhibiti VVU kwa muda mrefu zaidi hupunguza hatari ya kuambukizwa.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Horvath|first=T|coauthors=Madi, BC; Iuppa, IM; Kennedy, GE; Rutherford, G; Read, JS|title=Interventions for preventing late postnatal mother-to-child transmission of HIV|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2009-01-21|issue=1|pages=CD006734|pmid=19160297|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006734.pub2|editor1-last=Horvath|editor1-first=Tara}}</ref> ===Dawa za kudhibiti virusi === [[File:Abacavir (Ziagen) 300mg.jpg|thumb|alt=Tembe mbili za manjano za umbo la mstatili ambapo mojawapo ya alama za GX623 inaonekana|''[[Abacavir]]'' – kifanani cha nukliosidi kinachozuia kugeuzwa kwa nakala (KNKN)]] Kwa sasa hakuna tiba au [[chanjo ya VVU]] mwafaka. Matibabu hujumuisha dawa tendi za kudhibiti VVU za kiwango cha juu zinazopunguza mwendo wa ugonjwa huu.<ref name=LE2011>{{cite journal|last=May|first=MT|coauthors=Ingle, SM|title=Life expectancy of HIV-positive adults: a review|journal=Sexual health|date=2011 Dec|volume=8|issue=4|pages=526–33|pmid=22127039|doi=10.1071/SH11046}}</ref> Kufikia mwaka 2010, zaidi ya watu milioni 6.6&nbsp; wa nchi za mapato ya chini na ya kati walikuwa wakitumia dawa hizo.<ref name=UN2019Ten/> Matibabu pia huhusisha hatua za kuzuia na kutibu maambukizi nyemelezi. Chaguo za kisasa za KNKN ni michanganyiko ya angalau dawa tatu za angalau aina au "vikundi" viwili vya ajenti za [[dawa za kudhibiti VVU]].<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Mwanzoni, matibabu kwa kawaida huhusisha kizuizi kisicho cha nukliosidi kinachozuia kugeuzwa kwa nakala (KKNKN) pamoja na vidonge viwili vya kifanani cha nukliosidi kinachozuia kugeuzwa kwa nakala (KNKN).<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> KNKN kwa kawaida hujumuisha: [[zidovudine]] (AZT) au [[tenofovir]] (TDF) na [[lamivudine]] (3TC) au [[emtricitabine]] (FTC).<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Mwungano wa ajenti zinazojumuisha kizuizi cha protisi (KP) hutumika utaratibu huu ukipoteza utendakazi.<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Wakati wa kuanzisha matumizi ya dawa za kudhibiti VVU ni mada ambayo ingali inajadiliwa.<ref name=Deut2010/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sax|first=PE|coauthors=Baden, LR|title=When to start antiretroviral therapy—ready when you are?|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=2009-04-30|volume=360|issue=18|pages=1897–9|pmid=19339713|doi=10.1056/NEJMe0902713}}</ref> Shirika la Afya Duniani, miongozo ya [[Ulaya]] na pia Marekani hupendekeza dawa za kudhibiti VVU kwa vijana waliobalehe, watu wazima na kina mama wajawazito walio na kiwango cha CD4 cha chini ya 350/uL au walio na dalili, bila kuzingatia kiwango chao cha CD4.<ref name=Deut2010/><ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19>{{cite book|title=Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents: recommendations for a public health approach|year=2010|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=978-92-4-159976-4|pages=19–20|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599764_eng.pdf|access-date=2017-04-01|archive-date=2012-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709184257/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599764_eng.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>Hali hii huwezeshwa na ukweli kwamba kuanzisha matibabu wakati huu hupunguza hatari ya kifo.<ref name=CochraneART2010>{{cite journal|last=Siegfried|first=N|coauthors=Uthman, OA; Rutherford, GW|title=Optimal time for initiation of antiretroviral therapy in asymptomatic, HIV-infected, treatment-naive adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2010-03-17|issue=3|pages=CD008272|pmid=20238364|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008272.pub2|editor1-last=Siegfried|editor1-first=Nandi}}</ref> Isitoshe, Marekani imependekeza matibabu hayo kwa watu wote wenye VVU bila kuzingatia kiwango cha CD4 au dalili, ingawa inatoa pendekezo hili ikiwahofia watu wenye kiwango cha juu cha CD4.<ref name=Guidelines2009>{{cite book|last=Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents|first=|title=Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents|url=http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf|date=2009-12-01|publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services|page=i|access-date=2017-04-01|archive-date=2009-01-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113181125/http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Shirika la Afya Duniani pia linapendekeza matibabu kwa watu wenye maambukizi nyongeza ya kifua kikuu na [[hepatitisi B]] tendi ya muda mrefu.<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Matibabu yanapoanzishwa, inapendekezwa yaendelezwe bila "kupumzika".<ref name=Deut2010/> Watu wengi hutambuliwa punde tu baada ya wakati ambao matibabu yalipaswa kuanzishwa.<ref name=Deut2010/> Katika matibabu, matokeo yanayotarajiwa ni kiwango cha HIV-RNA ya plasma ya muda mrefu cha chini ya nakala 50/mL.<ref name=Deut2010>{{cite journal|last=Vogel|first=M|coauthors=Schwarze-Zander, C; Wasmuth, JC; Spengler, U; Sauerbruch, T; Rockstroh, JK|title=The treatment of patients with HIV|journal=Deutsches Ärzteblatt international|date=2010 Jul|volume=107|issue=28–29|pages=507–15; quiz 516|pmid=20703338|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0507|pmc=2915483}}</ref>Viwango vya kuthibitisha ikiwa matibabu ni mwafaka hupendekezwa kwanza baada ya wiki nne na punde viwango hivi vinaposhuka chini ya nakala 50/mL. Vipimo vya kila baada ya miezi 3-6 kwa kawaida huwa mwafaka.<ref name=Deut2010/> Udhibiti usio mwafaka huchukuliwa kuwa zaidi ya nakala 400/mL.<ref name=Deut2010/> Kulingana na kigezo hiki, matibabu huwa mwafaka kwa zaidi ya 95% ya watu katika mwaka wa kwanza.<ref name=Deut2010/> Manufaa ya matibabu hujumuisha upungufu wa hatari ya kuendelezwa kwa VVU na kupunguka kwa hatari ya kifo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=When To Start|first=Consortium|coauthors=Sterne, JA; May, M; Costagliola, D; de Wolf, F; Phillips, AN; Harris, R; Funk, MJ; Geskus, RB; Gill, J; Dabis, F; Miró, JM; Justice, AC; Ledergerber, B; Fätkenheuer, G; Hogg, RS; Monforte, AD; Saag, M; Smith, C; Staszewski, S; Egger, M; Cole, SR|title=Timing of initiation of antiretroviral therapy in AIDS-free HIV-1-infected patients: a collaborative analysis of 18 HIV cohort studies|journal=Lancet|date=2009-04-18|volume=373|issue=9672|pages=1352–63|pmid=19361855|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60612-7|pmc=2670965}}</ref>Katika mataifa yaliyostawi matibabu pia huboresha afya ya mwili na ya akili.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beard|first=J|coauthors=Feeley, F; Rosen, S|title=Economic and quality of life outcomes of antiretroviral therapy for HIV/AIDS in developing countries: a systematic literature review|journal=AIDS care|date=2009 Nov|volume=21|issue=11|pages=1343–56|pmid=20024710|doi=10.1080/09540120902889926}}</ref> Matibabu hupelekea kupunguza kwa 70% hatari ya kupata kifua kikuu.<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Manufaa ya nyongeza hujumuisha upungufu wa hatari ya kusambazwa kwa ugonjwa huu hadi kwa wenzi kingono, na upungufu wa kusambazwa kwa maambukizi kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto. <ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Ubora wa matibabu hutegemea pakubwa maafikiano.<ref name=Deut2010/> Sababu za kutoafikiana hujumuisha: ufikiaji duni wa huduma za kimatibabu,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Orrell|first=C|title=Antiretroviral adherence in a resource-poor setting|journal=Current HIV/AIDS reports|date=2005 Nov|volume=2|issue=4|pages=171–6|pmid=16343374|doi=10.1007/s11904-005-0012-8}}</ref>huduma duni za kijamii, [[ugonjwa wa akili]] na [[uraibu wa madawa]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Malta|first=M|coauthors=Strathdee, SA; Magnanini, MM; Bastos, FI|title=Adherence to antiretroviral therapy for human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome among drug users: a systematic review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-addiction_2008-08_103_8/page/1242|journal=Addiction (Abingdon, England)|date=2008 Aug|volume=103|issue=8|pages=1242–57|pmid=18855813|doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02269.x}}</ref> Isitoshe, utata wa utaratibu wa matibabu (kufuatia idadi ya tembe na idadi ya marudio ya kumeza tembe) na [[athari kali]] zinaweza kusababisha kutoafikiana kwa kimakusudi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nachega|first=JB|coauthors=Marconi, VC; van Zyl, GU; Gardner, EM; Preiser, W; Hong, SY; Mills, EJ; Gross, R|title=HIV treatment adherence, drug resistance, virologic failure: evolving concepts|journal=Infectious disorders drug targets|date=2011 Apr|volume=11|issue=2|pages=167–74|pmid=21406048}}</ref>Hata hivyo, viwango vya uafikiano ni sawa katika nchi zinazostawi na zilizostawi<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nachega|first=JB|coauthors=Mills, EJ; Schechter, M|title=Antiretroviral therapy adherence and retention in care in middle-income and low-income countries: current status of knowledge and research priorities|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|date=2010 Jan|volume=5|issue=1|pages=70–7|pmid=20046150|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e328333ad61}}</ref> Matukio makuu huhusishwa na ajenti inayotumika.<ref name=Montessori2004/> Baadhi ya visa vinavyotokea mara nyingi hujumuisha: [[lipodistrofi inayohusishwa na VVU|sindromu ya lipodistofi]], [[dislipidemia]] na [[kisukari tamu]] hasa pamoja na vizuizi vya protisi.<ref name=M121/> Dalili zingine zinazotokea mara nyingi hujumuisha: [[kuhara]],<ref name=Montessori2004>{{cite journal| author=Montessori, V., Press, N., Harris, M., Akagi, L., Montaner, J. S. |title=Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection | journal=CMAJ |year=2004 | pages=229–238 |volume=170 | issue=2 |pmid=14734438 | pmc=315530}}</ref><ref name="Burgoyne2008">{{Rejea jarida|author=Burgoyne RW, Tan DH|title=Prolongation and quality of life for HIV-infected adults treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART): a balancing act|journal=J. Antimicrob. Chemother. |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=469–73|year=2008 |month=March|pmid=18174196|doi=10.1093/jac/dkm499</ref> na ongezeko la hatari ya [[ugonjwa wa moyo na mishipa]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barbaro|first=G|coauthors=Barbarini, G|title=Human immunodeficiency virus & cardiovascular risk|journal=The Indian journal of medical research|date=2011 Dec|volume=134|issue=6|pages=898–903|pmid=22310821|doi=10.4103/0971-5916.92634|pmc=3284097}}</ref> Hata hivyo, athari kali huwa katika matibabu mapya yaliyopendekezwa.<ref name=Deut2010/> Gharama huenda ikawa tatizo kwani baadhi ya dawa huwa ghali<ref>{{cite journal|last=Orsi|first=F|coauthors=d'almeida, C|title=Soaring antiretroviral prices, TRIPS and TRIPS flexibilities: a burning issue for antiretroviral treatment scale-up in developing countries|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|date=2010 May|volume=5|issue=3|pages=237–41|pmid=20539080|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32833860ba}}</ref>. Hata hivyo, hadi mwaka wa 2010, 47% ya watu waliohitaji dawa hizo walikuwa wakizitumia katika nchi zinazostawi na za mapato ya wastani<ref name=UN2019Ten/> Dawa fulani zinaweza kuhusishwa na [[ulemavu wa kuzaliwa]] hivyo hazifai kutumiwa na wanawake wanaopanga kupata watoto.<ref name=Deut2010/> Matibabu yanayopendekezewa watoto hutofautiana kidogo na ya watu wazima. Katika nchi zinazoendelea, kufikia mwaka wa 2010, 23% ya watoto waliohitaji dawa hizi walikuwa wakizitumia.<ref name=UN2011ONESIXTY>UNAIDS 2011 uk. 150-160</ref> Shirika la Afya Duniani na Marekani inapendekeza matibabu kwa watoto wote wa umri wa chini ya miezi 12.<ref name=USKID2011/><ref name=WHOKID2010>{{cite book|title=Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in infants and children|year=2010|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=978-92-4-159980-1|page=2|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599801_eng.pdf|access-date=2017-04-01|archive-date=2014-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224081130/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599801_eng.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref>Marekani hupendekeza matibabu kwa watoto wa umri wa mwaka 1-5 walio na kiwango cha VVU-RNA cha zaidi ya nakala 100,000&nbsp;/mL na kwa walio zaidi ya miaka mitano watibiwe iwapo kiwango cha CD4 ni chini ya 500/ul.<ref name=USKID2011>{{cite web|title=Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection|url=http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/pediatricguidelines.pdf|work=The Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children|format=PDF|date=Aug 11,2011|accessdate=2017-04-01|archivedate=2013-02-16|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216214548/http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/pediatricguidelines.pdf}}</ref> ===Kuzuia maambukizi nyemelezi=== Mikakati ya kuzuia maambukizi nyemelezi hufaa watu wengi wenye VVU/UKIMWI. Matibabu ya dawa za kudhibiti virusi huboresha na kupunguza hatari ya kupata maambukizi nyemelezi kwa wakati huo na baadaye.<ref name=Montessori2004/>[[Chanjo]] dhidi ya [[hepatitisi]] A na B hupendekezwa kwa watu walio katika hatari ya VVU kabla ya maambukizi, ingawa yanaweza kutolewa baada ya kuambukizwa.<ref name=Laurence>{{Rejea jarida | author=Laurence J | title=Hepatitis A and B virus immunization in HIV-infected persons | journal=AIDS Reader | year=2006 | pages=15–17 | volume=16 | issue=1|pmid=16433468}}</ref> Kinga ya [[Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole]] kati ya wiki 4-6 na kukoma kunyonyesha watoto waliozaliwa na mama mwenye VVU hupendekezwa katika sehemu zenye upungufu wa raslimali.<ref name=UN2011ONESIXTY/> Pia inapendekezwa kuzuia PCP kiwango cha CD4 kikiwa chini ya 200&nbsp;/uL na kwa wenye PCP au waliokuwa nayo awali.<ref name=PCP2011>{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=L|coauthors=Cattamanchi, A; Davis, JL; den Boon, S; Kovacs, J; Meshnick, S; Miller, RF; Walzer, PD; Worodria, W; Masur, H; International HIV-associated Opportunistic Pneumonias (IHOP), Study; Lung HIV, Study|title=HIV-associated Pneumocystis pneumonia|journal=Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society|date=2011 Jun|volume=8|issue=3|pages=294–300|pmid=21653531|doi=10.1513/pats.201009-062WR|pmc=3132788}}</ref> Watu wenye ugandamizaji wa kingamwili pia hushauriwa kupata kinga ya [[toksoplasmosisi]] na [[Kriptokokasi|Meninjitisi ya kriptokokasi]].<ref name=PEPpocketguide>{{cite web | publisher=[[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]] | date=February 2, 2007 | url=http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?ss=14&doc_id=6223&string=infected+AND+patients | title=Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-infected adults and adolescents. Recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association/Infectious Diseases Society of America. | accessdate=2017-04-01 | archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121212000558/http://www.guideline.gov/browse/archive.aspx | archivedate=2012-12-12 | =https://archive.today/20121212000558/http://www.guideline.gov/browse/archive.aspx }}</ref> Mikakati mwafaka ya kinga imepunguza kiwango cha maambukizi kwa 50% katika miaka 1992-1997.<ref name=InfectionBook2008/> ===Matibabu mbadala=== Takriban 60% ya watu wenye VVU nchini Marekani hutumia mbinu mbalimbali za [[matibabu mbadala]].<ref name="pmid18608078">{{Rejea jarida|author=Littlewood RA, Vanable PA |title=Complementary and alternative medicine use among HIV-positive people: research synthesis and implications for HIV care |journal=AIDS Care |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=1002–18 |year=2008 |month=September |pmid=18608078 |pmc=2570227|doi=10.1080/09540120701767216 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_aids-care_2008-09_20_8/page/1002}}</ref> Ubora wa matibabu hayo hata hivyo haujathibitishwa.<ref name="pmid15969772">{{Rejea jarida|author=Mills E, Wu P, Ernst E |title=Complementary therapies for the treatment of HIV: in search of the evidence |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=395–403 |year=2005|month=June |pmid=15969772 |doi=10.1258/0956462054093962 |url=}}</ref> Kwa kuzingatia [[Lishe na VVU/UKIMWI|ushauri wa kilishe na UKIMWI]], kuna ushahidi unaoonyesha manufaa ya nyongeza za [[virutubishi vidogo]].<ref name="Irlam"/> Ushahidi wa manufaa ya nyongeza za [[seleniamu]] unaonyesha kuwa manufaa yake si mengi sana.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stone|first=CA|coauthors=Kawai, K; Kupka, R; Fawzi, WW|title=Role of selenium in HIV infection|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nutrition-reviews_2010-11_68_11/page/671|journal=Nutrition Reviews|date=2010 Nov|volume=68|issue=11|pages=671–81|pmid=20961297|doi=10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00337.x|pmc=3066516}}</ref> Kuna ushahidi mdogo kuwa nyongeza ya [[vitamini A]] kwa watoto hupunguza vifo na kuboresha ukuaji.<ref name=Irlam/> Nyongeza ya [[vitamini]] nyingi kwa kina mama wajawazito wenye [[lishe duni]] na wanaonyonyesha imeboresha [[afya]] ya kina mama na watoto barani Afrika<ref name=Irlam>{{cite journal|last=Irlam|first=JH|coauthors=Visser, MM; Rollins, NN; Siegfried, N|title=Micronutrient supplementation in children and adults with HIV infection|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2010-12-08|issue=12|pages=CD003650|pmid=21154354|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003650.pub3|editor1-last=Irlam|editor1-first=James H}}</ref> Kutumia virutubishi vidogo ndani ya lishe katika viwango vya [[Kiwango cha Matumizi ya kila Siku|KMS]] kwa watu wazima wenye VVU kumependekezwa na [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Forrester|first=JE|coauthors=Sztam, KA|title=Micronutrients in HIV/AIDS: is there evidence to change the WHO 2003 recommendations?|journal=The American journal of clinical nutrition|date=2011 Dec|volume=94|issue=6|pages=1683S–1689S|pmid=22089440|doi=10.3945/ajcn.111.011999|pmc=3226021}}</ref><ref name='WHO_nutrients'>{{Rejea kitabu | last = [[World Health Organization]] | title = Nutrient requirements for people living with HIV/AIDS: Report of a technical consultation | date = 2003-05 | location = Geneva | url = http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/Content_nutrient_requirements.pdf | id = | isbn = | accessdate = March 31, 2009 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090325030154/http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/Content_nutrient_requirements.pdf | archivedate = 2009-03-25 | deadurl = no }}</ref> SAD linasema kuwa [[takwimu]] kadhaa zimeonyesha nyongeza ya vitamini A, zinki na ayoni inaweza kuwaathiri pakubwa watu wazima walio na VVU.<ref name='WHO_nutrients' /> Hakuna ushahidi wa kutosha kuonyesha manufaa ya [[miti shamba]].<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Liu JP, Manheimer E, Yang M|title=Herbal medicines for treating HIV infection and AIDS |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|issue=3 |pages=CD003937|year=2005 |pmid=16034917 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003937.pub2|url=|editor1-last=Liu|editor1-first=Jian Ping}}</ref> ==Matarajio ya kuishi== [[File:HIV-AIDS world map-Deaths per million persons-WHO2012.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|Idadi ya vifo kutokana na UKIMWI kati ya watu milioni 1 mwaka 2012 {{refbegin|3}}{{legend|#ffff20|0}}{{legend|#ffe820|1–4}}{{legend|#ffd820|5–12}}{{legend|#ffc020|13–34}}{{legend|#ffa020|35–61}}{{legend|#ff9a20|62–134}}{{legend|#f08015|135–215}}{{legend|#e06815|216–458}}{{legend|#d85010|459-1,402}}{{legend|#d02010|1,403–5,828}}{{refend}}]] [[File:HIV-AIDS world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|Alt=Ramani ya ulimwengu ambapo sehemu yake kubwa ni ya rangi ya manjano au ya chungwa isipokuwa Kusini kwa Sahara ambapo kuna rangi nyekundu au nyekundu nzito|[[Miaka ya kulemaza]] ya VVU kwa kila wakaazi 100,000&nbsp; kufikia 2004. {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|<small>no data</small>}} {{legend|#ffff65|<small>≤&nbsp;10</small>}} {{legend|#fff200|<small>10–25</small>}} {{legend|#ffdc00|<small>25–50</small>}} {{legend|#ffc600|<small>50–100</small>}} {{legend|#ffb000|<small>100–500</small>}} {{legend|#ff9a00|<small>500–1000</small>}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|<small>1000–2500</small>}} {{legend|#ff6e00|<small>2500–5000</small>}} {{legend|#ff5800|<small>5000–7500</small>}} {{legend|#ff4200|<small>7500-10000</small>}} {{legend|#ff2c00|<small>10000-50000</small>}} {{legend|#cb0000|<small>≥&nbsp;50000</small>}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Katika sehemu nyingi ulimwenguni UKIMWI umekuwa [[ugonjwa wa muda mrefu]], si ugonjwa mkali tu.<ref name=Knoll2007/> [[Prognosi]] ni tofauti katika watu mbalimbali, na kiwango cha CD4 pamoja na wingi wa virusi huwa muhimu katika kutabiri matokeo.<ref name=M118/> Wastani wa muda wa kuishi baada ya kuambukizwa unakadiriwa kuwa kati ya miaka 9-1&nbsp; bila matibabu, ikitegemea aina ya VVU.<ref name=UNAIDS2007>{{cite web| author = [[Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS|UNAIDS]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]]| month = December| year = 2007| title = 2007 AIDS epidemic update| url = http://data.unaids.org/pub/EPISlides/2007/2007_epiupdate_en.pdf| accessdate = 2008-03-12| format = PDF| archivedate = 2008-05-27| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080527201701/http://data.unaids.org/pub/EPISlides/2007/2007_epiupdate_en.pdf}}</ref> Baada ya utambuzi wa UKIMWI, iwapo matibabu hayapo, uwezo wa kuishi huwa kati ya miezi 6-19.<ref name=Morgan2>{{Rejea jarida | author=Morgan D, Mahe C, Mayanja B, Okongo JM, Lubega R, Whitworth JA| title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries? | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597–632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | pmid=11873003 |doi=10.1097/00002030-200203080-00011}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida|title=Progression and mortality of untreated HIV-positive individuals living in resource-limited settings: update of literature review and evidence synthesis|author=Zwahlen M, Egger M|url=http://data.unaids.org/pub/Periodical/2006/zwahlen_unaids_hq_05_422204_2007_en.pdf|format=PDF|year=2006|accessdate=March 19, 2008|version=UNAIDS Obligation HQ/05/422204|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409065844/http://data.unaids.org/pub/Periodical/2006/zwahlen_unaids_hq_05_422204_2007_en.pdf|archivedate=2008-04-09|deadurl=no|journal=}}</ref> [[KKNKN]] na uzuiaji mwafaka wa Maambukizi nyemelezi hupunguza kima cha vifo kwa 80% na kuongeza matarajio ya urefu wa maisha hadi miaka 20-50 kwa mtu mzima wa kimo aliyetambuliwa na maambukizi karibuni.<ref name=Knoll2007>{{cite journal |journal= Int J Dermatol |year=2007 |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1219–28 |title= Current status of HIV infection: a review for non-HIV-treating physicians |author= Knoll B, Lassmann B, Temesgen Z|pmid=18173512|doi=10.1111/j.1365-4632.2007.03520.x}}</ref><ref name=LifeExpecr2008>{{cite journal |journal= Lancet|year=2008 |volume=372|issue=9635 |pages=293–9 |title=Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies | author= Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration |pmid=18657708 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61113-7 |pmc= 3130543 }}</ref><ref name=Schack2006>{{cite journal | author=Schackman BR, Gebo KA, Walensky RP, Losina E, Muccio T, Sax PE, Weinstein MC, Seage GR 3rd, Moore RD, Freedberg KA. |title=The lifetime cost of current HIV care in the United States | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-care_2006-11_44_11/page/990 | journal=Med Care | year=2006 |pages=990–997 | volume=44 | issue=11 | pmid=17063130 |doi=10.1097/01.mlr.0000228021.89490.2a}}</ref> Hii ni kati ya 2/3<ref name=LifeExpecr2008/> na karibu na kiwango cha umma.<ref name=Deut2010/><ref>{{cite journal|last=van Sighem|first=AI|coauthors=Gras, LA; Reiss, P; Brinkman, K; de Wolf, F; ATHENA national observational cohort, study|title=Life expectancy of recently diagnosed asymptomatic HIV-infected patients approaches that of uninfected individuals|journal=AIDS (London, England)|date=2010-06-19|volume=24|issue=10|pages=1527–35|pmid=20467289|doi=10.1097/QAD.0b013e32833a3946}}</ref> Matibabu huwa hayafaulu yanapoanzishwa yakiwa yamechelewa katika prognosi,<ref name=Deut2010/> kwa mfano, matibabu yakianzishwa kufuatia utambuzi katika kiwango cha UKIMWI, matarajio ya urefu wa maisha huwa miaka~10–40.<ref name=Deut2010/><ref name=Knoll2007/> Wasipotibiwa, nusu ya watoto wachanga wanaozaliwa na VVU hufa kabla ya miaka miwili.<ref name=UN2011ONESIXTY/> Sababu kuu ya vifo vinavyotokana na VVU/UKIMWI ni [[Maambukizi nyemelezi]] na [[saratani]] ambayo mara nyingi hutokana na matatizo endelevu ya mfumo wa kingamwili.<ref name=InfectionBook2008>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=[edited by] Blaine T.|title=Concepts in immunology and immunotherapeutics|year=2008|publisher=American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|location=Bethesda, Md.|isbn=978-1-58528-127-5|page=143|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=G46DrdlxNJAC&pg=PA143|edition=4th}}</ref><ref name=Cancer2005>{{cite journal|last=Cheung|first=MC|coauthors=Pantanowitz, L; Dezube, BJ|title=AIDS-related malignancies: emerging challenges in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy|journal=The oncologist|date=2005 Jun–Jul|volume=10|issue=6|pages=412–26|pmid=15967835|doi=10.1634/theoncologist.10-6-412}}</ref> Hatari ya saratani huonekana kuongezeka ikiwa kiwango cha CD4 kitashuka chini ya 500/uL.<ref name=Deut2010/> Kiwango cha kuendelea kwa ugonjwa wa kiutambuzi hutofautiana pakubwa katika watu mbalimbali na kimedhihirika kuathiriwa na vipengele kadhaa, kama vile uhatarisho na utendaji wa kingamwili;<ref name=Tang>{{Rejea jarida | author=Tang J, Kaslow RA | title=The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy | journal=AIDS | year=2003 |pages=S51–S60 | volume=17 | issue=Suppl 4 | pmid=15080180 | doi=10.1097/00002030-200317004-00006}}</ref> uwezo wa kufikia [[huduma ya afya]] na uwepo wa [[maambukizi pacha]];<ref name=Morgan2/><ref name=Lawn>{{cite journal | author=Lawn SD |title=AIDS in Africa: the impact of co-infections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection | journal=J. Infect. Dis. |year=2004 | pages=1–12 |volume=48 | issue=1| pmid=14667787</ref> pamoja na aina ya (au za) virusi husika.<ref name=Campbell>{{cite journal | author=Campbell GR |title=The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis | journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2004 |pages=48197–48204 | volume=279 | issue=46 | pmid=15331610 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M406195200 | author-separator=, |author2=Pasquier E | author3=Watkins J | display-authors=3 | last4=Bourgarel-Rey | first4=V | last5=Peyrot | first5=V |last6=Esquieu | first6=D | last7=Barbier | first7=P | last8=De Mareuil | first8=J | last9=Braguer |first9=D}}</ref><ref name=Campbell2>{{cite journal | author=Campbell GR, Watkins JD, Esquieu D, Pasquier E, Loret EP, Spector SA | title=The C terminus of HIV-1 Tat modulates the extent of CD178-mediated apoptosis of T cells | journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2005 | pages=38376–39382 | volume=280 | issue=46 |pmid=16155003 | doi=10.1074/jbc.M506630200}}</ref> Maambukizi pacha ya [[kifua kikuu]] ni mojawapo ya visababishi vikuu vya vifo vya watu wenye VVU/UKIMWI, huku yakipatikana katika 1/3 ya watu walioambukizwa VVU na husababisha 25% ya vifo vinavyohusiana na VVU.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tuberculosis|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/|work=Fact sheet 104|publisher=World Health Organization|date=March 2012|accessdate=August 29, 2012}}</ref> VVU pia ni kipengele kikuu zaidi cha hatari ya kifua kikuu.<ref name=WHO2011>{{cite web|title=Global tuberculosis control 2011|author=World Health Organization|url=http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2011/gtbr11_executive_summary.pdf|year=2011|ISBN=978 92 4 156438 0|accessdate=August 29, 2012}}</ref> [[Hepatitisi C]] ni maambukizi mengine pacha yanayotokea mara nyingi, ambapo kila ugonjwa huongeza uendeleaji wa ugonjwa mwingine<ref>{{cite book|last=Pennsylvania|first=Editors, Raphael Rubin, M.D., Professor of Pathology, David S. Strayer, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Pathology, Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Jefferson Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ; Founder and Consulting Editor, Emanuel Rubin, M.D., Gonzalo Aponte Distinguished Professor of Pathology, Chairman Emeritus of the Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Jefferson Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia,|title=Rubin's pathology : clinicopathologic foundations of medicine|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-60547-968-2|page=154|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=wb2TzY9AgJ0C&pg=PA154|edition=Sixth|year=2011}}</ref> Saratani zinazotokea mara nyingi zaidi ambazo huhusishwa na VVU ni [[sakoma ya Kaposi]] na [[limfoma isiyo ya Hodgkin]].<ref name=Cancer2005/> Hata wakitibiwa kwa dawa za kudhibiti VVU, watu walio na VVU huenda wakakumbwa na [[matatizo ya kiniuroni ya ufahamu]],<ref name="Woods2009">{{cite pmid|19462243 }}</ref> [[osteoporosi]],<ref name="Brown2006">{{cite pmid|17086056}}</ref> [[nuropathia ya pembeni|nuropathia]],<ref name="Nicholas2007">{{Rejea jarida|author=Nicholas PK|title=Symptom management and self-care for peripheral neuropathy in HIV/AIDS |journal=AIDS Care | volume=19|issue=2|pages=179–89 |year=2007 |month=February |pmid=17364396|doi=10.1080/09540120600971083|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_aids-care_2007-02_19_2/page/179|author-separator=,|author2=Kemppainen JK|author3=Canaval GE|display-authors=3|last4=Corless|first4=I. B.|last5=Sefcik|first5=E. F.|last6=Nokes|first6=K. M.|last7=Bain|first7=C. A.|last8=Kirksey|first8=K. M.|last9=Sanzero Eller|first9=L.}}</ref> saratani,<ref name="Boshoff2002">{{Rejea jarida| author=Boshoff C, Weiss R |title=AIDS-related malignancies | journal=Nat. Rev. Cancer | year=2002 | pages=373–382 | volume=2 | issue=5 |pmid=12044013 | doi=10.1038/nrc797 }}</ref><ref name="Yarchoan2005">{{Rejea jarida| author=Yarchoan R, Tosato G, Little RF | title=Therapy insight: AIDS-related malignancies – the influence of antiviral therapy on pathogenesis and management | journal=Nat. Clin. Pract. Oncol. |year=2005 | pages=406–415 | volume=2 |issue=8 | pmid=16130937 | doi=10.1038/ncponc0253 }}</ref><!-- Boshoff2002 and Yarchoan2005 cover cancer --> [[nefropathi]],<ref name="Post2009">{{cite pmid|19106702}}</ref> na [[ugonjwa wa moyo na mishipa]] baada ya muda mrefu.<ref name="Burgoyne2008" /> Haijulikani ikiwa hali hizi hutokana na kuambukizwa kwa VVU kwenyewe au ni athari kali za matibabu yake. == Watu wangapi wana UKIMWI? == [[Picha: AIDS cases worldwide 1979-1995.png|haki|thumb|Idadi ya watu duniani wenye VVU miaka 1979-1995.]] [[File:AIDS and HIV prevalence 2008.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt= A map of the world where most of the land is colored green or yellow except for sub Saharan Africa which is colored red|[[Asilimia]] ya watu wenye umri wa miaka 15–49 walioambukizwa nchi kwa nchi ([[2011]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=AIDSinfo|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis/datatools/aidsinfo/|work=UNAIDS|accessdate=4 March 2013}}</ref>{{Col-begin}} {{Col-break}} {{legend|#787878|<small>No data</small>}} {{legend|#94bf8b|<small><0.10</small>}} {{legend|#f4e2ba|<small>0.10–0.5</small>}} {{legend|#eaca83|<small>0.5–1</small>}} {{Col-break}} {{legend|#f07568|<small>1–5</small>}} {{legend|#ff4800|<small>5–15</small>}} {{legend|#b00000|<small>15–50</small>}} {{col-end}}]] VVU/UKIMWI ni [[janga]] la kimataifa.<ref name=Cohen2008>{{cite journal|last=Cohen|first=MS|coauthors=Hellmann, N; Levy, JA; DeCock, K; Lange, J|title=The spread, treatment, and prevention of HIV-1: evolution of a global pandemic|journal=The Journal of clinical investigation|date=2008 Apr|volume=118|issue=4|pages=1244-54|pmid=18382737|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2276790/|accessdate=17 September 2012}}</ref> Kufikia mwaka [[2018]] walau watu wapatao 37,900,000 walikuwa wakiishi na VVU<ref name=UN2019Ten>"Global HIV & AIDS statistics — 2019 fact sheet". www.unaids.org. UNAIDS. Archived from the original on December 4, 2019. Retrieved December 21, 2019.</ref> na kila mwaka watu milioni 2 wengine wanambukizwa<ref name=UNAIDS2015>{{cite web|title=Fact sheet 2015|url=http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/20150901_FactSheet_2015_en.pdf|website=UNAIDS|accessdate=1 February 2016}}</ref><ref name=UN2013>{{cite web|title=UNAIDS reports a 52% reduction in new HIV infections among children and a combined 33% reduction among adults and children since 2001|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/pressreleaseandstatementarchive/2013/september/20130923prunga/|work=UNAIDS|accessdate=October 7, 2013|archivedate=2013-10-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001090619/http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/pressreleaseandstatementarchive/2013/september/20130923prunga/}}</ref>. Zaidi ya nusu ni wanawake na milioni 2.6 ni watoto chini ya miaka 15.<ref name=UN2019Ten/> Hata hivyo watu wengi wenye VVU hawajui kuwa navyo<ref>{{cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|first=(CDC)|title=HIV surveillance—United States, 1981–2008|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report|date=June 3, 2011|volume=60|issue=21|pages=689–93|pmid=21637182}}</ref>. Kwa sababu hiyo, idadi halisi ya watu wanaoishi na VVU haijulikani. Hali hii ilisababisha karibu vifo milioni 1.8 mwaka 2010 ikilinganishwa na milioni 3.1 katika mwaka 2001.<ref name=UN2019Ten/> Kwa jumla watu 32,000,000 wameshakufa kwa ugonjwa huo<ref name=UN2019Ten/>. Wengi kati ya watu wenye VVU huishi Afrika kusini kwa Sahara (20,600,000). Wengi kati ya watoto ambao hufariki dunia kutokana na UKIMWI pia wanaishi barani Afrika. Katika mwaka wa 2010, kadirio la 68% (milioni 22.9&nbsp;) la visa vyote vya VVU na 66% ya vifo (milioni 1.2&nbsp;) vilitokea katika eneo hili.<ref name=UN2011Thirty>UNAIDS 2011 pg. 20–30</ref> Hii inamaanisha kuwa karibu 5% ya watu wazima wana virusi hivi<ref name=UN2011Fifty>UNAIDS 2011 pg. 40–50</ref> na vinaaminika kuwa kisababishi cha 10% ya vifo vyote vya watoto.<ref name=M117>Mandell, Bennett, and Dolan (2010). Sura ya 117.</ref> Wanawake wa eneo hili huchangia karibu 60% ya visa vyote tofauti na maeneo mengine.<ref name=UN2011Thirty/> [[Afrika Kusini]] ina idadi kubwa zaidi ya watu wenye VVU ulimwenguni kote, ikiwa ni watu milioni 5.9&nbsp;.<ref name=UN2011Thirty /> Kiwango cha [[matarajio ya urefu wa maisha]] kimepungua katika nchi zilizoathirika zaidi kutokana na VVU; kwa mfano, mwaka wa 2006, ilikadiriwa kuwa kiwango hiki kilipungua kutoka miaka 65 hadi 35 nchini [[Botswana]].<ref name=Kallings>{{Rejea jarida|journal= J Intern Med |year=2008|volume=263|issue=3|pages=218–43 |title= The first postmodern pandemic: Miaka 25 ya VVU |author= Kallings LO|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01910.x|pmid=18205765|url=http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01910.x}}(subscription required)</ref> [[Asia Kusini]] na [[Asia Kusini Mashariki|Kusini Mashariki]] ni eneo la pili lililoathirika zaidi; mwaka wa 2010, eneo hili lilikuwa na kadirio la visa milioni 4&nbsp; au 12% ya watu wote wanaoishi na VVU, hivyo kupelekea vifo vya takriban watu 250,000.<ref name=UN2011Fifty/> Takriban milioni 2.4&nbsp; ya visa hivi viko India<ref name=UN2011Thirty/> Ukithiri wa VVU uko chini katika maeneo ya Uropa Magharibi na Kati ikifikia 0.2% na [[Mashariki mwa Asia]] ikiwa na 0.1%.<ref name=UN2011Fifty/> Mwaka wa 2008 nchini Marekani, takriban watu milioni 1.2 walikuwa wakiishi na VVU, hivyo kupelekea takriban vifo 17,500. Kituo cha Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa kilikadiria kuwa, mwaka wa 2008, 20% ya Wamarekani waliokuwa na VVU hawakujua hali yao. <ref name=USAEPI2011>{{cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|first=(CDC)|title=HIV surveillance—United States, 1981–2008|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report|date=2011-06-03|volume=60|issue=21|pages=689–93|pmid=21637182}}</ref> Nchini Uingereza, kufikia 2009 kulikuwa na takriban visa 86,500 vilivyopelekea vifo 516.<ref>{{cite book|title=HIV in the United Kingdom: Ripoti ya 2010|year=2010|url=http://www.hpa.org.uk/webc/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1287145367237|author=Health Protection Agency|access-date=2017-04-01|archive-date=2011-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119155546/http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1287145367237|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Nchini Kanada, kufikia 2008 kulikuwa na visa 65,000 vilivyopelekea vifo 53.<ref>{{cite book|last=Surveillance|title=HIV and AIDS in Canada : surveillance report to December 31, 2009|year=2010|publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada, Centre for Communicable Diseases and Infection Control, Surveillance and Risk Assessment Division|location=Ottawa|isbn=978-1-100-52141-1|url=http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/aids-sida/publication/survreport/2009/dec/pdf/2009-Report-Rapport.pdf|coauthors=riques, Risk Assessment Division = Le VIH et le sida au Canada : rapport de surveillance en date du 31 décembre 2009 / Division de la surveillance et de l'évaluation des|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119164919/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/aids-sida/publication/survreport/2009/dec/pdf/2009-Report-Rapport.pdf|archivedate=2012-01-19|access-date=2017-04-01|dead-url=yes|=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119164919/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/aids-sida/publication/survreport/2009/dec/pdf/2009-Report-Rapport.pdf}}</ref> ==Jamii na utamaduni== === Unyanyapaa === [[File:Ryan White.jpg|thumb|alt=Mvulana baleghe akitabasamu akipigwa picha huku mkono wa mwingine ukiwa uemeegemeshwa begani mwake|[[Ryan White]] alipelekea kuwa [[mtoto wa uhamasisho]] wa VVU baada ya kufukuzwa shuleni kwa sababu alikuwa ameambukizwa.]] [[Unyanyapaa]] dhidi ya watu walio na UKIMWI zipo kote ulimwenguni kwa namna mbalimbali, zikiwemo kutengwa, kukataliwa na jamii, ubaguzi na kuepuka watu walioambukizwa VVU, kulazimishwa kupimwa VVU bila [[idhini]] au ulinzi wa [[usiri]], vurugu dhidi ya watu walioambukizwa au waliodhaniwa kuambukizwa VVU; na [[karantini]] ya watu waliombukizwa VVU.<ref name=UNAIDS2006Ch4>{{Rejea kitabu|publisher =[[Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS|UNAIDS]]| year = 2006| title = 2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic| chapter = The impact of AIDS on people and societies| chapterurl =http://data.unaids.org/pub/GlobalReport/2006/2006_GR_CH04_en.pdf| accessdate =June 14, 2006| format= PDF| isbn =92-9173-479-9}}</ref> Vurugu zinazohusiana na unyanyapaa au hofu ya vurugu huzuia watu wengi kupima VVU, kurudia matokeo ya vipimo na kutotafuta matibabu. Hali hizi hugeuza ugonjwa wa muda mrefu unaoweza kudhibitiwa kuwa hukumu ya kifo na kuendeleza ueneaji wa VVU.<ref name=Ogden>{{cite web | author = Ogden J, Nyblade L | publisher = [[International Center for Research on Women]] | year = 2005 | title = Common at its core: HIV-related stigma across contexts | url = http://www.icrw.org/docs/2005_report_stigma_synthesis.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = February 15, 2007 | archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/6FEwkK8ZU?url=http://www.icrw.org/publications/common-its-core-hiv-related-stigma-across-contexts | archivedate = 2013-03-19 | = https://www.webcitation.org/6FEwkK8ZU?url=http://www.icrw.org/publications/common-its-core-hiv-related-stigma-across-contexts }}</ref> Unyanyapaa dhidi ya watu wanaoishi na UKIMWI, umegawanywa zaidi katika vikundi vitatu kama ifuatavyo: * ''Unyanyapaa Mkuu wa UKIMWI ''-mawazo ya woga na wasiwasi unaoweza kuhusishwa na ugonjwa wowote aunaoua au kuambukiza.<ref name=Herek1999>{{Rejea jarida| author=Herek GM, Capitanio JP| journal=American Behavioral Scientist| year=1999| url=http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/abs99_sp.pdf| format=PDF| title=AIDS Stigma and sexual prejudice| accessdate=March 27, 2006| volume=42| issue=7| pages=1130–1147| doi=10.1177/0002764299042007006| archive-date=2006-04-09| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060409034211/http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/abs99_sp.pdf| dead-url=yes| =https://web.archive.org/web/20060409034211/http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/abs99_sp.pdf}}</ref> * '' Unyanyapaa wa kiishara wa UKIMWI ''-kutumia VVU/UKIMWI kuonyesha mitazamo fulani dhidi ya vikundi vya jamii au mitindo ya maisha inayohusishwa na ugonjwa huu.<ref name=Herek1999 /> * Unyanyapaa wa kihisani wa UKIMWI''- Unyanyapaa dhidi ya watu wanaohusishwa na suala la VVU/UKIMWI au watu walio na VVU.<ref name=Snyder>{{Rejea jarida|author=Snyder M, Omoto AM, Crain AL |title=Punished for their good deeds: stigmatization for AIDS volunteers |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-behavioral-scientist_1999-04_42_7/page/1175 |journal=American Behavioral Scientist | year=1999 | pages=1175–1192 | volume=42 | issue=7|doi=10.1177/0002764299042007009}}</ref> Mara nyingi, unyanyapaa wa UKIMWI huonyeshwa pamoja na unyanyapaa wa aina moja au nyingine, hasa unyanyapaa unaohusiana na ushoga, [[uasherati]], ukahaba na kutumia dawa za kulevya.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=A.K.|title=Population and society|publisher=Concept Pub. Co.|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788180698187|pages=242|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=sE-VDhEuxmsC&pg=PA242}}</ref> Katika nchi nyingi zilizostawi, kuna uhusiano kati ya UKIMWI na ushoga.<ref name=Herek2002>{{cite journal|last=Herek|first=GM|coauthors=Capitanio, JP; Widaman, KF|title=HIV-related stigma and knowledge in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1991–1999|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-public-health_2002-03_92_3/page/371|journal=American journal of public health|date=2002 Mar|volume=92|issue=3|pages=371–7|pmid=11867313|pmc=1447082|doi=10.2105/AJPH.92.3.371}}</ref><ref name=Herek1999/>Hata hivyo, njia kuu ya kuenea kwa UKIMWI ulimwenguni kote inabakia kuwa maambukizi kati ya wanaume na wanawake, kwa kuwa ndio ngono ya kawaida. <ref>{{cite journal|last=De Cock|first=KM|coauthors=Jaffe, HW; Curran, JW|title=The evolving epidemiology of HIV/AIDS.|journal=AIDS (London, England)|date=2012 Jun 19|volume=26|issue=10|pages=1205-13|pmid=22706007}}</ref> === Athari za kiuchumi === [[File:Life expectancy in some Southern African countries 1958 to 2003.png|thumb|alt=Grafu inayoonyesha mistari kadhaa inayopanda ikifuatiwa na kushuka kwa ghafla kwa mistari hii kuanzia miaka ya katikati mwa 1980 hadi miaka ya 1990|Mabadiliko katika matarajio ya urefu wa maisha katika baadhi ya nchi za Afrika zilizoathiriwa zaidi. {{legend-line|red solid 2px|Botswana}}{{legend-line|darkgreen solid 2px|Zimbabwe}}{{legend-line|blue solid 2px|Kenya}}{{legend-line|black solid 2px|South Africa}}{{legend-line|grey solid 2px|Uganda}}]] VVU/UKIMWI huathiri [[uchumi]] wa watu na nchi.<ref name=M117/> [[Pato la ndani la uzalishaji]] la nchi zilizoathiriwa zaidi limepungua kufuatia ukosefu wa [[rasilimali ya kibinadamu]].<ref name=M117/><ref name="Bell-et-al-2003">{{Rejea jarida|author=Bell C, Devarajan S, Gersbach H|year=2003|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=478060&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000160016_20031110113834|title=The long-run economic costs of AIDS: theory and an application to South Africa|accessdate=April 28, 2008|version=World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3152|format=PDF|journal=|archive-date=2013-06-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605151302/http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=478060&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000160016_20031110113834|dead-url=yes}}</ref>Bila [[lishe bora]], huduma za afya na dawa, watu wengi hufariki kutokana na matatizo yanayohusiana na UKIMWI. Kando ya kutoweza kufanya kazi, watu hao pia huhitaji kiwango kikubwa cha huduma za afya. UKIMWI hupunguza idadi ya watu wanaoweza kulipa [[ushuru]] Kwa kuwaathiri hasa vijana, hivyo kupunguza [[raslimali]] zilizopo za [[matumizi ya serikali|matumizi ya umma]] kama vile [[huduma za elimu]] na afya ambazo hazihusiki na UKIMWI. Hali hii husababisha upungufu wa [[pesa]] za nchi na wa ukuaji wa uchumi. Hali hii kisha hupelekea upungufu wa ukuaji wa msingi wa ushuru, athari ambayo huongezeka iwapo kuna matumizi zaidi katika matibabu, mafunzo (ili kuchukua nafasi ya [[wafanyakazi]] wanaougua), kuwalipa wafanyakazi wagonjwa na kuwatunza mayatima wa UKIMWI. Hali hii hutokea hasa iwapo ongezeko kubwa la vifo vya watu wazima litapelekea kubadilika kwa [[wajibu]] wa kuwatunza mayatima hawa kutoka kwa [[familia]] hadi kwa [[serikali]].<ref name=Greener /> Katika kiwango cha familia, UKIMWI husababisha upungufu wa mapato na pia ongezeko la matumizi katika huduma za afya. Utafiti katika nchi ya [[Côte d'Ivoire]] ulionyesha kuwa familia zilizo na mgonjwa aliye na VVU/UKIMWI zilitumia pesa mara mbili zaidi ya familia nyingine. Matumizi hayo ya ziada pia hupelekea kiwango kidogo zaidi cha mapato ya kutumia katika elimu au [[uwekezaji]] wa kibinafsi au wa kifamilia.<ref name="WBank">{{Rejea jarida| author=Over M| title=The macroeconomic impact of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa, Population and Human Resources Department| publisher=The World Bank| year=1992| url=http://www.worldbank.org/aidsecon/macro.pdf| format=PDF| accessdate=May 3, 2008| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527201655/http://www.worldbank.org/aidsecon/macro.pdf| archivedate=2008-05-27| deadurl=no| journal=}}</ref> === Mayatima === [[Picha: Africa HIV-AIDS 2002.png | haki | frame |Asilimia ya watu waliokuwa wanaishi na VVU katika Afrika miaka 1999-2001]] [[Picha:Ukimwi Afrika 2011.png|350px|thumb|Asilimia ya watu waliokuwa wanaishi na VVU Afrika mnamo mwaka 2011]] Watu wengi ambao wanakufa kutokana na UKIMWI, hasa katika [[Afrika]], huacha watoto ambao bado ni hai, na ambao wanaweza wanahitaji msaada na huduma. Inakadiriwa kuwa kufikia mwaka wa 2007, diadi ya watoto [[yatima kutokana na UKIMWI]] &nbsp;milioni 12.<ref name=M117/> Wengi wao hutunzwa na [[Bibi|nyanya]] na [[babu]] [[wazee]]. <ref name=Greener>{{Rejea kitabu| author = Greener R| year = 2002| title = State of The Art: UKIMWI na Uchumi| chapter = AIDS and macroeconomic impact| editor = S, Forsyth (ed.)| pages = 49–55| publisher = IAEN| url = http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACP969.pdf| access-date = 2017-04-01| archive-date = 2012-10-12| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121012090520/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACP969.pdf| dead-url = yes}}</ref> === Dini na UKIMWI === Mada kuhusu dini na UKIMWI imekuwa ikikumbwa na utata mwingi katika miaka thelathini iliyopita, hasa kwa sababu baadhi ya viongozi wa dini wametangaza hadharani kwamba wanapinga utumiaji kondomu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news-medical.net/health/AIDS-Stigma.aspx |title=AIDS Stigma |publisher=News-medical.net|accessdate=November 1, 2011}}</ref> Mashirika mengine ya dini yamedai kuwa maombi yanatosha kutibu VVU/UKIMWI. Mwaka 2011, BBC iliripoti kuwa baadhi ya makanisa huko [[London]] yalikuwa yakidai kuwa maombi yanatibu UKIMWI. Kituo cha Utafiti wa Afya ya Kiuzazi na VVU cha [[Manispaa ya Hackney, London|Hackney]] kiliripoti kuwa watu wengi waliachma kutumia matibabu, wakati mwingine kwa kushauriwa na [[wachungaji]] wao. Jambo hili lilipelekea vifo vya watu wengi.<ref name=BBC18102011>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-14406818|title=Church HIV prayer cure claims 'cause three deaths'|date=October 18, 2011|accessdate=October 18, 2011|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> [[Synagogue Church Of All Nations]] ilitangaza ''maji ya upako'' ili kuwezesha [[uponyaji]] kutoka kwa [[Mungu]], ingawa ilikana kuwa iliwashauri watu kukoma kutumia matibabu.<ref name=BBC18102011 /> ===Katika vyombo vya habari=== Kimojawapo kati ya visa maarufu zaidi vya UKIMWI kilikuwa cha Mmarekani [[Rock Hudson]], [[muigizaji]] shoga aliyekuwa ameoa kisha kutalaki hapo awali. Hudson alifariki tarehe [[2 Oktoba]] [[1985]] baada ya kutangaza ana VVU tarehe [[25 Julai]] mwaka huohuo. Yeye alikuwa ametambuliwa kuwa na ugonjwa huo mwaka 1984.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/rock-hudson-announces-he-has-aids |title=Rock Hudson announces he has AIDS – History.com This Day in History – 7/25/1985 |publisher=History.com |accessdate=November 1, 2011}}</ref> Mgonjwa mashuhuri kutoka Uingereza mwaka huo alikuwa [[Nicholas Eden]] [[mwanasiasa]] shoga na [[mwana]] wa [[Waziri Mkuu]], [[marehemu]] [[Anthony Eden]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Coleman |first=Brian|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/brian-coleman/2007/06/lady-thatcher-gay-tory |title=Thatcher the gay icon|work=New Statesman |date=June 25, 2007 |accessdate=November 1, 2011}}</ref> Tarehe [[24 Novemba]] [[1991]], virusi hivi vilipelekea kifo cha mwanamuziki wa aina ya [[muziki wa rock]], Mwingereza [[Freddie Mercury]]. Mercury, aliyeongoza [[bendi]] iliyojulikana kama [[Queen (bendi)|Queen]] alifariki kutokana na magonjwa yanayohusiana na UKIMWI baada ya kujulikana kuwa na ugonjwa huo siku iliyopita tu.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/24/newsid_2546000/2546945.stm |title=November 24, 1991: Giant of rock dies |work=BBC On This Day |publisher=BBC News |date= |accessdate=November 1, 2011}}</ref> Hata hivyo, Mercury alikuwa ametambuliwa kuwa na ugonjwa huo mwaka 1987.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/521/000044389/|title=Freddie Mercury |publisher=Nndb.com |accessdate=November 1, 2011}}</ref> Kimojawapo kati ya visa maarufu zaidi vilivyotokana na ngono kati ya watu wa jinsia tofauti ni kile cha [[Arthur Ashe]], [[mchezaji]] [[tenisi]] Mmarekani. Ashe alitambuliwa kuwa na VVU tarehe [[31 Agosti]] [[1988]]; baada ya kuambukizwa alipokuwa akiongezewa damu akifanyiwa [[upasuaji wa moyo]] awali [[miaka ya 1980]]. Vipimo zaidi katika saa 24 baada ya utambuzi wa kwanza vilionyesha kuwa Ashe alikuwa na UKIMWI, lakini hakuwambia watu kuhusu utambuzi huu hadi Aprili [[1992]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Bliss |first=Dominic |url=http://www.itennisstore.com/Tennis-Latest-News/FROZEN-IN-TIME--ARTHUR-ASHE-by-Dominic-Bliss.aspx |title=Frozen In Time: Arthur Ashe |work=iTENNISstore.com |accessdate=June 25, 2012 |archive-date=2013-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730170201/http://www.itennisstore.com/Tennis-Latest-News/FROZEN-IN-TIME--ARTHUR-ASHE-by-Dominic-Bliss.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ashe alifariki kutokana na UKIMWI akiwa na umri wa miaka 49 tarehe [[6 Februari]] [[1993]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/tributes-to-arthur-ashe-1471622.html | title=Tributes to Arthur Ashe | location=London | work=The Independent | date=February 8, 1993 | accessdate=July 24, 2012 | archivedate=2013-03-19 | archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6FEwqou9b?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/tributes-to-arthur-ashe-1471622.html }}</ref> Picha ya [[Therese Frare]] ikionyesha [[mwanaharakati]] wa ushoga [[David Kirby]] akifariki kutokana na UKIMWI huku akizungukwa na familia yake, ilipigwa Aprili mwaka wa 1990. ''[[LIFE magazine]]'' ilisema kuwa picha hiyo ilikuja kufahamika kama picha ''maarufu zaidi kuwahi kuhusishwa na janga la UKIMWI/VVU.'' Picha hiyo iliyochapishwa na [[gazeti]] hilo ilishinda [[tuzo]] la [[World Press Photo]], kisha kupata umaarufu ulimwenguni kote baada ya kutumiwa na [[Benetton Group|United Colors of Benetton]] katika kampeni ya utangazaji ya mwaka 1992.<ref>{{cite web|last=Cosgrove|first=Ben|title=Behind the Picture: Picha Iliyobadilisha Sura ya Ukimwi|url=http://life.time.com/history/behind-the-picture-the-photo-that-changed-the-face-of-aids/#1|work=LIFE magazine|accessdate=16 August 2012|archivedate=2013-03-19|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6FEws9aLJ?url=http://life.time.com/history/behind-the-picture-the-photo-that-changed-the-face-of-aids/#1|https://www.webcitation.org/6FEws9aLJ?url=http://life.time.com/history/behind-the-picture-the-photo-that-changed-the-face-of-aids/#1|=https://www.webcitation.org/6FEws9aLJ?url=http://life.time.com/history/behind-the-picture-the-photo-that-changed-the-face-of-aids/#1}}</ref> === Ukanushaji, njama na hila === Kikundi kidogo cha watu kingali kinakana uhusiano wa VVU na UKIMWI, <ref name=Duesberg>{{cite journal|author=Duesberg, P. H.| title=HIV is not the cause of AIDS|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1988-07-29_241_4865/page/n9| journal=Science | year=1988 | pages=514, 517 | volume=241 |issue=4865| pmid=3399880 | doi=10.1126/science.3399880|bibcode = 1988Sci...241..514D }}{{cite journal| author=Cohen, J.| title=The Controversy over HIV and AIDS| journal=Science | year=1994 | pages=1642–1649 | volume=266 | issue=5191|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1642a.pdf| format = PDF| doi=10.1126/science.7992043|pmid=7992043| accessdate=2009-03-31 | bibcode=1994Sci...266.1642C}}</ref> uwepo wa VVU au ubora wa vipimo vya VVU na njia za matibabu.<ref name=Kalichman>{{cite book|author=Kalichman, Seth|authorlink=Seth Kalichman|title=Denying AIDS: Njama Nadhira, Itikadi na Msiba wa Mwanadamu|publisher=Copernicus Books ([[Springer Science+Business Media]])|location=New York|year=2009|pages=|isbn=978-0-387-79475-4| url =http://books.google.com/?id=_mtDBCDwxugC&printsec=frontcover&q=}}</ref><ref name=SmithNovella>{{cite journal|author=Smith TC, Novella SP|title=HIV Denial in the Internet Era|journal=PLoS Med.|volume=4|issue=8|pages=e256|year=2007|month=August|pmid=17713982|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040256|url=http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040256&ct=1&SESSID=3d4baa1a64e57d8ff33e9d41eb2335a1|accessdate=2009-11-07|pmc=1949841|archive-date=2008-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506012410/http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0040256&ct=1&SESSID=3d4baa1a64e57d8ff33e9d41eb2335a1|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Madai hayo, yanayojulikana kama [[ukanaji UKIMWI]], yamechunguzwa na kukataliwa na jamii ya kisayansi.<ref name=consensus>{{cite web| author=Various| publisher=[[National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases]]|date=Last updated January 14, 2010|url=http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/HIVAIDS/Understanding/howHIVCausesAIDS/Pages/HIVcausesAIDS.aspx| title= Resources and Links, HIV-AIDS Connection| accessdate = 2009-02-22}}</ref>Hata hivyo, madai hayo yana athari kuu kisiasa, hasa nchini [[Afrika Kusini]]. Hatua ya serikali ya nchi hiyo kukubali kirasmi ukanaji wa UKIMWI ilipelekea mwitikio usiofaa wa janga hili, na imelaumiwa kupelekea visa vingi vya maambukizi ya VVU na mamia ya maelfu ya vifo ambavyo vingeepukwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Watson J |title=Scientists, activists sue South Africa's AIDS 'denialists' |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=6 |year=2006 |pmid=16397537|doi=10.1038/nm0106-6a}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Baleta A |title=S Africa's AIDS activists accuse government of murder |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2003-03-29_361_9363/page/n47 |journal=Lancet |volume=361 |issue=9363 |page=1105 |year=2003 |pmid=12672319|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12909-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Cohen J |title=South Africa's new enemy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2000-06-23_288_5474/page/2168 |journal=Science |volume=288 |issue=5474 |pages=2168–70 |year=2000 |pmid=10896606|doi=10.1126/science.288.5474.2168}}</ref> [[Urusi]] ulianzisha [[Operesheni INFEKTION]], uhamasisho wa ulimwengu mzima kueneza habari kuwa VVU/UKIMWI ulitengenezwa na Marekani. Takwimu zinaonyesha kuwa idadi kubwa ya watu wanaamini na wanaendelea kuamini madai hayo. Kuna aina nyingi za [[dhana potovu kuhusu VVU na UKIMWI]]. Dhana tatu kuu ni kwamba UKIMWI unaweza kusambazwa kwa kumgusa mtu, kuwa ngono na [[bikira]] itatibu UKIMWI na kuwa VVU vinaweza tu kuambukiza mashoga na watumiaji wa madawa. Dhana nyingine potovu ni kuwa tendo lolote la ngono ya kinyeo kati ya mashoga wasioambukizwa linaweza kupelekea maambukizi.<ref>{{Rejea kitabu| author=Blechner MJ| title=Hope and mortality: psychodynamic approaches to AIDS and HIV| url=https://archive.org/details/hopemortalitypsy0000unse|publisher=Analytic Press| location=Hillsdale, NJ| year=1997| isbn=0-88163-223-6| unused_data=ISBN status=May be invalid– please double check}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Kirby DB, Laris BA, Rolleri LA |title=Sex and HIV education programs: their impact on sexual behaviors of young people throughout the world |journal=J Adolesc Health |volume=40|issue=3 |pages=206–17 |year=2007|month=March |pmid=17321420 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.11.143 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-adolescent-health_2007-03_40_3/page/206}}</ref> ==Utafiti unavyoendelea== Utafiti wa kuboresha matibabu ya kisasa unajumuisha kupunguza madhara ya ziada ya dawa zilizopo, kurahisisha kanuni za kutumia dawa na kuboresha ubora na kuamua utaratibu bora wa kanuni ili kudhibiti ukinzani wa dawa. Hata hivyo, chanjo pekee ndiyo inayodhaniwa kuweza kusitisha janga hili. Hii ni kwa sababu chanjo ni ya bei nafuu, hivyo [[Taifa linalostawi|mataifa yanayostawi]] yanaweza kuimudu, na haitahitaji matibabu ya kila siku.<ref name=Ferrantelli>{{cite journal|author=Ferrantelli F, Cafaro A, Ensoli B |title=Nonstructural HIV proteins as targets for prophylactic or therapeutic vaccine|journal=Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=543–56|year=2004|month=December|pmid=15560981 |doi=10.1016/j.copbio.2004.10.008}}</ref> Hata hivyo, baada ya miaka 20 ya utafiti, imekuwa vigumu kupata chanjo dhidi ya VVU-1,<ref name=Ferrantelli/><ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Karlsson Hedestam GB, Fouchier RA, Phogat S, Burton DR, Sodroski J, Wyatt RT |title=The challenges of eliciting neutralizing antibodies to HIV-1 and to influenza virus |journal=Nat. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=143–55 |year=2008|month=February |pmid=18197170 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1819}}</ref> hivyo tiba bado haijapatikana. === Upandikizaji seli kuu=== Mwaka wa 2007, Timothy Ray Brown,<ref name=ghivberlin>{{cite news|title=German HIV patient cured after stem cell transplant|url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/german-hiv-patient-cured-after-stem-cell-transplant-15030473.html|accessdate=December 15, 2010|newspaper=[[Belfast Telegraph]]|date=December 15, 2010}}</ref> mwanaume wa umri wa miaka 40 aliyekuwa na VVU, pia anayejulikana kama "the Berlin Patient" alipewa huduma ya [[upandikizaji seli kuu za damu|pandikizo la seli kuu]] kama mojawapo ya matibabu ya [[lukemia sugu ya mieloidi]] (LSM).<ref name = Blood>{{cite journal|last=Allers|first=K|coauthors=Hütter, G; Hofmann, J; Loddenkemper, C; Rieger, K; Thiel, E; Schneider, T|title=Evidence for the cure of HIV infection by CCR5Δ32/Δ32 stem cell transplantation|journal=Blood|date=2011-03-10|volume=117|issue=10|pages=2791–9|pmid=21148083|doi=10.1182/blood-2010-09-309591}}</ref>Pandikizo la pili lilifanyika mwaka uliofuata baada ya kuugua tena. Mfadhili alichanguliwa sio tu kwa kuwa ana [[antijeni ya leukositi ya binadamu|upatanifu wa kijeni]] lakini pia kwa kuwa alikuwa na [[utangamano]] wa kubadilika kwa [[CCR5-Δ32]] ambayo huwezesha ukinzani dhidi ya maambukizi ya VVU.<ref name="Wall Street Journal 2008">{{cite news | author=Mark Schoofs | title=A Doctor, a Mutation and a Potential Cure for AIDS | url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122602394113507555.html | accessdate=2008-11-09|publisher=The Wall Street Journal| date=November 7, 2008}}</ref><ref name=Huetter2009>{{cite journal |author=Hütter G, Nowak D, Mossner M, Ganepola S, Ganepola A, Allers K, Schneider T, Hofmann J, Kücherer C, Blau O, Blau IW, Hofmann WK, Thiel E |title=Long-Term Control of HIV by CCR5 Delta32/Delta32 Stem-Cell Transplantation |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=360 |issue=7 |pages=692–698 |year=2009 |pmid=19213682 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa0802905 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/360/7/692 |accessdate=2009-03-31 |archive-date=2009-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213112056/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/360/7/692 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Baada ya miezi 20 bila matibabu ya dawa za kudhibiti VVU, iliripotiwa kuwa viwango vya VVU kwenye damu ya Brown [[uboho]] na matumbo vilikuwa chini ya kiwango cha kutambulika.<ref name=Huetter2009/>Virusi hivi vilibakia katika kiwango hicho kwa miaka mitatu baada ya upandikizo wa kwanza.<ref name=Blood/>Ingawa watafiti na baadhi ya wachambuzi wanasema kuwa matokeo haya ni tiba, wengine wao wanadokeza kuwa virusi hivi vinaweza kuwa vimejificha ndani ya tishu<ref name=NEJMLevy/>kama vile ubongo (unaotumika kama [[ufiche wa virusi|hifadhi]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nath|first=A|coauthors=Clements, JE|title=Eradication of HIV from the brain: reasons for pause|journal=AIDS (London, England)|date=2011-03-13|volume=25|issue=5|pages=577–80|pmid=21160414|doi=10.1097/QAD.0b013e3283437d2f}}(subscription required)</ref> Matibabu ya seli kuu yamebakia chini ya [[utafiti wa kiafya |kuchunguzwa]] kwa sababu ya asili yake ya [[ushahidi wa kinadharia|kinadharia]], ugonjwa wenywe na hatari ya kufa inayohusishwa na upandikizaji wa seli kuu na ugumu wa kupata wafadhili mwafaka.<ref name=NEJMLevy>{{cite journal |author=Levy JA |title=Not an HIV Cure, but Encouraging New Directions |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=360 |issue=7 |pages=724–725 |year=2009 |doi=10.1056/NEJMe0810248 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/360/7/724 |accessdate=2009-03-31 |pmid=19213687 |archive-date=2009-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215235206/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/360/7/724 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite pmid|21331536}}(subscription required)</ref> === Matibabu ya kuboresha kingamwili === Matibabu saidizi za kudhibiti uigaji wa virusi, [[matibabu ya kingamwili,|matibabu ya kingamwili]] zinazoweza kusaidia kuboresha mfumo wa kingamwili zilizochunguzwa awali, na juhudi zinazoendelea ni pamoja na [[Interleukin-2|IL-2]] na [[Interleukin-7|IL-7]].<ref name="Tincati-2009">{{cite journal|last=Tincati|first=C|coauthors=d'Arminio Monforte, A; Marchetti, G|title=Immunological mechanisms of interleukin-2 (IL-2) treatment in HIV/AIDS disease|journal=Current molecular pharmacology|date=2009 Jan|volume=2|issue=1|pages=40–5|pmid=20021444|doi=10.2174/1874467210902010040}}</ref> Kutofaulu kwa chanjo kadhaa kukinga dhidi ya maambukizi ya VVU na kuendelea kwa UKIMWI kumepelekea mwelekeo mpya wa kuzingatia taratibu za kibayolojia zinazosababisha ufiche wa VVU. Kipindi kifupi cha matibabu ya kuunganisha dawa za kudhibiti VVU na dawa zinazolenga hifadhi fiche siku moja kinaweza kutokomeza maambukizi ya VVU.<ref name =Bowman>{{cite journal | author=Bowman MC, Archin NM, Margolis DM. | title=Pharmaceutical approaches to eradication of persistent HIV infection | journal=Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine |year=2009| volume=11 | issue=e6 | pmid=19208267 |doi=10.1017/S1462399409000970 | pages=e6 }}</ref>Watafiti wamegundua [[abusaimu]] inayoweza kuharibu eneo la kufungia protini ya [[gp120]] CD4. Protini hii hupatikana katika aina zote za VVU kwa sababu ndiyo ncha ambapo [[seli za B|limfosaiti za B]] hujishikisha kisha kuafikiana kwa mfumo wa kingamwili.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Planque S, Nishiyama Y, Taguchi H, Salas M, Hanson C, Paul S |title=Catalytic antibodies to HIV: Physiological role and potential clinical utility |journal=Autoimmun Rev |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=473–9 |year=2008 |month=June|pmid=18558365|doi=10.1016/j.autrev.2008.04.002 |url= |pmc=2527403}}</ref> == Tanbihi == {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book | editor1-last = Mandell | editor1-first = Gerald L. | editor2-last = Bennett | editor2-first =John E.| editor3-last = Dolin | editor3-first = Raphael |title=Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases | year=2010 | publisher = Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier | location = Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0-443-06839-3 | edition = 7th }} * {{cite book|author=[[Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS]] (UNAIDS) |title=Global HIV/AIDS Response, Epidemic update and health sector progress towards universal access|year=2011|publisher=Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/20111130_UA_Report_en.pdf}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|AIDS}} * {{Dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Immune_Disorders/Immune_Deficiency/AIDS/|HIV/AIDS}} * [http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/ AIDSinfo] {{Wayback|url=http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/ |date=20110225133251 }} – HIV/AIDS Treatment Information, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services * [Http://www.who.int/3by5/en/ Shirika la Afya Duniani Mashirika 3 na 5 Initiative] * [Http://www.accessmed-msf.org/index.asp Médecins Sans Frontières: Kampeni ya upatikanaji wa madawa muhimu] {{Wayback|url=http://www.accessmed-msf.org/index.asp |date=20050812004522 }} * [Http://www.who.int/hiv/en/ WHO Mpango wa VVU / UKIMWI] * [Http://www.aegis.org/en/ Elimu UKIMWI Mfumo wa Taarifa za Global] * [Http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ Kutoka Taasisi ya Taifa ya Marekani ya Afya] {{Wayback|url=http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ |date=20210322035857 }} * [Http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/8/749 New England Journal of Medicine Ibara "Ruhusu dhidi ya Wagonjwa? Kurefusha maisha Tiba katika India"] {{Wayback|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/8/749 |date=20090501234727 }} * [Http://www.aidsportal.org AIDSPortal maarifa mtandao] * [http://www.unaids.org/en/ Tovuti ya Shirika la Umoja wa Mataifa la Masuala ya Ukimwi, UNAIDS] {{Wayback|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/ |date=20130210215850 }} * [http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu HIV InSite] {{Wayback|url=http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/ |date=20191213225029 }} * [http://www.sida.fr/ sida.fr • un centre pour les malades du SIDA • infos • tèmoignages • actualités] [[Jamii:Dalili]] [[Jamii:Ukimwi]] kwlzqk0wq798tkgqc87nb18jbs9lziw 0 1996 1580207 1529688 2026-07-18T01:19:16Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580207 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Codex Bruchsal 1 01v cropped.jpg|thumb|Yesu Kristo.]] {{Yesu Kristo}} {{Ukristo}} [[Picha:Ellenrieder Jesus als Kinderfreund 1845.jpg|thumb|Yesu.]] '''Yesu''' (kwa [[Kiebrania]] יֵשׁוּעַ, Yeshua, [[kifupisho]] cha יהושע‎, Yehoshua, yaani "Mungu anaokoa") alikuwa [[Myahudi]] [[mwanamume]] aliyeishi miaka 2000 hivi iliyopita (labda [[6 KK]] - [[30]] [[BK]]). Alizaliwa na [[bikira Maria]] kwa uwezo wa [[Roho Mtakatifu]], huko [[Bethlehemu]] ya [[Uyahudi]]. [[Maisha]] yake yalikuwa ya pekee kwa kuwa alifahamu vitu vingi kwa mfano: sheria hata kuwazidi walimu wa sheria japokuwa hakusomea sheria. Alifanya pia maajabu mengi. Ndiyo maana leo hii zaidi ya [[nusu]] ya [[wanadamu]] wote wanamuamini kuwa [[Mwana wa Mungu]] (ndio wanaoitwa [[Wakristo]]) au walau [[nabii]] (hasa [[Waislamu]]). Kutokana na umuhimu wake katika [[historia]] ya [[binadamu]], kwa kawaida miaka yote inahesabiwa kuanzia [[ujio]] wake (ulivyokadiriwa na [[Denis Mdogo]] kimakosa katika [[karne ya 6]]). == Misingi ya ujuzi wetu juu yake == [[Picha:P52 recto.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Papyrus P52]], iliyoandikwa kwa [[Kigiriki]] mwaka [[125]] hivi, inahesabika kuwa andiko la zamani zaidi kutufikia kuhusu Yesu. Ina sehemu za [[Injili ya Yohane]]; mbele 18:31-33, nyuma 18;37-38.]] Yesu hakuacha [[Maandishi|maandiko]] yoyote. [[Habari]] zake zinapatikana hasa katika [[Biblia]], kwa namna ya pekee katika [[Injili]] na [[vitabu]] vingine vya [[Agano Jipya]]. Nje ya [[Ukristo]] kuna habari fupi kuhusu Yesu katika maandiko ya [[waandishi]] wa [[Roma]], [[Wagiriki]] na Wayahudi. Habari hizo zinaangaliwa sana kwa sababu zimetungwa na watu wasiomwamini Yesu [[Dini|kidini]]. Kwa ujumla zinathibitisha ya kwamba Yesu alikuwepo, na kwamba wakati hao walipoandika alikuwa na [[wafuasi]] huko [[Roma]] na ya kwamba awali Waroma hawakuelewa tofauti kati ya wafuasi wake na Wayahudi. Kati ya waandishi hao muhimu ni hasa: 1. [[Mtaalamu]] Myahudi [[Flavius Josephus]]: huyo aliandika mnamo [[90]] BK kitabu cha "Antiquitates Judaicae“ (Habari za [[historia]] ya Wayahudi) akitaja [[kifo]] cha "[[Yakobo ndugu wa Yesu]]“ (sura ya 20, 200). 2. Mwandishi Mroma [[Tacitus]]: huyo aliandika mnamo mwaka [[117]] ya kwamba [[Kaisari Nero]] alishtaki kikundi cha “Chrestiani” ya kuwa wamechoma [[moto]] [[mji]] wa Roma. Aliongeza: “Mtu ambaye ni asili ya jina hilo ni Chrestus aliyeuawa wakati wa [[Tiberio]] kwa [[amri]] ya [[Pontio Pilato]]” (Annales XV,44). 3. Mwandishi Mroma [[Svetonius]]: huyo alimtaja “Chrestos” katika kitabu chake juu ya [[maisha]] ya [[Kaisari Klaudio]] (25,4) ya kwamba huyu amesababisha [[fujo]] kati ya Wayahudi wa Roma hivyo [[Kaisari]] aliwafukuza wote mjini. 4. [[Mwanasiasa]] Mroma [[Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus]]: huyo aliacha [[barua]] kadhaa zinazotaja Wakristo mnamo mwaka [[100]] BK. Alimwuliza [[Kaisari Traianus]] jinsi ya kushughulikia Wakristo waliokataa kutoa [[sadaka]] mbele ya [[sanamu]] za Kaisari. == Mazingira yake == Nchi ambayo [[Krismasi|Yesu alizaliwa]] akafundisha ni nchi ileile ambayo [[Mungu]] aliwaahidia [[Waisraeli]] tangu zamani za [[Abrahamu]], ni nchi ileile waliyoiteka chini ya [[Yoshua]], ni nchi ileile waliyoirudia kutoka [[Utumwa|utumwani]] [[Babeli]]. Lakini wakati wote wa [[Agano Jipya]], yaani tangu Yesu alipozaliwa hadi mwisho wa maisha ya [[Mitume wa Yesu|mitume wake]], nchi hiyo haikuwa huru, bali chini ya [[himaya]] ya [[Warumi]], ingawa pengine hao waliwakabidhi [[vibaraka]], yaani [[watawala]] [[wenyeji]] waliowekwa na [[wakoloni]]. Vibaraka hao ni [[Herode Mkuu]] ([[37 KK]]-[[4 KK]]) na wazawa wake, ambao tena hawakuwa Waisraeli halisi bali [[Waedomu]] ingawa [[kabila]] lao lililazimishwa kuingia [[dini]] ya [[Uyahudi]] [[karne]] iliyotangulia. [[Ukoo]] huo unajulikana kwa [[ukatili]], [[uchu wa madaraka]] na [[uzinifu]] wake. Vilevile ma[[liwali]] wa Kirumi waliowekwa pengine kutawala nchi au sehemu fulani walionyesha mara nyingi ukatili na [[dharau]] kwa Waisraeli na dini yao, hata kusababisha [[chuki]] na mapigano kati ya [[jeshi]] na wananchi. Mfano mmojawapo ni [[Ponsyo Pilato]] aliyesimamia [[Uyahudi]] kuanzia mwaka [[26]] hadi [[36]] BK. Mbali na hayo, [[utawala]] wa [[Dola la Roma]], ulioenea [[Ulaya]] [[Magharibi]] na [[Kusini]], [[Afrika]] [[Kaskazini]] na nchi za [[Mashariki ya Kati]] kupakana na [[Iraq]] ya leo, kwa jumla ulihakikisha hali ya [[amani]] kwa muda wote wa Agano Jipya na karne za kwanza za [[Kanisa]]. Hali hiyo, pamoja na [[umoja]] wa [[dola]] hilo lote, na urahisi wa [[mawasiliano]] kwa njia ya [[barabara]] zilizotengenezwa na Warumi, na [[uenezi]] wa [[lugha ya kimataifa]] ([[Kiyunani]], yaani [[Kigiriki]] cha zamani), ilichangia kasi ya uenezaji wa habari njema ([[Injili]]). [[Lugha]] hiyo ndiyo iliyotumiwa na waandishi wote wa Agano Jipya ili vitabu vyao viwafaidishe watu wengi zaidi, ingawa baadhi yao hawakuijua vizuri. [[Lugha mama]] ya Yesu na ya Mitume ilikuwa [[Kiaramu]] ambacho ni jamii ya [[Kiyahudi]] na ambacho polepole kilishika nafasi yake kati ya Wayahudi kuanzia [[karne ya 6 KK]]. Hao wote walitokea [[mkoa]] wa [[Galilaya]], uliokuwa na mchanganyiko wa watu (Waisraeli na mataifa), kiasi kwamba huko Wayahudi wenyewe walifuata kwa urahisi [[desturi]] za Kiyunani hata wakadharauliwa na wenzao wa [[Kusini]] ([[Yerusalemu]] na mkoa wa [[Yudea]]). Kati ya mikoa hiyo miwili ulienea mkoa wa [[Samaria]] ambao wakazi wake walijenga [[uadui]] mkubwa na Wayahudi baada ya [[uhamisho wa Babeli]], walipokataliwa kuchangia [[ujenzi]] wa [[hekalu la Yerusalemu|hekalu]] la pili la Yerusalemu. == Maisha yake == [[Dionisi Mdogo]], [[mmonaki]] aliyeanzisha (mwaka [[533]] hivi) mtindo wa kuhesabu miaka tangu kuzaliwa Yesu kurudi nyuma ([[K.K.]]) au kwenda mbele ([[B.K.]]), alikosea [[hesabu]] zake. Leo tunakisia Yesu alizaliwa mwaka 6 hivi K.K. kwa sababu alizaliwa [[Bethlehemu]] chini ya Herode Mkuu aliyefariki tayari mwaka 4 K.K. Huyo alipojaribu kumuua [[mtoto Yesu]], [[familia takatifu]] ilikimbilia [[Misri]] mpaka baada ya kufa kwa Herode. Hapo ikarudi Galilaya hata Yesu akajulikana kwa jina la [[kijiji]] cha [[Nazareti]] kilichodharauliwa na Wagalilaya pia. Ndipo alipokulia na kuishi akifanya [[kazi]] ya [[ufundi]]. Hivyo Yesu alitumia sehemu kubwa ya maisha yake kijijini akiwatii wazee wake Maria na Yosefu na kufanya kazi za [[mikono]]. “Alishuka pamoja nao mpaka Nazareti, naye alikuwa akiwatii” ([[Lk]] 2:51). Kwa namna hiyo ametuachia kielelezo cha [[utakatifu]] katika [[maisha]] ya [[familia]] na ya kazi ambayo ndiyo njia ya kawaida ya kukomaa kiutu na kumtumikia Mungu. “Mnyenyekeane katika kicho cha Kristo” ([[Ef]] 5:21). Mwaka [[26]] hivi BK [[ndugu]] yake [[Yohane Mbatizaji]] aliacha maisha ya [[jangwa]]ni alikokulia na kuanza kuhubiri [[toba]] kandokando ya [[mto]] [[Yordani]]. Kwa kuwa Waisraeli walikosa [[manabii]] kwa muda mrefu, na walitamani sana [[ukombozi]], walimuendea kwa wingi hata wakamtia [[hofu]] [[Herode Antipa]]. Ingawa huyo akamfunga mapema akamuua, kazi ya Yohane ilikuwa imetimia kwa sababu aliweza kuwaandaa Waisraeli wengi (hasa watu wadogo na [[wakosefu]]) wampokee Yesu aliyebatizwa naye. Katika nafasi hiyo Yohane alimtambulisha kama [[Mwanakondoo wa Mungu]] aondoaye [[dhambi]] ya [[ulimwengu]]. Ndipo Yesu naye alipoanza kuhubiri, lakini pia kutenda [[Miujiza ya Yesu|miujiza]] ya kila aina, akapata haraka wafuasi wengi. Kati yao akachagua [[Mitume wa Yesu|Mitume]] wake 12 kama [[msingi]] mpya wa [[taifa la Mungu]] badala ya Israeli ya kale. Alifanya kazi hizo kuanzia Galilaya, akitangaza [[ujio]] wa [[ufalme wa Mungu]], kwa maana ya kwamba [[ufalme]] uliotazamiwa na Wayahudi umewajia kwa njia yake. Ingawa hakupitia [[shule]] yoyote ya [[Biblia]], Yesu alionekana anafundisha vizuri kuliko [[walimu wa sheria]] wa kawaida, kama mtu mwenye [[mamlaka]] juu ya [[Torati]]. Mafundisho yake yalilingana na yale ya [[Mafarisayo]] kuliko na yale ya [[Masadukayo]], lakini alishindana pia na hao wa kwanza. [[Kijicho]] na [[upinzani]] vikazidi hasa Yerusalemu, walipoanza kufanya [[njama]] za kumuua. Ingawa Yesu alijua hayo, alijikaza kwenda katika huo [[mji mtakatifu]] autangazie habari njema na kufia huko. Baada ya kupokewa kwa [[shangwe]] kabla ya [[sherehe]] ya [[Pasaka]] ya mwaka 30 (au [[33]]) akakamatwa na [[baraza la Israeli]] kwa [[tuhuma]] ya [[kufuru]] ya kujilinganisha na [[Mungu]], halafu akakabidhiwa kwa liwali wa Kirumi aliyekuwa na mamlaka ya kutoa [[adhabu ya kifo]]. Baada ya kikao ambapo Wayahudi walitafuta [[kisingizio]] cha ki[[siasa]], Ponsyo Pilato akalazimika kuagiza [[Msalaba wa Yesu|Yesu asulubiwe]], na kisha kufa kwake [[kaburi]] lilindwe na [[askari]]. Hata hivyo [[siku]] ya [[tatu]] kaburi likaonekana tupu, na Yesu akaanza kuwatokea wanafunzi wake [[Wanawake|wa kike]] na wa kiume kwa muda wa [[siku]] [[arubaini]], halafu [[Kupaa Bwana|akapaa mbinguni]] mbele ya macho yao. Habari hizo zikatangazwa kwa [[sauti]] tu kwa miaka kadhaa, halafu zikaanza kuandikwa. [[Kanisa]] linaheshimu kwa namna ya pekee, kama [[ushuhuda]] mkuu juu ya maisha na mafundisho ya Yesu na kama [[moyo]] wa Maandiko matakatifu yote, Injili nne zilizoandikwa na [[Marko]], [[Mtume Mathayo|Mathayo]], [[Mwinjili Luka]] na [[Mtume Yohane|Yohane]] kati ya mwaka [[65]] na [[100]] hivi. Ni muhimu kujua maisha ya Yesu kwa sababu matendo na maneno yake, pamoja na [[kimya]] na [[sala]] yake, na hasa [[Kifo cha Yesu|kifo]] na [[Ufufuko wa Yesu|ufufuko wake]], yote yanatufunulia [[Mungu Baba|Baba]] na matakwa yake kwetu. “Mambo ya Yesu wa Nazareti, aliyekuwa mtu nabii, mwenye uwezo katika kutenda na kunena mbele za Mungu na watu wote” ([[Lk]] 24:19). Baada ya kujua maisha ya Yesu tunapaswa kujilinganisha naye hadi aundwe na kuishi ndani mwetu akitushirikisha [[uhai]], kifo na ufufuko wake. “Nimesulibiwa pamoja na Kristo; lakini ni hai; wala si mimi tena, bali Kristo yu hai ndani yangu, na uhai nilio nao sasa katika mwili, ninao katika imani ya Mwana wa Mungu, ambaye alinipenda akajitoa nafsi yake kwa ajili yangu… Vitoto vyangu, ambao kwamba nawaonea utungu tena mpaka Kristo aumbike ndani yenu!” ([[Gal]] 2:20; 4:19). == Sala zake == (Math 11:25-26) Nakushukuru, Baba, Bwana wa mbingu na nchi, kwa kuwa mambo haya uliwaficha wenye hekima na akili, ukawafunulia watoto wachanga. Naam, Baba, kwa kuwa ndivyo ilivyopendeza mbele zako (Yoh 11:41-42) Baba, nakushukuru kwa kuwa umenisikia. Nami nalijua ya kuwa wewe wanisikia sikuzote; lakini kwa ajili ya mkutano huu wanaohudhuria nalisema haya, ili wapate kusadiki kwamba ndiwe uliyenituma. (Yoh 17:1-26) Baba, saa imekwisha kufika. Mtukuze Mwanao, ili Mwana wako naye akutukuze wewe; kama vile ulivyompa mamlaka juu ya wote wenye mwili, ili kwamba wote uliompa awape uzima wa milele. Na uzima wa milele ndio huu: wakujue wewe, Mungu wa pekee wa kweli, na Yesu Kristo uliyemtuma. Mimi nimekutukuza duniani, hali nimeimaliza kazi ile uliyonipa niifanye. Na sasa, Baba, unitukuze mimi pamoja nawe, kwa utukufu ule niliokuwa nao pamoja nawe kabla ya ulimwengu kuwako. Jina lako nimewadhihirishia watu wale ulionipa katika ulimwengu; walikuwa wako, ukanipa mimi, na neno lako wamelishika. Sasa wamejua ya kuwa yote uliyonipa yatoka kwako. Kwa kuwa maneno uliyonipa nimewapa wao; nao wakayapokea, wakajua hakika ya kuwa nalitoka kwako, wakasadiki ya kwamba wewe ndiwe uliyenituma. Mimi nawaombea hao; siuombei ulimwengu; bali hao ulionipa, kwa kuwa hao ni wako; na wote walio wangu ni wako, na walio wako ni wangu; nami nimetukuzwa ndani yao. Wala mimi simo tena ulimwenguni, lakini hawa wamo ulimwenguni, nami naja kwako. Baba mtakatifu, kwa jina lako ulilonipa uwalinde hawa, ili wawe na umoja kama sisi tulivyo. Nilipokuwapo pamoja nao, mimi naliwalinda kwa jina lako ulilonipa, nikawatunza; wala hapana mmojawapo wao aliyepotea, ila yule mwana wa upotevu, ili andiko litimie. Na sasa naja kwako; na maneno haya nayasema ulimwenguni, ili wawe na furaha yangu imetimizwa ndani yao. Mimi nimewapa neno lako, na ulimwengu umewachukia, kwa kuwa wao si wa ulimwengu, kama mimi nisivyo wa ulimwengu. Mimi siombi kwamba uwatoe katika ulimwengu; bali uwalinde na yule mwovu. Wao si wa ulimwengu, kama mimi nisivyo wa ulimwengu. Uwatakase kwa ile kweli; neno lako ndiyo kweli. Kama vile ulivyonituma mimi ulimwenguni, nami vivyo hivyo naliwatuma hao ulimwenguni. Na kwa ajili yao najiweka wakfu mwenyewe, ili na hao watakaswe katika kweli. Wala si hao tu ninaowaombea; lakini na wale watakaoniamini kwa sababu ya neno lao. Wote wawe na umoja; kama wewe, Baba, ulivyo ndani yangu, nami ndani yako, hao nao wawe ndani yetu, ili ulimwengu upate kusadiki ya kwamba wewe ndiwe uliyenituma. Nami utukufu ule ulionipa nimewapa wao, ili wawe na umoja kama sisi tulivyo umoja. Mimi ndani yao, nawe ndani yangu, ili wawe wamekamilika katika umoja; ili ulimwengu ujue ya kuwa ndiwe uliyenituma, ukawapenda wao kama ulivyonipenda mimi. Baba, hao ulionipa nataka wawe pamoja nami popote nilipo, wapate na kuutazama utukufu wangu ulionipa; kwa maana ulinipenda kabla ya kuwekwa msingi ulimwengu. Baba mwenye haki, ulimwengu haukukujua; lakini mimi nalikujua, na hao wamejua ya kuwa ndiwe uliyenituma. Nami naliwajulisha jina lako, tena nitawajulisha hilo, ili pendo lile ulilonipenda mimi liwe ndani yao, nami niwe ndani yao. (Mk 14:36) Aba, Baba, yote yawezekana kwako; uniondolee kikombe hiki; walakini, si kama nitakavyo mimi, bali utakavyo wewe. (Mk 15:34) Eloi, Eloi, lama sabakthani? (maana yake, Mungu wangu, Mungu wangu, mbona umeniacha?) (Lk 23:46) Ee Baba, mikononi mwako naiweka roho yangu. == Imani juu yake == Waumini wake wanaunda Kanisa la Kikristo ambalo linapatikana leo katika [[madhehebu]] mengi. Karibu wote wanamwamini kuwa Mungu aliyechukua [[umbile]] la mwanadamu au, kwa lugha nyingine, kuwa [[Mwana wa Mungu]]. Kwa imani hiyo, Yesu ni Mungu na mtu kwa pamoja, ndiyo sababu ni mshenga pekee kati ya Mungu na watu. “Kwa sababu Mungu ni mmoja, na mpatanishi kati ya Mungu na wanadamu ni mmoja, mwanadamu Kristo Yesu” ([[1Tim]] 2:5). “Katika yeye unakaa utimilifu wote wa Mungu, kwa jinsi ya kimwili” ([[Kol]] 2:9). Hivyo ni Mungu kweli na mtu kweli. Umungu na utu wa Yesu vimeunganika katika nafsi moja visichanganyikane, kwa kuwa ndani yake hali hizo mbili zinatenda kila moja ya kwake. “Basi yule akida, aliyesimama hapo akimwelekea, alipoona ya kuwa alikata roho jinsi hii, akasema, ‘Hakika mtu huyu alikuwa Mwana wa Mungu’” ([[Mk]] 15:39). Mwana wa Mungu tangu [[Umwilisho|atwae mwili]] ni mtu kamili mwenye akili na utashi wa kibinadamu. Katika umoja wa nafsi yake vipawa hivyo vinatenda kulingana na Umungu anaouchanga na Baba na Roho Mtakatifu milele. “Hayo maneno niwaambiayo mimi siyasemi kwa shauri langu; lakini Baba akaaye ndani yangu huzifanya kazi zake” ([[Yoh]] 14:10). Hapa [[duniani]] Yesu alizaliwa na [[Bikira Maria]] kama malaika alivyomuambia: “Roho Mtakatifu atakujilia juu yako, na nguvu zake Aliye juu zitakufunika kama kivuli; kwa sababu hiyo, hicho kitakachozaliwa kitaitwa kitakatifu, Mwana wa Mungu” ([[Lk]] 1:35). Hata hivyo Wakristo wachache wanaamini kuwa yeye ni [[mtume]] wa pekee wa Mungu ila si Mungu. Katika dini ya [[Uislamu]], Yesu anajulikana kama [[Nabii]] [[Isa]]. Waislamu wanaamini kuwa yeye alikuwa nabii wa Mungu ila hakuwa mwana wa Mungu wala Mungu. == Maadhimisho yake == Maisha yake yamekuwa msingi wa [[sikukuu]] mbalimbali zinazosheherekewa katika nchi nyingi duniani, kama vile Noeli au [[Krismasi]] (kuzaliwa kwake), [[Epifania]] (kuonekana kwake na kubatizwa kwake), [[Majilio]] (kuandaliwa kwa ujio wake wa kwanza na kutarajia [[ujio wa pili]]), [[Kwaresima]] ([[saumu|mafungo]] na [[mateso]] yake), [[Ijumaa Kuu]] (kifo chake); muhimu kuliko zote ni [[Pasaka]] (kufufuka kwake). == Tazama pia == * [[Yesu Kristo|- Makala "Yesu Kristo": mafundisho ya Kikristo kuhusu Yesu]] * [[Isa|- Makala "Isa": mafundisho ya Uislamu kuhusu Yesu]] * [[Masiya|- Makala juu ya cheo "Kristo"]] == Tanbihi == {{reflist|colwidth=30em}} == Marejeo == {{refbegin|30em}} <!--* {{cite book|last1=Ankerberg|first1=John |authorlink1=John Ankerberg| first2=Emir |last2=Caner |title=The Truth about Islam and Jesus|year=2009|publisher=Harvest House Publishers|isbn=978-0-7369-3663-7|page=19|url=http://books.google.com/?id=-XgH1R2AhbgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}}--> * {{cite book|first=Craig L.|last=Blomberg|authorlink=Craig Blomberg|title=Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey|year=2009|isbn= 978-0-8054-4482-7| url=http://books.google.com/?id=U5rIPC1UgsgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv |publisher=B&H Publishing Group}} * {{cite book|title=The people's New Testament commentary|first1= M. Eugene |last1=Boring|first2= Fred B. |last2=Craddock |authorlink2=Fred Craddock |year=2004 |isbn= 978-0-664-22754-8|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=N0tLXRIiIe0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|title=The Gospel and Epistles of John: A Concise Commentary|first=Raymond E. |last=Brown |authorlink=Raymond E. Brown |year=1988 |isbn= 978-0-8146-1283-5 |ref=harv |publisher=Liturgical Press |url=http://books.google.com/?id=JIM0Q0bjgYkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=Brown|first= Raymond E.|title= An Introduction to the New Testament|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00brow_0|publisher= Doubleday |year=1997| isbn= 978-0-385-24767-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Carter|first=Warren|authorlink=Warren Carter|title=Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8146-5113-1|ref=harv |url=http://books.google.com/?id=mvhHcXKK0UEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher= Liturgical Press}} * {{cite book|title=Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research |first1= Bruce|last1= Chilton |authorlink1=Bruce Chilton |first2= Craig A.|last2= Evans |authorlink2=Craig A. Evans |year= 1998| isbn= 978-90-04-11142-4 |publisher=Brill |ref=harv |url= http://books.google.com/?id=AJM9grxOjjMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|first1=Steven L.|last1=Cox|first2=Kendell H|last2=Easley|year=2007|title=Harmony of the Gospels|isbn=978-0-8054-9444-0 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=QjmwuFUksOQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false | ref=harv |publisher=B&H Publishing Group}} * {{cite book|first1=John D.|last1=Crossan|authorlink1=John Dominic Crossan|first2=Richard G.|last2=Watts|title=Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the Historical Jesus|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press| year=1999|isbn=978-0-664-25842-9|ref=harv |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XNkKf5htZq4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=Dickson|first= John |authorlink= John Dickson (author) |title=Jesus: A Short Life|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusshortlife0000dick_v0i4|publisher= Kregel Publications|year= 2008| isbn= 978-0-8254-7802-4|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Dillenberger|first=John|authorlink=John Dillenberger|title=Images and Relics : Theological Perceptions and Visual Images in Sixteenth-Century Europe: Theological Perceptions and Visual Images in Sixteenth-Century Europe|url=https://archive.org/details/imagesrelicstheo0000dill|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-19-976146-3|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first1=John R. |last1=Donahue|first2= Daniel J.|last2= Harrington|authorlink2=Daniel J. 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Yamauchi}} * {{cite book|title=The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke|first1= Ján|last1= Majerník|first2= Joseph|last2= Ponessa|first3= Laurie W. |last3=Manhardt|year= 2005 |isbn= 978-1-931018-31-9|ref=harv |url=http://books.google.com/?id=cqP5xHXGYPQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=Emmaus Road Publishing}} * {{cite book | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=v26doW8jIyYC&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q&f=false | title=Christianity: An Introduction | publisher=John Wiley & Sons | last=McGrath | first=Alister E. | authorlink=Alister McGrath | year=2006 | pages=4–6 | isbn=978-1-4051-0899-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia|last=Meier|first=John P.|authorlink=John P. Meier|title=How do we decide what comes from Jesus|encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research|editor-last1= Dunn |editor-last2=McKnight|year= 2006 |isbn= 978-1-57506-100-9 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=37uJRUF6btAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv|editor1-first=James D.G. |publisher=Eisenbrauns |editor2-first=Scot}} * {{cite book|last1=Mills|first1=Watson E.|last2=Bullard|first2=Roger A.|year=1998|title=Mercer dictionary of the Bible|publisher=Mercer University Press| isbn= 978-0-86554-373-7|ref=harv |url=http://books.google.com/?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=Morris|first= Leon|authorlink=Leon Morris|year=1992|title= The Gospel according to Matthew|publisher= Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn= 978-0-85111-338-8|url=http://books.google.com/?id=-pwaSKcHyEEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Niswonger|first=Richard L.|title=New Testament History|year=1992|isbn=978-0-310-31201-7|ref=harv |publisher= Zondervan |url= http://books.google.com/?id=uyAXaNnz9sUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=Pannenberg|first=Wolfhart |authorlink=Wolfhart Pannenberg |url=http://books.google.com/?id=zWfvlpURwiIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Jesus—God and Man|year=1968|isbn=978-0-334-00783-8|publisher=S.C.M. Press |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Powell |first=Mark A.| authorlink=Mark Allan Powell | title=Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee |year= 1998 | isbn= 978-0-664-25703-3|url=http://books.google.com/?id=IJP4DRCVaUMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}} * {{cite book|last=Rahner|first=Karl|authorlink=Karl Rahner|title=Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi|year=2004|isbn=978-0-86012-006-3 |publisher= Continuum|ref=harv |url=http://books.google.com/?id=WtnR-6_PlJAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|title=Who is Jesus?: an introduction to Christology|first=Thomas P.|last= Rausch |authorlink=Thomas Rausch |year=2003 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn= 978-0-8146-5078-3 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=8OJCa6euw5gC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Redford|first=Douglas|title=The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7847-1900-8|ref=harv |url=http://books.google.com/?id=dDMQz5BVFbEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=Standard Publishing}} * {{cite book|title=Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: a re-examination of the evidence|first=Jonathan L.|last= Reed |year=2002 |isbn= 978-1-56338-394-6|ref=harv |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Xrav1ge-A_sC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=Continuum}} * {{cite book|last=Sanders|first=Ed P. | authorlink=E. P. Sanders |title=The Historical Figure of Jesus|url=https://archive.org/details/historicalfigure0000sand|publisher=Allen Lane Penguin Press|year=1993|isbn=978-0-7139-9059-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Stanton|first=Graham|authorlink=Graham Stanton|title=The Gospels and Jesus|isbn=978-0-521-00802-0|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002|ref=harv |url=http://books.google.com/?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last1=Theissen|first1=Gerd|authorlink1=Gerd Theissen|last2=Merz|first2=Annette|authorlink2=Annette Merz|year=1998|title=The historical Jesus : a comprehensive guide |isbn=978-1-4514-0863-8|publisher=Fortress Press|ref=harv |url=http://books.google.com/?id=3ZU97DQMH6UC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|title=The Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria|first1= Gerd |last1=Theissen|first2= Dagmar|last2= Winter |year=2002| isbn= 978-0-664-22537-7|ref=harv |publisher= Westminster John Knox Press |url=http://books.google.com/?id=qB5ulgKx4OUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|first=Graham H. |last=Twelftree |authorlink=Graham Twelftree |title= Jesus the miracle worker: a historical & theological study| isbn= 978-0-8308-1596-8 |url =http://books.google.com/books?id=DitVtGWdYeYC&pg=PA95#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1999 |publisher =InterVarsity Press |ref= harv}} * {{cite book|last=Van Voorst|first=Robert E|year=2000|title=Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence|publisher=Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-4368-5| url=http://books.google.com/?id=lwzliMSRGGkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|title=Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words|url=https://archive.org/details/expositorydictio0000wevi_s5j0|last= Vine | first= William E. | authorlink= William Edwy Vine |year= 1940|publisher= Fleming H. Revell Company|ref=harv |isbn= 978-0-916441-31-9}} * {{cite book |title= Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels|url= https://archive.org/details/jesusjewhistoria0000verm|edition= |last= Vermes|first= Geza|authorlink1= Geza Vermes|year= 1981|publisher= First Fortress|location= Philadelphia|isbn= 0-8006-1443-7}} * {{cite book|title=The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament| first1=John F. |last1=Walvoord | authorlink1=John Walvoord|first2= Roy B.|last2= Zuck|year= 1983 |isbn= 978-0-88207-812-0|publisher=David C. Cook|url=http://books.google.com/?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|title=The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth|first= Ben|last= Witherington |year= 1997| isbn= 978-0-8308-1544-9 |ref=harv |publisher=InterVarsity Press |url=http://books.google.com/?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {| align="right" |- style="vertical-align:top;" | {{Sister project links |wikt=Jesus |commons=ישוע |b=Biblical_Studies/Christianity/Jesus |n=no |q=Jesus |s=Portal:Christianity |v=Jesus |species=no |voy=no |mw=no |d=Q302 |m=no}} |} * {{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Christianity/Jesus_Christ/}} * [http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx |date=20180406022804 }} in parallel Latin and English. * {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-84784}} * [https://sw.godfootsteps.org/when-you-behold-the-spiritual-body-of-jesus-will-be-when-god-has-made-anew-heaven-and-earth.html Yesu] {{Bikira Maria}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 6 KK]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 30]] [[Jamii:Yesu Kristo]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Biblia]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Israeli]] [[Jamii:Manabii wa Agano Jipya]] [[Jamii:Wafiadini]] [[Category:Kristolojia]] [[Jamii:Utatu Mtakatifu]] [[Jamii:Bikira Maria]] [[Jamii:Wayahudi]] he2ujeges2us37ux17l8ztug69llppe 0 2106 1580019 1575676 2026-07-17T23:07:03Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580019 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumbnail|Isaac Newton mwaka [[1689]].]] [[Picha:Newton-Principia-Mathematica 1-500x700.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Kitabu chake ''Principia Mathematica'', [[1686]].]] '''Isaac Newton''' ([[25 Desemba]] [[1642]] – [[20 Machi]] [[1727]]) alikuwa [[mwanahisabati]], [[mwanafizikia]] na [[mwanateolojia]] kutoka nchi ya [[Uingereza]]. Anakumbukwa [[duniani]] kote kutokana na michango yake mbalimbali katika [[sayansi]]. Ndiye aliyegundua [[tawi]] la [[kalkulasi]] (sambamba na [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]), [[kanuni za mwendo]] na ya [[uvutano]]. Mchango mwingine wa Isaac Newton upo katika [[nadharia ya nuru]], akitumia [[mche]] kuonyesha jinsi [[rangi]] zinazounda [[nuru]] (kama zinavyoonekana kwenye [[upinde wa mvua]]) zinavyotokea. Alichangia pia [[elimuanga]] kwa kuboresha [[darubiniakisi]] iliyoleta matokeo mazuri. Alitambua ya kwamba kanuni za uvutano zinatawala pia mwendo wa [[sayari]]. Alitunga [[ramani ya nyota]] kufuatana na tafiti za [[Flamsteed]]. ==Elimu na imani== Newton alipata [[shahada]] yake ya kwanza mwaka [[1665]] na ile ya [[uzamili]] mwaka [[1668]]. Kwa kuwa alizaliwa katika [[familia]] ya [[Anglikana|Kianglikana]], alitumia [[muda]] mwingi kufanya [[utafiti]] wa [[Biblia]] na [[theolojia]] pia. Alilenga kupatanisha [[elimu]] ya [[sayansi]] na [[imani]] yake. Aliandika "Uvutano unaeleza miendo ya sayari lakini haiwezi kueleza ni nani aliyeanzisha miendo yake. [[Mungu]] anatawala mambo yote na yaliyopo na yanayoweza kuwepo". [[Tarehe]] [[10 Desemba]] [[1682]] alimuandikia [[Richard Bentley]]: "Siamini [[ulimwengu]] unaweza kuelezwa na sababu za [[maumbile]] tu, bali nalazimika kuuona kama [[tunda]] la [[hekima]] na [[ubunifu]] vya mmoja mwenye [[akili]]". Hata hivyo, yeye binafsi hakukubali mafundisho juu ya [[Utatu]] wa [[Mungu]]. ==Maandishi yake== * [http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=43 Newton's works&nbsp;– full texts, at the Newton Project] * [http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/English/collections/Humanities/Pages/newton.aspx The Newton Manuscripts at the National Library of Israel&nbsp;– the collection of all his religious writings] * {{Gutenberg author |id=Newton,+Isaac,+Sir | name=Isaac Newton}} * [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ ''Descartes, Space, and Body'' and ''A New Theory of Light and Colour''], modernised readable versions by Jonathan Bennett * [https://archive.org/stream/opticksoratreat00newtgoog#page/n6/mode/2up ''Opticks, or a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light''], full text on [[archive.org]] * [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/newton "Newton Papers"]&nbsp;– Cambridge Digital Library * (1686) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/15635 "A letter of Mr. Isaac Newton... containing his new theory about light and colors"] {{Wayback|url=http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/15635 |date=20201009103331 }}, ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'', Vol. XVI, No. 179, pp.&nbsp;3057–3087.&nbsp;– digital facsimile at the [[Linda Hall Library]] * (1704) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/3080 ''Opticks''] {{Wayback|url=http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/3080 |date=20201016062120 }}&nbsp;– digital facsimile at the [[Linda Hall Library]] * (1719) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/33634 ''Optice''] {{Wayback|url=http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/33634 |date=20200908133047 }}&nbsp;– digital facsimile at the [[Linda Hall Library]] * (1729) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/35921 ''Lectiones opticae''] {{Wayback|url=http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/35921 |date=20201027014312 }}&nbsp;– digital facsimile at the [[Linda Hall Library]] * (1749) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/35293 ''Optices libri tres''] {{Wayback|url=http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/35293 |date=20200916232516 }}&nbsp;– digital facsimile at the [[Linda Hall Library]] ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|last=Ball|first=W.W. Rouse|title=A Short Account of the History of Mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_P9-BUL-080|location=New York|publisher=Dover|date=1908|isbn=978-0-486-20630-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Christianson|first=Gale|title=In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times|url=https://archive.org/details/inpresenceofcr00chri|location=New York|publisher=Free Press|date=1984|isbn=978-0-02-905190-0}} This well documented work provides, in particular, valuable information regarding Newton's knowledge of [[Patristics]] * {{cite journal|last=Craig|first=John|title=Isaac Newton&nbsp;– Crime Investigator|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1958-07-19_182_4629/page/148|journal=Nature|date=1958|volume=182|issue=4629|pages=149–52|doi=10.1038/182149a0|bibcode=1958Natur.182..149C}} * {{cite journal|last=Craig|first=John|title=Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters|journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=18|issue=2|date=1963|pages=136–45|doi=10.1098/rsnr.1963.0017}} * {{cite book|last=Levenson|first=Thomas|title= Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's Greatest Scientist|url=https://archive.org/details/newtoncounterfei0000leve_g7m7|publisher=Mariner Books|date=2010|isbn=978-0-547-33604-6}} * {{cite book|last=Manuel|first=Frank E|title=A Portrait of Isaac Newton|url=https://archive.org/details/portraitofisaacn00manu|date=1968|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University, Cambridge, MA|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Stewart|first=James|title=Calculus: Concepts and Contexts|publisher=Cengage Learning|date=2009|isbn=978-0-495-55742-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Richard S. Westfall|last=Westfall|first=Richard S.|title=Never at Rest|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1980|isbn=978-0-521-27435-7|ref=harv|url=https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%28westfall%29%20newton}} * {{cite book|last=Westfall|first=Richard S.|title=Isaac Newton|url=https://archive.org/details/isaacnewton0000west|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=2007|isbn=978-0-19-921355-9|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Westfall|first=Richard S.|title=The Life of Isaac Newton|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1994|isbn=978-0-521-47737-6|ref=harv|url=https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%28westfall%29%20newton}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Michael White (author)|title=Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer|first=Michael|last=White|publisher=Fourth Estate Limited|date=1997|isbn=978-1-85702-416-6|ref=harv}} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book|last=Andrade|first=E.N.De C.|title=Isaac Newton|publisher=Chanticleer Press|location=New York|date=1950|isbn=978-0-8414-3014-3}} * Bardi, Jason Socrates. ''The Calculus Wars: Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest Mathematical Clash of All Time'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1560259922 excerpt and text search] * {{cite book|last=Bechler|first=Zev|title=Newton's Physics and the Conceptual Structure of the Scientific Revolution|date=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-7923-1054-9}} * {{cite book|last=Bechler|first=Zev|title=Contemporary Newtonian Research (Studies in the History of Modern Science)(Volume 9)|date=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-9400977174}} * Berlinski, David. ''Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World.'' (2000); isbn|0-684-84392-7 * Buchwald, Jed Z. and Cohen, I. Bernard (eds.) ''Isaac Newton's Natural Philosophy'', [[MIT Press]] (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0262524252 excerpt and text search] * {{cite journal|last=Casini|first= P|title=Newton's Principia and the Philosophers of the Enlightenment|journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London|date=1988|volume=42|issue=1|pages=35–52|issn=0035-9149|doi=10.1098/rsnr.1988.0006|jstor=531368}} * {{cite book|last=Christianson|first=Gale E.|title=Isaac Newton and the Scientific Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/isaacnewtonscie00chri|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|date=1996|isbn=978-0-19-530070-3}} See [https://www.amazon.com/dp/019530070X this site] for excerpt and text search. * {{cite book|last=Christianson|first=Gale|title=In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times|url=https://archive.org/details/inpresenceofcr00chri|location=New York|publisher=Free Press|date=1984|isbn=978-0-02-905190-0}} * Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Newton.'' (2002). 500 pp. focuses on philosophical issues only; [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521656966 excerpt and text search]; [https://www.questia.com/read/105054986 complete edition online] {{Wayback|url=https://www.questia.com/read/105054986 |date=20120526062059 }} * {{cite book|last=Cohen|first=I.B.|title=The Newtonian Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/newtonianrevolut0000cohe_t6j4|date=1980|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-22964-7}} * {{cite book|last=Craig|first=John|title=Newton at the Mint|url=https://archive.org/details/newtonatmint0000crai|date=1946|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England}} * {{cite book|last=Dampier|first=William C.|last2=Dampier|first2=M.|title=Readings in the Literature of Science|url=https://archive.org/details/readingsinlitera0000damp|publisher=Harper & Row|location=New York|date=1959|isbn=978-0-486-42805-5}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Richard de Villamil|last=de Villamil|first= Richard|title=Newton, the Man|publisher=G.D. Knox|location=London, UK|date=1931}}&nbsp;– Preface by Albert Einstein. Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972) * {{cite book|last=Dobbs|first=B.J.T.|title=The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon"|url=https://archive.org/details/foundationsofnew0000dobb_t3t1|date=1975|publisher=Cambridge University Press|place=Cambridge}} * [[Eamon Duffy]], "Far from the Tree" (review of Rob Iliffe, ''Priest of Nature: the Religious Worlds of Isaac Newton'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017, ISBN|9780199995356), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXV, no. 4 (8 March 2018), pp. 28–29. * {{cite book|last=Gjertsen|first=Derek|title=The Newton Handbook|url=https://archive.org/details/newtonhandbook0000gjer|publisher=Routledge|location=London, UK|date=1986|isbn=978-0-7102-0279-6|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Gleick|first= James|title=Isaac Newton|url=https://archive.org/details/isaacnewton00glei|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|date=2003|isbn=978-0-375-42233-1}} * {{cite journal|last=Halley|first=E.|title=Review of Newton's Principia|date=1687|journal=Philosophical Transactions|volume=186|pages=291–97}} * [[Stephen Hawking|Hawking, Stephen]], ed. ''On the Shoulders of Giants''. {{isbn|0-7624-1348-4}} Places selections from Newton's ''Principia'' in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein * {{cite book|last=Herivel|first= J. W.|title=The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches in the Years 1664–84|url=https://archive.org/details/backgroundtonewt0000heri|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|date=1965 }} * {{cite book|last=Iliffe |first=Rob |title=Priest of Nature: the religious worlds of Isaac Newton |url=https://archive.org/details/priestofnaturere0000ilif |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199995356 |year=2017 }} * {{cite book|author-link=John Maynard Keynes|last=Keynes|first= John Maynard |title=Essays in Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/essaysinbiograph0000keyn|publisher=W. W. Norton & Co |date=1963 |isbn=978-0-393-00189-1}} Keynes took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers. * {{cite book|last=Koyré|first= A |title=Newtonian Studies|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|date=1965}} * Newton, Isaac. ''Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy'', edited by [[I. Bernard Cohen]]. [[Harvard University Press]], 1958, 1978; {{isbn|0-674-46853-8}}. * Newton, Isaac (1642–1727). ''The Principia'': a new Translation, Guide by I. Bernard Cohen; {{isbn|0-520-08817-4}}, University of California (1999) * {{Rejea jarida|last=Pemberton|first=H.|title=A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy|journal=The Physics Teacher|volume=4|issue=1|pages=8–9|date=1728|bibcode=1966PhTea...4....8M|doi=10.1119/1.2350900}} * {{cite book|last=Shamos|first= Morris H. |title=Great Experiments in Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/greatexperiments0000unse_r9f6|location=New York |publisher=Henry Holt and Company, Inc. |date=1959 |isbn=978-0-486-25346-6 }} * Shapley, Harlow, S. Rapport, and H. Wright. ''A Treasury of Science''; "Newtonia" pp.&nbsp;147–9; "Discoveries" pp.&nbsp;150–4. Harper & Bros., New York, (1946). * {{cite book|last=Simmons|first=J|title=The Giant Book of Scientists&nbsp;– The 100 Greatest Minds of all Time|location=Sydney|publisher=The Book Company|date=1996}} * {{cite book|last=Stukeley|first=W.|title=Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life|publisher=Taylor and Francis|place=London, UK|date=1936}} (edited by A.H. White; originally published in 1752) * Trabue, J. “Ann and Arthur Storer of Calvert County, Maryland, Friends of Sir Isaac Newton,” ''[[The American Genealogist]]'' 79 (2004): 13–27. * {{cite book|last=Westfall|first=R.S.|title=Force in Newton's Physics: The Science of Dynamics in the Seventeenth Century|url=https://archive.org/details/forceinnewtonsph0000west|location=London, UK|publisher=Macdonald|date=1971|isbn=978-0-444-19611-8}} {{refend}} '''Dini''' {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. ''The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought.'' (1991), links the alchemy to Arianism * Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. ''Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence.'' (1999), pp. xvii, 325; 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts * {{cite journal|last1=Pfizenmaier|first1=Thomas C.|date=January 1997|title = Was Isaac Newton an Arian?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-ideas_1997-01_58_1/page/57|jstor=3653988|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas | volume = 58|issue=1|pages=57–80|doi=10.1353/jhi.1997.0001|bibcode=1961JHI....22..215C}} * Ramati, Ayval. "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions" ''British Journal for the History of Science'' 34: 417–38. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4028372 in JSTOR], argues that his calculus had a theological basis * Snobelen, Stephen "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia", ''Osiris'' 2nd series, Vol. 16, (2001), pp.&nbsp;169–208 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/301985 in JSTOR] * {{cite journal|last1=Snobelen|first1=Stephen D.|title=Isaac Newton, Heretic: The Strategies of a Nicodemite|jstor=4027945|journal=British Journal for the History of Science|volume=32|pages=381–419|doi=10.1017/S0007087499003751|date=1999|issue=4}} * Wiles, Maurice. ''Archetypal Heresy. Arianism through the Centuries.'' (1996) 214 pages, with chapter 4 on eighteenth century England; pp.&nbsp;77–93 on Newton, [https://books.google.com/books?id=DGksMzk37hMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Arianism+through+the+Centuries%22 excerpt and text search]. {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons|Isaac Newton}} {{Sister project links|s=Author:Isaac Newton|wikt=no|n=no|b=Introduction to Astrophysics/Historical Context/Isaac Newton}} * [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html ScienceWorld biography] by [[Eric Weisstein]] * [http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/lhl/dsb/page.50.a.php Dictionary of Scientific Biography] * [http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/prism.php?id=1 "The Newton Project"] * [https://makingscience.royalsociety.org/s/rs/people/fst01801333 Science in the Making] Isaac Newton's papers in the Royal Society's archives * [http://www.isaacnewton.ca/ "The Newton Project&nbsp;– Canada"] * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/ "Newton's Dark Secrets"]&nbsp;– [[Nova (TV series)|NOVA]] TV programme * from ''The [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]:'' ** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton/ "Isaac Newton"], by George Smith ** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-principia/ "Newton's ''Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica''"], by George Smith ** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-philosophy/ "Newton's Philosophy"], by Andrew Janiak ** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-stm/ "Newton's views on space, time, and motion"], by Robert Rynasiewicz * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060207225233/http://tqnyc.org/NYC051308/index.htm "Newton's Castle"]&nbsp;– educational material * [http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/newton "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton"], research on his alchemical writings * [https://web.archive.org/web/20030513080422/http://hss.fullerton.edu/philosophy/GeneralScholium.htm The "General Scholium" to Newton's ''Principia''] * Kandaswamy, Anand M. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081007101707/http://www.math.rutgers.edu/courses/436/Honors02/newton.html "''The Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context''"] * [http://www.phaser.com/modules/historic/newton/index.html Newton's First ODE] {{Wayback|url=http://www.phaser.com/modules/historic/newton/index.html |date=20070705191603 }}&nbsp;– A study by on how Newton approximated the solutions of a first-order ODE using infinite series * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061213222519/http://www.ltrc.mcmaster.ca/newton/ "The Mind of Isaac Newton"]&nbsp;– images, audio, animations and interactive segments * [http://www.enlighteningscience.sussex.ac.uk/home Enlightening Science] Videos on Newton's biography, optics, physics, reception, and on his views on science and religion * [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Newton.html Newton biography (University of St Andrews)] * The [[Linda Hall Library]] has digitized [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/search/searchterm/Canon%20Chronicus%20Aegyptiacus/field/title/mode/exact/conn/and/order/nosort Two copies of John Marsham's (1676) ''Canon Chronicus Aegyptiacus''] {{Wayback|url=http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/search/searchterm/Canon%20Chronicus%20Aegyptiacus/field/title/mode/exact/conn/and/order/nosort |date=20200920090207 }}, one of which was [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/philsci/id/139 owned by Isaac Newton] {{Wayback|url=http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/philsci/id/139 |date=20201013060423 }}, who marked salient passages by dog-earing the pages so that the corners acted as arrows. The books can be compared side-by-side to show what interested Newton. {{Mbegu-mwanasayansi}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Newton, Isaac}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1642]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1727]] [[Jamii:Wanafizikia wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Wanateolojia wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Wanahisabati wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Wanaastronomia wa Uingereza]] mu9ojrbig2l98amstub8omlapyghvly 0 2404 1580128 1511935 2026-07-18T00:24:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580128 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|Uhabeshi}} {{Jedwali la nchi |jina_rasmi=Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Shirikisho la Ethiopia |jina_asili=የኢትዮጵያ ፌዴራላዊ ዴሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ ([[Kiamhara]]) |bendera=Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg|wimbo=ወደፊት ገስግሺ ፣ ውድ እናት ኢትዮጵያ<br>"Mbele Tembea, Mama Mpendwa Ethiopia"<br>[[File:Wedefit_Gesgeshi_Widd_Innat_Ittyoppya.ogg]] |nembo=Emblem_of_Ethiopia.svg|ramani=Ethiopia (Africa orthographic projection).svg |ramani2=Ethiopia.png |serikali=[[Jamhuri ya shirikisho]] |majira_saa=+3<br>([[Saa za Afrika Mashariki|Afrika Mashariki]]) |majina_viongozi=[[Sahle-Work Zewde]]<br>[[Abiy Ahmed]] |vyeo_viongozi={{*}}Rais<br>{{*}}Waziri Mkuu |tld=.et |iso3166=ET |msimbo_simu=+251 |fedha=[[Birr ya Ethiopia]] |lugha_rasmi=[[Kiafar]]<br>[[Kiamhara]]<br>[[Kioromo]]<br>[[Kisomali]]<br>[[Kitigrinya]] |eneo_jumla=1 104 300 <ref name="worldfactbook">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Ethiopia|access-date=23 March 2024|year=2023}}</ref> |watu_kadirio=116 462 712<ref name="worldfactbook" />|pato={{ongezeko}} USD bilioni 192.013<ref name="IMFWEO.ET">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c=644,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2020&ey=2028&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Ethiopia) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |date=10 October 2023 |access-date=12 October 2023}}</ref>|mwaka_pato=2024|pato_kwa_mtu={{ongezeko}} USD 1 787.176<ref name="IMFWEO.ET" />|pato_halisi={{ongezeko}} USD bilioni 393.297<ref name="IMFWEO.ET" />|pato_halisi_kwa_mtu={{ongezeko}} USD 3 719<ref name="IMFWEO.ET" />|mwaka_maendeleo=2021|maendeleo={{ongezeko}} 0.498<ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[Mradi wa Maendeleo wa Umoja wa Mataifa]]|date=September 8, 2022|access-date=September 8, 2022}}</ref> - {{duni}}|mji_mkuu=[[Addis Ababa]]|latd=9|latm=1|latNS=N|longd=38|longm=45|longEW=E}} '''Ethiopia''' (kwa [[Kiamhari]]: ኢትዮጵያ ''Ityopp'ya''; awali ilijulikana kama '''Uhabeshi''') ni nchi ya [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] iliyoko kwenye [[Pembe ya Afrika]]. Inapakana na [[Sudan]] na [[Sudan Kusini]] upande wa [[magharibi]], [[Eritrea]] na [[Jibuti]] upande wa [[kaskazini]], [[Somalia]] upande wa [[mashariki]] na [[Kenya]] upande wa [[kusini]]. Ni nchi ambayo ina [[historia]] ya pekee [[Afrika]] na hata [[dunia]]ni kwa ujumla. Ethiopia ni moja ya nchi mbili za [[Afrika]] ambazo hazikutawaliwa na [[wakoloni]] wakati walipong’ang’ania Afrika. Nchi ya pili ni [[Liberia]]. Kabla ya [[Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia]] Ethiopia ilivamiwa na [[Italia|Waitalia]] ([[1936]]) lakini ilipata [[uhuru]] wake tena baada ya miaka michache. Ethiopia ni moja ya mataifa ya kale zaidi duniani, ikiwa na historia inayorudi nyuma maelfu ya miaka. Mara nyingi inahusishwa na Ufalme wa kale wa [[Aksum]], ambao ulikuwa dola la kibiashara lenye nguvu lililostawi kati ya karne ya 1 na ya 7 BK, na unachukuliwa kuwa mojawapo ya [[ustaarabu]] mkubwa wa dunia ya kale. Ethiopia pia inajulikana kwa urithi wake wa muda mrefu wa [[Ukristo]]; iliukubali katika karne ya 4, na kuwa mojawapo ya mataifa ya kwanza kabisa kuikubali dini hiyo rasmi. [[Kanisa la Kiorthodoksi la Ethiopia]] linabakia kuwa [[taasisi]] kuu katika [[jamii]] na [[utamaduni]] wa nchi hiyo.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=History of Ethiopia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Ethiopia|author=Harold Marcus|publisher=Britannica|website=www.britannica.com|access-date=2026-04-06}}</ref> Ethiopia ya kisasa ni [[jamhuri]] ya [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] ya [[bunge|kibunge]] yenye muundo wa [[shirikisho]], inayoundwa na majimbo ya [[Kabila|kikabila]]. Ina idadi ya watu wanaozidi milioni 135, na hivyo kuwa nchi ya pili kwa idadi ya watu barani [[Afrika]] baada ya [[Nijeria]] na ya kumi duniani. Nchi hii ni makazi ya zaidi ya [[Kabila|makabila]] 80 na [[lugha]] mbalimbali, huku [[Kiamhari]] kikiwa ndiyo [[lugha rasmi]] ya kazi ya [[serikali]] ya [[shirikisho]]. Ethiopia imekumbwa na changamoto mbalimbali za ndani na nje katika miongo ya hivi karibuni, ikiwa ni pamoja na misukosuko ya [[siasa|kisiasa]], migogoro ya kikabila, na matatizo ya [[mazingira]] kama vile [[ukame]]. Licha ya changamoto hizo, [[nchi]] imepata maendeleo makubwa ya [[miundombinu]] na ukuaji wa [[uchumi|kiuchumi]] katika maeneo kama [[kilimo]], [[ujenzi]], na [[nishati]] mbadala. == Jina == [[Asili]] ya [[jina]] "'''Ethiopia'''" haijulikani. Kuna maelezo mbalimbali lakini yote yanakosa uhakika. Hilo ni sawa pia kwa jina la pili la kihistoria ambalo ni "Habasha" ilikuwa "Uhabeshi". Ethiopia mara nyingi linaelezwa kuwa neno la [[Kigiriki cha Kale]] Αἰθιοπία ''Aithiopia'' lililotokana na Αἰθίοψ "Aithiops" ; maana yake "uso" (ὄψ) "kuwaka" (αιθw) hivyo labda "uso uliochomwa" ama [[sura]] [[nyeusi]]. Lakini jina hili halikumaanisha hasa nchi ya Ethiopia ya leo lakini nchi zote zenye watu wenye rangi nyeusinyeusi. Kwa muda mrefu watu wa [[Ulaya]] waliita Afrika yote kwa jina "Ethiopia". Pia si wazi kama neno la Kiafrika lenye maana tofauti limechukuliwa na [[Wagiriki]] kwa maana ya neno lao la "aithiops". Nchi yenyewe ilijulikana kwa muda mrefu wa historia yake kwa jina la '''Habasha'''. Habasha ilikuwa jina la [[Kiarabu]] kwa ajili ya nchi ikaingia kama "Uhabeshi" katika Kiswahili au "Abisinia" katika [[lugha]] za [[Ulaya]]. Asili ya jina hilo haliko wazi; wengine husema ni katika lugha ya kale ya nchi yenyewe kumaanisha "nchi kwenye [[nyanda za juu]]"; tena wengine wanadai kwamba jina limetoka [[Uarabuni]] wa kusini lilipokuwa jina la [[kabila]] moja lililohamia na watu walioleta [[lugha za kisemiti]] Ethiopia. == Jiografia == {{Main|Orodha ya mito ya Ethiopia}} [[File:Ethiopia Topography.png|thumb|Topografia ya Ethiopia]] Ethiopia ina eneo la [[kilometa mraba]] 1,127,127 ([[maili mraba]] 435,071). Nchi yenyewe ni mojawapo ya nchi za [[Pembe ya Afrika]] upande wa mashariki. Nchini Ethiopia kuna milima mirefu; sehemu kubwa ya nchi inaundwa na [[Nyanda za juu za Ethiopia]] zilizotenganishwa na [[Bonde la Ufa la Afrika Mashariki]], ambalo limepasua kutoka kusini - magharibi kwenda kaskazini – mashariki na kuzungukwa na [[mbuga]] maeneo yaliyo chini. [[Bonde|Mabonde]] na milima hasa nchini Ethiopia yanaathiri [[hali ya hewa]], [[udongo]], [[mimea]], na makazi ya watu. Ukweo wa milima na eneo la kijiografia vinasababisha aina mbili za hali ya hewa: eneo lililopoa liko zaidi ya ukweo wa [[mita]] 2,400 ([[futi]] 7,900) ambapo [[vipimo vya joto]] ni kati ya kuganda na 16°[[Selsiasi|C]] (32°–61°[[Fahrenheit|F]]); vipimo vya joto kwa ukweo wa mita 1,500 na 2,400 (futi 4,900—7,900) joto ni 16°C hadi 30°C (61°–86°F); joto zaidi liko chini ya mita 1,500 (futi 4,900) ni [[hali ya hewa]] ya [[tropiki]] na hali ya hewa ya [[ukame]] na joto saa za mchana ni 27°C mpaka 50°C (81°–122°F). [[Mvua]] ya kawaida ni kuanzia kati ya Juni mpaka kati ya Septemba lakini eneo la milima ya kusini mvua hunyesha zaidi ikianzia na mvua kidogo ya Februari ama Machi. Ethiopia ni nchi ambayo ina [[ikolojia]] tambakazi. [[Ziwa Tana]], ambalo liko kaskazini mwa nchi, ndilo [[Chanzo (mto)|chanzo]] cha [[Mto]] [[Naili ya Buluu]] (kwa [[Kiarabu]]: Bahr al Zraq). Eneo la mto huo lina aina za [[wanyama]] za pekee kama [[Gelada - nyani]], [[Walia ibeka]] na pia [[Mbwa mwitu]]. == Historia == {{main|Historia ya Ethiopia}} === Historia ya awali === Historia ya [[binadamu]] katika Ethiopia ilianza mapema kabisa. [[Mifupa]] ya kale kabisa ya [[zamadamu|viumbe jamii ya watu]] imepatikana katika nchi hii kwa sababu zilihifadhiwa katika [[mazingira]] [[yabisi]] ya nchi. [[Wataalamu]] wengi huamini ya kwamba Ethiopia (pamoja na [[Kenya]] na [[Tanzania]]) inaweza kuwa mahali ambako watu wa aina ya [[Homo Sapiens]] walianza kupatikana duniani. Kuna ma[[baki]] mbalimbali ya ki[[utamaduni]] yanayochunguzwa na [[akiolojia]], lakini sehemu kubwa ya nchi haijaangaliwa bado kitaalamu. Inaonekana kwamba katika [[karne]] za [[K.K.]] kulikuwa na [[uhusiano]] wa karibu na [[Uarabuni]] kwa sababu lugha za Kiethiopia ni karibu na lugha za upande mwingine wa [[Bahari ya Shamu]]. Inaaminiwa kwamba watu kutoka Uarabuni Kusini walihamia Ethiopia na kuleta lugha yao huko. [[Biblia]] ina taarifa juu ya [[ziara]] ya [[malkia wa Sheba]] aliyemtembelea [[mfalme]] [[Suleimani]] wa [[Yerusalemu]]. [[Milki ya Sheba]] imedaiwa kuwepo ama Ethiopia au [[Yemen]] na wengine huamini ya kwamba ilikuwa [[dola]] la pande zote mbili za [[mlangobahari]] wa [[Bab el Mandeb]] unaotenganisha [[Eritrea]] ya leo na Uarabuni Kusini. === Historia ya kale === [[Milki]] ya kwanza ya Ethiopia inayoweza kutajwa kutokana na mabaki ya ma[[jengo]] na [[maandishi]] ilikuwa milki ya [[D'mt]] (pia: Da'amot) katika Ethiopia ya kaskazini pamoja na [[Eritrea]] ya leo. Kuna mabaki ya [[hekalu]] la [[Yeha]] pamoja na ma[[kaburi]] ambako majina ya wafalme kadhaa yamehifadhiwa kwa maandishi kwenye [[mawe]]. [[Lugha]] ilikuwa karibu sana na lugha za kale za [[Uarabuni]]. Ilikuwa na [[athira]] juu ya sehemu za kaskazini ya Ethiopia kwa kipindi kikubwa cha [[milenia ya 1 KK]]. Ilifuata milki kubwa ya [[Aksum]], iliyoanzishwa wakati wa kuzaliwa [[Yesu]]. [[Ufalme wa Aksum]] ulikuwa milki ya kwanza kutawala maeneo makubwa ya Ethiopia. [[Nabii]] [[Mwajemi]] [[Mani]] aliuweka [[Ufalme wa Aksum]] kwa [[utukufu]] sawa na [[Roma]], [[Uajemi]] na [[Uchina]] kama nchi zilizokuwa na nguvu duniani [[karne ya 3]] [[BK]], wakati yeye alipoishi. Ilikuwa [[karne ya 4]] [[BK]] ambapo [[Frumentius]], mtu [[Siria|Msiro]]-[[ugiriki|Mgiriki]] aliyekuwa amepotelea [[bahari]]ni kutokana na kuzama kwa [[jahazi]], alishikwa na Wahabeshi na kupelekwa [[korti]]ni na baadaye kumuongoa mfalme [[Ezana]] kuingia [[Ukristo]]. Kwa hiyo Wahabeshi wakampa jina ''Abba Selama''. Kwa muda mfupi dini hiyo mpya ilienea kote<ref>https://www.avvenire.it/agora/pagine/ritrovate-le-chiese-piu-antiche-dell-africa-subsahariana</ref>. Mara nyingi [[karne ya 6]] Aksum ilitawala eneo la [[Yemeni]] ng'ambo ya [[Bahari ya Shamu]]. Aksum ilistawi hasa kutokana na [[biashara]] kati ya [[Mediteranea]] na [[Bara Hindi]] iliyopita kwenye [[mlangobahari]] wa [[Bab el Mandeb]] ikatumia [[bandari]] ya [[Adulis]] (karibu na [[Massawa]] ya leo nchini Eritrea). Uenezi wa [[Uislamu]] ulivuruga biashara hiyo na Aksum ilipoteza [[utawala]] juu ya [[pwani]]. Kuporomoka kwa uwezo wa kibiashara kunaonekana katika kusimamishwa kwa [[uchapaji]] [[pesa]] ya wafalme wa Aksum katika [[karne ya 7]]. Nchi ilishambuliwa pia kutoka milki za barani. Mabaki ya ufalme wa Aksum yaliharibiwa mnamo mwaka [[900]] wakati na [[malkia Gudit]] (au Judith) aliyekuwa ama [[Myahudi]] ama kiongozi wa makabila ya Kipagani kutoka [[nyanda za juu]]. === Milki ya Ethiopia === Kiongozi wa kabila la Agaw alimwoa [[binti]] wa mfalme wa mwisho wa Aksum akaanzisha [[nasaba]] ya Zagwe na kuunda upya ufalme wa Kikristo katika nyanda za juu. [[Kitovu]] cha ufalme huu kilipelekwa zaidi mbali na pwani. Nasaba hii ilipinduliwa mnamo [[1270]] na [[Yekuno Amlak]] aliyetumia jina la kifalme [[Tasfa Iyasus]]. Alianzisha nasaba iliyojiita "Wa Suleimani" kwa kudai ilikuwa [[ukoo]] wa [[mwana]] wa mfalme Suleimani na malkia wa Sheba. Tasfa Iyasus alitumia [[cheo]] cha [[Negus Negesti]] ("Mfalme wa Wafalme"). Enzi ya Mfalme [[Lebna Dengel]], Ethiopia iliweza kuwasiliana na nchi za Ulaya na kudumisha [[ubalozi]] na nchi kama [[Ureno]]. Lakini, Mfalme [[Susenyos]] alipojiunga na [[Kanisa Katoliki]] mwaka [[1622]], chakari na misukosuko ilifuata. [[Wamisionari]] [[Wajesuiti]] walichukiwa na waamini wa [[Kanisa la Ethiopia]], na katika hiyo [[karne ya 17]] Susenyos mwana wa Mfalme [[Basil wa Ethiopia|Basil]] aliwafukuza wanamisheni hao. Baadaye [[Waoromo]] wakaanza kuasi [[amri]] ya [[Kanisa la Ethiopia]] na kutafuta njia za [[dini]] yao, eneo hili la Uhebeshi. Mambo hayo yote yalifanya Ethiopia itengwe [[miaka ya 1700]]. Wafalme wakawa kama [[wakurugenzi]], ambao waliamriwa na ma[[sharifu]] kama Ras [[Mikael Sehul]] wa [[Tigrinya]]. Ethiopia ilitoka kutoka utengo kwa kufuatia [[misheni]] ya [[Uingereza]] kufika Ethiopia na kukamilisha [[muungano]] kati ya nchi hizi mbili; lakini, hadi milki ya [[Tewodros II wa Ethiopia|Tewodros II]] ndipo Ethiopia ilipoanza tena shauri za Duni. [[Picha:Early nineteenth century warriors Colour.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Mashujaa Ethiopia karne ya 1800]] [[Miaka ya 1880]] ilikuwa miaka ya Ulaya kung’ang’ania [[ukoloni]] Afrika ambapo Waitalia na Waingereza walitafuta kutawala eneo la [[Assab]], bandari iliyoko karibu na [[mdomo]] wa bahari ya Shamu. Bedari ya Kusini, karibu na kiingilio cha bahari ya Shamu, ilinunuliwa na Waitalia kutoka [[sultani]] mwenyeji Machi [[1870]] ambayo mwaka [[1882]] ilizaa [[koloni]] la [[Eritrea]]. Haya yalizua magombano kati ya Waethiopia na Waitalia na [[Vita vya Adowa]] mwaka [[1896]], ambapo Waethiopia walishtua dunia kwa kupiga nguvu za wakoloni na kulinda [[madaraka]] yao kwa [[uongozi]] wa [[Menelik II]]. [[Italia]] na Ethiopia zilisaini [[mkataba wa amani]] tarehe [[26 Oktoba]] 1896. ===Karne ya 20 hadi leo=== [[Karne ya 20]] miaka ya kwanzakwanza ilimilikiwa na Mfalme [[Haile Selassie]], aliyechukua nafasi ya kuendeleza Ethiopia mpaka uongozi wake ulipokatizwa kwa [[Vita vya pili vya Uhabeshi na Waitalia|Vita ya pili ya Uhabeshi na Italia]] ([[1936]]). [[Waingereza]] na wazalendo wa Jeshi la Ethiopia wakakomboa nchi mwaka [[1941]], na Waingereza kukiri madaraka ya Ethiopia kwa [[mkataba wa Uingereza na Ethiopia]] mnamo [[Desemba]] [[1944]]. Milki ya Haile Selassie ilikoma mwaka [[1974]], ambapo [[Wakomunisti]] wa "[[Derg]]" walimpindua na kuanzisha [[serikali ya kikomunisti]] chini ya [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]]. Mapinduzi hayo yalifuatwa na [[msukosuko]] wa [[vita]] na migogoro pamoja na [[ukame]] na shida za [[wakimbizi]]. Mwaka [[1977]] [[Somalia]] ilivamia eneo la [[Ogaden]] ([[Vita vya Ogaden]]), lakini Ethiopia iliweza kuwafukuza Wasomali kwa msaada wa vifaa vya kijeshi vya [[Urusi]], na majeshi ya [[Kuba]], [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kijerumani|Ujerumani Mashariki]] na [[Yemeni]]. Usaidizi mwingi kutoka [[Nchi za Kikomunisti]] uliwezesha Ethiopia kudumisha mojawapo ya majeshi kubwa Afrika. Lakini hii haikuzuia [[ukereketwa]] wa jimbo la Eritrea na [[Tigrinya|Tigray]], ambapo ukame wa mwaka [[1985]] na [[mapinduzi]] ya [[siasa]] hasa kwa Kambi za [[Ujamaa]], zilileta uongozi wa Derg [[1991]] kukoma. Chama cha kukomboa Eritrea (EPLF) na [[Chama cha Mapinduzi cha Kidemokrasi Ethiopia]] (EPRDF), ziliungana kukomboa Ethiopia, wengi wa [[wanamgambo]] wakiwa wanaharakati wa Eritrea. Mwaka [[1993]] jimbo la [[Eritrea]] likawa huru kutoka Ethiopia, kufuatia [[kura ya maoni]] iliyofanywa ili kumaliza vita hivyo vilivyodumu miaka 20, mmojawapo kati ya migogoro ya muda mrefu zaidi Afrika. Mwaka [[1994]] Ethiopia kaiweka [[Katiba]] mpya ambayo ilileta [[uchaguzi]] wa ki[[demokrasia]]. Mwaka [[1998]] magombano ya mipaka na Eritrea yalileta [[Vita vya Eritrea na Ethiopia]] ambayo vilidumu hadi [[Juni]] [[2000]]. Vita hivyo vilileta [[uvivu]] wa uchumi na nguvu ya muungano unaongoza nchi. == Demografia == [[Picha:GariAdama.jpg|thumb|Gari huko Adama (Nazareth), Ethiopia.]] [[Idadi]] ya wakazi ilikadiriwa kuwa 135,500,000 ([[2025]]) ambao wanaongezeka kwa [[asilimia]] 2.88 kwa mwaka. Ethiopia ina makabila zaidi ya 80 yenye utamaduni tofautitofauti. Watu wengi huongea [[lugha za Kisemiti]] na [[lugha za Kikushi]]. [[Waoromo]] (34.49%), [[Waamhara]] (26.89%), [[Wasomali]] (6.20%) na [[Tigray|Watigrinya]] (6.07%) ni zaidi ya 73% ya wananchi wote. Kumbe kuna makabila mengine yenye watu wachache kiasi kama 10,000. === Lugha === Ethiopia ina lugha 90/109 za kienyeji (angalia [[Orodha ya Lugha za Ethiopia]]). Mifano muhimu ni kama ifuatavyo: {|border="0" |+ |- | * [[Kiafar]] * [[Kiamhari]] * [[Kianfillo]] * [[Kiberta]] * [[Kibussa]] * [[Kigamo-Gofa-Dawro|Kigamo]] | * [[Kigedeo]] * [[Kigumuz]] * [[Kigurage cha Sebat Bet|Kigurage]] * [[Kihadiyya]] * [[Kiharari]] * [[Kikafa]] | * [[Kikonso]] * [[Kiongota]] * [[Kioromo-Kusini]] * [[Kioromo-Magharibi]] * [[Kioromo-Mashariki]] * [[Kisaho]] | * [[Kisidamo]] * [[Kisilt'e]] * [[Kisoddo]] * [[Kisomali]] * [[Kitigrinya]] * [[Kiwolaytta]] |} [[Kiingereza]] ndiyo lugha ya kigeni inayoongelewa zaidi na kufunzwa katika [[shule ya upili]]. Kiamhari ilikuwa lugha ya ufundishaji katika [[shule ya msingi]] lakini sasa sehemu nyingi nafasi yake imeshikwa na [[Kioromo]] na [[Kitigrinya]]. === Dini === [[Wakristo]], ambao ndio wengi (67.3%, kati yao [[Waorthodoksi wa mashariki]] 43.8%), wanaishi hasa kwenye milima, na [[Waislamu]] (31.3%) na [[Wapagani]] (0.6%) wengi wanaishi kwenye mabonde. ==== Ukristo ==== [[Picha:Ethiopian Painting 2005 SeanMcClean.JPG|left|thumb|Picha katika ngozi inayomuonyesha [[padri]] wa [[Kanisa Orthodoksi la Ethiopia Tewahedo]] akichezea [[ala]] za [[muziki]] za kienyeji.]] [[Ufalme wa Aksum]] ulikuwa milki ya kwanza kukubali [[Ukristo]], ambapo [[askofu]] [[Frumentius]] wa [[Taya]], aliyetumwa na [[Atanasi]] wa [[Aleksandria]] [[Uinjilishaji|kuiinjilisha]] nchi, alimuongoa [[Ezana wa Aksum]] katika [[karne ya 4]]. Kwa hiyo Wahabeshi wakampa jina ''Abba Selama''. Kwa muda mfupi dini hiyo mpya ilienea kote<ref>https://www.avvenire.it/agora/pagine/ritrovate-le-chiese-piu-antiche-dell-africa-subsahariana</ref>. Labda Frumentius alifika tayari na [[wamonaki]] kama [[wamisionari]]. Lakini [[umonaki]] hasa ulianza mnamo mwaka [[500]] walipofika wamonaki tisa wenye asili ya [[Siria]] waliotokea [[Misri]] katika [[monasteri]] za [[Pakomi]]. Hivyo mpaka leo mtindo huo ndio unaotawala kati ya umati wa wamonaki wa Ethiopia, wakati [[wakaapweke]] ni wachache, ingawa hawajawahi kukosekana. Athari za Siria na Misri zinajitokeza katika mambo mengi. Wamonaki wanaishi katika vibanda vya binafsi wakikutana kwa [[sala]] tu. Wamonaki [[wanawake]] (kawaida ni [[wajane]]) wanaishi jirani na monasteri ya kiume wakiitegemea kiroho na kiuchumi. === Uislamu === [[Uislamu]] nchini Ethiopia unapatikana kutoka mwanzo wa dini hiyo; ambapo [[nabii]] [[Muhammad]] aliwaambia Waislamu waepuke kuuliwa [[Maka]] kwa kukimbilia Uhabeshi, ambayo ilitawaliwa na Mfalme Mkristu. Hata [[utamaduni]] wa Kiislamu wasema [[Bilal ibn Ribah|Bilal]], mfuasi wa Nabii Muhammad, alikuwa ametokea Ethiopia. === Uyahudi === [[Wayahudi]], ambao wanaitwa Beta Israeli au Wafalasha, walioishi Ethiopia tangu karne nyingi, wengi wao wamehamia [[Israeli]] hasa katika [[karne ya 20]]. === Dini za jadi === Mbali na dini hizo za kimataifa, kuna wafuasi wa [[dini za jadi]] za [[Dini asilia za Kiafrika|Kiafrika]]. == Uchumi == [[Picha:Eth1 coffeelady.jpg|thumb|Mwanamke mkulima wa mbuni na kapu la mbegu za kahawa huko Ethiopia]] Ethiopia imebaki [[nchi fukara]] mojawapo: Waethiopia wengi wanapewa [[chakula cha msaada]] kutoka ng’ambo. Baada ya mapinduzi ya mwaka [[1974]], uchumi wa Ethiopia ulikuwa [[uchumi wa kijamaa]]: amri ya uchumi iliwekwa na jimbo, na upande mkubwa wa uchumi uliwekwa kwa jamii, kutoka viwanda vyote vya kisasa, [[kilimo cha biashara]], [[taasisi za kukopesha]] na mashamba yote na mali yote ya kukomboa. Kutoka kati ya [[1991]], uchumi ulianza kutolewa katika [[ujamaa]] na kuendekeza [[uchumi wa soko huria]], serikali inasisitiza uchumi wa rasilimali ili kuzuia uvivu wa uchumi uliojitokeza wakati wa amri ya ujamaa. Mwaka [[1993]], [[Ubinafsishaji]] wa kampuni kaanza, viwanda, mabenki, ukulima, [[biashara za ndani]] na [[biashara za kimataifa]]. Kilimo ni karibu asilimia 41% ya [[mapato ya uchumi]] (GDP), ambayo ni asilimia 80 ya biashara ya kimataifa, na asilimia 80 ya wananchi wanategemea kilimo. Mambo mengi ya biashara hutegemea ukulima, wauzaji, viwanda vya kufunganya na kuuza nje mavuno ya ukulima. Mavuno yanayouzwa nje mengi yanatolewa na [[wakulima wa kiasi]] binafsi. Wanazalisha [[kahawa]], [[nafaka]] (hasa maharagwe), [[mbegu za mafuta]], [[viazi]], [[miwa]], na [[mboga]]. Biashara ya nje hasa ni ya kuuza mazao, kahawa ikiwa ndiyo inayoleta pesa nyingi za kigeni. [[Mifugo]] ya Ethiopia inaaminika kuwa ndiyo wengi zaidi Afrika. Mnamo [[1987]] ilihesabika kuwa asilimia 15 ya mapato ya uchumi yanatokana na mifugo. == Siasa == Uchaguzi wa Ethiopia ulipitisha wanabaraza 547 Bungeni. Baraza hilo la bunge lilijumuika Juni 1994 na kupitisha katiba mpya ya Jimbo la Demokrasia ya Jamhuri ya Ethiopia mnamo Desemba 1994. Uchaguzi huu ulikuwa wa kwanza kuchagua wanabaraza wa kitaifa kwa sifa bungeni na wanabaraza wa majimbo mnamo Mei na Juni [[1995]]. Vyama vingi vya upinzani viligoma kushiriki uchaguzi. Ushindi ulichukuliwa na [[Chama cha Mapinduzi cha Kidemokrasi cha Watu wa Ethiopia]] (EPRDF). Umoja wa Mataifa ukasema vyama vya upinzani vingeweza kushiriki uchaguzi kama zingetaka. Serikali ya Majimbo ya Demokrasia ya Jamhuri ya Ethiopia ilichukua mamlaka mnamo Agosti 1995. Rais wa kwanza [[Negasso Gidada]]. EPRDF ikaongoza serikali na Waziri Mkuu [[Meles Zenawi]] ambaye aliunga mkono majimbo ya kikabila, na kuwapa madaraka viongozi wa kikabila. Ethiopia sasa ina majimbo 9 ambayo yana serikali ya [[madaraka ya shirika]], na hata majimbo haya yanakubaliwa kutoza ushuru na kutumia [[akiba ya ushuru]]. Hata hivyo, uhuru wa habari na kisiasa bado umefinywa. Serikali ya Zenawi ilichaguliwa tena mwaka 2000 kwa uchaguzi wa kwanza wa Kidemokrasia, Rais akiwa [[Girma Wolde-Giorgis]]. Kutoka [[1991]], Ethiopia imetafuta urafiki zaidi na [[Marekani]] na [[Umoja wa Ulaya]], ili kuweza kukopa fedha za kusaidia uchumi wake na pia kutoka [[Benki ya Dunia]]. Mwaka [[2004]], serikali ilianza kuhamisha watu kutoka maeneo ya ukame wakisema hii itazuia njaa. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_pictures/3640227.stm]. [[Uchaguzi]] mwingine wa Ethiopia ulikuwa tarehe [[15 Mei]] [[2005]], ambao ulivutia wapigakura kiasi cha juu zaidi, asilimia 90% ya wananchi waliojiandikisha. Watazamaji wa [[Umoja wa Ulaya]] walidai uchaguzi haujafikia kiwango cha kimataifa, lakini [[Umoja wa Afrika]] ulitoa ripoti tarehe [[14 Septemba]] kwamba Waethiopia walionyesha kujitokeza na kuheshimu demokrasia, halafu tarehe 15 Septemba, Carter Center, ikasema matokeo ya uchaguzi yaaminika na kuonyesha ushindani wa kisiasa. Uangalizi na ushuhuda wote ulimalizia kuranki Uchaguzi wa Ethiopia na kesi nyingine waipa, asilimia 64% ya matokeo mazuri, na vizuri zaidi kulingana na kesi nyingine 24%. [[File:Arat Kilo Monument.JPG|200px|thumb|Arat Kilo monument]] [[File:Ethiopian Commercial Bank Addis Abeba.jpg|thumb|200px|Commercial [[Bank of Ethiopia]]]] [[File:ET Addis asv2018-01 img01 Meskel Square.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Meskel Square]]]] [[File:Cathédrale Saint Georges Addis Abeba1.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Kanisa kuu]] la [[George mfiadini|Mt. George]] (Addis Ababa)]] [[File:HagerFikirTheatre.jpg|200px|thumb|Thieta [[Hager Fikir]] (April 2006)]] [[File:Ethiopian Television.JPG|200px|thumb|Kituo cha TV ya Ethiopia]] [[File:Ethiopian Federal Police HQ Addis Abeba.JPG|thumb|200px|Makao makuu ya Polisi]] Katika [[Uchaguzi wa Ethiopia, 2005]] EPRDF ilitokea iking’ang’ania uongozi. Tarehe za kwanza za Juni na tena Novemba, [[polisi]] kwa amri ya EPRDF wakafyatua [[risasi]] na kuua watu kwa [[maandamano]] yaliyokuwa yakipinga [[matokeo ya kura]]. Ni kwamba vyama vya upinzani vililalamika kwamba EPRDF iliiba kura na kuwazisha wananchi na kusema baraza 299, wapata hitilafu ya wizi wa kura. Hayo yote yalichunguzwa na Watazamaji wa Uchaguzi wa kimataifa na pia Kamisheni ya Uchaguzi Ethiopia. Matokeo ya uchunguzi huo kama haijatokea mnamo [[Juni 2005]], wanafunzi wa [[chuo kikuu]] walianza maandamano wakisaidiwa na wanamgambo wa Muungano wa Vyama vya Upinzani. Lakini serikali kwa kutoa amri ya kukomesha maaandamano, mnamo [[8 Juni]], watu 26 waliuliwa mjini [[Addis Ababa]] kwa msukosuko wa maandamano na wengine wengi kushikwa. Mnamo [[5 Septemba]] [[2005]], Kamisheni ya Uchaguzi Ethiopia, ilitoa matokeo na kusema kwamba (EPRDF) kashinda uchaguzi na kwa hiyo iongoze serikali. Lakini vyama vya upinzani viliongezea viti bungeni kutoka 12 mpaka 176. Muungano wa umoja na demokrasia ulishinda viti vyote vya Addis Ababa, kwa Bunge la Taifa na [[Baraza la mtaala]]. Maandamano yalizuka tena mitaani [[1 Novemba]], ambapo vyama vya upinzani viliitisha mgomo kwa jumla na pia kwa Bunge mpya, wakatae matokeo ya uchaguzi. Polisi tena walijaribu kuzuia maandamano hayo na watu 42 wakafa kwa misukosuko mjini Addis Ababa. Polisi saba pia wakafa na mwingine pia kafa kutokana na majeruhi ya mlipuko wa [[bomu]]. Tope la watu walishikwa na kufungwa jela. Februari 2006 watu elfu sita bado walikuwa jela wakingoja hukumu Machi. Mnamo 14 Novemba, Bunge la Ethiopia lilipitisha mkataba kuimarisha Kamisheni huru na kuchunguza visa vya 8 Juni na tarehe 1 na tarehe 2 Novemba. Februari 2006 Waziri mkuu wa Uingereza [[Tony Blair]], alitamka kwamba, EPRDF kashinda kura, lakini angetaka kuona Ethipia ikitatua shida zake yenyewe na iendelee katika njia ya demokrasia. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4707232.stm]. == Serikali na Utawala == === Majimbo ya Kujitawala === {{Main|Majimbo ya Ethiopia}} Ethiopia imegawiwa katika [[jimbo|majimbo]] 9 ya [[mamlaka]] ya kikabila (''kililoch''; umoja: ''kilil''), na maeneo 68. * [[Jimbo la Afar|Afar]] * [[Jimbo la Amhara|Amhara]] * [[Jimbo la Benishangul-Gumuz|Benishangul-Gumuz]] * [[Jimbo la Gambela|Gambela]] * [[Jimbo la Harar|Harar]] * [[Jimbo la Oromia|Oromia]] * [[Jimbo la Somali|Somali]] * [[Jimbo la Makabila ya kusini]] * [[Jimbo la Tigray|Tigray]] Zaidi ya hayo kuna maeneo ya miji miwili (''astedader akababiwoch''; umoja: ''astedader akababi''): [[Addis Ababa]] na [[Dire Dawa]]. == Utamaduni == Mnamo Aprili [[2005]], [[Mnara wa Aksum]], mojawapo ya dafina za kidini Ethiopia, ulirudishwa na Waitalia <ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4458105.stm</ref> ambao waliunyakua mwaka [[1937]] na kuupeleka [[Roma]]. Italia ikakubali kuurudisha mnamo [[1947]] kulingana na mkataba wa [[UN|Umoja wa Mataifa]]. Ethiopia ndiyo Nyumba ya kiroho ya [[Rastafari|Mwendo wa Rastafari]], ambao wanaamini Ethiopia ni [[Zion]]. Warastafari wamuona mfalme Haile Selassie I kama [[Yesu]]. === Sikukuu === ''Ona pia: [[Kalenda ya Waethiopia]] {| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" align="center" |- ! style="background:#efefef;" | Tarehe ! style="background:#efefef;" | Jina za Kiswahili ! style="background:#efefef;" | Jina za waenyeji ! style="background:#efefef;" | Maelezo |- | 7 Januari | [[Waminina wa Dini ya Ethiopia, Kanisa la Tewahedo|Waminina]] [[Krismasi|Siku ya Krismasi]] | Genna | &nbsp; |- | 10 Januari | Siku kuu ya sadaka | [[Eid ul-Adha|'Id al-Adha]] | ya kutegemea; tarehe ya 2006 |- | 19 Januari | [[Epifania|Siku kuu ya Epifania]] | [[Timket]] | &nbsp; |- | 2 Machi | [[Vita vya Adowa|Siku ya Adwa]] | Ye'adowa B'al | &nbsp; |- | 11 Aprili | Kuzaliwa kwa nabii [[Muhammad]] | [[Mawlid|Mawlid an-Nabi]] | ya kutegemea; tarehe ya 2006 |- | 21 Aprili | [[Waminina wa Dini ya Ethiopia, Kanisa la Tewahedo|Waminina]] [[Ijumaa Kuu|Ijumaa ya Pasaka]] | Siqlet (kusulubiwa) | ya kutegemea; tarehe ya 2006 |- | 23 Aprili | [[Waminina wa Dini ya Ethiopia, Kanisa la Tewahedo|Waminina]] [[Pasaka]] | Fasika | ya kutegemea; tarehe ya 2006 |- | 24 Aprili | Jumatatu ya Pasaka (sikukuu) | &nbsp; | ya kutegemea; tarehe ya 2006 |- | Mei 1 | [[Siku Mai #Siku ya wanakazi|Siku ya Wafanyakazi Kimataifa]] | &nbsp; | &nbsp; |- | Mei 5 | Siku ya wazalendo | Arbegnoch Qen | &nbsp; |- | Mei 28 | Siku ya Taifa | &nbsp; | Kuanguka kwa [[Derg]] |- | 18 Agosti | &nbsp; | [[Buhe]] | &nbsp; |- | 11 Septemba | [[Mwaka mpya]] wa Ethiopia | [[Enkutatash|Inqut'at'ash]] | &nbsp; |- | 27 Septemba | [[Siku kuu ya Msalaba|Kutafuta Msalaba Halisi]] | [[Meskel]] | &nbsp; |- | 24 Oktoba | Mwisho wa Mwezi wa [[Ramadhan]]i | [[Eid ul-Fitr|'Id al-Fitr]] | ya kutegemea; tarehe ya 2006 |} === Michezo === Ethiopia ni nchi mojawapo inayotoa [[wanariadha]] wazuri zaidi duniani, hasa kama wa [[mbio]] wa [[masafa ya kati]] na [[masafa marefu]]. [[Kenya]] na [[Morocco]] ni wapinzani wa Ethiopia kwa [[Michezo ya mabingwa wa Dunia]] na [[Michezo ya olimpiki|Olimpiki]] kwa masafa ya kati na marefu. Machi [[2006]], Waethiopia wawili walitamalaki mbio za masafa marefu, kwa jina wakiwa: [[Haile Gebreselassie]] (Bingwa wa Dunia na Olimpiki) aliyevunja [[rekodi]] ya [[kilometa]] 10 na sasa pia kilomita 20, Nusu[[Marathoni]], na rekodi ya kilomita 25, na kijana [[Kenenisa Bekele]] (bingwa wa dunia, mbio za majira (bara), na pia bingwa wa olimpiki), anayeshikilia [[Rekodi za Dunia]] za [[mita]] 5,000 na 10,000. Huko nyuma Ethiopia ilitoa mwanariadha maarufu katika historia ya mchezo huu duniani, [[Abebe Bikila]]. == Tazama pia == * [[Kanisa la Kiorthodoksi la Ethiopia]] * [[Uislamu nchini Ethiopia]] * [[Muziki wa Ethiopia]] * [[Vyakula vya Ethiopia]] * [[Orodha ya kampuni za Ethiopia]] * [[Jeshi la Ethiopia]] * [[Orodha ya Wafalme wa Ethiopia]] * [[Hifadhi za Taifa Ethiopia]] * [[Mawasiliano nchini Ethiopia]] * [[Usafiri nchini Ethiopia]] * [[Vyuo vikuu vya Ethiopia]] * [[Orodha ya nchi kufuatana na wakazi]] * [[Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na idadi ya watu]] * [[Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na msongamano wa watu]] * [[Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na pato la taifa]] * [[Demografia ya Afrika]] ==Marejeo== <references/> == Bibliografia == *{{Rejea kitabu|last=Zewde|first=Bahru |title=A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00bahr|edition= 2nd |year=2001 |publisher=Ohio University Press |location=Athens, OH |isbn=0-8214-1440-2}} *{{Rejea kitabu|last=Selassie I. |first=Haile |title=My Life and Ethiopia's Progress: The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Selassie I |authorlink=Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia |others=Translated by Edward Ullendorff |year=1999 |publisher=Frontline |location=Chicago |isbn=0-948390-40-9 }} * Deguefé, Taffara (2006). ''Minutes of an Ethiopian Century'', Shama Books, Addis Ababa, ISBN 99944-0-003-7. * Hugues Fontaine, ''Un Train en Afrique. African Train'', Centre Français des Études Éthiopiennes / Shama Books. Édition bilingue français / anglais. Traduction : Yves-Marie Stranger. Postface : Jean-Christophe Belliard. Avec des photographies de Matthieu Germain Lambert et Pierre Javelot. Addis Abeba, 2012, ISBN 978-99944-867-1-7. English and French. [http://www.africantrain.org/] *{{Rejea kitabu|last=Henze |first=Paul B. |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |year=2004 |publisher=Shama Books|isbn=1-931253-28-5 }} *{{Rejea kitabu|last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913 |year=1975 |publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford, U.K.}} Reprint, Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1995. ISBN 1-56902-009-4. *{{Rejea kitabu|last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=A History of Ethiopia |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofethiopi0000marc |edition=updated |year=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-22479-5 }} * Mauri, Arnaldo (2010). ''Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia'', Acta Universitatis Danubius Œconomica, VI, n. 1/2010, pp.&nbsp;5–16. [http://journals.univ-danubius.ro/index.php/oeconomica/article/view/337-319] {{Wayback|url=http://journals.univ-danubius.ro/index.php/oeconomica/article/view/337-319 |date=20160303180844 }} and WP [http://ideas.repec.org./p/mil/wpdepa/2010-15.html] *{{Rejea kitabu|last=Mockler |first=Anthony |title=Haile Selassie's War |url=https://archive.org/details/haileselassieswa0000mock |year=1984 |publisher=Random House |location=New York }} Reprint, New York: Olive Branch, 2003. ISBN 1-902669-53-3. * Murphy, Dervla (1968). ''In Ethiopia with a Mule''. London: Century, 1984, cop. 1968. ''N.B''.: An account of the author's travels in Ethiopia. 280 p., ill. with a b&w map. ISBN 0-7126-3044-9 *{{Rejea kitabu|last=Rubenson|first=Sven|title=The Survival of Ethiopian Independence|edition=4th|year=2003|publisher=Tsehai|location=Hollywood, CA |isbn=0-9723172-7-9}} * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2003). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 1: A-C. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2005). ''Encyclopaedia aethiopica'', Vol. 2: D-Ha. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2007). ''Encyclopaedia aethiopica'', Vol. 3: He-N. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Siegbert Uhlig & Alessandro Bausi, et al. (eds.) (2010). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 4: O-X. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. * Alessandro Bausi & S. Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2014). ''[[Encyclopaedia aethiopica]]'', Vol. 5: Y-Z and addenda, corrigenda, overview tables, maps and general index. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. *{{cite book|ref=Abir|author=Abir, Mordechai |title=Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the Re-unification of the Christian Empire (1769–1855)|place=London|publisher=Longmans|year= 1968}} *{{cite book|ref=Beshah|author=Beshah, Girma and Aregay, Merid Wolde |title=The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632)|place=Lisbon|publisher= Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos |year=1964}} *{{cite book|ref=Munro-Hay|author=Munro-Hay, Stuart|year=1991|url=http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf|title=Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity|place=Edinburgh|publisher=University Press|isbn=0-7486-0106-6|accessdate=2016-03-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123223427/http://www.dskmariam.org/artsandlitreature/litreature/pdf/aksum.pdf|archivedate=2013-01-23}} *{{cite book|ref=Valdes Vivo|author=Valdes Vivo, Raul |title=Ethiopia's Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/ethiopiasrevolut0000vald|publisher=International Publishers|place= New York|year= 1977|isbn=0717805565}} == Viungo vya nje == '''Serikali''' * [http://www.ethiopianembassy.org/index.shtml Balozi wa Ethiopia- Washington DC] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ethiopianembassy.org/index.shtml |date=20090122223926 }} yakupa taarifa za serikali ya Ethiopia * [http://www.mfa.gov.et/ Idara ya mambo ya nje Ethiopia] * [http://www.moinfo.gov.et/ idara ya taarifa Ethiopia] {{Wayback|url=http://www.moinfo.gov.et/ |date=20080426230300 }} * [http://www.ethiopiancrown.org/ baraza la wafalme wa Ethiopia] Wafalme wa Ethiopia * [http://www.ethiopar.net/ Bunge ya Ethiopia] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ethiopar.net/ |date=20190825060812 }} Tovuti rasmi '''Habari''' * [http://www.addistribune.com/ Addis Tribune] gazeti la kila wiki online edition * [http://allafrica.com/ethiopia/ allAfrica - Ethiopia] news * [http://www.ena.gov.et/ Ethiopian News Agency (ENA)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ena.gov.et/ |date=20060616005534 }} hii ni idara ya serikali * [http://www.nazret.com Nazret.com] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nazret.com/ |date=20220623053204 }} Ethiopian news portal * [http://ethiopianreview.homestead.com/ Ethiopian Review] * [http://ethiomedia.com/ Uptodate ethiopian news] {{Wayback|url=http://ethiomedia.com/ |date=20101115211721 }} * [http://www.helmmagazine.com/ Helm Magazini] sanaa, utamaduni, fasheni na heba kutoka Ethiopia * [http://www.waltainfo.com/ Walta Information Center] habari '''Masomo''' * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072164.stm BBC Habari – Umbo wa: Ethiopia] * [http://www.ethiopiantreasures.toucansurf.com Ethiopian Treasures] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ethiopiantreasures.toucansurf.com/ |date=20160817225751 }} Dafina za Ethiopia- Historia, Utamaduni, Lugha, Dini - Ethiopia * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/et.html CIA - The World Factbook: Ukweli wa mambo kuhusu Duniani] {{Wayback|url=http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/et.html |date=20060111035635 }} * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/ethiopia2000/0,2759,181415,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Ethiopia 2000] * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ettoc.html /mktaba wa Congress ya marikani] tareki nyingi ni kutoka Julai 1991 '''Maelekezo''' * [http://www.meetethiopia.com meetethiopia.com] {{Wayback|url=http://www.meetethiopia.com/ |date=20071205170700 }} Portal that introduces and celebrates the rich history, culture and diversity of Ethiopia through the use of a repository that contains Ethiopia-related websites ranging from Arts, Society and Religion to Entertainment, Shopping and Technology * [http://www.ethiosearch.com Ethio Search ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ethiosearch.com/ |date=20210302003857 }}Ethiopian on-line directory and search engine * [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Ethiopia/ Open Directory Project - Ethiopia] {{Wayback|url=http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Ethiopia/ |date=20060614062728 }} directory category * [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ethio.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Ethiopia] directory category * [http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Ethiopia/index.html The Index on Africa - Ethiopia] {{Wayback|url=http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Ethiopia/index.html |date=20060405181124 }} directory category '''Utalii''' * [http://www.tourismethiopia.org Ethiopian Tourism Commission] {{Wayback|url=http://www.tourismethiopia.org/ |date=20081016001329 }} government agency '''Lugha''' * [http://www.mediatikdigital.com/glossword/index.php?a=list&d=3 English-Amharic Dictionary] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mediatikdigital.com/glossword/index.php?a=list&d=3 |date=20061108145558 }} based on Amsalu Aklilu and G. P. Mosback's dictionary * [http://www.amharicdictionary.com/ Online Dictionary of the official language of Ethiopia] {{Wayback|url=http://www.amharicdictionary.com/ |date=20061106042009 }} * [http://www.ethiopiandictionary.com/ Amharic Dictionary] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ethiopiandictionary.com/ |date=20060220114139 }} '''Mashirika ya msaada''' * [http://www.thedenanproject.com/ The Denan Project – inasaidia kihospitali watu wa Denan] '''Mengineyo''' * [http://www.konradlicht.com 4 Films about Ethiopia] {{Afrika}} {{African Union}} [[Jamii:Ethiopia|*]] [[Jamii:Nchi za Afrika]] [[Jamii:Umoja wa Afrika]] [[Jamii:Pembe ya Afrika]] [[Jamii:Afrika ya Mashariki]] [[Jamii:Nchi]] gd7rkx7rp6yhx9hf28pumoa967pikce 0 2772 1580169 1575919 2026-07-18T00:50:04Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580169 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Mount Kenya.jpg|thumb|300px|Mlima Kenya.]] '''Mlima Kenya''' (kwa [[Kikuyu (lugha)|Kikuyu]]: ''Kĩrĩnyaga''; kwa [[Kiembu]]: ''Kirenia''; kwa [[Kimaasai]]: ''Ol Donyo Keri''; kwa [[Kimeru (Kenya)|Kimeru]]: ''Kirimara'') ndio mrefu zaidi nchini [[Kenya]]. [[Mlima]] huo una [[urefu]] wa [[mita]] 5,199 na unatokana na [[volkeno]] zimwe, ikikadiriwa ya kwamba [[mlipuko wa volkeno|mlipuko]] wake wa mwisho ulitokea mnamo miaka [[milioni]] 2.6 hadi 3.1 iliyopita. [[Kilele|Vilele]] vyake vya juu vinaitwa [[Batian]] (m 5,199), [[Nelion]] (m 5,188) na Lenana (m 4,985). Kuna [[barafuto]] [[nane]] mlimani lakini zinapungua kila [[mwaka]] kutokana na kupanda kwa [[halijoto]] [[duniani]] na kupungua kwa [[usimbishaji]] kwa sababu ya kukatwa kwa [[miti]] mingi<ref>{{Citation|title=The vanishing snow of Mount Kenya|url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/1056-824732-ikm5mjz/index.html|work=Daily Nation|language=en-UK|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=The vanishing glaciers of Mount Kenya|url=http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/magazine/The-vanishing--glaciers-of--Mount-Kenya--/434746-3516298-12ef2p/index.html|work=The East African|language=en-UK|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Citation|title=Dying gods: Mt Kenya's disappearing glaciers spread violence below|date=2017-08-02|url=http://www.climatechangenews.com/2017/08/02/dying-gods-mt-kenyas-disappearing-glaciers-spread-violence/|work=Climate Home News|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref>. Mlima Kenya ni [[volkeno]] rusu iliyoumbwa takriban miaka milioni 3 baada ya kuumbika kwa [[Bonde la Ufa la Afrika ya Mashariki]].<ref name="Rift">{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/15/90/18/PDF/These_P.Nonnotte_web.pdf |author=Philippe Nonnotte |title= ''Étude volcano-tectonique de la zone de divergence Nord-Tanzanienne (terminaison sud du rift kenyan)'' - Caractérisation pétrologique et géochimique du volcanisme récent (8 Ma – Actuel) et du manteau source - Contraintes de mise en place thèse de doctorat de l'université de Bretagne occidentale, spécialité : géosciences marines}}</ref> Umekuwa na [[theluji]] kwa maelfu ya miaka. Theluji hiyo hufanya kuwe na mmomonyoko unaosababishwa na barafuto na kutengeneza mabonde<ref name=":1">{{Rejea jarida|last=Gregory|first=J. W.|date=1894-02-01|title=Contributions to the Geology of British East Africa.—Part I. The Glacial Geology of Mount Kenya|url=http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/content/50/1-4/515|journal=Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society|language=en|volume=50|issue=1-4|pages=515–530|doi=10.1144/GSL.JGS.1894.050.01-04.36|issn=0370-291X}}</ref>. Barafuto zimepungua kutoka 18 hadi 10<ref name=":0" />. Mlima huu ni [[chanzo]] muhimu cha [[maji]] kwa Kenya.<ref name="development" /> Habari kuhusu mlima zilifikishwa [[Ulaya]] mwaka [[1849]] na [[Ludwig Krapf]],<ref name="dutton" /> lakini [[jamii]] ya [[wanasayansi]] walibaki na wasiwasi kuhusu uwepo wa [[theluji]] karibu na [[ikweta]].<ref>{{Rejea kitabu|url=http://archive.org/details/greatriftvalleyb00greg|title=The Great Rift Valley : being the narrative of a journey to Mount Kenya and Lake Baringo : with some account of the geology, natural history, anthropology and future prospects of British East Africa|last=Gregory|first=J. W. (John Walter)|date=1896|publisher=London : J. Murray|others=Smithsonian Libraries}}</ref> Uwepo wa Mlima Kenya ulithibitishwa mwaka [[1883]] na [[1887]]<ref name=":2">{{Rejea kitabu|url=http://archive.org/details/discoveryoflakes02hhne|title=Discovery of lakes Rudolf and Stefanie; a narrative of Count Samuel Teleki's exploring & hunting expedition in eastern equatorial Africa in 1887 & 1888|last=Höhnel|first=Ludwig|last2=Teleki|first2=Samuel|last3=Bell|first3=Nancy R. E. Meugens|date=1894|publisher=London, Longmans, Green and Co.|others=Smithsonian Libraries}}</ref>. Ulipandwa na [[timu]] iliyoongozwa na Halford John Mackinder, mwaka [[1899]]<ref name=":3">{{Rejea jarida|last=Mackinder|first=H. J.|date=1900|title=A Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya, British East Africa|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1774261|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=15|issue=5|pages=453–476|doi=10.2307/1774261}}</ref>. Leo Mlima Kenya hupandwa na [[Utalii|watalii]] na wanaopenda kupanda milima na [[miamba]].<ref name="map">{{cite map|publisher=EWP|title=Mount Kenya Map and Guide|url=http://www.ewpnet.com/Kenyamap.htm|edition=4th|year=2007|cartography=EWP|scale=1:50,000 with 1:25,000 inset|series=EWP Map Guides|isbn=9780906227961|access-date=2009-12-11|archive-date=2009-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227133844/http://www.ewpnet.com/Kenyamap.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mfumo wa [[ekolojia]] wa Mlima Kenya una aina tofauti za [[mimea]] na [[wanyama]].<ref name=":4">{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37843815|title=Kirinyaga : a fable of Utopia|last=D.|first=Resnick, Michael|date=1998|publisher=Ballantine Pub. Group|isbn=0345417011|edition=1st ed|location=New York|oclc=37843815}}</ref> Mteremko hufunikwa na aina tofauti ya [[misitu]]. [[Spishi]] [[Asili|asilia]] ni kama vile [[Mwanzi (nyasi)|mianzi]], [[tai]] na [[pimbi]].<ref name="ecology" /> Kwa sababu hii, eneo la [[km2|<abbr>km²</abbr>]] 715 linalozunguka mlima ni [[Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Mlima Kenya]] <ref name="uicn">{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/800.pdf | title= World Heritage Nomination - IUCN Technical Evaluation Mount Kenya (Kenya)}}</ref> na liliorodheshwa na [[UNESCO]] kama [[urithi wa dunia]] mwaka [[1997]].<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |url= http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=800 |title= Mount Kenya National Park/Natural Forest |accessdate= 2008-02-23 |author= United Nations |authorlink= United Nations |year= 2008 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20061230202343/http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=800 |archivedate= 2006-12-30 }}</ref> Hifadhi hupokea [[wageni]] zaidi ya 15,000 kwa mwaka.<ref name="development" /> ==Etimolojia== Neno Kenya linaweza kuwa lilitokana na majina ambayo makabila wenyeji waliupatia Mlima Kenya. Wakikuyu; ''Kirinyaga'', Waembu; ''Kirenyaa'' na Wakamba''; Kiinyaa.'' Ludwig Krapf aliliandika jina kama Kenia na Kegnia, maneno ambayo yanaaminika kutoholewa kutoka neno la [[Kikamba]].<ref name="krapf_452">{{cite journal|last=Krapf|first=Johann Ludwig|authorlink=Johann Ludwig Krapf|date=13 Mei 1850|title=Extract from Krapf's diary|journal=Church Missionary Intelligencer|volume=i|pages=452}}</ref><ref name="foottit">{{cite book|title=Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/kenya0000foot|last=Foottit|first=Claire|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides Ltd|year=2006|isbn=1-84162-066-1|series=The Brade Travel Guide|origyear=2004}}</ref><ref name="Krapf" /> == Jiografia == ===Jiolojia=== [[Picha:Batian and Nelion.JPG|thumb|Vilele vya Mlima kenya. Vinaaminika kuwepo baada ya mmomonyoko kwa njia ya barafuto.<ref name="geology">{{cite book|title=Geology of the Mount Kenya Area|last=Baker|first=B. H.|publisher=Ministry of Natural Resources|year=1967|isbn=|series=Geological Survey of Kenya|doi=|authorlink=}}</ref>]] Mlima Kenya ni [[volkeno rusu]] iliyokuwa hai kati ya miaka milioni 2.6 na 3.1 iliyopita. [[Kasoko]] ya awali ilikuwa pengine katika urefu wa m 6,000, juu kuliko [[Kilimanjaro]]. Tangu izimike, kumekuwa na [[Kipindi cha barafu|vipindi viwili vya barafu]]. Barafuto za leo hazipiti m 4,650 juu ya [[Usawa bahari wastani|usawa wa bahari]]<ref name="map" />. Miteremko ya kitako cha mlima haijawahi kuwa na barafuto. Ni misitu na baadhi ya sehemu zikalimwa. Miteremko hiyo ina mabonde yenye umbo la V na [[Kijito|vijito]] vingi. Juu mlimani, katika eneo ambalo ni nyika, mabonde yenye umbo la U na vina vifupi. Mabonde hayo yaliumbwa na barafuto.<ref name="geology" /> Wakati volkeno ilipokuwa hai, kulikuwa na shughuli za kivolkeno mbali kiasi na mlima. Kaskazini mashariki, kando ya mlima kuna vizibo vingi vya volkeno na [[kreta]]. Kreta ya Ithanguni ndiyo kubwa zaidi. Inadhaniwa kuwa ilikuwa na theluji wakati huo. Hii inaweza kuonekana kwa kuwa kilele kimelainika. Vilima vidogo huonekana hapo kama ishara ya kwamba vilikuwa vizibo.<ref name="geology" /> Miamba inayounda Mlima Kenya ni pamoja na [[basalt]], [[rhomb porphyrite]], [[phonolite]], [[kenyte]] na [[trachyte]].<ref name="geology" /> Kenyte iliripotiwa mara ya kwanza mwaka 1900 na Gregory katika utafiti wake wa [[jiolojia]] ya Mlima Kenya.<ref name="gregory1900">{{cite journal | last= Gregory | first= J. W. | authorlink = John Walter Gregory | year=1900 | title = Contributions to the Geology of British East Africa.-Part II. The Geology of Mount Kenya | journal= Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society | volume=56 | issue= | pages = 205–222 | url = | accessdate=4th June 2007 | doi = 10.1144/GSL.JGS.1900.056.01-04.12 }}</ref> [[Joseph Thompson]] alipendekeza utafiti ufanyiwe Mlima Kenya mara ya kwanza mwaka 1883. Aliona mlima kutoka [[Tambarare ya Laikipia]] akaandika ilikuwa volkeno zimwe, kizibo kikionekana.<ref name="thomson" /> Hata hivyo, maoni yake hayakuaminiwa na wanasayansi wa magharibi, hasa baada ya mwaka 1887, wakati [[Teleki]] na [[von Höhnel]] walikwea mlima na kueleza walichokatia kauli kuwa kreta.<ref name="gregory" /> Mwaka 1893 msafara wa Gregory ulifika Barafuto ya Lewis, m 5,000. Alithibitisha kuwa volkeno ilikuwa imezimwa na kuwa kulikuwa na barafuto.<ref name="gregory" /><ref name="gregory1900" /> ===Vilele=== [[Picha:Mount Kenya Summit photomap-en.svg|thumb|right|300px|Vilele vikuu na barafuto kati mwa mlima.]] Asili ya vilele vingi ni shughuli za volkeno. Vilele vingi vimekaribia kati mwa mlima. Vinafanana na vilele vya [[Alpi]] kwa sababu ya mikunjo.<ref name="baker">[112]</ref> Kuvu, kuvumwani na mimea midogo ya milimani humea katika vilele vya kati.<ref name="ecology" /> Vizibo vya volkeno vimefunikwa kwa majivu ya volkeno na udongo.<ref name="speck">{{cite journal | last = Speck | first = Heinrich | coauthors = | title = Soils of the Mount Kenya Area: Their formation, ecology, and agricultural significance | journal = Mountain Research and Development | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 201–221 | publisher = | date = 1982 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0276-4741(198205)2%3A2%3C201%3ASOTMKA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 | doi = 10.2307/3672965 | accessdate = 2007-06-21 | year = 1982 }}</ref> Vilele virefu zaidi ni Batian (m 5,199), Nelion (m 5,188) na Lenana (m 4,985).<ref name="map" /> Vilele na vizibo vingine ni pamoja na Piggot (m 4,957), Dutton (m 4,885), John (m 4,883), John Minor (m 4,875), Krapf Rognon (m 4,800), Peter (m 4,757), Slade (m 4,750) na Midget (m 4,700). Vyote vina miinuko inayotengeneza umbo kama la piramidi.<ref name="map" /><ref name="baker" /> Vilele maarufu vilivyo katika viunga vya mlima ni Terere (m 4,714) and Sendeyo (m 4,704).<ref name="map" /> Vilele vya Batian, Nelion na Lenana vimepewa majina ya Laibon Mbatian na wanawe ambao walikuwa Wamasai.<ref name="dutton" /> Kilele cha Terere pia kilipatiwa jina la kiongozi Mmasai. Majina mengine yalitoka kwa majina ya Wazungu wapelelezi, k.v. Shipton, Sommerfelt, Tilman, Dutton na Arthur. Kuna majina yaliyotoka kwa Wakenya na walowezi maarufu. Majina ya [[Mitume wa Yesu|mitume]] John na Peter yalitolewa na Arthur, aliyekuwa [[mmisionari]].<ref name="mck">{{cite book|title=The Mountain Club of Kenya Guide to Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro|last=Allan|first=Iain|publisher=Mountain Club of Kenya|year=1981|isbn=978-9966985606|location=Nairobi}}</ref> <center><gallery> Picha:Batian Nelion and pt Slade in the foreground Mt Kenya.JPG|Batian (kushoto), Nelion (kulia), na Slade katika mandharimbele Picha:Pt Lenana Mt Kenya.JPG|Kilele cha lenana ndicho kimeinuka zaidi Picha:Krapf rognon and glacier after snowstorm.jpg|Krapf Rognon (m 4800) na Barafuto ya Krapf Picha:Hut tarn 4500m and Midget Peak Mt Kenya.JPG|Kilele cha Midget kinaweza kukwewa kwa siku moja Picha:Terere and Sendeyo.jpg|Vilele vya Terere na Sendeyo viko katika kiunga cha mlima </gallery></center> ===Barafuto=== [[Picha:MtKenya gletscher.jpg|thumb|200px|Barafuto ya Lewis ndio kubwa zaidi.]] Barafuto zinazidi kudidimia kila mwaka.<ref name="web">{{cite web | url= http://www.mck.or.ke/ | author=Mountain Club | title= Mountain Club of Kenya Homepage | accessdate=2007-05-26 }}</ref><ref name="glafot">''[http://www.sundogpublishing.com/Hastenrath/Announcement.html Recession ya Ikweta Glaciers.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.sundogpublishing.com/Hastenrath/Announcement.html|date=20120214101403}}'' ''[http://www.sundogpublishing.com/Hastenrath/Announcement.html A Photo Documentation,] {{Wayback|url=http://www.sundogpublishing.com/Hastenrath/Announcement.html|date=20120214101403}}'' Hastenrath, S., 2008, Sundog Publishing, Madison, WI, ISBN 978-0-9729033-3-2, 144 pp.</ref> Kila mwaka, theluji inayolimbikika katika [[majira ya baridi]] ni kidogo kuliko inayoyeyuka katika [[majira ya joto]]. Inabashiriwa kuwa hali ikiendelea hivyo, Mlima Kenya hautakuwa na theluji miaka 30 itakayokuja<ref name=":0" /><ref name="guide" />. Kupungua kwa barafuto kunasababishwa na kuongezeka kwa halijoto au kubadilika kwa tabia ya usimbishaji.<ref name="benn">{{cite book |last = Benn |first = Doug |last1 = David |first1 = Evans |title = Glaciers and Glaciation |url = https://archive.org/details/glaciersglaciati0000benn |publisher = Arnold |year = 1997 |isbn = 978-0340584316}}</ref> Eneo la barafuto lilipimwa rasmi mara ya kwanza mwaka 1980 na kubainika kuwa ni 0.7 km² <ref name="glacierfluctuations">{{cite journal|last=Karlén|first=Wibjörn|year=1999|title=Glacier Fluctuations on Mount Kenya since ~6000 Cal. Years BP: Implications for Holocene Climate Change in Africa|url=http://www.ambio.kva.se|journal=Ambio|publisher=Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences|volume=28|issue=5|pages=409–418|coauthors=James L Fastook, Karin Holmgren, Maria Malmström, John A Matthews, Eric Odada, Jan Risberg, Gunhild Rosqvist, Per Sandgren, Aldo Shemesh and Lars-Ove Westerberg|month=Agosti|access-date=2021-01-17|archive-date=2005-12-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231095818/http://www.ambio.kva.se/|dead-url=yes|=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231095818/http://www.ambio.kva.se/}}</ref>. Majina ya barafuto za Mlima Kenya kwa mzunguko wa akrabu kutoka kaskazini ni ni: # Northey # Krapf # Gregory # Lewis # Diamond # Darwin # Forel # Heim # Tyndall # Cesar # Josef ===Miundo ya kingo za barafuto=== Jalidi usiku hufanya kuwe na miundo ya kingo za kingo za barafuto. Kuna sentimita chache ardhi jalidi chini ya uso wa ardhi.<ref name="map" /><ref name="baker" /> Kupanuka na kupunguka kwa ardhi kwa sababu ya halijoto, hufanya mimea isiweze kumea katika kingo.<ref name="mck" /> ===Mito=== Mlima Kenya ni eneo kuu la vyanzo vya maji vya mito miwili mikubwa nchini Kenya: [[Mto Tana]] na [[Mto Ewaso Ng'iro|Mto Ewaso Ngiro Kaskazini]].<ref name="development">{{cite journal | last = Gichuki | first = Francis Ndegwa | title = Threats and Opportunities for Mountain Area Development in Kenya | journal = Ambio | volume = 28 | issue = 5 | pages = 430–435 | publisher = Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences | date = Agosti 1999 | url = http://www.ambio.kva.se | access-date = 2021-01-17 | archive-date = 2005-12-31 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051231095818/http://www.ambio.kva.se/ | dead-url = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20051231095818/http://www.ambio.kva.se/ }}</ref> Mfumo wa ekolojia wa Mlima Kenya huwapatia maji watu zaidi ya milioni 2.<ref name="development" /> Wiani wa vijito ni kubwa hasa katika miteremko ambayo haijawahi kuwa na barafuto.<ref name="baker_map">{{cite map | publisher =Edward Stanford Ltd | title =Geological Map of the Mount Kenya Area | url =http://eusoils.jrc.it/ESDB_Archive/EuDASM/Africa/maps/afr_kegmmka.htm | edition =1st | year =1966 | cartography =B. H. Baker, Geological Survey of Kenya | scale =1:125000 | series =Geological Survey of Kenya | accessdate = | accessmonth = | accessyear = | archivedate =2011-08-07 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110807171130/http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ESDB_Archive/EuDASM/Africa/maps/afr_kegmmka.htm }}</ref> Vijito na mito inayoanza Mlima Kenya humwaga maji ndani ya [[Mto Sagana (Kenya)|Mto Sagana]], Mto Tana na Mto Ewaso Ngiso Kaskazini moja kwa moja au kupitia mito mingine. <ref name="baker_map" /><ref name="mapandguide"> {{cite map|publisher=Andrew Wielochowski and Mark Savage|title=Mt Kenya 1:50000 Map and Guide|edition=1|year=1991|cartography=West Col Productions|scale=1:50000 with 1:25000 inset|isbn=0-906227-39-9}}</ref> ===Ekolojia=== Eneo la Mlima Kenya lina kanda tofauti za kiekolojia. Kila ukanda una sifa zake na spishi kuu ya mimea. Spishi nyingi zinazopatikana katika sehemu zilizo juu ya mlima zinapatikana pia katika maeneo mengine ya mlima na Afrika Mashariki.<ref name="ecology" /> Pia kuna tofauti kati ya kanda, kutegemea upande wa mlima na ukali wa mteremko. Kusini mashariki pa mlima ni sehemu nyevu kuliko kaskazini<ref name="glacierfluctuations" /> kwa hiyo, spishi nyingi za sehemu hiyo hutegemea unyevu kukua. Baadhi ya spishi, k.v. [[mianzi]], haziwezi kukua pande zote za mlima kwa sababu za tofauti za unyevu.<ref name="map" /> ====Kanda==== [[Picha:Mount Kenya Vegetation map en.svg|thumb|right|300px|Kuna kanda tofauti mimea kuzunguka Mlima Kenya ambayo inatofautiana kulingana na urefu na kipengele.]] Tabianchi hubadilika kulingana na mwinuko. Katika kitako cha mlima, udongo una rutuba na hivyo ni mzuri kwa ukulima. Ukulima ulikuwa ukifanyika hapo kwa miaka.<ref name="castro" /> Mlima Kenya umezungukwa na misitu. [[Uoto asilia|Uoto]] katika misitu unategemea kiwango cha mvua, na spishi hutofautiana zaidi kusini na kaskazini mwa mteremko.<ref name="dutton" /> Misitu katika kitako cha mlima hutishiwa na binadamu wanaokata miti ili watengeneze mbao na wanyakuzi ardhi.<ref name="castro" /> Juu ya misitu ni ukanda wa mianzi asilia. Ukanda huu huzunguka mlima isipokuwa sehemu ya kaskazini ambapo kuna upungufu wa mvua<ref name="mck" />. Ni vigumu kupata spishi nyingine za mimea hapo kwa sababu uoto wa mianzi ni mzito na huzuia mimea mingine kumea.<ref name="map" /> [[Picha:Timberline forest with lichens.jpg|thumb|left|Msitu wa mpaka wamiti.]] Juu ya ukanda wa mianzi ni ukanda wa mpaka wa miti. Miti hapa mara nyingi ni midogo kuliko miti katika misitu ya kitako cha mlima.<ref name="zonation"> {{cite journal | last = Niemelä | first = Tuomo | coauthors = Petri Pellikka | title = Zonation and characteristics of the vegetation of Mt. Kenya | journal = Expedition reports of the Department of Geography, University of Helsinki | volume = 40 | issue = | pages = 14–20 | publisher = | date = | year = 2004 | ISBN = 952-10-2077-6 }} </ref> Mahali miti haiwezi kuota ni nyika ya mlima, m 3,000. Mimea ya jenasi ''[[Erica]]'' hupatikana katika sehemu ya magharibi ambayo huwa nyevu. Vichaka na nyasi hupatikana katika sehemu kame ambayo hushuhudia moto wa pori.<ref name="mck" /> <ref name="castro" /> Kimo kinapoongezeka, halijoto hupungua zaidi na hewa hupungua, katika ukanda unaojulikana kama Alpi ya Kiafrika. Mazingira ya ukanda huo yanafanana tu na yale ya [[Aberdare|Safu ya Aberdare]]. <ref name="ecology" /> Mimea mingi ya ukanda huo imejirekebisha ili kuweza kukabili halihewa.<ref name="rosette">{{cite journal | last = Beck | first = Erwin | coauthors = Ernst-Detlef Schulze, Margot Senser and Renate Scheibe | title = Equilibrium freezing of leaf water and extracellular ice formation in Afroalpine 'giant rosette' plants | journal = Planta | volume = 162 | issue = | pages = 276–282 | publisher = | date = 1984 | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_planta_1984-09_162_3/page/276 | doi = 10.1007/BF00397450 | accessdate = }}</ref> Ukanda ulio juu ni ambapo barafuto zimedidimia. Mimea bado haijaweza kuota hapo.<ref name="ecology" /> ====Flora==== [[Picha:Senecio keniodendron2.jpg|thumb|right|Mimea kama ''[[Dendrosenecio keniodendron]]'' hufanya marekebisho ili iweze kuota.]] Mimea ya mlima hutofautiana na mwinuko na mwelekeo wa mlima.<ref name="tropicalalpine" /> Mwinuko unapoongezeka, mimea huwa na marekebisho spesheli ili kuhimili [[jalidi]] na miale ya [[urujuanimno]].<ref name="mck" /><ref name="zonation" /> Kwa mfano, mimea ya jenasi ''[[Carduus]]'', katika ukanda wa alpi ya kiafrika, hutumia majani kulinda jicho la ua kutokana na jalidi.<ref name="senecio">{{cite journal | last = Young | first = Truman P. | coauthors = Mary M. Peacock | title = Giant senecios and alpine vegetation of Mount Kenya | journal = Journal of Ecology | volume = 80 | issue = | pages = 141–148 | publisher = | date = 1992 | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-ecology_1992_80_1/page/141 | doi = | accessdate = }} </ref><ref name="rosette" /> [[Picha:Cape Hyrax Mt Kenya 1.JPG|left|thumb|[[Pimbi]] huweza kuishi katika maeneo yenye halihewa kali.]] ====Fauna==== Wanyama wengi hukaa katika kitako cha mlima penye halianga nzuri kidogo. Spishi za nyani, pimbi wa mitini, ndovu, nungunungu, nyati, fisi, mbuni, duma na simba huishi hapo.<ref name="map" /> Wanyama mamalia wachache, k.v. ''Sylvicapra grimmia'' na pimbi wa miamba wanaweza kuishi katika miinuko ya juu kidogo.<ref name="senecio" /><ref name="ecology" /> Spishi za ndege, k.v. chozi, kwenzi, tai na tumbusi hupatikana katika ukanda wa alpi ya kiafrika. Ndege ni muhimu katika mfumo wa ekolojia hiyo kwa kuwa wao husaidia katika mchavusho.<ref name="tropicalalpine">{{cite journal | last = Smith | first = Alan P. | coauthors = Truman P. Young | title = Tropical Alpine Plant Ecology | journal = Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics | volume = 18 | pages = 137–158 | date = 1987 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.es.18.110187.001033}}</ref> ===Tabianchi=== Tabianchi ya Mlima Kenya ni ya milima ya ikweta ambayo Hedberg alieleza kuwa ni 'majira ya baridi kila usiku, majira ya joto kila mchana'. <ref name="hedberg1969">{{cite journal | last =Hedberg | first =O. | title = Evolution and speciation in a tropical high mountain flora | journal = Biological Journal of the Linnean Society | volume = 1 | pages = 135–148 | year = 1969 | doi =10.1111/j.1095-8312.1969.tb01816.x }}</ref> Mlima Kenya mojawapo ya vituo vya uchunguzi wa angahewa vya Global Atmospheric Watch.<ref name="globalatmospherestation">{{cite journal | last = Henne | first = Stephan | coauthors = Wolfgang Junkermann, Josiah M. Kariuki, John Aseyo and Jörg Klausen | title = Mount Kenya Global Atmosphere Watch Station (MKN): Installation and Meteorological Characterization | journal = Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology | volume = 47 | issue = 11 | pages = 2946–2962 | publisher = | date = Novemba 2008 | year = }}</ref> ====Misimu==== [[Picha:Sunrise over Mount Kenya.jpg|thumb|right|Katika msimu wa joto, asubuhi huwa baridi na bila mawingu. Adhuhuri inapofika, mawingu huziba vilele]] Mlima Kenya hushuhudia misimu miwili tofauti, [[Msimu wa joto (tropiki)|misimu ya joto]] na [[Msimu wa mvua|misimu ya mvua]], kama maeneo mengine ya Kenya.<ref name="climate_article">{{cite journal | last =Thompson | first = B. W. | title = The mean annual rainfall of Mount Kenya | journal = Weather | volume = 21 | pages = 48–49 | date = 1966 }}</ref> Miteremko ya mashariki kaskazini hupata mvua kubwa zaidi kwa kuwa uko katika [[Upande wa upepo|upande wa pepo]] za [[kusi]] ambazo huleta mvua kutoka [[Bahari ya Hindi|Bahari Hindi]]. Mvua hii huwezesha msitu uliosongamana katika upande huo. Katika miinuko ya juu, [[usimbishaji]] hufanyika kama theluji na kutengeneza barafuto.<ref name="spink">{{cite journal | last = Spink | first = Lieut.-Commander P. C. | title = Further Notes on the Kibo Inner Crater and Glaciers of Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya | journal = Geographical Journal | volume = 106 | issue = 5/6 | pages = 210–216 | publisher = The Royal Geographical Society | date = 1945 | doi = }} </ref> Misimu ya Mlima Kenya ni kama ifuatavyo<ref name="castro">{{cite book | last = Castro | first = Alfonso Peter | title = Facing Kirinyaga | url = https://archive.org/details/facingkirinyagas0000cast | year = 1995 | publisher = Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd. | location = London | isbn = 1-85339-253-7 }}</ref>: {|class="wikitable" |+ !Msimu !Wakati |- |Masika |Aprili-Juni/Julai |- |Vuli |Oktoba-Disemba |- |Joto/Kiangazi |Disemba/Januari-Februari<br>na<br>Julai/Agosti-Septemba |} ==Historia== ===Ugunduzi wa Wazungu=== [[Picha:Joseph Thomson.png|right|thumb|Joseph Thomson alithibitisha ugunduzi wa Krapf.]] Mlima Kenya ulikuwa kati ya vilele virefu [[Afrika]] kuonekana kwa mara ya kwanza na [[Mpelelezi|wapelelezi]] kutoka Ulaya. Wa kwanza kuuona alikuwa [[Johann Ludwig Krapf]], [[mmisionari]] [[Mjerumani]]<ref name="Krapf">{{cite book | last=Krapf | first=Johann Ludwig | authorlink=Johann Ludwig Krapf | title= Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours in Eastern Africa | year=1860 | publisher=Frank Cass & Co. Ltd | location=London | isbn= }}</ref>, [[tarehe]] [[3 Desemba]] [[1849]]<ref name="dutton">{{cite book | last=Dutton | first=E.A.T. | authorlink= | title= Kenya Mountain |year=1929 |publisher=Jonathan Cape | location= London}}</ref>, kutoka [[Kitui]], mji ulio km 160 kutoka mlima<ref name="rough_guide">{{cite map | publisher=Rough Guide | title= Rough Guide Map Kenya | edition=9 | year=2006 | cartography=World Mapping Project | scale=1:900,000 | series=Rough Guide Map |isbn=1-84353-359-6 }}</ref>, baada ya ugunduzi wa [[Mlima Kilimanjaro]]. Krapf aliambiwa na [[watu]] wa [[kabila]] la [[Waembu]] kwamba walikuwa wakiuzunguka mlima lakini hawakuwa wamepaa juu kwa sababu ya [[baridi]] na [[theluji]].<ref name="Krapf" /> [[Wakikuyu]] walithibitisha haya yametukia. [[Picha:Samuel Teleki.jpg|thumb|left|Samuel Teleki, Mzungu wa kwanza kuweka mguu juu ya Mlima Kenya.]] Krapf pia alibainisha kwamba [[mito]] inayotoka Mlima Kenya, na mingine katika eneo la milima, ilikuwa mito ya kudumu. Akagundua kuwa lazima kuna chanzo cha maji mlimani, katika umbo la barafuto.<ref name="Krapf" /> Aliamini ni chanzo cha [[Mto Nili Nyeupe|Nili Nyeupe]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Krapf | first=Johann Ludwig | authorlink=Johann Ludwig Krapf | title = Extract from Krapf's diary | date=13 Mei 1850 | journal=Church Missionary Intelligencer | volume=i | pages=345}}</ref> Mwaka [[1851]] Krapf akarudi Kitui. Yeye alisafiri km 65 karibu na mlima, lakini hakuweza kuuona tena. Mwaka 1877 Hildebrandt alikuwa katika eneo la Kitui na kusikia juu ya mlima, lakini pia hakuweza kuuona, hivyo watu walianza kumtuhumu Krapf.<ref name="gregory"> {{cite book | last=Gregory | first=John Walter |authorlink=John Walter Gregory | title=The Great Rift Valley | url=https://archive.org/details/greatriftvalley0000jwgr | origdate=1896 | year=1968 | publisher= Frank Cass & Co. Ltd | location=London}}</ref> Hatimaye, mwaka [[1883]], [[Joseph Thomson]] alipita upande wa magharibi wa mlima na Krapf alithibitisha madai yake.<ref name="thomson">{{cite book|title=Through Masai Land|url=https://archive.org/details/throughmasailand0000jose|last=Thomson|first=Joseph|publisher=Frank Cass & Co Ltd|year=1968|edition=3|location=London|authorlink=Joseph Thomson (explorer)|origdate=1885}}</ref> Hata hivyo, upelelezi rasmi wa kwanza ulifanyika mwaka 1887 na [[Samuel Teleki]] na [[Ludwig von Höhnel]]. Waliweza kufika mita 4,350 kwenye mteremko wa kusini magharibi<ref name=":2" />. Katika safari ya upelelezi huo, waliamini kuwa walikuwa wamegundua volkeno. Mwaka 1892, Teleki na von Höhnel walirudi upande wa mashariki, lakini hawakuweza kupitia msitu.<ref name="ecology">{{cite book | last=Coe | first=Malcolm James | title=The Ecology of the Alpine Zone of Mount Kenya | url=https://archive.org/details/ecologyofalpinez0017coem | year=1967 | publisher= Dr W. Junk | location=The Hague}}</ref> Hatimaye, mwaka 1893 timu ilisafiri kutoka pwani hadi [[Ziwa Baringo]] katika [[Bonde la Ufa]], ikiongozwa na [[John W. Gregory]], [[mwanajiolojia]] [[Mwingereza]]. Walikwea mlima hadi mita 4,730 na wakakaa masaa kadhaa katika Barafuto ya Lewis. Aliporudi [[Uingereza]], Gregory alichapisha [[majarida]] na [[hadithi]] ya mafanikio yake.<ref name="mck" /> George Kolb, [[daktari]] Mjerumani, alifanya safari mwaka 1894 na 1896 <ref name="mck" /> na alikuwa wa kwanza kufika nyika ya mlima upande wa mashariki. Tarehe 28 Julai 1899,<ref name=":3" /> Halford John Mackinder aliongoza kundi la wapelelezi 6 kutoka [[Ulaya]], 66 kutoka [[Uswahilini]], [[Wamaasai]] 2 na Wakikuyu 96<ref name=":3" />. Walipatana na matatizo mengi njiani<ref name=":3" />. Mackinder aliendelea kupanda mlima. Alikita kambi m 3,142<ref name=":3" /> katika Bonde la Höhnel. Alifanya jaribio la kwanza kufikia kilele tarehe [[30 Agosti]] pamoja na Brocherel na Ollier kupitia upande wa mashariki, lakini wakabakisha kupanda m 100 kutoka Kilele cha Nelion. Tarehe [[5 Septemba]], Hausberg, Ollier na Brocherel walifanya mzunguko kutafuta njia rahisi ila hawakuweza kupata. Tarehe [[11 Septemba]] Ollier na Brocherel walipanda Barafuto ya Darwin, lakini walilazimishwa kukatiza safari kutokana na [[dhoruba ya theluji]]<ref name=":3" />. Wakati Saunders alirudi kutoka Naivasha timu okozi, Mackinder, Ollier na Brocherel walijaribu kupanda kilele tena. Walifika kilele cha Batian saa sita mchana tarehe 13 Septemba, na walishuka kutumia njia ileile<ref name=":3" />. ===1900-1930=== Baada ya ukweaji wa kwanza, hakukuwa na safari nyingi za kukwea mlima. Upelelezi kabla ya [[Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia|Vita ya Kwanza ya Dunia]] ulikuwa ukifanywa na [[walowezi]] nchini Kenya, ambao hawakufanya upelelezi wa kisayansi. Misheni ya Kanisa la Uskoti ilipofunguliwa Chogoria[[Chogoria,|Chogoria,]], wamishonari kadhaa walikwea mlima lakini hakuna aliyefanikiwa kufikia vilele vya Batian au Nelion.<ref name="mck" /> Miti ya misitu ilikatwa ili kurahisisha safari ya kufikia vilele. Mwaka 1920, Arthur Fowell Buxton alijaribu kutengeneza njia kutoka kusini, na njia nyingine walikuja kutoka [[Nanyuki]] kaskazini, lakini njia iliyotumiwa zaidi ni ile ya Chogoria, kutoka mashariki, iliyotengenezwa na Ernest Carr.<ref name="mck" /> Mwishoni mwa Julai 1930, Shipton na Bill Tilman walikwea vilele vyote. Katika safari hii, Shipton na Tilman walijaribu kukwea vilele vingine, ikiwa ni pamoja na Petro, Dutton, Midget , Pigott na aidha Terere au Sendeyo.<ref name="cordee">{{cite book |last= Burns |first= Cameron |title= Kilimanjaro & Mount Kenya; A Climbing and Trekking Guide |year= 1998 |publisher= Cordee |location= Leicester |isbn= 1-871890-98-5}}</ref> ===1931 hadi leo=== Katika miaka ya 1930 ziara zilifanyika zaidi katika nyika ya mlima. Raymond Hook na Humphrey Slade walikwea ili wachore ramani ya mlima na wakapeleka samaki. Februari mwaka 1938, C Carol na Mtu Muthara wakawa mwanamke wa kwanza na Mwafrika wa kwanza mtawalia kupaa Nelion, katika ziara na Noel Symington, mwandishi wa ''The Night Climbers of Cambridge'', na tarehe [[5 Machi]] Una Cameron akawa mwanamke wa kwanza kupaa Batian.<ref name="mck" /> Wakati wa [[Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia]] ziara za kukwea mlima zilididimia zaidi. Watu maarufu waliokwea katika wakati huo walikuwa wafungwa wa vitani Waitaliano, ambao walikuwa wamefungwa jela Nanyuki. Walitoroka na kupanda mlima kabla ya kurejea kambini.<ref name="picnic">{{cite book | last= Benuzzi | first= Felice | authorlink= | title=No Picnic on Mount Kenya: A Daring Escape, a Perilous Climb | origdate=1953 | year=2005 | publisher=The Lyons Press | location= | isbn=978-1592287246}}</ref> Mwaka 1949 eneo kupita m 3,400 lilifanywa [[Hifadhi ya taifa|hifadhi ya kitaifa]].<ref name="mck" /> Barabara ilijengwa kutoka [[Naro Moru]] ili kurahisisha safari ya kufikia nika ya mlima. Mwaka 1963, katika siku ya uhuru wa Kenya, Kisoi Munayo alikita bendera ya Kenya juu ya mlima. Mwaka 1997, mlima Kenya uliteuliwa kuwa eneo la urithi wa dunia na UNESCO.<ref name="unesco"/> ==Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Mlima Kenya== {{main|Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Mlima Kenya}} Hifadhi ya Taifa ya Mlima Kenya, ilianzishwa mwaka [[1949]]. Inahifadhi eneo linalozunguka mlima. Awali ilikuwa [[hifadhi ya misitu]].<ref name="kws_website">{{cite web |url= http://www.kws.org/mt-kenya.html |title= Mount Kenya National Park |accessdate= 2008-02-23 |author= Kenya Wildlife Service |authorlink= Kenya Wildlife Service |year= 2007 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070622045208/http://www.kws.org/mt-kenya.html |archivedate= 2007-06-22 }}</ref> Tangu [[Aprili]] [[1978]] eneo limeteuliwa kama Hifadhi ya Mazingira ya dunia UNESCO .<ref name="unep">{{cite web |url= http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/mt_kenya.html |title= Protected Areas and World Heritage |accessdate= 2008-02-23 |author= United Nations Environment Programme |authorlink= United Nations Environment Programme |year= 1998 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070212211303/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/mt_kenya.html |archivedate= 2007-02-12 }}</ref> [[Serikali ya Kenya]] ilikuwa na sababu nne za kuanzisha Hifadhi ya Taifa inayozunguka Mlima Kenya: umuhimu wa [[utalii]] kwa [[uchumi]], kuhifadhi eneo la uzuri, kuhifadhi [[viumbe hai]] ndani yake, na kuhifadhi [[Chanzo cha maji|vyanzo vya maji]] vinavyozunguka eneo.<ref name="development"/> ==Utamaduni== [[Picha:Mount Kenya Population map-fr.svg|right|thumb|Makazi ya makabila kabla ya taifa la Kenya.]] Makabila makuu wanaoishi kuzunguka Mlima Kenya ni [[Wakikuyu]], [[Wameru]], [[Waembu]] na [[Wamaasai]]. Hao wote huona mlima huo kama kipengele muhimu cha [[tamaduni]] zao. ===Wakikuyu=== [[Picha:Batian and Nelion in the background cropped.JPG|thumb|Makabila kadhaa wanaishi katika kitako cha mlima.|alt=|left]] [[Wakikuyu]] wanaishi kusini na magharibi mwa mlima.<ref name="ecology" /><ref name="Explorers">{{cite book |title= East African Explorers|url= https://archive.org/details/eastafricanexplo0000rich|last= Richards|first= Charles|authorlink= |coauthors= James Place|year= 1960|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= London}} </ref> Wao ni [[wakulima]] na hulima katika udongo mwekundu wa volkeno. Wakikuyu waamini kwamba Mungu wao, ''Ngai'' aliishi juu ya Mlima Kenya aliposhuka kutoka mbinguni.<ref name=":5">{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://books.google.co.ke/books?id=pPBtzgAACAAJ&dq=facing+mount+kenya&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwithfbKqbjdAhUD1BoKHWuEDS4Q6AEIJzAA|title=Facing Mount Kenya|last=Kenyatta|first=Jomo|date=2011-04-05|publisher=Penguin Random House|isbn=9781846555527|language=en}}</ref> Wao wanaamini kuwa mlima ni kiti cha enzi cha Ngai duniani. Ni mahali ambapo Gikuyu, baba wa kabila, alitumia kukutana na Mungu wao, Ngai.<ref name=":5" /><ref name="guide">{{cite|author=Kenya Wildlife Service|title=Mount Kenya Official Guidebook|publisher=Kenya Wildlife Service|year=2006|date=2006}}</ref> Jina kwa ajili ya Kikuyu Mlima Kenya ni ''Kĩrĩnyaga'' ([[Kirinyaga]]), tafsiri yake ikiwa ni mlima mweupe. Linatokana na weupe wa theluji<ref>{{Rejea jarida|last=Karangi|first=Matthew|date=2013-01-01|title=The gĩkũyũ religion and philosophy: A tool for understanding the current religio-political debates in Kenya|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291902121_The_gikuyu_religion_and_philosophy_A_tool_for_understanding_the_current_religio-political_debates_in_Kenya|volume=108|pages=612–622}}</ref>. Wazee wa Agikuyu husimulia kuwa Mlima Kenya uliundwa baada ya "Nyota" inayojulikana kama '''Riuki''' <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Mount Kenya Formation – Yamumbi|url=https://yamumbi.com/mount-kenya-formation/|accessdate=2023-08-24|language=en-US|archivedate=2023-08-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824204401/https://yamumbi.com/mount-kenya-formation/}}</ref>(kihalisi ikimaanisha -jiwe lililotoka angani) kugonga uso wa dunia. Athari hiyo ilizua mlipuko mkubwa na kufuatiwa na tetemeko la ardhi na mawimbi ya nje ya ulinganifu. Unyogovu ulioletwa na '''Riuki''' ulitoa ujiuji wa mawe (magma), majivu ya volkeno na uchafu wa ''riuki'' iliyosambaratika hadi juu. Riuki ikawa upachikaji wa miamba ya Mlima Kenya. Masimuliyi haya yanaambatana sambamba na maoni yaliyotolewa na wanajografia na wanajiolojia, ambao wamebatiza mawe ya mlima Kenya kwa jina '''[[:en:Kenyte|Kenyte]]'''. Kenyte inapatikana katika sehemu mbili tu duniani; kwenye Mlima Kenya na Antarctic katika Ncha ya Kusini. Kwa kupata '''Kenyte''' katika maeneo mawili tofauti, nadharia mpya ilisitawishwa, kwamba kimondo kikubwa kilipoingia kwenye angahewa ya dunia, kiligawanyika vipande viwili, kimoja kikigonga dunia kwenye ikweta katika Kenya ya kisasa na cha pili kilipiga Antaktika. ===Waembu=== [[Waembu]] wanaishi kusini-mashariki mwa Mlima Kenya,<ref name="ecology" /> na kuamini kuwa mlima ni nyumba ya Mungu wao, ''Ngai'' au ''Mwene Njeru''. Mlima ni takatifu, na walikuwa wakijenga nyumba zikiwa na milango iliyokuwa ikitazama mlima.<ref name="guide" /> Waembu wanauita ''kiri Njeru'', maana yake, mlima mweupe.<ref name="mck" /><ref name="cordee" /><ref name="guide" /> ===Wamasai=== [[Wamasai]] ni [[wahamahamaji]] ambao walitumia ardhi kaskazini ya mlima kulisha mifugo wao. Wanaamini kuwa mababu zao walishuka kutoka mlima mwanzoni mwa wakati.<ref name="guide" /> Wamasai waliuita ''Ol Donyo Keri'', ambalo linamaanisha 'mlima wa bakora au rangi nyingi' kudokeza theluji, misitu na mengineyo vinavyoonekana kutoka tambarare ya kandokando.<ref name="somjee">{{cite journal | last=Somjee | first=Sultan | year=2000 | title = Oral Traditions and Material Culture: An East Africa Experience | journal= Research in African Literatures | volume=31 | issue=4 | pages = 97–103 | url = http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/research_in_african_literatures/v031/31.4somjee.html | accessdate=2008-02-21 | doi = 10.2979/RAL.2000.31.4.97 }}</ref> Sala moja ya Wamasai kuhusu Mlima Kenya: {{Quote|Mungu bariki watoto wetu, wawe kama mkuyu wa Morintat, wakue na wapanuke, wawe kama Vilima vya Ngong, kama Mlima Kenya, kama Mlima Kilimanjaro na waongezeke. (tafsiri)|Ilikusanywa na Francis Sakuda wa Makumbusho ya Amani ya Oloshoibor<ref name=somjee/>}} ===Wameru=== [[Wameru]] wanaishi Mashariki na Kaskazini mwa mlima. Walilima na [[Ufugaji|kufuga]] katika sehemu yenye rutuba nyingi nchini Kenya. Jina la Mt. Kenya kwa [[Kimeru]] ni ''Kirimara'' (kutokana na weupe wa theluji).<ref name="witchmen">{{cite book |title= When We Began There Were Witchmen|last= Fadiman|first= Jeffrey A.|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1994|publisher= University of California Press|location= Berkeley|isbn= 0-520-08615-5|page= |pages= |url= http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8199p24c/|accessdate= 2009-05-14}} </ref> ===Makabila mengine=== Wazungu wa kwanza kutembelea Mlima Kenya mara nyingi walileta wajumbe wa makabila mengine kama marafiki na mabawabu. Wengi wao hawakuwa na uzoefu wa baridi, au kuwahi kuona theluji. Maitikio yao mara nyingi zilikuwa za woga na tuhuma.{{Quote|Sifa nyingine ya wazanzibari ilionekana katika kambi ile ile. Asubuhi ilipofika, waume walikuja kuniarifu kwamba maji yale waliokuwa wamewacha ndani ya vyungu yalikuwa yamerogwa. Walisema kuwa ni meupe, na hayatikisiki; Fundi, aliyejulikana kuwa mwenye kuthubutu, alikuwa ameyagonga kwa kijiti na hayakutoka. Walinirai niyaangalie, nikawaambia wayaniletee. Wakakataa, hata hivyo, ili kuyagusa, wakanirai niende yalipokuwa. Kwa kweli, maji yalikuwa yameganda. Niliweka chungu juu ya jiko, nikatabiri kuwa yangegeuka kuwa maji tena. Tuliokuwa nao wakakaa karibu na kuyatazama; yalipoyeyuka, waliniambia kwa furaha kuwa shetani alikuwa amefukuzwa, na nikawaambia kuwa wangeweza kuyatumia maji tena; lakini punde nilipogeuka, waliyamwaga na kuchota mengine kutoka mto uliokuwa karibu. (tafsiri)|J W Gregory|''The Great Rift Valley''<ref name=gregory/>}} Ziara yake ya mwaka 1899, Mackinder alipatana na baadhi ya wanaume kutoka kabila la [[Wadorobo]].<ref name="ecology" /> ==Ukweaji mlima== Kuna njia nane za kutembea zinazoelekea kwenye kilele cha juu. Ni, kwa mzunguko wa akrabu, kutoka kaskazini, njia za Meru, Chogoria, Kamweti, Naro Moru, Burguret, Sirimon na Timau<ref name="map" />. Pia kuna njia inayozunguka vilele inayotumiwa kuunganisha njia tofauti. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://www.ewpnet.com/eaimg/Mount_Kenya_general.htm|title=Mount Kenya - Introduction and Trekking Guide|date=2007-12-17|accessdate=2018-09-16|archivedate=2007-12-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217091034/http://www.ewpnet.com/eaimg/Mount_Kenya_general.htm}}</ref> Kati ya hizi, Chogoria, Naro Moru na Sirimon ndio hutumika zaidi na zina malango. Njia nyingine zinahitaji idhini maalum kutoka kwa [[Shirika la Huduma kwa Wanyama Pori ya Kenya|Huduma ya Wanyamapori Kenya]] ili kuzitumia. ==Tazama pia== * [[Orodha ya milima ya Kenya]] * [[Orodha ya milima ya Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya milima]] * [[Orodha ya Urithi wa Dunia katika Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya volkeno nchini Kenya]] == Marejeo == *Sir Halford Mackinder, ''The First ujio wa Mlima Kenya'' [KM Barbour, ed.], (London, 1991); hadithi ya ujio wa kwanza Batian, pamoja Mackinder's diary na baadhi ya Expedition's picha. Barbour discusses sababu Mackinder, ambaye aliandika na kuchapisha vitabu vingine, hawakuwa kuchapisha maelezo ya akaunti ya Expedition.<ref name="firstascent">{{cite book |title= The First Ascent of Mount Kenya |last= Mackinder |first= Halford John |authorlink= Halford John Mackinder |coauthors= Kenneth Michael Barbour |year= 1991 |publisher= Ohio University Press |location= |isbn= 1850651027 |page= |pages=[https://archive.org/details/firstascentofmou0000mack/page/287 287] |url=https://archive.org/details/firstascentofmou0000mack |accessdate= }} </ref> *Dutton EAT, [[Kenya Mountain|''Kenya Mountain'']] (London, 1929); akaunti ya Expedition Mlima Kenya mwaka 1926; illustreras.<ref name="dutton" /> *Vivienne de Watteville, ''Mwambie Dunia - kuzunguka na Reflections kati Tembo na Milima'' (London & New York, 1935); akaunti ya mwandishi wa ugenini katika kibanda kidogo katika kanda ya Ziwa na Ellis explorations yake ya Gorges Valley; illustreras .<ref name="wanderings">{{cite book |title= Speak to the Earth - Wanderings and Reflections among Elephants and Mountains |last= de Watteville |first= Vivienne |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1986 |publisher= Methuen |location= |origyear= 1935 |edition= 2 |isbn= 0413602702 |page= |pages= 329 |url=https://archive.org/details/speaktoearthwand0000dewa_p9i0 |accessdate= }} </ref> *HW Tilman, theluji ''juu ya Ikweta'' (London, 1937); akaunti ya ujio wa kwanza (na Shipton) ya NW ridge na Nelion; illustreras.<ref name="snow">{{cite book |title= Snow on the Equator |last= Tilman |first= H. W. |authorlink= Bill Tilman |coauthors= |year= 1938 |publisher= The Macmillan Company |location= |isbn= |page= |pages= 265 |url=https://archive.org/details/snowonequator0000hwti |accessdate= }} </ref> *Eric Shipton, juu ''ya kwamba Mlima,'' (London, 1943); akaunti ya ujio wa kwanza (na Tilman) ya NW ridge na Nelion; illustreras.<ref name="uponthatmountain">{{cite book |title= Upon that Mountain |last= Shipton |first= Eric |authorlink= Eric Shipton |coauthors= |year= 1945 |publisher= Readers Union |location= |isbn= |page= |pages= 248 |url= |accessdate= }} </ref> *Felice Benuzzi, ''Fuga sul Kenya'' (Milano 1947) / [[No picnic juu ya Mlima Kenya|''No picnic juu ya Mlima Kenya'']] (London, 1952); a mountaineering classic, kuhusu wafungwa wa kivita tatu ambao kutoroka kutoka gerezani kambi yao mwaka 1943, hupanda mlima na sparse mgawo, improvised vifaa na hakuna ramani, na kisha ''kuvunja kurejea katika'' kambi yao gerezani.<ref name="picnic" /> *Roland Truffaut, ''Du Kenya au wa Kilimanjaro'' (Paris 1953) / ''Kutoka Kenya kwa Kilimanjaro'' (London, 1957); 1952 akaunti ya ujio wa Kifaransa N. uso wa Mt Kenya; illustreras.<ref name="dukenya">{{cite book |title=Du Kenya au Kilimanjaro: expédition française wau Kenya |last= Truffaut |first= Roland |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 1953 |publisher= Julliard |location= Paris |language= French |isbn= |page= |pages= 251 |url= |accessdate= }} </ref> *I. Allan, ''Guide to Mlima Kenya'' (1981; 1991; wengi updates); mamlaka ya kuongoza kwa njia ya peaks.<ref name="mck" /> *Hamish MacInnes, bei ''ya Adventure,'' (London, 1987); inajumuisha hadithi ya wiki-mrefu uokozi wa Gerd Judmeier baada yake kuanguka karibu na kilele cha Batian mapema katika miaka ya 1970.<ref name="priceofadventure">{{cite book | last= MacInnes | first= Hamish | authorlink= | title=The Price of Adventure | url= https://archive.org/details/priceofadventure0000maci | origdate= | year=1987 | publisher= Hodder & Stoughton | location= London | isbn=0340263237 }}</ref> *I. Allan, C. Kata, G. Boy, ''Snowcaps juu ya Ikweta'' (London, 1989); historia ya Afrika Mashariki milima na ascents yao, ikiwemo ya hivi karibuni zaidi pioneered njia; illustreras.<ref name="snowcaps">{{cite book |title= Snowcaps on the Equator: The Fabled Mountains of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zaire |last= Ward |first= Clive |authorlink= |coauthors= Gordon Boy, Iain Allan |year= 1988 |publisher= Bodley Head |location= |isbn= 0370311264 |page= |pages= 192 |url= |accessdate= }}</ref> *Yohana Msomaji, ''Mlima Kenya'' (London, 1989); akaunti ya ujio wa Nelion, pamoja na Iain Allan kama mwongozo; illustreras.<ref name="reader"> {{cite book|title=Mount Kenya|url=https://archive.org/details/mountkenya0000read|last=Reader|first=John|publisher=Elm Tree Books|year=1989|ISBN=0-241-12486-7|location=London}} </ref> *M. Amin, D. Willetts, B. Tetley, ''On Mungu Mountain: The Story wa Mlima Kenya'' (London, 1991). A photographic maadhimisho ya mlima.<ref name="ongodsmountain">{{cite book |title= On God's Mountain: The Story of Mount Kenya |last= Amin |first= Mohamed |authorlink= |coauthors= Duncan Willetts, Brian Tetley |year= 1991 |publisher= Moorland |location= |isbn= |page= |pages= 192 |url= |accessdate= }} </ref> *''Kirinyaga'', [[Mike Resnick]], (1989).<ref name=":4" /> *[[Facing Mount Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta,|''Facing Mount Kenya,'' Jomo Kenyatta]], (1938); kitabu kuhusu Kikuyu.<ref name="facingmtkenya">{{cite book|title=Facing Mount Kenya|last=Kenyatta|first=Jomo|publisher=Secker and Warburg|year=1961|location=London|authorlink=Jomo Kenyatta}}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{Marejeo}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Mount Kenya|Mount Kenya}} * [http://www.mountkenya.org/ Mount Kenya homepage] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mountkenya.org/ |date=20050906224754 }} * [http://www.mount-kenya.com/ Mount Kenya Information & Resource] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mount-kenya.com/ |date=20090319043845 }} * [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/800 UNESCO Mtindo Site Data Sheet juu ya Mlima Kenya] * [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-0.151405,37.312660&amp;spn=0.166014,0.234180&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite picture by Google Maps] * [http://www.kilimanjaro.cc/mkgeolog.htm Mount Kenya Jiolojia na Glasiolojia] {{Wayback|url=http://www.kilimanjaro.cc/mkgeolog.htm |date=20100328152201 }} * [http://www.awf.org/section/safaris/samburu African Wildlife Foundation Safari Planner] * [http://www.mck.or.ke/ Mlima Club ya Kenya Homepage] * [http://www.mountkenyatrust.org/ Bill Woodley Mount Kenya Trust] * [http://www.animalorphanagekenya.org/ Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy] {{Wayback|url=http://www.animalorphanagekenya.org/ |date=20100613081648 }} * [http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8199p24c/ Wakati tulianza, kulikuwa Witchmen] ''An Oral History kutoka Mlima Kenya'' (1993) Jeffrey Fadiman * [http://www.matthewpower.net/FEAT.KENYA.pdf Vizuka juu ya Mlima Kenya] {{Wayback|url=http://www.matthewpower.net/FEAT.KENYA.pdf |date=20070929194948 }} Kifungu kutoka [[National Geographic Adventure]] magazine (2007) Mathayo Power * [http://www.kws.org/mt-kenya.html Kenya Wildlife Service's page on Mount Kenya National Park] {{Wayback|url=http://www.kws.org/mt-kenya.html |date=20070622045208 }} * [http://www.planetfear.com/articles/Frontier_Climbing_in_Kenya_446.html Frontier Climbing nchini Kenya]{{Wayback|url=http://www.planetfear.com/articles/Frontier_Climbing_in_Kenya_446.html |date=20100430211911 }} Article on wawili wa kwanza juu ya Hekalu Ascents * [http://www.hssonline.org/publications/Newsletter2008/NewsletterApril2008photoessay.html Afrika Mashariki ubeberu photo insha] {{Wayback|url=http://www.hssonline.org/publications/Newsletter2008/NewsletterApril2008photoessay.html |date=20080820084101 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kenya, Mlima}} [[Jamii:Milima ya Kenya]] [[Jamii:Mlima Kenya]] [[Jamii:Volkeno za Kenya]] [[Jamii:Mahali pa Urithi wa Dunia katika Afrika]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Kenya]] 3gbxl82ldk650xkol3he0vwn2zql1zd 0 3189 1580290 1578797 2026-07-18T07:20:02Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580290 wikitext text/x-wiki {{kuhusu|nchi|eneo kusini mwa Afrika|Afrika ya Kusini}} {{Jedwali la nchi | jina_rasmi = Jamhuri ya Afrika Kusini | jina_asili = {{Collapsible list | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:center;font-size:85% | title = Majina mengine kumi rasmi<ref name="constitution">{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://www.concourt.org.za/images/phocadownload/the_text/english-2013.pdf| title = The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa|publisher=Constitutional Court of South Africa|year=2013|edition=2013 English version|access-date=17 April 2020|archive-date=23 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823174423/https://www.concourt.org.za/images/phocadownload/the_text/english-2013.pdf}}</ref> | {{Infobox | subbox=yes | bodystyle=font-weight:normal;font-size:80% | datastyle=font-style:italic | rowclass1 = mergedrow | label1 = [[Kizulu]]: | data1 = iRiphabhuliki yaseNingizimu Afrika | rowclass2 = mergedrow | label2 = [[Kixhosa]]: | data2 = iRiphabhlikhi yoMzantsi Afrika | rowclass3 = mergedrow | label3 = [[Kiafrikana]]: | data3 = Republiek van Suid-Afrika | rowclass4 = mergedrow | label4 = [[Kipedi]]: | data4 = Repabliki ya Afrika-Borwa | rowclass5 = mergedrow | label5 = [[Kisotho]]: | data5 = Rephaboliki ya Afrika Borwa | rowclass6 = mergedrow | label6 = [[Kitswana]]: | data6 = Rephaboliki ya Aforika Borwa | rowclass7 = mergedrow | label7 = [[Kitsonga]]: | data7 = Riphabliki ya Afrika Dzonga | rowclass8 = mergedrow | label8 = [[Kiswati]]: | data8 = iRiphabhulikhi yaseNingizimu-Afrika | rowclass9 = mergedrow | label9 = [[Kivenda]]: | data9 = Riphabuḽiki ya Afurika Tshipembe | rowclass10 = mergedrow | label10 = [[Kindebele]]: | data10 = iRiphabliki yeSewula Afrika }} }} | kauli_mbiu = "''ǃke e: ǀxarra ǁke''" ([[Kixam]])<br> "Watu anuwai huungana" | wimbo_wa_taifa = "Nkosi Sekelel' iAfrika" | bendera = File:Flag of South Africa.svg | matini_bendera = Bendera ya Afrika Kusini | nembo = File:Coat of arms of South Africa (heraldic).svg | matini_nembo = Nembo ya Afrika Kusini | ramani = File:ZAF orthographic.svg | maelezo_ramani = Mahali pa Afrika Kusini | ramani2 = File:South Africa relief location map.svg | matini_ramani2 = Ramani ya kijiografia ya Afrika Kusini | maelezo_ramani2 = Ramani ya kijiografia ya Afrika Kusini | mji_mkubwa = [[Johannesburg]] | mji_mkuu1 = [[Pretoria]] | aina_mji_mkuu1 = Utendaji | mji_mkuu2 = [[Cape Town]] | aina_mji_mkuu2 = Bunge | mji_mkuu3 = [[Bloemfontein]] | aina_mji_mkuu3 = Mahakama | serikali = [[Serikali ya kibunge|Jamhuri ya kibunge]] yenye [[rais]] mtendaji | cheo_kiongozi1 = Rais | kiongozi1 = [[Cyril Ramaphosa]] | cheo_kiongozi2 = Naibu Rais | kiongozi2 = Paul Mashatile | cheo_kiongozi3 = Mwenyekiti | kiongozi3 = Amos Masondo | cheo_kiongozi4 = Spika | kiongozi4 = Nosiviwe Mapisa-Nqakula | cheo_kiongozi5 = Jaji Mkuu | kiongozi5 = Raymond Zondo | muundo_uhuru = '''Uhuru kutoka Ufalme wa Muungano ''' | tukio1 = Jamhuri | tukio1_tarehe = 31 Mei 1961 | tukio2 = Mwisho wa [[Apartheid]] | tukio2_tarehe = 4 Februari 1997 | eneo_jumla = 1,221,037 km² | maji = 0.380% | idadi_ya_watu = 62,027,503 | mwaka_watu = 2023 | sensa = 2022 | msongamano = | pato = {{ongezeko}} USD trilioni 1.038 | mwaka_pato = 2024 | pato_kwa_mtu = {{ongezeko}} USD 16,625 | pato_halisi = {{ongezeko}} USD bilioni 401.466 | pato_halisi_kwa_mtu = {{ongezeko}} USD 6,426 | mwaka_maendeleo = 2022 | maendeleo = {{punguko}} 0.717 -{{juu}} | gini = 63.0 | mwaka_gini = | kabila = 81.4% [[Watu weusi|Weusi]]<br>8.2% [[Chotara|Machotara]]<br>7.3% [[Mzungu|Wazungu]]<br>2.7% [[Asia|Waasia]] | lugha_rasmi = {{Collapsible list | title = Lugha 12 rasmi | titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-size:100% | [[Kiafrikana]] | [[Kiingereza]] | [[Kindebele]] | [[Kipedi]] | [[Kisotho]] | [[Kitswana]] | [[Lugha ya ishara]] | [[Kiswazi]] | [[Kivenda]] | [[Kixhosa]] | [[Kitsonga]] | [[Kizulu]] }} | fedha = Randi ya Afrika Kusini | majira_saa = +2 ([[Saa za Afrika Kusini|Afrika Kusini]]) | muundo_tarehe = mwaka/mwezi/siku | udereva = Kushoto | iso3166 = ZA | tld = .za | msimbo_simu = 27 }} '''Afrika Kusini''' ([[jina rasmi]]: '''Jamhuri ya Afrika Kusini''') ni nchi iliyoko katika sehemu ya kusini kabisa ya [[bara la Afrika]]. Inapakana na [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], na [[Zimbabwe]] kaskazini, [[Msumbiji]] na [[Eswatini]] kaskazini-mashariki, na inazunguka kabisa nchi ya [[Lesotho]]. Ikiwa na idadi ya watu wapatao milioni 60, inashika nafasi ya 24 kwa idadi ya watu duniani. Afrika Kusini ina [[mji mkuu|miji mikuu mitatu]]: [[Pretoria]], [[Cape Town]], na [[Bloemfontein]], huku [[Johannesburg]] ikiwa [[jiji]] lake kubwa zaidi na kitovu cha [[uchumi]].<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=South Africa Demographics |url=https://www.worldometers.info/demographics/south-africa-demographics/|publisher=Worldometers|website=www.worldometers.com|access-date=2026-04-07}}</ref> Afrika Kusini inajulikana sana kwa utofauti wake wa kitamaduni, hali iliyoiwezesha kuitwa "Taifa la Upinde wa Mvua (''Rainbow nation''). <ref name="BrandSA_Rainbow">{{cite web |url=https://www.brandsouthafrica.com/about-south-africa/history/south-africa-the-rainbow-nation |title=South Africa: The Rainbow Nation |website=Brand South Africa |date=2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Nchi hii ina lugha rasmi kumi na moja, zikiwemo [[Kizulu]], [[Kixhosa]], [[Kiafrikana]], na [[Kiingereza]], zikionyesha jamii yake ya makabila na tamaduni mbalimbali. <ref name="CIA_WFB_SA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-africa/ |title=South Africa - World Factbook |website=cia.gov |date=April 28, 2026 |access-date=May 7, 2026 |archive-date=2021-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110042951/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-africa |url-status=dead }}</ref> Idadi kubwa ya watu wa Afrika Kusini ni wenye asili ya [[Kiafrika]], huku kukiwa na jamii kubwa za [[Mzungu|Wazungu]], [[chotara|Wachotara]], na wenye asili ya [[Wahindi|Kihindi]]/Kiasia. <ref name="StatsSA_Census22">{{cite web |url=https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P03014/P030142022.pdf |title=Census 2022 Statistical Release |website=Statistics South Africa |date=October 10, 2023 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Historia ya nchi hii yenye changamoto ya [[ukoloni]] na ubaguzi wa rangi imeathiri kwa kiasi kikubwa siasa na jamii ya sasa, huku jitihada zikiendelea kufanywa katika maridhiano, maendeleo, na utawala jumuishi. <ref name="Britannica_SA_History">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/History |author=Christopher Saunders |title=History of South Africa |website=Britannica |date=April 20, 2026 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> [[Afrika Kusini#Jiografia|Kijiografia]], Afrika Kusini ina mandhari mbalimbali, kutoka kwenye maeneo ya jangwa kavu kaskazini-magharibi hadi maeneo yenye unyevu wa kitropiki katika pwani ya mashariki. <ref name="CIA_WFB_SA"/> Nchi hii ina viumbe hai wengi na hifadhi nyingi za [[wanyamapori]], zikiwemo hifadhi maarufu kama [[Hifadhi ya Kitaifa ya Kruger]]. <ref name="SANParks_Kruger_Detail">{{cite web |url=https://www.sanparks.org/assets/docs/parks_kruger/tourism/kruger-guide-english.pdf |title=Kruger National Park Official Guide |website=South African National Parks |date=2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Aidha, ina rasilimali nyingi za madini kama [[dhahabu]], platinamu, na [[almasi]], ambazo zimekuwa na mchango mkubwa katika uchumi wake. <ref name="MineralsCouncil_Facts">{{cite web |url=https://www.mineralscouncil.org.za/sa-mining/mining-in-sa |title=Mining in South Africa: Key Facts |website=Minerals Council South Africa |date=2025 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Leo, Afrika Kusini inachukuliwa kuwa taifa lenye uchumi wa [[Pato la taifa kwa kila mtu|kipato cha kati ya juu]] na nguvu kubwa katika kanda. <ref name="WorldBank_SA_Overview">{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/southafrica/overview |title=South Africa: Economic Overview and Development |website=World Bank |date=April 2026 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> == Historia == {{main|Historia ya Afrika Kusini}} Zamadamu waliishi katika eneo la Afrika Kusini tangu miaka milioni 3 iliyopita, inavyoshuhudiwa na [[akiolojia]]. [[Binadamu]] wameishi huko kwa miaka 170,000 mfululizo. Wakazi wa muda mrefu zaidi ni [[Wakhoikhoi]] na [[Wasani]], ambao wazagumzumza lugha ya [[jamii]] ya [[Khoi-San]]. Katika [[karne ya 4]] au [[Karne ya 5|ya 5]] walifika [[Wabantu]] ambao waliwazidi nguvu hao wa kwanza. === Koloni la Waholanzi kwenye Rasi === Chanzo cha Afrika Kusini kama nchi ni [[Koloni ya Rasi|Koloni la Rasi]] iliyoundwa na [[Waholanzi]] katika eneo la [[Cape Town]] kuanzia mwaka [[1652]]. Huko [[kabila]] jipya la [[Makaburu]] lilijitokeza kati ya [[walowezi]] [[Wazungu]] kutoka [[Uholanzi]], [[Ufaransa]] na [[Ujerumani]]. Lugha yao ilikuwa [[Kiholanzi]] iliyoanza kuchukua maneno ya [[Kifaransa]], [[Kiafrika]] na [[Kiingereza]] na kuendelea kuwa lugha ya pekee [[Kiafrikaans]]. Karne za kwanza za koloni la Kiholanzi ziliona pia kufika kwa [[watumwa]] kutoka [[Indonesia]] walioletwa kama [[wafanyakazi]] wa Waholanzi na Makaburu. Hao Waindonesia walikuwa [[chanzo]] cha [[jumuiya]] ya [[Uislamu]] kwenye [[rasi]]. Pia [[machotara]] walitokea kutokana na kuzaliana kati ya Makaburu na [[wanawake]] [[Waafrika]] na Waindonesia. Sehemu ya machotara hao wameingia katika jumuiya ya Makaburu na wengi wao wanapimwa kuwa na mababu Waafrika. Katika miaka ya baadaye [[ubaguzi wa rangi]] uliongezeka na watoto machotara wa Wazungu na Waafrika mara nyingi hawakukubalika; walianza kuishi kama kundi la pekee kati ya Waafrika na Wazungu, nao ni chanzo cha hao walioitwa baadaye "Cape Coloreds". === Milki za Waafrika na Mfecane === Sehemu kubwa ya eneo [[kaskazini]] kwa rasi ilikaliwa na makabila ya Waafrika. Mnamo mwaka [[1800]] falme na milki zilianza kutokea hapa. Mwanzo wa [[karne ya 19]] ni hasa [[Wazulu]] chini ya [[Shaka Zulu]] walioanza kuenea na kuwashambulia majirani katika [[vita vya Mfecane]]. Vita hivyo vilileta [[uharibifu]] mkubwa lakini vilisababisha pia kutokea kwa milki za [[Wasotho]] na [[Watswana]] na wengine walioiga mitindo ya Wazulu na kujenga ma[[dola]] yenye uwezo wa ki[[jeshi]]. === Kuingia kwa Uingereza na jamhuri za Makaburu === Mwaka [[1814]] Koloni la Rasi lilitwaliwa na Waingereza na kuwa sehemu ya [[Milki ya Uingereza]]. [[Utawala]] wa Waingereza ulisababisha [[uhamisho]] wa nje wa sehemu ya Makaburu waliotokana na Wazungu kutoka Uholanzi, Ufaransa na Ujerumani; Makaburu hao walihama kwenda kaskazini wakaanzisha [[jamhuri]] ndogo kati ya maeneo ya Waafrika ama kwa njia ya mapatano au kwa njia ya [[vita]]. Kati ya miaka [[1840]] na [[1850]] Waingereza waliwafuata Makaburu kwa kueneza maeneo yao hadi [[mto Oranje]]; waliteka jamhuri ya Kikaburu ya [[Natalia]] na kuanzisha koloni jipya la [[Natal]]. Jamhuri mbili za Makaburu ziliweza kustawi kwa miaka kadhaa ambazo zilikuwa jamhuri ya [[Dola Huru la Oranje]] upande wa kaskazini wa mto Oranje na jamhuri ya [[Transvaal]] (ilijiita pia Jamhuri ya Kiafrika ya Kusini) upande wa kaskazini wa [[mto Vaal]]. === Waafrika, Waingereza na Makaburu waligongana === Milki za Kiafrika zilitafuta njia zao kati ya [[himaya]] hizi za Wazungu ambao walikuwa na nguvu kutokana na [[silaha]] za kisasa. Wengine walitafuta [[uhusiano]] mzuri na Makaburu na kushikamana nao; wengine waliona Makaburu kama [[hatari]] wakatafuta uhusiano wa [[ulinzi]] na Waingereza. Mikataba kati ya Waingereza na milki za Kiafrika iliunda [[nchi lindwa]] zinazoendelea hadi leo kama [[nchi huru]] kama vile [[Botswana]] (Bechuanaland), [[Lesotho]] (Basutoland) na [[Uswazi]] (Swaziland). Katika [[miaka ya 1880]] [[almasi]] na [[dhahabu]] zilipatikana kwa wingi katika jamhuri hizi na kusababisha kufika kwa [[wachimbamadini]] wengi, hasa Waingereza, waliotaka kutajirika; Makaburu walisita kuwapa [[haki za kiraia]] kwa sababu waliogopa [[wageni]] wengi. [[Tatizo]] hilo lilisababisha vita vya Makaburu dhidi ya Uingereza na jamhuri za Makaburu zilitwaliwa na jeshi la Kiingereza hadi mwaka [[1902]] zikawa makoloni. === Karne ya 20: Muungano wa Afrika Kusini === Jitihada za kupatanisha Wazungu wa Afrika Kusini (yaani Waingereza na Makaburu) zilisababisha kuundwa kwa [[Muungano wa Afrika Kusini]] kama [[nchi ya kujitawala]] ndani ya Milki ya Uingereza. Waafrika kwa jumla hawakuwa na haki za kiraia katika nchi hiyo isipokuwa katika [[Jimbo la Rasi]] kama walikuwa na elimu na [[mapato]] ya kulipa [[kodi]] za kutosha. === Siasa ya Apartheid tangu 1948 === Baada ya [[vita kuu ya pili ya dunia]] Chama cha National kilichofuata [[itikadi kali]] ilipata [[kura]] nyingi na kuchukua [[serikali]] ya Afrika Kusini. Hapo ilianzisha mfumo wa ubaguzi wa rangi kwa jina la [[apartheid]]. Haki za wasio Wazungu zilipunguzwa zaidi. Maeneo ya Kiafrika yalitangazwa kuwa nchi za pekee chini ya [[usimamizi]] wa serikali ya Kizungu ya Afrika Kusini; kwa hiyo wananchi kutoka maeneo hayo hawakuwa tena na haki za kukata [[rufaa]] mbele ya [[mahakama]]; walipewa vibali vya muda tu kukaa kwenye miji. Waafrika walipaswa kutembea muda wote na [[pasipoti]] na vibali; [[ndoa]] na [[mapenzi]] kati ya watu wa [[rangi]] tofauti zilipigwa [[marufuku]]. [[Shule]] na [[makazi]] zilitenganishwa. Siasa hiyo ilisababisha [[farakano]] kati ya nchi nyingi za [[dunia]] na Afrika Kusini. [[Upinzani]] kutoka Uingereza na [[Jumuiya ya Madola]] ulisababisha kuondoka kwa Afrika Kusini katika jumuiya hiyo na kutangazwa kwa Jamhuri ya Afrika Kusini. === Afrika Kusini mpya === Mwaka 1990 Apartheid ilikwisha na serikali ya National Party ilipaswa kuendesha [[uchaguzi huru]] kwa wananchi wote na kukabidhi [[madaraka]] kwa serikali ya [[ANC]] chini ya [[Nelson Mandela]]. == Jiografia== Afrika Kusini iko katika ncha ya kusini ya bara la [[Afrika]] na ina jiografia ya asili yenye utofauti mkubwa unaojumuisha nyanda za juu, milima, [[tambarare]] za pwani, na maeneo ya ukame. Inapakana na [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Msumbiji]], [[Eswatini]], na kuizunguka kabisa [[Lesotho]]. Nchi ina pwani kwenye [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] upande wa magharibi na [[Bahari ya Hindi]] upande wa mashariki, jambo linaloipa mazingira mbalimbali ya bahari na pwani. Eneo lake lote ni takriban kilomita za mraba milioni 1.22. Kitopografia, sehemu kubwa ya Afrika Kusini inatawaliwa na nyanda kubwa za ndani zinazojulikana kama ''Highveld'', ambazo zimetenganishwa na maeneo ya pwani na Mlima Mkubwa wa Escarpment. [[Milima ya Drakensberg]] upande wa mashariki ndiyo safu ya milima mirefu zaidi nchini, ikifikia zaidi ya mita 3,400. Sehemu ya magharibi ya ndani inajumuisha sehemu za [[Jangwa la Kalahari]], huku eneo la kusini-magharibi likiwa na eneo la ukame wa wastani lijulikanalo kama Karoo. [[Tambarare]] za pwani ni nyembamba zaidi upande wa Atlantiki na pana zaidi upande wa [[Bahari ya Hindi]], hasa katika [[jimbo la KwaZulu-Natal]]. Afrika Kusini ina [[hali ya hewa]] tofauti inayochangiwa na mwinuko na mikondo ya bahari. Nyanda za juu za ndani kwa ujumla zina hali ya hewa ya wastani yenye mvua za [[majira ya joto]], wakati maeneo ya pwani ya magharibi ni ya ukame zaidi kutokana na mkondo baridi wa Benguela. Pwani ya mashariki hupokea mvua nyingi zaidi na ina [[hali ya hewa]] ya kitropiki ya unyevunyevu zaidi. Mfumo wa mito ya nchi unajumuisha mito mikuu kama [[Mto Orange]], ambao ndio mrefu zaidi nchini Afrika Kusini, na [[Mto Limpopo]], unaounda sehemu ya mpaka wake wa kaskazini. Mifumo hii ya mito ni muhimu kwa kilimo, upatikanaji wa maji, na uzalishaji wa umeme wa maji. == Serikali na Utawala == Afrika Kusini ni [[shirikisho]]. [[Katiba]] mpya ya mwaka [[1997]] iliendeleza muundo huu uliundwa kama "Umoja wa Afrika Kusini" baada ya [[vita ya makaburu dhidi Uingereza]]. Afrika Kusini ya kale ilikuwa na majimbo manne: [[Jimbo la Rasi|Rasi]], [[Jimbo la Natal|Natal]], [[Dola Huru la Mto Orange]] na [[Transvaal]]. Maeneno makubwa yaliyokaliwa na Waafrika yalibaki nje katika katiba ya [[Apartheid]] yakiitwa [[bantustan]]s (au: ''homeland''). Katiba mpya ilichora mipaka upya. === Majimbo ya Afrika Kusini === [[Picha:South Africa Districts April 2006.png|thumb|300px|left|Ramani ya majimbo na wilaya za Afrika Kusini]] Mji mkuu wa jimbo watajwa katika mabano. # '''<font color=#E0E080>[[Rasi ya Magharibi]]</font color=#E0E080>''' (Western Cape)¹ ([[Cape Town]]) kifupi: WC # '''<font color=#E0A0C0>[[Rasi ya Kaskazini]]</font color=#E0A0C0>''' (Northern Cape) ([[Kimberley, South Africa|Kimberley]]) <small>kifupi:</small> NC # '''<font color=#E0E040>[[Rasi ya Mashariki]]</font color=#E0E040>''' (Eastern Cape) ([[Bhisho]]) <small>kifupi:</small> EC # '''<font color=#E04080>[[KwaZulu-Natal]]</font color=#E04080>''' ([[Pietermaritzburg]]²) <small>kifupi:</small> KZ, KZN or KN # '''<font color=#80C080>[[Dola Huru]]</font color=#80C080>''' (Free State) ([[Bloemfontein]]) <small>kifupi:</small> FS # '''<font color=#40C0C0>[[Kaskazini-Magharibi (jimbo la Afrika Kusini)|Kaskazini-Magharibi]]</font color=#40C0C0>''' ([[Mafikeng]]) <small>kifupi:</small> NW # '''<font color=#C1ABD7>[[Gauteng]]</font color=#C1ABD7>''' ([[Johannesburg]]) <small>kifupi:</small> GT or GP # '''<font color=#808040>[[Mpumalanga]]</font color=#808040>''' ([[Nelspruit]]) <small>kifupi:</small> MP # '''<font color=#008000>[[Limpopo]]</font color=#008000>''' ([[Polokwane]]) <small>kifupi:</small> LP ==Demografia== === Asili === Afrika Kusini ina idadi ya watu yenye tofauti nyingi za kitamaduni na kikabila, na mara nyingi hujulikana kama "''Taifa la Upinde wa mvua.''" Kwa mujibu wa makadirio ya hivi karibuni, [[Watu weusi|Waafrika]] wanaunda takriban asilimia 80.7 ya idadi ya watu, huku [[Chotara|Machotara]] — kundi la kikabila la watu wa mchanganyiko wa rangi, hasa wanaopatikana katika [[Rasi ya Magharibi|Cape Magharibi]] — wakifanya takriban asilimia 8.8. [[Mzungu|Wazungu]] wa Afrika Kusini, wengi wao wakiwa na asili ya [[Kiholanzi]], [[Kiingereza]] na [[Ulaya]] nyingine, ni karibu asilimia 7.9 ya idadi ya watu. [[Asia|Waasia]], hasa wenye asili ya [[Kihindi]] na [[Kichina]], wanawakilisha takriban asilimia 2.6. Afrika Kusini ina lugha rasmi kumi na moja, jambo linaloonyesha utofauti wake wa kikabila, na mila pamoja na tamaduni hutofautiana sana kati ya jamii mbalimbali. Licha ya historia tata iliyogubikwa na ukoloni na ubaguzi wa rangi, Afrika Kusini kwa sasa inakumbatia utambulisho wake wa tamaduni mbalimbali kama sehemu muhimu ya tabia yake ya kitaifa.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Ethnicity in South Africa|publisher=Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/South-Africa |accessdate=2025-04-29|lang=en}}</ref> === Lugha=== [[Lugha]] za kwanza zinazozungumzwa zaidi nchini Afrika Kusini ni [[Kizulu]] (22.7%), [[Kixhosa]] (16.0%), [[Kiafrikana]] (13.5%), [[Kisepedi]] (9.1%), [[Kitswana]] (8.0%), na [[Kiingereza]] (8.4%). Lugha nyingine muhimu ni pamoja na [[Kisotho]] (7.6%), [[Kitsonga]] (4.5%), [[Kiswati]] (2.5%), [[Kivenda]] (2.4%), na [[Kindebele]] (1.6%). Ingawa ni sehemu ndogo tu ya watu wanazungumza [[Kiingereza]] kama lugha ya kwanza, ndicho kinachotumika zaidi kwa mawasiliano rasmi na baina ya makabila mbalimbali, na karibu nusu ya wananchi wanaweza kukizungumza === Dini === [[File:Catholic Church, Kokstad.jpg|thumb|Kanisa la Katoliki, Kokstad]] Wengi (85.3%) ni [[Wakristo]] wa [[madhehebu]] mengi sana, hasa ya [[Uprotestanti]]; [[Wakatoliki]] ni 6.8%. [[Dini]] nyingine ni: [[Dini za jadi]] (7.8%), [[Uislamu]] (1.6%), [[Uhindu]] (1.1%) na [[Uyahudi]] (0.1%). Asilimia 3.1 ya watu hawana dini yoyote. === Afya === [[File:Somerset Hospital Cape Town.jpg|thumb|Hospitali ya Somerset , Cape Town]] Afrika Kusini ina mfumo wa afya uliostawi vizuri ikilinganishwa na nchi nyingi nyingine za [[Afrika]], ikiwa na mtandao imara wa hospitali za umma na [[kliniki]] binafsi. Mafanikio makubwa katika sekta ya afya ya umma ni pamoja na upanuzi wa mipango ya chanjo kwa watoto, kuboreshwa kwa huduma za afya ya mama na mtoto, na kuongezeka kwa wastani wa maisha. Hata hivyo, nchi bado inakabiliwa na changamoto kubwa za kiafya, ikiwemo kiwango kikubwa cha maambukizi ya VVU/[[UKIMWI]], kifua kikuu, na magonjwa yasiyoambukiza kama vile kisukari na shinikizo la damu. Mwaka 2015, kulikuwa na takriban watu milioni 7 waliokuwa wakiishi na VVU/UKIMWI, na kufikia mwaka 2018, asilimia 20.4 ya watu wazima wenye umri wa miaka 15–49 walikuwa wameathirika. Afrika Kusini pia imewekeza kwa kiasi kikubwa katika mipango ya matibabu ya kupunguza makali ya VVU na mageuzi ya huduma za afya yanayolenga kupunguza tofauti kati ya sekta ya umma na binafsi. Licha ya changamoto zinazoendelea, viashiria vya afya ya umma vimeonyesha maendeleo ya hatua kwa hatua katika kipindi cha muongo mmoja uliopita. === Miji Mikubwa === {{main|Orodha ya miji ya Afrika Kusini}} [[Picha:Sf-map.png|thumb|300px|left|Ramani ya Afrika Kusini]] Hii ifuatayo ni miji/manispaa/majiji kumi yenye wakazi wengi zaidi nchini. {|border="0" cellspacing="5" cellpadding="0" ! Na. ! Manispaa au Jiji ! Wakazi (2001) ! Wakazi (1996) ! Asilimia ya badiliko<br /> 1996-2001 |- | 1. |[[Johannesburg]], [[Gauteng]] | 3,225,812 | 2,639,110 | 22.2% |- | 2. |[[Durban]], [[KwaZulu-Natal]] | 3,090,117 | 2,751,193 | 12.3% |- | 3. |[[Cape Town]], [[Rasi ya Magharibi]] | 2,893,251 | 2,563,612 | 12.9% |- | 4. |[[East Rand]], [[Gauteng]] | 2,480,282 | 2,026,807 | 22.4% |- | 5. |[[Pretoria]], [[Gauteng]] | 1,985,984 | 1,682,701 | 18.0% |- | 6. |[[Port Elizabeth]], [[Rasi ya Mashariki]] | 1,005,776 | 969,771 | 3.7% |- | 7. |[[East London]], [[Rasi ya Mashariki]] | 701,881 | 682,287 | 2.9% |- | 8. |[[Vereeniging]], [[Gauteng]] | 658,422 | 597,948 | 10.1% |- | 9. |[[Bloemfontein]], [[Dola Huru]] | 645,441 | 603,704 | 6.9% |- | 10. |[[Thohoyandou]], [[Limpopo]] | 584,469 | 537,454 | 8.7% |- |} ===Watu maarufu=== Kati ya watu mashuhuri sana wa Afrika Kusini ni: * [[Nelson Mandela]] aliyekuwa [[rais]] kati ya mwaka [[1994]] na mwaka [[1999]]. * [[Shaka Zulu]] aliyekuwa kiongozi wa kijeshi kabla ya [[ukoloni]] * [[Christiaan Barnard]], [[daktari]] wa kwanza duniani aliyehamisha [[moyo]] wa mtu kwa mtu mwingine. == Uchumi == [[Picha:Johannesburg.jpg|thumb|left|Johannesburg, Kitovu cha Uchumi wa Afrika Kusini]] Afrika Kusini ina [[uchumi]] mkubwa barani [[Afrika]], ikiwa na [[Pato la taifa]] (PLT) la takriban dola bilioni 401.5 na PLT kwa [[Usawa wa Nguvu ya Ununuzi]] (PPP) la dola trilioni 1.038 kufikia mwaka 2023. Nchi hii imeainishwa kama [[uchumi]] wa kipato cha kati cha juu na ni nchi iliyoendelea zaidi [[Viwanda|kiviwanda]] barani [[Afrika]]. Sekta ya [[huduma]] inaongoza [[uchumi]], ikichangia takriban 61% ya [[Pato la taifa]], ikifuatiwa na sekta ya [[viwanda]] kwa 30% na [[kilimo]] kwa 9%. Sekta kuu za kiuchumi ni pamoja na uchimbaji [[madini]], utengenezaji bidhaa, fedha, na mawasiliano. Afrika Kusini ni mzalishaji mkubwa zaidi wa platinamu duniani, ikichangia zaidi ya 70% ya usambazaji wa kimataifa, na pia ni mzalishaji muhimu wa dhahabu, almasi, na makaa ya mawe. Hata hivyo, ukuaji wa [[uchumi]] unakua kwa kasi ndogo, ukiwa na kiwango cha ukuaji cha 0.6% mwaka 2023, kutokana na changamoto za kimuundo, uhaba wa nishati, na ukosefu mkubwa wa ajira. Nchi hii inakabiliwa na viwango vya juu vya ukosefu wa ajira, vilivyofikia 32.1% mwaka 2023, huku ajira kwa vijana ikiwa zaidi ya 60%. Kutokuwa na usawa wa kipato ni changamoto kubwa, huku [[Afrika ya Kusini]] ikiwa na [[Kiashiria cha Gini]] cha 63.0, na kuifanya kuwa moja ya jamii zenye pengo kubwa zaidi kati ya matajiri na maskini duniani. Takriban 55.5% ya wananchi wanaishi chini ya mstari wa umaskini wa kitaifa. Uchumi pia unaathirika sana na matatizo ya usambazaji wa umeme, ambapo shirika la umeme la taifa, Eskom, linakumbwa na kukatika kwa umeme mara kwa mara, hali inayopunguza uzalishaji wa viwanda na kuathiri ujasiri wa wawekezaji. Aidha, uwekezaji wa moja kwa moja wa kigeni (FDI) umepungua, huku mtiririko wa uwekezaji ukishuka hadi dola bilioni 2.9 mwaka 2023, ikilinganishwa na dola bilioni 4.6 mwaka 2019. Pamoja na changamoto hizi, Afrika Kusini inasalia kuwa kitovu cha kifedha kilichoendelea zaidi barani [[Afrika]], huku [[Soko la H hisa]] la Johannesburg (JSE) likiwa miongoni mwa masoko 20 makubwa zaidi duniani, likiwa na mtaji wa soko unaozidi dola trilioni 1. Nchi pia ni mshiriki muhimu wa [[BRICS]] na [[Eneo la Biashara Huru la Afrika]] (AfCFTA), likitoa fursa za [[biashara]] na uwekezaji. Sekta ya [[utalii]], inayochangia 7% ya [[Pato la Taifa]], ni chanzo kikuu cha mapato ya kigeni, ikivutia zaidi ya wageni milioni 10 kila mwaka. Juhudi za kupanua uchumi zinajumuisha kuwekeza katika nishati mbadala, ili kupunguza utegemezi wa makaa ya mawe, ambayo kwa sasa yanachangia 80% ya umeme nchini. Kupitia mageuzi yanayoendelea katika [[miundombinu]], [[nishati]], na [[teknolojia]] ya kidijitali, Afrika Kusini inalenga kufufua ukuaji wa [[uchumi]], kuboresha ajira, na kupunguza ukosefu wa usawa wa kipato katika miaka ijayo. == Siasa == [[File:Nelson Mandela.jpg|thumb|Nelson Mandela]] Siasa za Afrika Kusini zinaendeshwa chini ya mfumo wa [[Serikali ya kibunge|jamhuri ya kibunge]] uliowekwa na Katiba ya mwaka 1996, iliyochukua nafasi ya mfumo wa enzi za [[Apartheid|ubaguzi wa rangi]] na kuanzisha utaratibu wa kidemokrasia wa kikatiba. <ref name="SA_Gov_Constitution">{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.za/about-sa/history |title=South Africa's Constitution and History |website=South African Government |date=2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Rais hutumika kama mkuu wa nchi na mkuu wa serikali, na huchaguliwa na Bunge la Taifa. <ref name="CFR_SA_Politics">{{cite web |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/south-africas-bold-and-shaky-democracy |author=Michelle Gavin |title=South Africa’s Bold and Shaky Democracy |website=CFR.org |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |date=April 24, 2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Bunge la Afrika Kusini lina mabunge mawili, ambayo ni Bunge la Taifa na Baraza la Kitaifa la Mikoa, huku mahakama ikiwa huru na ikiongozwa na Mahakama ya Katiba, ambayo ndiyo mamlaka ya juu katika masuala ya kikatiba. <ref name="Britannica_SA_Gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/Government-and-society |author=Christopher Saunders |title=South Africa: Government and society |website=Britannica |date=April 20, 2026 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Afrika Kusini ina mfumo wa vyama vingi vya siasa, ingawa Chama cha [[ANC|African National Congress (ANC)]] kimekuwa chama tawala tangu uchaguzi wa kwanza wa kidemokrasia mwaka 1994. <ref name="BBC_SA_Profile">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094760 |title=South Africa country profile |website=BBC News |date=May 29, 2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Vyama vingine vikuu vya kisiasa ni pamoja na ''Democratic Alliance'' (DA), ''Economic Freedom Fighters'' (EFF), pamoja na vyama vya kikanda na vya kitaifa vya ukubwa mdogo. [[Uchaguzi]] hufanyika mara kwa mara katika ngazi ya kitaifa, mikoa, na serikali za mitaa kwa kutumia mfumo wa uwakilishi wa uwiano, unaowezesha vyama mbalimbali kupata uwakilishi bungeni. <ref name="IEC_Results">{{cite web |url=https://www.elections.org.za/pw/Elections/National-And-Provincial-Elections-2024 |title=National and Provincial Elections 2024 |website=Electoral Commission of South Africa |date=2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Masuala ya kisiasa nchini Afrika Kusini yanajumuisha ukosefu wa usawa wa [[Uchumi wa Afrika Kusini|kiuchumi]], ukosefu wa ajira, rushwa, utoaji wa huduma za umma, mageuzi ya ardhi, upungufu wa nishati, na uhalifu. <ref name="HRW_SA_2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2024/country-chapters/south-africa |title=World Report 2024: South Africa |website=Human Rights Watch |date=2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Nchi inaendelea kushughulikia athari za muda mrefu za ubaguzi wa rangi, ikiwa ni pamoja na tofauti za utajiri na upatikanaji wa huduma. Mijadala ya umma mara nyingi huzingatia mageuzi ya utawala, sera za uchumi, na haki za kikatiba, huku mashirika ya kiraia, vyama vya wafanyakazi, na vyombo vya habari vikiendelea kuwa washiriki muhimu katika maisha ya kisiasa. <ref name="FreedomHouse_SA">{{cite web |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/south-africa/freedom-world/2024 |title=Freedom in the World 2024: South Africa |website=Freedom House |date=2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Afrika Kusini pia ina nafasi muhimu katika siasa za kikanda na kimataifa. Ni mwanachama wa mashirika kama [[Umoja wa Afrika]] (AU), [[Jumuiya ya Maendeleo ya Kusini mwa Afrika]] (SADC), [[BRICS]], na [[Umoja wa Mataifa]]. <ref name="DIRCO_Foreign_Policy">{{cite web |url=https://www.dirco.gov.za/south-africas-foreign-policy/ |title=South Africa's Foreign Policy |website=Department of International Relations and Cooperation |date=2024 |access-date=May 7, 2026 }} </ref> Sera ya nje ya nchi hiyo inasisitiza ushirikiano wa kikanda, maendeleo ya uchumi, ulinzi wa amani, na diplomasia ya kimataifa, ikionyesha nafasi yake kama moja ya mataifa yenye ushawishi mkubwa kisiasa na kiuchumi barani [[Afrika]]. <ref name="Britannica_SA_Gov"/> == Jeshi == Jeshi la Afrika Kusini ina silaha za kisasa kushinda nchi zote za majirani. Uchumi unawezesha nchi kutumia kiasi kikubwa kwa ajili ya jeshi kuliko nchi zote za Afrika kusini kwa [[Sahara]]. Afrika Kusini iliwahi kuwa na [[silaha za nyuklia]] lakini ilizibomoa baada ya mwaka [[1993]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Orodha ya nchi kufuatana na wakazi]] * [[Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na idadi ya watu]] * [[Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na msongamano wa watu]] * [[Orodha ya nchi za Afrika kulingana na pato la taifa]] * [[Demografia ya Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya lugha za Afrika Kusini]] ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} ==Bibliografia== {{refbegin}} *''A History of South Africa, Third Edition''. Leonard Thompson. Yale University Press. 1 March 2001. 384 pages. ISBN 0-300-08776-4. *''Economic Analysis and Policy Formulation for Post-Apartheid South Africa: Mission Report, Aug. 1991''. International Development Research Centre. IDRC Canada, 1991. vi, 46 p. Without ISBN *''Emerging Johannesburg: Perspectives on the Postapartheid City''. Richard Tomlinson, et al. 1 January 2003. 336 pages. ISBN 0-415-93559-8. *''Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid''. Nigel Worden. 1 July 2000. 194 pages. ISBN 0-631-21661-8. *''South Africa: A Narrative History''. Frank Welsh. Kodansha America. 1 February 1999. 606 pages. ISBN 1-56836-258-7. *''South Africa in Contemporary Times''. [[Godfrey Mwakikagile]]. New Africa Press. February 2008. 260 pages. ISBN 978-0-9802587-3-8. *''The Atlas of Changing South Africa''. A. J. Christopher. 1 October 2000. 216 pages. ISBN 0-415-21178-6. *''The Politics of the New South Africa''. Heather Deegan. 28 December 2000. 256 pages. ISBN 0-582-38227-0. *''Twentieth-Century South Africa''. William Beinart. Oxford University Press 2001, 414 pages, ISBN 0-19-289318-1 {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{commons}} *[http://www.gov.za/ Government of South Africa] *{{CIA World Factbook link|sf|South Africa}} * [http://www.africa.com/south-africa/ South Africa] {{Wayback|url=http://www.africa.com/south-africa/ |date=20150715201640 }} profile from [[Africa.com]] *[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/southafrica.htm South Africa] {{Wayback|url=http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/southafrica.htm |date=20081026035604 }} from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' *{{dmoz|Regional/Africa/South_Africa}} *[http://www.oecd.org/southafrica/ South Africa] [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14094760 South Africa] from the [[BBC News]] *[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/555568/South-Africa South Africa] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' *[http://www.southafrica.info/ SouthAfrica.info] *[http://www.southafrica.net/sat/content/en/za/home South Africa Tourism] *{{wikiatlas|South Africa}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ZA Key Development Forecasts for South Africa] from [[International Futures]] * [http://allafrica.com/southafrica/ South Africa in the news] {{Afrika}} {{African Union}} [[Jamii:Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Nchi za Afrika]] [[Jamii:Jumuiya ya Madola]] [[Jamii:Jumuiya ya Maendeleo Kusini mwa Afrika]] [[Jamii:Kusini mwa Afrika]] [[Jamii:Nchi za G20]] [[Jamii:Nchi]] 6nek81fwsbyz2wag2peis5sxutx9zaq 0 3825 1580236 1577057 2026-07-18T01:39:33Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580236 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Don Bosco @ Torino, 1880 (original).jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Giovanni Bosco.]] '''Giovanni Bosco''' ([[16 Agosti]] [[1815]] – [[31 Januari]] [[1888]]) alikuwa [[padri]] wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]] na mwanachama wa [[Utawa wa Tatu wa Mt. Fransisko]]. Alijitahidi kwa nguvu zake zote kuwalea [[watoto]] na [[vijana]], hasa [[Wanaume|wa kiume]], wajifunze [[kazi]] na [[maisha]] ya [[Ukristo|Kikristo]], akianzisha kwa ajili hiyo ''Shirika la Mt. Fransisko wa Sales'' na, kwa kushirikiana na [[Maria Dominika Mazzarello]], “Shirika la Mabinti wa Maria Msaada wa Wakristo” <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/22600</ref>. Mbinu zake za [[malezi]] ni kwa pamoja: [[akili]], [[dini]], [[hisani]]. Hakutaka kurekebisha vijana kwa ukali, bali kuwakinga dhidi ya maovu kwa wema. [[Upendo]] wake wa ajabu kwa vijana ndio [[siri]] ya mafanikio yake ya ajabu katika malezi. [[Papa Pius XI]] alimtangaza [[mwenye heri]] [[tarehe]] [[2 Juni]] [[1929]] na [[mtakatifu]] tarehe [[1 Aprili]] [[1934]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake ni tarehe [[31 Januari]]<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. ==Maisha== ===Utoto=== Giovanni Bosco alizaliwa na Francesco Bosco na [[Margherita Occhiena]] tarehe 16 Agosti 1815 karibu na Castelnuovo d'Asti, leo [[Castelnuovo Don Bosco]]. Baba yake alifariki mwaka 1917 akimuachia mke wake watoto watatu. Ilikuwa miaka migumu kwa maradhi na njaa, lakini mama yake alijitahidi kuwatunza na kuwalea vizuri. Alipokuwa na miaka 9 Yohane alipata [[ndoto]] ya kinabii iliyomtabiria [[utume]] wake kwa vijana. Baadaye [[Mungu]] alizidi kumjalia [[karama]] nyingi za pekee. Kufuatana na ndoto hiyo, Yohane aliamua kuwa padri, ingawa hakuweza kusoma hata shule ya msingi, kwa sababu ilikuwa mbali. Lakini taratibu mama alimfanyia mpango dhidi ya upinzani wa kaka yake. Wakati huohuo alianza utume wake akitumia vipawa vyake vyaajabu. Tarehe 26 Machi [[1826]], siku ya [[Pasaka]], alikubaliwa kupokea [[ekaristi]] ya kwanza kabla ya wakati. ===Seminarini=== [[Picha:Donbosco furbo.jpg|thumb|Don Bosco akiwa padri kijana.]] Alipokwenda Chieri, pamoja na kuendelea vizuri na masomo, alifunga urafiki na [[Luigi Comollo]], kijana mwema aliyemsaidia kuthamini [[wokovu]] wa milele kama jambo muhimu pekee, hata Yohane alifanya kauli mbiu ya maisha yake maneno: "Da mihi animas, caetera tolle" ("Unipe roho za watu, uniondolee mengine yote"). Kwa shauri la [[Yosefu Cafasso]] tarehe 30 Oktoba [[1835]] aliingia seminari ya Chieri. Tarehe 3 Novemba [[1837]] alianza masomo ya [[teolojia]], na tarehe 29 Machi [[1841]] akapewa [[daraja takatifu]] ya u[[shemasi]], na tarehe 5 Juni 1841 [[upadri]] huko [[Torino]]. Badala ya kuitikia mialiko ya kufanya utume wenye malipo mazuri, mnamo Novemba [[1841]] alijiunga na Bweni la [[Torino]], ambapo padri Luigi Guala, akisaidiwa na Cafasso, alikuwa anakamilisha malezi ya mapadri vijana 45 waweze kukabili ulimwengu wa wakati huo. ===Kukutana na vijana wenye shida=== Huko Torino kulikuwa na watoto 7184 chini ya umri wa miaka 10 waliofanya kazi viwandani. Yohane Bosco aliwatafuta ili kuwasaidia kijamii na kidini. Pamoja na Cafasso alitembelea magereza akashtuka kuona hali ya wafungwa vijana. Kwa wema wake aliwavuta kumuahidia wamuendee mara baada ya kutoka. Tarehe [[8 Desemba]] [[1841]] Bartolomeo Garelli alikuwa wa kwanza kujiunga na kundi lake (Oratorio). Muda mfupi baadaye vijana walikuwa wengi hivi hata akahitaji msaada wa mapadri watatu na vijana wakubwa kadhaa. Hatimaye tarehe 12 Aprili [[1846]] alipata nafasi kwa vijana wake: kibanda na kiwanja huko [[Valdocco]]. ===Kueneza utume kwa vijana=== Mwaka [[1854]] alianzisha shirika la mapadri kwa utume wa vijana ([[kifupi|kifupisho]] chake ni [[SDB]]). Miaka 10 baadaye alianza ujenzi wa [[patakatifu]] pa [[Bikira Maria]] [[Msaada wa Wakristo]] (ndivyo alivyopendelea kumuitamama wa [[Yesu]]). Mwaka [[1872]], pamoja na Maria Dominika Mazzarello, alianzisha shirika la [[Mabinti wa Bikira Maria Msaidizi]], ili walee wasichana kwa roho ileile. Mwaka [[1875]] alituma Wasalesiani wa kwanza huko [[Argentina]], na wakati huohuo alianzisha kundi la watawa wasaidizi aliowaona kama «Wasalesiani wa nje». Yohane Bosco alifariki tarehe 31 Januari [[1888]]. ==Maandishi yake== === Yaliyochapwa na mwaka wake === *1844: ''Cenni storici sulla vita del chierico Luigi Comollo'', Biografia, Opere Edite, Ed. LAS (Libreria Ateneo Salesiano), I,1 *1845: ''Il divoto dell’Angelo Custode'', Novena, OE I,2 *1845: ''Storia Ecclesiastica'', Storia, OE I,3 *1846: ''Giordano Felice, Cenni istruttivi di perfezione'', Biografia, OE II,1 *1846: ''Esercizio di divozione alla misericordia di Dio'', Devozionario, OE II,2 *1847: ''Il giovane provveduto'', Educazione alla fede, OE II,3 *1847: ''Storia Sacra'', Storia, OE III,1 *1848: ''Il Cristiano guidato alla virtù ed alla civiltà'', Catechismo, OE III,2 *1848: ''L'Amico della Gioventù'', Articoli, OE XXXVIII, 3 *1849: ''Il Sistema metrico decimale'', Sistema metrico, OE IV,1 *1849: ''L'Armonia (1849-1863)'', Articoli, OE XXXVIII, 1 *1850: ''Società di mutuo soccorso'', Regolamento, OE IV,2 *1850: ''Breve ragguaglio della festa fattasi nel distribuire il regalo di Pio IX'', Papa, OE IV,3 *1850: ''La Chiesa cattolica-apostolica-romana'', Chiesa, OE IV,4 *1852: ''Catalogo degli oggetti offerti per la Lotteria'', Lotteria, OE IV,5 *1853: ''Avvisi ai Cattolici'', Catechismo, OE IV,6 *1853: ''Il Cattolico istruito nella sua religione'', Catechismo, OE IV,7 *1853: ''Notizie storiche intorno al miracolo del SS. Sacramento'', Racconto, OE V,1 *1853: ''Fatti contemporanei'', Racconto, OE V,2 *1853: ''Dramma. Una disputa tra un avvocato e un ministro protestante'', Dramma, OE V,3 *1853: ''Vita di Santa Zita e di Sant’Isidoro'', Agiografia, OE V,4 *1853: ''Vita infelice di un novello apostata'', Racconto, OE V,5 *1853: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1854'', Almanacco, OE V,6 *1854: ''Il Giubileo'', Giubileo, OE V,10 *1854: ''Catechismo cattolico sulle rivoluzioni'', Catechismo, OE V,7 *1854: ''Conversione di una valdese'', Racconto, OE V,8 *1854: ''Raccolta di curiosi avvenimenti contemporanei'', Racconto, OE V,9 *1854: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1855'', Almanacco, OE VI,1 *1854: ''Ai Contadini'', Galateo, OE VI,2 *1855: ''Maniera facile per imparare la Storia Sacra'', Storia, OE VI,3 *1855: ''Conversazioni tra un avvocato e un curato di campagna'', Catechismo, OE VI,4 *1855: ''La forza della buona educazione'', Racconto, OE VI,5 *1855: ''Vita di San Martino vescovo di Tours'', Agiografia, OE VI,6 *1855: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1856'', Almanacco, OE VI,7 *1855: ''La Storia d’Italia'', Storia, OE VII,1 *1856: ''La chiave del Paradiso'', Educazione alla fede, OE VIII,2 *1856: ''Vita di S. Pancrazio martire'', Agiografia, OE VIII,3 *1856: ''Vita di San Pietro, principe degli Apostoli e primo Papa dopo Gesù Cristo'', OE VIII,4 *1856: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1857'', Almanacco, OE VIII,5 *1856: ''Avvisi alle figlie cristiane'', Educazione alla fede, OE VIII,6 *1857: ''Catalogo degli oggetti posti in lotteria'', Lotteria, OE IX,1 *1857: ''Due conferenze intorno al Purgatorio'', Catechismo, OE IX,2 *1857: ''Vita di S. Paolo apostolo'', Agiografia, OE IX,3 *1857: ''Vita de’ Sommi Pontefici S. Lino, S. Cleto, S. Clemente Papa'', Papa, OE IX,4 *1857: ''Vita de’ Sommi Pontefici S. Anacleto, S. Evaristo, S. Alessandro I Papa'', Papa, OE IX,5 *1857: ''Vita de’ Sommi Pontefici S. Sisto, S. Telesforo, S. Igino, S. Pio I Papa'', Papa, OE X,1 *1857: ''Vita di S. Policarpo'', Agiografia, OE X,2 *1857: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1858'', Almanacco, OE X,3 *1858: ''Vita de’ Sommi Pontefici S. Aniceto, S. Sotero, S. Eleutero, S. Vittore e S. Zefirino'', Papa, OE X,4 *1858: ''Il mese di maggio consacrato a Maria SS. Immacolata'', Maria, OE X,5 *1858: ''Porta teco cristiano'', Educazione alla fede, OE XI,1 *1858: ''Vita del Sommo Pontefice S. Callisto I Papa'', Papa, OE XI,2 *1858: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1859'', Almanacco, OE XI,3 *1859: ''Vita del giovanetto Savio Domenico'', OE XI,4 *1859: ''Vita del Sommo Pontefice S. Urbano I Papa'', Papa, OE XI,5 *1859: ''Vita dei Sommi Pontefici S. Ponziano, S. Antero e S. Fabiano Papa'', Papa, OE XI,6 *1859: ''La persecuzione di Decio e il pontificato di San Cornelio I Papa'', OE XII,1 *1859: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1860'', Almanacco, OE XII,2 *1860: ''Frassinetti Giuseppe, Industrie spirituali'', Educazione alla fede, OE XII,3 *1860: ''Vita e martirio de’ Sommi Pontefici San Lucio I e S. Stefano I Papa'', Papa, OE XII,4 *1860: ''Il pontificato di San Sisto II e le glorie di San Lorenzo martire'', Papa, OE XII,5 *1860: ''Biografia del sacerdote Giuseppe Cafasso'', Biografia, OE XII,6 *1860: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1861'', Almanacco, OE XII,7 *1860: ''Angelina o la buona fanciulla'', Educazione alla fede, OE XIII,1 *1861: ''Esempi edificanti'', Racconto, OE XIII,2 *1861: ''Una famiglia di martiri'', Agiografia, OE XIII,3 *1861: ''Cenno biografico sul giovanetto Magone Michele'', Biografia, OE XIII,4 *1861: ''Il pontificato di S. Dionigi Papa'', Papa, OE XIII,5 *1861: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1862'', Almanacco, OE XIII,6 *1862: ''Il pontificato di S. Felice primo e di S. Eutichiano Papi e Martiri, Papa, OE XIII,7 *1862: ''Una preziosa parola ai figli ed alle figlie'', Educazione alla fede, OE XIII,8 *1862: ''Cenni storici intorno alla vita della B. Caterina De-Mattei da Racconigi'', Agiografia, OE XIV,1 *1862: ''Elenco degli oggetti graziosamente donati a beneficio degli Oratorii'', Lotteria, OE XIV,2 *1862: ''Novella amena di un vecchio soldato di Napoleone I'', Racconto, OE XIV,3 *1862: ''Le due orfanelle'', Educazione alla fede, OE XIV,4 *1862: ''Germano l’ebanista'', Educazione alla fede, OE XIV,5 *1862: ''Specchio della dottrina cristiana cattolica'', Catechismo, OE XIV,6 *1863: ''Il giovane provveduto [nuova edizione]'', Educazione alla fede, OE XIV,7 *1863: ''Il pontificato di S. Caio Papa e Martire'', Papa, OE XIV,8 *1864: ''Il pontificato di S. Marcellino e di S. Marcello Papi e Martiri'', Papa, OE XV,1 *1864: ''Episodi ameni e contemporanei'', Racconto, OE XV,2 *1864: ''Il cercatore della fortuna'', Varietà, OE XV,3 *1864: ''Il pastorello delle Alpi ovvero vita del giovane Besucco Francesco'', Biografia, OE XV,4 *1864: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1865'', Almanacco, OE XV,5 *1864: ''L'Unità Cattolica (1864-1888)'', Articoli, OE XXXVIII,2 *1865: ''La casa della fortuna'', Dramma, OE XVI,1 *1865: ''Dialoghi intorno all’istituzione del Giubileo'', Giubileo, OE XVI,2 *1865: ''La pace della Chiesa ossia il Pontificato di S. Eusebio e S. Melchiade'', Papa, OE XVI,3 *1865: ''Lotteria d'oggetti'', Lotteria, OE XVI,4 *1865: ''Boccalandro Pietro, Storia dell’inquisizione'', Storia, OE XVI,5 *1865: ''Vita della Beata Maria degli Angeli'', Agiografia, OE XVI,6 *1865: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1866'', Almanacco, OE XVI,7 *1866: ''Elenco degli oggetti graziosamente donati a beneficio degli Oratorii'', Lotteria, OE XVII,1 *1866: ''Card. Wiseman, La perla nascosta'', Dramma, OE XVII,2 *1866: ''Marchale Vittorio, Una parola da amico all’esercito'', Racconto, OE XVII,3 *1866: ''Metti Giulio, Daniele e i tre suoi compagni'', Dramma, OE XVII,4 *1866: ''Valentino o la vocazione impedita'', Vocazione, OE XVII,5 *1866: ''Chi è D. Ambrogio?! Dialogo tra un barbiere ed un teologo'', Racconto, OE XVII,6 *1866: ''Pratiche devote per l’adorazione del SS. Sacramento'', Devozionario, OE XVII,7 *1867: ''Vita di S. Giuseppe'', Agiografia, OE XVII,8 *1867: ''Novelle e racconti'', Racconto, OE XVII,9 *1867: ''Il Centenario di S. Pietro Apostolo'', Papa, OE XVIII,1 *1867: ''Vita di San Pietro'', Papa, OE XVIII,2 *1867: ''Societas Sancti Francisci Salesii'', Società Salesiana, OE XVIII,3 *1867: ''Lettera del Sacerdote D. Giovanni Bosco al P. Alessandro Checcucci'', Lettera, OE XVIII,4 *1867: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1868'', Almanacco, OE XVIII,5 *1868: ''Il cattolico provveduto per le pratiche di pietà'', Catechismo, OE XIX,1 *1868: ''I Papi da S. Pietro a Pio IX'', Papa, OE XVIII,6 *1868: ''Notizie storiche intorno al Santuario di nostra Signora della Pieve in vicinanza di Ponzone'', Storia, OE XVIII,7 *1868: ''Notitia brevis Societatis Sancti Francisci Salesii'', Società Salesiana, OE XVIII,8 *1868: ''Severino'', Racconto, OE XX,1 *1868: ''Maraviglie della Madre di Dio'', Maria, OE XX,2 *1868: ''Vita di S. Giovanni Battista'', Agiografia, OE XX,3 *1868: ''Bonetti Giovanni, Vita del giovane Saccardi Ernesto'', Biografia, OE XX,4 *1868: ''Rimembranza di una solennità in onore di Maria Ausiliatrice'', Maria, OE XXI,1 *1868: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1869'', Almanacco, OE XXI,2 *1869: ''La Chiesa Cattolica e la sua gerarchia'', Chiesa, OE XXI,3 *1869: ''Associazione de’ divoti di Maria Ausiliatrice'', Maria, OE XXI,4 *1869: ''I Concili generali e la Chiesa Cattolica'', Chiesa, OE XXII,1 *1869: ''Angelina o l’orfanella degli Appennini'', Educazione alla fede, OE XXII,2 *1869: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1870'', Almanacco, OE XXII,3 *1870: ''Nove giorni consacrati all’Augusta Madre del Salvatore sotto al titolo di Maria Ausiliatrice'', Maria, OE XXII,4 *1870: ''Lemoyne G. B., Biografia del giovane Mazzarello Giuseppe'', Biografia, OE XXII,5 *1870: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1871'', Almanacco, OE XXII,6 *1871: ''Apparizione della Beata Vergine sulla montagna di La Salette'', Maria, OE XXII,7 *1871: ''Corona dei sette dolori di Maria'', Maria, OE XXIII,1 *1871: ''Fatti ameni della vita di Pio IX'', Papa, OE XXIII,2 *1871: ''Storia Ecclesiastica [quarta edizione migliorata]'', Storia, OE XXIV,1 *1871: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1872'', Almanacco, OE XXIV,2 *1872: ''Società di S. Francesco di Sales. Anno 1872'', Società Salesiana, OE XXIV,3 *1872: ''Fondamenti della Cattolica Religione'', Catechismo, OE XXIV,4 *1872: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1873'', Almanacco, OE XXV,1 *1873: ''Vita di S. Pancrazio [quarta edizione]'', Agiografia, OE XXV,2 *1873: ''Regulae Societatis S. Francisci Salesii'', Costituzioni, OE XXV,3 *1873: ''Le maraviglie della Madonna di Lourdes - (Ai benemeriti nostri corrispondenti e lettori), Maria, OE XXV,4 *1873: ''Societas S. Francisci Salesii. De Societate S. Francisci Salesii brevis notitia'', Società Salesiana, OE XXV,7 *1874: ''Regulae Societatis S. Francisci Salesii (Typis de Propaganda Fide, I)'', Costituzioni, OE XXV,10 *1874: ''Regulae Societatis S. Francisci Salesii (Typis de Propaganda Fide, II), Costituzioni, OE XXV,11 *1874: ''Congregazione particolare dei Vescovi e Regolari, sopra l’approvazione delle Costituzioni della Società Salesiana (marzo 1874)'', Società Salesiana, OE XXV,12 *1874: ''Sagra Congregazione de’ Vescovi e Regolari, Consultazione per una Congregazione particolare (marzo 1874)'', Società Salesiana, OE XXV,13 *1874: ''Unione cristiana'', Regolamento, OE XXV,14 *1874: ''Regulae seu Constitutiones Societatis S. Francisci Salesii juxta approbationis decretum die 3 aprilis 1874 (Augustae Taurinorum 1874)'', Costituzioni, OE XXV,15 *1874: ''Società di S. Francesco di Sales. Anno 1874'', Società Salesiana, OE XXV,16 *1874: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1875'', Almanacco, OE XXV,17 *1874: ''Belasio Antonio Maria, Della vera scuola per ravviare la società'', Scuola, OE XXV,5 *1874: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1874'', Almanacco, OE XXV,6 *1874: ''Massimino'', Racconto, OE XXV,8 *1874: ''Cenno istorico sulla Congregazione di S. Francesco di Sales'', Società Salesiana' OE XXV,9 *1875: ''Associazione di opere buone (Unione cristiana)'', Regolamento, OE XXV,18 *1875: ''Il giovane provveduto (quarantesima seconda edizione)'', Educazione alla fede, OE XXVI,1 *1875: ''Il Giubileo del 1875'', Giubileo, OE XXVI,2 *1875: ''Maria Ausiliatrice col racconto di alcune grazie'', Maria, OE XXVI,3 *1875: ''Opera di Maria Ausiliatrice per le vocazioni allo stato ecclesiastico'', Vocazioni, OE XXVII,1 *1875: ''Regole o Costituzioni della Società di S. Francesco di Sales secondo il decreto di approvazione del 3 aprile 1874'', Costituzioni, OE XXVII,2 *1875: ''Sagra Congregazione de’ Vescovi e Regolari, Consultazione per la Congregazione speciale'', Società Salesiana, OE XXVII,3 *1875: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1876'', Almanacco, OE XXVII,4 *1875: ''Ioannis Tamietti, Sancti Hieronymi De Viris illustribus'', Agiografia, OE XXVII,5 *1876: ''Brevi biografie dei confratelli salesiani'', Necrologio, OE XXVII,6 *1876: ''Storia Sacra (edizione decima)'', Storia, OE XXVII,7 *1876: ''Il cercatore della fortuna (seconda edizione)'', Varietà, OE XXVII,8 *1876: ''Il cristiano guidato alla virtù ed alla civiltà (edizione seconda)'', Catechismo, OE XXVIII,1 *1876: ''Cooperatori Salesiani ossia un modo pratico per giovare al buon costume ed alla civile società'', Cooperatori, OE XXVIII,2 *1876: ''Chiala Cesare, Da Torino alla Repubblica Argentina. Lettere dei missionari salesiani'', Missioni, OE XXVIII,3 *1876: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1877'', Almanacco, OE XXVIII,4 *1877: ''Opera di Maria Ausiliatrice per le vocazioni allo stato ecclesiastico'', Vocazioni, OE XXIX,1 *1877: ''Regolamento dell’Oratorio di S. Francesco di Sales per gli esterni'', Regolamento, OE XXIX,2 *1877: ''Regolamento per le case della Società di S. Francesco di Sales'', Regolamento, OE XXIX,3 *1877: ''Regole o Costituzioni della Società di S. Francesco di Sales secondo il decreto di approvazione del 3 aprile 1874'', Costituzioni, OE XXIX,4 *1877: ''Bareris Giulio, La Repubblica Argentina e la Patagonia. Lettere dei Missionari Salesiani'', Missioni, OE XXIX,5 *1877: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1878'', Almanacco, OE XXIX,6 *1877: ''Società di S. Francesco di Sales. Anno 1877'', Società Salesiana, OE XXIX,7 *1877: ''Capitolo Generale della Congregazione Salesiana da convocarsi in Lanzo nel prossimo settembre 1877'', Società Salesiana, OE XXVIII,5 *1877: ''Cooperatori Salesiani ossia un modo pratico per giovare al buon costume ed alla civile società'', Cooperatori, OE XXVIII,6 *1877: ''Inaugurazione del Patronato di S. Pietro in Nizza a mare'', Avvenimento, OE XXVIII,7 *1877: ''La nuvoletta del Carmelo'', Maria, OE XXVIII,8 *1878: ''Deliberazioni del Capitolo Generale della Pia Società Salesiana tenuto in Lanzo-Torinese nel settembre 1877'', Società Salesiana, OE XXIX,8 *1878: ''Il più bel fiore del Collegio Apostolico ossia la elezione di Leone XIII'', Papa, OE XXX,1 *1878: ''Regole o Costituzioni per l’Istituto delle Figlie di Maria SS. Ausiliatrice'', Costituzioni, OE XXX,2 *1878: ''Società di S. Francesco di Sales. Anno 1878'', Società Salesiana, OE XXX,3 *1878: ''Arrigotti Francesco, Notizie storiche sul convento e sul Santuario di Santa Maria delle Grazie presso Nizza Monferrato'', Storia, OE XXX,4 *1878: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1879'', Almanacco, OE XXX,5 *1878: ''Lotteria di doni diversi a favore dei poveri giovanetti dell’Ospizio di S. Vincenzo de’ Paoli in S. Pier d’Arena'', Lotteria, OE XXX,6 *1879: ''Le scuole di beneficenza dell’Oratorio di S. Francesco di Sales in Torino'', Società Salesiana, OE XXX,7 *1879: ''Società di S. Francesco di Sales. Anno 1879'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXI,1 *1879: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1880'', Almanacco, OE XXXI,2 *1879: ''Lemoyne G. Batt., L’arca dell’alleanza'', Maria, OE XXXI,3 *1879: ''Esposizione alla S. Sede dello stato morale e materiale della Pia Società di S. Francesco di Sales'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXI,4 *1879: ''L’Oratorio di S. Francesco di Sales'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXI,5 *1879: ''Scelta di laudi sacre ad uso delle Missioni'', Lodi, OE XXXI,6 *1880: ''Letture amene ed edificanti ossia biografie salesiane'', Biografia, OE XXXI,7 *1880: ''Società di S. Francesco di Sales. Anno 1880'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXI,8 *1880: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1881'', Almanacco, OE XXXI,9 *1881: ''Breve notizia sullo scopo della Pia Società Salesiana'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXII,1 *1881: ''Biografie. Confratelli chiamati da Dio alla vita eterna nell’anno 1880'', Necrologio, OE XXXII,2 *1881: ''Eccellentissimo Consigliere di Stato'', Lettera, OE XXXII,3 *1881: ''Esposizione del sacerdote Giovanni Bosco agli eminentissimi Cardinali della Sacra Congregazione del Concilio'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXII,4 *1881: ''Favori e grazie spirituali concessi dalla Santa Sede alla Pia Società'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXII,5 *1881: ''L’aritmetica ed il sistema metrico (settima edizione)'', Sistema metrico, OE XXXII,6 *1881: ''Arpa cattolica o raccolta di laudi sacre in onore dei santi e delle sante'', Lodi, OE XXXII,8 *1881: ''Arpa cattolica o raccolta di laudi sacre in onore di Gesù Cristo, di Maria Santissima e dei santi'', Lodi, OE XXXII,9 *1882: ''Biografie 1881'', Necrologio, OE XXXII,10 *1882: ''Biographie du jeune Louis Fleury Antoine Colle'', Biografia, OE XXXII,11 *1882: ''Arpa cattolica o raccolta di laudi sacre sulla passione sulle feste principali e sui novissimi'', Lodi, OE XXXII,7 *1882: ''Deliberazioni del secondo Capitolo Generale della Pia Società Salesiana'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXIII,1 *1882: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1883'', Almanacco, OE XXXIII,2 *1883: ''Biografie dei Salesiani defunti nel 1882'', Necrologio, OE XXXIII,3 *1883: ''La figlia cristiana provveduta (quarta edizione), Educazione alla fede, OE XXXIII,4 *1883: ''Il cattolico nel secolo [terza edizione]'', Catechismo, OE XXXIV,1 *1883: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1884'', Almanacco, OE XXXIV,2 *1884: ''Cenni sulla vita del giovane Luigi Comollo [seconda edizione]'', Biografia, OE XXXV,1 *1884: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1885'', Almanacco, OE XXXV,2 *1885: ''Il giovane provveduto (101ª edizione), Educazione alla fede, OE XXXV,3 *1885: ''Breve notizia sullo scopo della Pia Società Salesiana'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXVI,1 *1885: ''Biografie dei Salesiani defunti negli anni 1883 e 1884'', Necrologio, OE XXXVI,2 *1886: ''Il Galantuomo pel 1886'', Almanacco, OE XXXVI,3 *1887: ''Deliberazioni del secondo Capitolo Generale delle Figlie di Maria SS. Ausiliatrice'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXVI,4 *1887: ''Deliberazioni del terzo e quarto Capitolo Generale della Pia Società Salesiana'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXVI,5 *1887: ''La Storia d’Italia (18ª edizione)'', Storia, OE XXXVII,1 *1888: ''Elenchus privilegiorum'', Società Salesiana, OE XXXVII,2 === Barua === * Eugenio Ceria, ''Epistolario di San Giovanni Bosco'', volumi quattro. Dall'anno 1835 al 1880, SEI, Torino 1955-1959; <ref>Sehemu chache zimetafsiriwa katika Masomo ya Breviari - Sikukuu za Bwana, za Bikira Maria na za Watakatifu - Ndanda Mission Press 1978, uk 45-47</ref> * ''Epistolario. 1., 1835-1863. (1-726)'', introduzione, testi critici e note a cura di Francesco Motto, Roma, LAS, 1991; * ''Epistolario. 2., 1864-1868. (727-1263)'', introduzione, testi critici e note a cura di Francesco Motto, Roma, LAS, 1996; * ''Epistolario. 3., 1869-1872, (1264-1714)'', introduzione, testi critici e note a cura di Francesco Motto, Roma, LAS, 1999; * ''Epistolario. 4., 1873-1875, (1715-2243)'', introduzione, testi critici e note a cura di Francesco Motto, Roma, LAS, 2003; ==Tazama pia== *[[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] == Tanbihi == {{marejeo}} == Filamu == * ''[[Don Bosco (film 1935)|Don Bosco]]'', film, regia di [[Goffredo Alessandrini]], con Gian Paolo Rosmino, Maria Vincenza Stiffi, Roberto Pasetti, Ferdinando Mayer, Vittorio Vaser, Felice Minotti, [[1935]]; * ''[[Don Bosco (film 1988)|Don Bosco]]'', film, regia di [[Leandro Castellani]], con [[Ben Gazzara]], [[Patsy Kensit]], [[Piera Degli Esposti]], [[Philippe Leroy]], [[1988]]; * ''[[Don Bosco (miniserie televisiva)|Don Bosco]]'', sceneggiato in due puntate, regia di [[Lodovico Gasparini]], con [[Flavio Insinna]] e [[Lina Sastri]]. [[Raiuno]], [[22 settembre|22]]-[[23 settembre]] [[2004]]; * ''[[Giovanni, il ragazzo del sogno]]'', film, regia di [[Giuseppe Rolando]], con P. Bramante, [[2005]]. ==Marejeo kwa [[Kiswahili]]== * YOHANE BOSCO, Mtindo wa Malezi-Kinga katika Elimu ya Vijana – tafsiri ya G. Kibodya – ed. Benedictine Publications Ndanda Peramiho – Peramiho 1988 – ISBN 9976-67-036-2 * S. MATTAPALLY, S.D.B., Don Bosko, Mtu wa Mungu, mtu kwa vijana – tafsiri ya T. Ngalalekumtwa – ed. Benedictine Publications Ndanda Peramiho – Peramiho 1989 – ISBN 9976-67-035-4 * P. AVALLONE, S.D.B. Akili Dini na Ufadhili, Mbinu za Malezi ya Mtakatifu Don Bosco – ed. Benedictine Publications Ndanda Peramiho – Peramiho 1991 – ISBN 9976-67-52-4 * J. BACCHIARELLO, Njozi Arobaini za Don Bosco, tafsiri ya G. Kibodya - BPNP 1991, ISBN 9976-67-047-8 * P. LAPPIN, Mama Don Bosco, Miale ya Jua Kivulini (Mama Margarita) – tafsiri ya G. Kibodya – ed. Benedictine Publications Ndanda Peramiho – Peramiho 1993 – ISBN 9976-67-077-x * P. LAPPIN, Dominiko Savio (Mtakatifu aliye Kijana) – tafsiri ya G. Kibodya – ed. Benedictine Publications Ndanda Peramiho – Peramiho 1994 – ISBN 9976-67-085-0 * P. LAPPIN, Hekaya za Don Bosco, tafsiri ya G. Kibodya – ed. Benedictine Publications Ndanda Peramiho – Peramiho 1994 – ISBN 9976-67-076-1 * John Kabeya na wengine - Maisha ya Watakatifu – ed. T.M.P. Book Department – Tabora 1965, 1989, uk. 38-39 * Pd. Leandry Kimario, [[Wakapuchini|O.F.M.Cap.]] - Mfahamu Mtakatifu Somo Wako - Maisha ya Watakatifu wa Kila Siku pamoja na Watakatifu Wafransisko - Toleo la pili - Dar es Salaam 2021, uk. 31-33 ==Marejeo ya lugha nyingine== * {{cite book|first=Giovanni|last=Bosco|title=Memoirs of the Oratory|url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsoforatory0000bosc|location=New Rochelle, New York|publisher=Don Bosco Publications|year=1989|isbn=0899441394}} * {{cite book|last=Amadei|first=Angelo|coauthors=Giovanni Battista Lemoyne, Eugenio Ceria|title=Biographical Memoirs of St. John Bosco|location=New Rochelle, New York|publisher=Don Bosco Publications|year=1965-2004}}. These volumes translate {{cite book|last=id.|title=Memorie Biografiche di San Giovanni Bosco, 19 vol.|location=Turin|publisher=SEI|year=1898-1939}} * {{cite book|first=François|last=Desramaut|title=Don Bosco et son Temps|location=Turin|publisher=SEI|year=1996}} * {{cite book|first=Arthur J.|last=Lenti|title=Don Bosco: History and Spirit|location=Rome|publisher=LAS|year=2007-}} A projected 7-volume series, 4 published to date. * {{cite book|first=Pietro|last=Stella|title=Don Bosco: Religious Outlook and Spirituality|url=https://archive.org/details/donboscoreligiou0000stel|location=New Rochelle, New York|publisher=Salesiana Publishers|year=1996|others=John Drury|isbn=0899441629}} * {{cite book|first=Morand|last=Wirth|title=Don Bosco and the Salesians''. New Rochelle, New York|publisher=Don Bosco Publications|year=1982}} Translation of {{cite book|last=id.|title=Don Bosco e i Salesiani: Centocinquant'anni di storia| location=Turin|publisher=SEI|year=1969}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.sdb.org/ Salesians of Don Bosco Official Website (multi-lingual website)] * [http://www.sdb.ph/ Salesians of Don Bosco Official Website (Philippine North)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.sdb.ph/ |date=20080908025124 }} * [http://www.donbosco-fis.org/ Salesians of Don Bosco Official Website (Philippine South)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.donbosco-fis.org/ |date=20120209082106 }} * [http://www.salesians.org.uk/ Salesians of the UK] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091027041735/http://geocities.com/salcollbatt/ UK Salesian (alumnus) website] * [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/07_10_1815-1888-_Bosco,_Giovanni,_Sanctus.html Don Bosco's important writings in original language] * [http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Statues/Founders/JohnBosco/John%20Bosco.htm Founder Statue in St Peter's Basilica] * [http://www.donboscosanto.eu Published Writings (italian)] * [http://www.spysmalta.org/ SPYS - Salesian Pastoral Youth Service] * [http://catholicism.org/don-bosco.html Saint John Bosco: Modern Apostle of Youth] by the Slaves of the Immaculate Heart of Mary * [http://www.boscosevakendra.org/ - Development office of the Salesian Province of St.Joseph, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA ( INH )] {{Wayback|url=http://www.boscosevakendra.org/ |date=20120403124342 }} * [http://www.dailynews.lk/epaper/art.asp?id=2011/11/21/pg19_4&pt=p&h= Who is Don Bosco?] {{Wayback|url=http://www.dailynews.lk/epaper/art.asp?id=2011%2F11%2F21%2Fpg19_4&pt=p&h= |date=20121105180114 }} * [http://www.thisgoldenarrow.com Dream of the Great Ship - Interpretations of Saint John Bosco's Dream of the Two Columns] {{Wayback|url=http://www.thisgoldenarrow.com/ |date=20090124212441 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Bosco, John}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1815]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1888]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Watawa waanzilishi]] [[Jamii:Wasalesiani]] [[Jamii:Wafransisko]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Italia]] 9fzaqiuou4voghwex2ptup8eicou6nl 0 4023 1580195 1574285 2026-07-18T01:08:25Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 4 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580195 wikitext text/x-wiki <i>{{about|nchi|bara|Amerika}}</i> {{Jedwali la nchi |jina_rasmi=Muungano wa Madola ya Amerika |jina_asili=''United States of America'' ([[Kiingereza]]) |bendera=Flag_of_the_United_States_(DoS_ECA_Color_Standard).svg |nembo=Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg |kaulimbiu="In God We Trust" |wimbo="[[Star spangled banner|The Star-Spangled Banner]]"<br>[[File:Star_Spangled_Banner_instrumental.ogg]] |ramani=USA orthographic.svg|mji_mkubwa=[[New York]] |mji_mkuu=[[Washington, D.C.]] |majiranukta1={{majiranukta|38|53|N|77|1|W|type:city}} |majiranukta2={{majiranukta|40|43|N|74|0|W|type:city}} |lugha_rasmi= [[Kiingereza]] |lugha_taifa=[[Kiingereza]] |serikali=[[Jamhuri ya shirikisho]] |muundo_uhuru='''Uhuru''' kutoka [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] |eneo_jumla=9 833 520<ref name="worldfactbook">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=United States}}</ref> |cheo_eneo=3 |maji=7.0<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-wet-your-state-water-area-each-state |title=The Water Area of Each State |date=8 Juni 2018}}</ref> |ardhi=9 147 593<ref name="worldfactbook"/> |watu_kadirio=335 893 238<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.commerce.gov/news/blog/2024/01/census-bureau-projects-us-and-world-populations-new-years-day|title=Census Bureau Projects U.S. and World Populations on New Year’s Day|date=3 Januari 2024}}</ref> |mwaka_kadirio=2024 |pato={{ongezeko}} USD trilioni 29.168<ref name="IMFWEO.US">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=111,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (United States) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=22 Oktoba 2024 |access-date=12 Februari 2024}}</ref> |mwaka_pato=2024 |pato_kwa_mtu={{ongezeko}} USD 86 601<ref name="IMFWEO.US"/> |pato_ppp={{ongezeko}} USD trilioni 29.168<ref name="IMFWEO.US"/> |pato_ppp_kwa_mtu={{ongezeko}} USD 86 601<ref name="IMFWEO.US"/> |mwaka_maendeleo=2023 |maendeleo={{ongezeko}} 0.938<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2023-24_HDR/HDR23-24_Statistical_Annex_HDI_Table.xlsx|title=Human Development Report 2023/24|language=en|publisher=[[Mradi wa Maendeleo wa Umoja wa Mataifa]]|date=13 Machi 2024|access-date=22 Machi 2023|archive-date=19 Machi 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240319085123/https://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2023-24_HDR/HDR23-24_Statistical_Annex_HDI_Table.xlsx}}</ref> - {{juu sana}} |fedha=[[Dola ya Marekani]] |majira_saa=−4 hadi −12, +10, +11 |udereva=Kulia |msimbo_simu=1 |tovuti=https://www.usa.gov |tukio1=[[Tangazo la Uhuru la Marekani|Tangazo]] |tukio2=Muungano |tukio3=Kutambuliwa |tukio4=Katiba |tukio1_tarehe=4 Julai 1776 |tukio2_tarehe=1 Machi 1781 |tukio3_tarehe=3 Septemba 1783 |tukio4_tarehe=21 Juni 1788 |kiongozi1=[[Donald Trump]]|kiongozi2=[[JD Vance]]|cheo_kiongozi1=[[Rais wa Marekani|Rais]]|cheo_kiongozi2=Naibu Rais |gini={{PungukoChanya}} 41.3<ref name="worldfactbook"/> |mwaka_gini=2022 |msongamano=33.6}} '''Marekani''', rasmi '''Muungano wa Madola ya Amerika''' (Kiingereza: ''United States of America'', kifupi: ''USA'') ni [[nchi]] iliyomo [[Amerika Kaskazini]], na inapakana na [[Kanada]] upande wa [[kaskazini]] na [[Meksiko]] upande wa [[kusini]]. Inajumuisha [[jimbo|majimbo]] 50, [[Washington, D.C.|wilaya ya shirikisho]], na maeneo ya nje. [[California]] na [[Texas]] ndiyo majimbo yaliyokuwa na watu wengi zaidi. Marekani ina takriban watu milioni 340 na kuwa nchi ya tatu [[dunia|duniani]] kuwa na watu wengi sana. Aidha, ni [[nchi]] ya tatu kwa ukubwa [[dunia|duniani]], ikiwa na [[eneo]] la takriban kilomita za mraba milioni 9.8, ikienea kutoka [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] hadi [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]].[[Mji mkuu]] wa Marekani ni [[Washington DC]]. [[Los Angeles]], [[New York]] na [[Chicago]] ndio [[mji|miji]] mikubwa Marekani ina [[jiografia]] na hali ya hewa tofauti, ikianzia kwenye tundra ya [[Aktiki]] huko [[Alaska]] hadi fukwe za kitropiki huko [[Florida]] na [[Hawaii]]. Mandhari yake inajumuisha safu kuu za milima kama ''Rockies'' na ''Appalachians'', nyanda pana, na mito mikubwa kama [[Mississippi]] na [[Missouri (mto)]].<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Geography and Cartography of United States|url=https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/geography-and-cartography/geography-united-states|publisher=EBSCO|website=www.ebsco.com|access-date=2026-04-07}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=US History, Map, Flag and Population|author=Adam Gopnik|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States|publisher=Britannica|website=United States Geography|access-date=2026-04-07}}</ref> Nchi hii ina utajiri mkubwa wa [[rasilimali]] za asili na ina sekta kubwa za [[kilimo]], [[viwanda]], na [[teknolojia]] ambazo zinachangia hadhi yake kama uchumi mkubwa zaidi duniani kwa kipimo cha [[Pato la Taifa]] (GDP) la kawaida, na kituo kikuu cha uvumbuzi, [[utamaduni]], na nguvu za kijeshi. Marekani ilianzishwa mwaka 1776 kupitia [[Tangazo la Uhuru la Marekani]], kufuatia mapambano ya [[ukoloni|makoloni]] kumi na tatu dhidi ya utawala wa [[Uingereza]].<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=America Declaration of Independence|publisher=Archives|url=https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript|access-date=2026-03-16|website=www.archives.gov}}</ref> Tangu wakati huo, imepanuka kote [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]] na kujitokeza kama nguvu ya [[dunia]], hasa baada ya [[Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia|vita vya dunia]] vya karne ya 20. Marekani ni jamhuri ya [[shirikisho]] inayozingatia [[katiba]] na [[demokrasia]] ya uwakilishi, yenye serikali inayotawaliwa na mfumo wa mizania ya madaraka kati ya matawi ya utendaji, kutunga [[sheria]], na [[mahakama]]. Ni mwanachama mwanzilishi wa mashirika ya kimataifa kama [[Umoja wa Mataifa]], [[NATO]], na [[Benki ya Dunia]], na inaendelea kucheza nafasi ya uongozi katika masuala ya [[siasa|kisiasa]], [[uchumi|kiuchumi]], na [[utamaduni|kitamaduni]] duniani. Marekani ina [[Uchumi wa Marekani|uchumi mkubwa ulioendelea]] na wenye sekta mbalimbali unaoendeshwa na [[huduma]], [[Viwanda|uzalishaji viwandani]], [[fedha]], [[teknolojia]], na >[[biashara]]. <ref name="OECD_US_Snapshot">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/countries/united-states.html |title=OECD Economic Outlook: United States |website=OECD.org |publisher=OECD |date=2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }} </ref> Nchi hiyo ni makao ya baadhi ya mashirika makubwa zaidi duniani pamoja na [[taasisi]] za [[fedha|kifedha]], huku vituo vikuu vya kiuchumi vikijumuisha [[Jiji la New York]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Chicago]], na [[San Francisco]]. Marekani ni kiongozi wa dunia katika utafiti wa [[sayansi|kisayansi]], [[elimu ya juu]], anga za juu, burudani, na [[teknolojia]] ya kidijitali, ambapo ''Bonde la Silicon'' hutumika kama kituo kikubwa cha kimataifa cha ubunifu wa [[teknolojia|kiteknolojia]] na maendeleo ya programu za kompyuta. <ref name="WFB_US_Economy">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/#economy |title=United States - World Factbook: Economy |website=cia.gov |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |date=April 30, 2026 |access-date=May 8, 2026 |archive-date=2025-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316043011/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/#economy |url-status=dead }}</ref> Kiutamaduni, Marekani ina sifa ya [[Marekani#Demografia|utofauti mkubwa wa kikabila, kilugha, na kidini]] uliotokana na karne nyingi za uhamiaji na mabadiliko ya idadi ya watu. <ref name="Pew_Diversity">{{cite web |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/demographics/ |title=Demographics and Social Trends |website=pewresearch.org |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 |archive-date=2020-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203112715/https://www.pewresearch.org/topic/demographics/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Kiingereza]] ndiyo lugha kuu inayotumika kitaifa kwa vitendo, na lugha rasmi katika ngazi ya [[shirikisho]]. <ref name="Britannica_US_Culture">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States/Cultural-life |author=The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica |title=United States: Cultural life |website=Britannica |date=April 10, 2026 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }} </ref> [[Utamaduni]] wa Marekani umeathiri sana dunia kupitia [[filamu]], [[muziki]], [[televisheni]], [[michezo]], [[fasihi]], na [[vyombo vya habari]] vya kidijitali. Nchi hiyo pia ina hifadhi nyingi za taifa, kumbukumbu za kihistoria, na taasisi za kitamaduni zilizo chini ya ulinzi wa taifa, zikionyesha utofauti wake wa mazingira na maendeleo yake ya kihistoria. <ref name="NPS_History">{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/aboutus/index.htm |title=About Us: National Park Service |website=nps.gov |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |date=2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }} </ref> == Demografia == Kufikia katikati ya mwaka 2024, idadi ya Wakazi wa Marekani imefikia takriban milioni 340, ikionyesha ongezeko la asilimia 2.6 tangu Sensa ya 2020. Mandhari ya [[Demografia|kidemografia]] ya taifa hili inazidi kuwa mchanganyiko: [[Mzungu|Wazungu wasio wa asili ya Kihispania]] ni takriban asilimia 57.8, [[Wahispania]] au [[Walatino]] 18.7%, [[Watu weusi|Wamarekani Weusi]] 12.1%, na Wamarekani wa asili ya Asia 5.9%. Kiwango cha uzazi kimeshuka hadi wastani wa watoto 1.6 kwa kila mwanamke, chini ya kiwango cha kuzaliana kinachohitajika, huku umri wa wastani ukiwa umeongezeka hadi takriban miaka 39.1, jambo linaloonyesha wazi mwelekeo wa kuzeeka kwa idadi ya watu. Uhamiaji unabakia kuwa kichocheo kikuu cha ukuaji: mnamo 2024, karibu asilimia 84 ya ongezeko la idadi ya watu lilitokana na wahamiaji, huku jamii za Wahispania na Waasia zikionyesha ukuaji mkubwa (asilimia 9.7% na 13%, mtawalia). === Idadi ya wakazi === {| class="wikitable" |+ Historia ya idadi ya wakazi ! Mwaka !! Idadi ya watu</br>'Milioni !! Ukuaji (%) |- | 2020 || 331.5 || 0.4% |- | 2021 || 331.9 || 0.2% |- | 2022 || 333.3 || 0.6% |- | 2023 || 334.9 || 0.8% |- | 2024 || 340.1|| 1.0% |} === Kabila/Asili=== [[File:Largest Race and Ethnicity in United States (2020).jpg|thumb| Kabila na Asili Kubwa Zaidi nchini Marekani]] [[File:Most common ancestries in the United States.svg|thumb|250px|Asili ya kawaida nchini Marekani</br> {{legend|#0075ff|Marekani}} {{legend|#ff0000|Kijerumani}} {{legend|#ff7500|Meksiko}} {{legend|#007500|Kieire}} {{legend|#00ffff|Kiafrika}} {{legend|#7500ff|Kiitalia}} {{legend|#750075|Kiingereza}} {{legend|#ffff00|Kijapani}} {{legend|#d93190|Puerto Rico}}]] Kufikia mwaka 2025, [[Mzungu|Wazungu wasio wa Kihispania]] bado ndio kundi kubwa zaidi nchini Marekani, wakichukua takriban asilimia 57.6 ya idadi ya watu. [[Wahispania]] au [[Walatino]] ndio kundi la wachache linalokua kwa kasi zaidi, likiwakilisha takribani asilimia 19–20. [[Wamarekani weusi|Wamarekani Weusi au Waafrika Wamarekani]] wanaunda takribani asilimia 12–14 ya idadi ya watu. Wamarekani wenye asili ya Asia ni takriban watu milioni 22 (6.49%) kufikia katikati ya 2024. [[Chotara|Machotara]] pia ni kundi linaloongezeka kwa kasi, sasa wakiwa takriban asilimia 3–5 ya idadi ya watu. Makundi madogo zaidi ni pamoja na Wamarekani wa asili na Wakaazi wa Alaska (takribani asilimia 1–2) na Wenyeji wa Hawaii au Visiwa vya Pasifiki (chini ya asilimia 1). <ref>{{Cite Web|title=Ethnic composition in United States|website=www.usafacts.org|url=https://usafacts.org/data/topics/people-society/population-and-demographics/our-changing-population/ |accessdate=2025-03-27|lang=en}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! Kabila/Asili !! Asilimia |- | [[Mzungu|Wazungu]] (Wasio Wahispania) || 57.8% |- | Wahispania au Walatino || 18.9% |- | [[Wamarekani weusi|Weusi au Waafrika]] || 12.1% |- | [[Waasia]] || 6.0% |- | [[Machotara]] || 2.7% |- | Wenyeji wa Marekani/Alaska || 0.7% |- | Wenyeji wa Hawaii/Pasifiki || 0.2% |} === Lugha === Marekani ina [[mazingira]] yenye mchanganyiko mkubwa wa [[lugha]], ambapo zaidi ya [[lugha]] 350 huzungumzwa kote nchini. Takwimu za mwaka 2020 zinaonyesha kuwa asilimia 78 ya wakazi huzungumza [[Kiingereza]] pekee nyumbani, huku asilimia 22 wakitumia lugha nyingine. Kati ya kundi hili, [[Kihispania]] kinachukua asilimia 13, kikifuatwa na [[Kichina]] (1.1%), [[Kitagalog]] (0.6%), Kivietinamu (0.5%), [[Kiarabu]] (0.5%), [[Kifaransa]] (0.4%), [[Kikorea]] (0.3%) na [[Kirusi]] (0.3%). Lugha za kiasili zinabaki na sehemu ndogo chini ya 0.5%, huku Kinavajo kikiwa na wasemaji wengi zaidi. <ref>{{Cite Web|title=Lugha za Marekani|website=census.gov|url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2022/12/languages-we-speak-in-united-states.html|accessdate=2025-02-10}}</ref> === Dini === [[File:Magen David Brooklyn.JPG|thumb|Sinagogi ya Magen David, New York]] [[Dini]] nchini Marekani inaonyesha mchanganyiko mkubwa wa imani na mwenendo wa kubadilika kwa muda. Kulingana na takwimu za hivi karibuni, asilimia 62 ya watu wazima wanajitambulisha kuwa [[Wakristo]] huku wengi wao wakiwa [[Waprotestanti]] (40%), [[Wakatoliki]] (19%), na makundi mengine ya Kikristo (3%). Asilimia 29 [[Wasio na dini|hawana uhusiano wa kidini]], kundi linalojumuisha [[Ukanamungu|wasiomwamini Mungu]] (5%), wanaotilia shaka (6%), na wasiokuwa na maelezo maalum (19%). Dini nyingine zisizo za Kikristo zinachukua asilimia 7, zikiwemo [[Wayahudi]] (2%), [[Waislamu]] (1%), [[Ubudha|Wabudha]] (1%), [[Wahindu]] (1%), na zingine ndogo zaidi. Hata hivyo, imani za kiroho zinabaki kuwa na ushawishi mpana, ambapo zaidi ya asilimia 80 ya watu wanaamini katika Mungu, roho au nguvu ya juu.<ref>{{Cite Web|title=Dini katika USA|website=pewresearch.org|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/09/13/how-u-s-religious-composition-has-changed-in-recent-decades/|accessdate=2025-02-10}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! Dini !! Asilimia |- | Ukristo || 63% |- | Wasiokuwa na dini || 29% |- | Uyahudi || 2% |- | Uislamu || 1% |- | Uhindu || 1% |- | Ubudha || 1% |- | Nyingine || 3% |} === Muundo wa Umri === Umri wa kati: miaka 38.5 (2021). {| class="wikitable" ! Kikundi cha umri !! Asilimia |- | 0–14 miaka || 18.2% |- | 15–64 miaka || 64.6% |- | 65+ miaka || 17.2% |} === Elimu === [[File:Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) - panoramio.jpg|thumb|250px|Chuo cha Teknolojia cha Massachusetts]] [[Elimu]] nchini Marekani ina kiwango cha juu cha ushirikishwaji, ambapo takribani asilimia 91 ya watu wenye umri wa miaka 25 na zaidi wamekamilisha angalau [[elimu]] ya [[sekondari]], na karibu asilimia 38 wamehitimu [[elimu]] ya [[chuo kikuu]] au zaidi. Kati ya wakazi hao, asilimia 28 wana elimu ya sekondari pekee, 15 elimu ya chuo bila [[shahada]], 10 shahada ya kati (associate degree), 23 shahada ya kwanza, na 14 elimu ya juu zaidi kama shahada ya uzamili, kitaaluma au uzamivu. === Kipato na Umaskini === * Kipato cha kati kwa kaya: $70,784 (2021).<ref name=":0">{{Cite Web|title=Demografia za Marekani|url=https://usafacts.org/data/topics/people-society/population-and-demographics/our-changing-population/|accessdate=2025-02-10}}</ref> * Kiwango cha umaskini: 11.6% (2021).<ref name=":0" /> ===Watu maarufu === * [[Abraham Lincoln]] * [[Al Capone]] * [[Barack Obama]] * [[Beyoncé Knowles]] * [[Bill Gates]] * [[Bob Dylan]] * [[Donald Trump]] * [[Elvis Presley]] * [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] * [[George Gershwin]] * [[George Washington]] * [[Henry Ford]] * [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]] * [[John Kennedy]] * [[Louis Armstrong]] * [[Madonna (mwanamuziki)|Madonna]] * [[Malcolm X]] * [[Martin Luther King]] * [[Michael Jackson]] * [[Michael Jordan]] * [[Miles Davis]] * [[Oprah Winfrey]] * [[Rosa Parks]] * [[Steve Jobs]] * [[Thomas Edison]] * [[Thomas Jefferson]] * [[Walt Disney]] * [[William Edward Burghardt Du Bois]] == Jiografia == === Marekani bara === [[Picha:USATopographicalMap.jpg|right|thumb|600px|Picha kutoka angani ikionyesha majimbo 48 ya Marekani yanayopakana]] Eneo la Marekani lina ukubwa wa [[kilometa mraba]] 9,826,675 na liko hasa katika [[bara]] la Amerika Kaskazini kati ya Kanada upande wa [[kaskazini]] na Meksiko upande wa [[kusini]]. Marekani imeunganisha upana wote wa bara kutoka [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] hadi [[Pasifiki]], ikigawanywa kwa majimbo 48 yanayojitawala. Eneo hilo lagawiwa katikati na [[mto]] mkubwa [[Mississippi (mto)|Mississippi]] unaoanza mpakani kwa Kanada na kuishia katika [[Ghuba ya Meksiko]]. === Alaska === Jimbo la [[Alaska]] liko pia kwenye bara la Amerika Kaskazini upande wa kaskazini kutoka Kanada kuelekea [[Urusi]], lakini halipakani na jimbo lolote la Marekani. === Hawaii === [[Funguvisiwa]] la [[Hawaii]] ni jimbo la visiwani katika bahari ya Pasifiki. Ni jimbo la 50 na la mwisho mpaka sasa. === Visiwa vya ng'ambo vya Marekani === [[Maeneo ya ng'ambo ya Marekani]] ni visiwa kadhaa ambavyo ni maeneo ya Kimarekani ingawa si sehemu ya jimbo lolote. Zamani yalikuwa kama [[makoloni]] hata kama Marekani ilidai kutokuwa na [[ukoloni]]. Siku hizi maeneo haya yamepata viwango mbalimbali vya kujitawala. Kwa kawaida maeneo haya huchagua pia wawakilishi kwa ajili ya [[bunge]] la Marekani lakini wawakilishi hao si wabunge wa kawaida, bali wana haki ya kusema na kushauri tu bila [[haki ya kupiga kura]]. Visiwa muhimu kati ya hivyo ni kama ifuatavyo: * [[Puerto Rico]] ([[Karibi]]) * [[Visiwa vya Virgin vya Marekani]] (Karibi) * [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] ([[Pasifiki]]) * [[Guam]] (Pasifiki) ===Milima=== ^{angalia: [[Orodha ya milima ya Marekani]]} [[Safu ya milima]] ya [[Rocky Mountains]] inavuka Marekani yote kutoka kaskazini hadi kusini upande wa magharibi. ===Mito=== ^{angalia: [[Orodha ya mito ya Marekani]]} [[Mto]] mkubwa wa Marekani ni [[Mto Mississippi]]. == Historia== === Asili na Historia ya Awali === [[Picha:U.S. Territorial Acquisitions.png|thumb|Uenezi wa nchi hatua kwa hatua.]] [[Historia ya awali]] inaanza na kilele cha [[Enzi ya barafu]], watu wa [[Asia]] walipoweka kuingia [[Alaska]] kupitia nchi kavu. Baada ya hapo watu hao na [[Mjukuu|wajukuu]] wao hawakuwa tena na uhusiano na wale wa "[[Dunia ya zamani]]" ([[Afrika]], Asia na [[Ulaya]]) mpaka walipofikiwa na [[Wazungu]] kutoka [[Norway]] ([[karne ya 10]]) na [[Christopher Columbus]] [[mwaka]] [[1492]]. Hao wakazi wa kwanza walikuwa [[wawindaji-wakusanyaji]]; wakifuata mawindo yao walifika taratibu hadi ncha ya [[kusini]] ya [[Amerika]] ([[Tierra del Fuego]]). Polepole [[utamaduni]] wa baadhi ya [[Kabila|makabila]], ingawa kwa kuchelewa kuliko Dunia ya zamani, ulifikia hadhi ya [[ustaarabu]], kama vile ule wa [[Mississippi]]. === Enzi ya Ukoloni na Kuanzishwa kwa Taifa === [[Safari]] za [[baharia]] Christopher Columbus kuanzia mwaka 1492, zilivuta hasa [[Hispania]], [[Ureno]] na halafu [[Uingereza]], [[Ufaransa]] na [[Uholanzi]] kujianzishia [[Koloni|makoloni]] ili kunyonya [[maliasili]] nyingi za "[[Dunia mpya]]". Kwa namna hiyo, [[mazingira]] ya Amerika yalibadilika kabisa mpaka zikatokea aina mpya za utamaduni na hatimaye [[Taifa|mataifa]] mapya, hasa kutokana na mchanganyiko ya wenyeji ([[Waindio]]) na [[walowezi]] kutoka Ulaya, halafu pia [[watumwa]] kutoka [[Afrika]]. Marekani ilianza kama muunganiko wa [[Koloni|makoloni]] ya [[Uingereza]] kwenye [[pwani]] ya [[mashariki]] ya [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]] tangu [[karne ya 17]]. Walowezi kutoka [[Uingereza]] walijipatia ardhi wakipigana na wenyeji Waindio. === Upanuzi wa Karne ya 19 na Vita vya Wenyewe kwa Wenyewe === Tangu [[karne ya 19]] wahamiaji walifika pia kutoka [[Asia]], hasa [[China]] na [[Japani]]. Katika vita dhidi ya [[Hispania]] na [[Meksiko]], Marekani ilipanua eneo lake kwenda [[kusini]]. [[Vita ya wenyewe kwa wenyewe ya Marekani]] ilipigwa kuanzia [[1861]] hadi [[1865]] kati ya majimbo ya kusini na majimbo ya kaskazini nchini Marekani. Sababu mojawapo muhimu ya vita ilikuwa [[suala]] la [[utumwa]]. Majimbo ya kaskazini yaliwahi kupiga utumwa [[marufuku]] lakini majimbo ya kusini yaliendelea na [[sheria]] zilizoruhusu utumwa na [[Utajiri|matajiri]] wengi wa kusini walitegemea [[kazi]] ya watumwa hao. Mafarakano yalianza kuhusu swali kama madola mapya yaliyoanzishwa katika Amerika Kaskazini na kujiunga na Muungano yangeruhusiwa kukubali utumwa au la. Mwaka 1861 madola ya kusini-mashariki yalitangaza kujiondoa katika Muungano na kuanzisha "[[Shirikisho la Madola ya Marekani|Shirikisho la Madola ya Amerika]]". Vita vilianza na kudumu miaka minne na watu 650.000 walikufa, lakini mwishoni kaskazini ilishinda. Utumwa ulipigwa marufuku na watumwa walipewa [[haki]] za kiraia. Lakini watumwa wengi av awali waliendelea kuwa [[maskini]] na baada ya muda, sheria mpya katika majimbo ya kusini zilinyima haki nyingi za kiraia za [[Wamarekani weusi]] waliopaswa kuishi chini mfumo av [[ubaguzi wa rangi]]. [[File:New100front.jpg|right|thumb|[[Noti ya benki|Noti]] ya [[Dolar ya Marekani|Dola]] 100.]] Katika miongo iliyofuata, Marekani ilitwaa maeneo yaliyowahi kubaki chini ya [[mamlaka]] ya Waindio na kuyafanya maeneo yake. Katika [[Vita vya Marekani dhidi ya Hispania]] kwenye mwaka [[1898]] ilijipatia utawala juu ya [[Ufilipino]] na [[Puerto Rico]], makoloni ya awali ya [[Uhispania|Hispania]], na kuwa yenyewe nchi iliyotawala makoloni. === Wimbi la Uhamiaji na Sera za Kimataifa === Wahamiaji kwa [[milioni|mamilioni]] waliendelea kufika hasa kutoka Ulaya. Kabla ya mwaka [[1880]] idadi kubwa walitoka [[Ujerumani]], [[Eire]], Uingereza na [[Uskoti]], pamoja na [[Wachina]] waliotafuta kazi hasa [[California|Kalifornia]]. Baada ya mwaka 1880 hadi [[Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia|Vita Vikuu vya Kwanza vya Dunia]] ([[1914]]-[[1918]]) wengi walifika kutoka [[Ulaya ya Kusini]] na [[Ulaya ya Mashariki|ya Mashariki]], hasa [[Italia|Waitalia]], [[Wayahudi]] kutoka [[Milki ya Urusi]], [[Polandi|Wapolandi]] na wenyeji av nchi nyingine za [[Waslavi|Kislavi]]. Wahamiaji hao walileta pia [[Utamaduni|tamaduni]] zao na kukubali [[mshahara|mishahara]] midogo kuliko wenyeji waliowahi kufika mapema; hali hiyo ilileta mara kadhaa sheria zilizolenga kuweka mipaka; sheria ya mwaka [[1882]] ilikataa kufika kwa Wachina, sheria ya mwaka [[1922]] ililenga kupunguza [[idadi]] ya Waitalia, Wayahudi na watu av Ulaya ya Mashariki kwa kutaja mipaka kwa kila nchi ya [[asili]]<ref>[https://www.nps.gov/articles/closing-the-door-on-immigration.htm Closing the door on immigration], tovuti ya national Park service, Marekani, iliangaliwa Oktoba 2020</ref>. Katika [[siasa]] ya nje, Marekani iliwahi kutangaza tangu mwaka [[1823]] kwamba ilitazama [[Amerika]] yote kama eneo ambalo haikubali kuingiliwa na nchi za Ulaya; wakati ule makoloni mengi ya Amerika ya Kusini yalikuwa yakifaulu kupata uhuru kutoka Hispania, na Marekani ilitaka kusisitiza isingekubali kuingia kwa mataifa mengine ya Ulaya. Katika miongo iliyofuata [[uchumi]] av Marekani uliimarika pamoja na kukua kwa sekta ya [[Kiwanda|viwanda]] na [[wafanyabiashara]] wa Marekani walipanua [[biashara]] yao kimataifa; mnamo [[1854]] [[manowari]] za Marekani ziliilazimisha [[Japani]] kukubali kufunguliwa kwa [[ubalozi]] na kupokea wafanyabiashara. [[Meli]] za wafanyabiashara wa Marekani zilifika kote [[dunia|duniani]], tangu [[miaka ya 1830]] hadi [[Zanzibar]] ambako ubalozi mdogo ulifunguliwa mwaka [[1837]]<ref>Gilbert, Wesley. Our Man in Zanzibar: Richard Waters, American Consul (1837-1845), tasnifu 2011 kwenye Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/781d/d2e2510187a4c65055915b6a323a18c7419e.pdf online hapa] </ref>. Wakati wa vita dhidi ya Hispania Marekani ilihakikisha pia nafasi yake katika biashara ya [[China]] dhidi ya mipango ya mataifa ya Ulaya ya kuigawa nchi hiyo. === Karne ya 20: Vita Vikuu na Mdororo Mkuu === Mwaka [[1917]] Marekani iliingia katika Vita Vikuu vya Kwanza upande wa Uingereza na [[Ufaransa]]; baada ya vita [[rais]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] alishawishi [[Taifa|mataifa]] mengine kuanzisha [[Shirikisho la Mataifa]] lakini [[bunge]] lilizuia kuingia kwa Marekani katika [[umoja]] huo. [[Mdororo Mkuu]] wa mwaka [[1929]] ulileta matatizo makubwa kwa uchumi na hata [[njaa]] kwa [[raia]] wengi lakini ulileta pia siasa mpya ya "New Deal" chini ya rais [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] ambako kwa mara ya kwanza programu za kisiasa zilitumia [[Pato la taifa|mapato]] ya [[serikali]] kwa shabaha ya kusaidia idadi kubwa ya wananchi waliokuwa bila kazi, bila [[nyumba]] na bila [[kipato]]; [[Ujana|vijana]] kwa mamilioni waliajiriwa na serikali kwa kazi ya kujenga [[miundombinu]] ([[barabara]], [[Mfereji|mifereji]]) na kuboresha [[hifadhi za taifa]]. Mwaka [[1941]] Marekani iliingia katika [[Vita Vikuu vya Pili vya Dunia]] baada ya kushambuliwa na Japani na kupokea tangazo la vita kutoka Ujerumani. Uwezo wa kiuchumi av Marekani ulileta [[ushindi]] wa [[mataifa ya ushirikiano]]. Uwezo wake wa [[Sayansi|kisayansi]] ulipanuliwa na [[wanasayansi]] kama [[Albert Einstein]] waliopaswa kukimbia [[udikteta]] wa [[Adolf Hitler]] katika Ujerumani na kuiwezesha kutengeneza [[Mabomu ya nyuklia|mabomu ya kwanza ya nyuklia]] yaliyotumika mnamo [[Agosti]] [[1945]] kuteketeza [[Hiroshima]] na [[Nagasaki]]. === Vita Baridi na Mapambano ya Haki za Kiraia === Katika miongo ya [[vita baridi]] iliyofuata, Marekani ilikuwa taifa la kuongoza nchi zenye [[demokrasia]] na pia zile ambazo zilisimama upande wa [[ubepari]] tu bila demokrasia dhidi ya nchi za [[Ukomunisti|kikomunisti]] zilizoongozwa na [[Umoja wa Kisovyeti]]. Mwanzo wa [[miaka ya 1960]] ilishindana na [[Umoja wa Kisovyeti]] katika [[mbio]] wa kuingia katika [[anga-nje]] ikafaulu kupeleka watu wa kwanza hadi [[Mwezi]] mnamo [[Agosti]] [[1969]]. Kutokana na ushindani na nchi za ukomunisti Marekani iliingia katika [[Vita ya Vietnam]] hadi kushindwa mwaka [[1975]]. Vilevile miaka ya 1960 ilikuwa kipindi cha mapambano kwa ajili ya haki za Wamarekani weusi, [[Mjukuu|wajukuu]] wa watumwa wa awali hasa kusini mwa Marekani. Sheria zilizotenganisha watu pamoja na matumizi ya [[shule]], [[Chuo|vyuo]], [[jengo|majengo]] na [[taasisi]] za [[burudani]] kulingana na [[rangi]] ya [[ngozi]], zilizozuia [[ndoa]] kati ya watu wa rangi tofauti na kuzuia watu maskini wasitumie haki za kiraia zilipigwa marufuku bila kuondoa tofauti katika uwezo wa kiuchumi kati ya [[kundi|makundi]] katika jamii. [[Mapinduzi]] ya [[teknolojia|kiteknolojia]] ya [[kompyuta]] na [[intaneti]] yalienea Marekani haraka kushinda sehemu nyingine za Dunia. == Uchumi== [[File:View of Empire State Building from Rockefeller Center New York City dllu (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Manhattan]], [[New York]]]] [[Uchumi]] wa Marekani ndiyo mkubwa zaidi [[dunia|duniani]], ukiwa na sifa ya utofauti wake, ubunifu wa [[teknolojia|kiteknolojia]], na kiwango cha juu cha uzalishaji. Unafanya kazi hasa kama [[uchumi]] wa soko mchanganyiko, ambapo sekta binafsi ina nafasi kubwa sambamba na udhibiti na uingiliaji wa [[serikali]]. Sekta kuu ni pamoja na [[huduma]], [[viwanda]], [[fedha]], [[afya]], na [[teknolojia]], huku sekta ya huduma ikichangia sehemu kubwa zaidi ya [[plt|pato la kiuchumi]]. Marekani pia ina utajiri mkubwa wa [[rasilimali]] asilia, unaochangia maendeleo ya sekta za [[nishati]], [[kilimo]], na uchimbaji madini. Sifa kuu ya [[uchumi]] wa Marekani ni uongozi wake katika ubunifu na biashara ya kimataifa. Nchi hii ni makazi ya baadhi ya makampuni makubwa zaidi [[dunia|duniani]], hasa katika maeneo kama ''Silicon Valley''. Uwekezaji mkubwa katika utafiti na maendeleo, pamoja na mfumo imara wa elimu ya juu, umewezesha maendeleo katika nyanja kama teknolojia ya taarifa, bioteknolojia, na anga na usafiri wa anga. Aidha, [[dola ya Marekani]] hutumika kama sarafu kuu ya akiba duniani, jambo linaloipa nchi nafasi ya kipekee katika fedha na biashara ya kimataifa. [[Biashara]] ya kimataifa ni sehemu muhimu ya [[uchumi]] wa Marekani, ikiwa na washirika wakubwa kama [[Kanada]], [[Meksiko]], [[China]], na [[Umoja wa Ulaya]]. Nchi hii husafirisha bidhaa kama [[mashine]], [[ndege]], na mazao ya kilimo, huku ikiagiza bidhaa za matumizi, vifaa vya kielektroniki, na malighafi. Zaidi ya hayo, Marekani ina mfumo uliokua sana wa [[fedha|kifedha]] na masoko ya mitaji unaoathiri [[uchumi]] wa dunia. Licha ya nguvu zake, [[uchumi]] huu unakabiliwa na changamoto kama pengo la kipato, deni la umma, na mabadiliko ya kiuchumi, lakini bado unasalia kuwa miongoni mwa uchumi wenye ushawishi mkubwa na wenye nguvu zaidi duniani. == Siasa == [[File:White House 02.jpg|thumb|White house, Washington DC]] Siasa nchini Marekani hufanya kazi chini ya mfumo wa [[serikali ya kiraisi|jamhuri ya kikatiba ya urais ya shirikisho]], ambapo mamlaka hugawanywa kati ya serikali kuu ya kitaifa na majimbo binafsi. <ref name="USA_Gov_Branches">{{cite web |url=https://www.usa.gov/branches-of-government |title=Branches of the U.S. Government |website=USA.gov |publisher=Official Guide to Government Information and Services |date=2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }} </ref> Rais hutumika kama mkuu wa nchi na mkuu wa serikali na huchaguliwa kupitia mfumo wa Baraza la Wateule badala ya kura ya moja kwa moja ya kitaifa ya wananchi. <ref name="CFR_ElectoralCollege">{{cite web |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/how-electoral-college-works-united-states |author=Lindsay Maizland |title=How the Electoral College Works in the United States |website=CFR.org |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |date=October 31, 2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Mfumo wa kisiasa umejengwa juu ya mgawanyo wa mamlaka kati ya mihimili mitatu: utendaji, utungaji sheria, na mahakama, ambapo kila mmoja una majukumu ya kikatiba pamoja na mfumo wa kuzuiana na kusawazishana mamlaka ili kuzuia mkusanyiko wa madaraka. <ref name="Britannica_US_Gov">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/government-of-the-United-States |title=Government of the United States |website=Britannica |date=April 10, 2026 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }} </ref> Tawi ya kutunga sheria ni Bunge la Marekani, ambalo lina mabunge mawili: [[Bunge la taifa|Baraza la Wawakilishi]] na [[Seneti]]. Baraza la Wawakilishi linawakilisha maeneo ya uchaguzi kulingana na idadi ya watu, huku Seneti ikitoa uwakilishi sawa kwa kila jimbo kwa maseneta wawili kwa kila jimbo. <ref name="Senate_Gov_Role">{{cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/about/origins-foundations/senate-and-constitution/constitution.htm |title=The Senate and the Constitution |website=Senate.gov |publisher=United States Senate |date=2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }} </ref> Bunge lina jukumu la kutunga sheria za shirikisho, kupitisha [[bajeti]], kutangaza vita, na kusimamia mhimili wa utendaji. Mhimili wa mahakama unaongozwa na Mahakama ya Juu, ambayo hutafsiri Katiba na kuchunguza uhalali wa sheria pamoja na vitendo vya serikali. <ref name="US_Courts_Role">{{cite web |url=https://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/educational-resources/about-educational-outreach/activity-resources/about |title=About the Supreme Court |website=USCourts.gov |publisher=Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts |date=2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }} </ref> Mfumo wa kisiasa nchini humo unatawaliwa zaidi na mfumo wa vyama viwili, hasa Chama cha ''Democratic'' na Chama cha ''Republican''. Vyama hivi hushindana katika uchaguzi wa [[shirikisho]], majimbo, na serikali za mitaa, ingawa pia kuna vyama vingine vidogo. <ref name="LibraryOfCongress_Parties">{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/elections/political-parties/ |title=Political Parties - Elections |website=loc.gov |publisher=Library of Congress |date=2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }} </ref> Uchaguzi hufanyika mara kwa mara, ukiwemo uchaguzi wa urais kila baada ya miaka minne na uchaguzi wa bunge kila baada ya miaka miwili kwa Baraza la Wawakilishi pamoja na mihula ya miaka sita inayobadilishana kwa Seneti. Kampeni za kisiasa huathiriwa sana na uchangishaji [[fedha]], [[vyombo vya habari]], maoni ya umma, na sheria za uchaguzi za majimbo. <ref name="FEC_Campaigns">{{cite web |url=https://www.fec.gov/introduction-campaign-finance/ |title=Introduction to campaign finance |website=fec.gov |publisher=Federal Election Commission |date=2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }} </ref> Masuala makuu ya kisiasa nchini Marekani yanajumuisha [[Marekani#Uchumi|uchumi]], huduma za afya, uhamiaji, sera za kigeni, udhibiti wa [[silaha]], mabadiliko ya [[tabianchi]], na usawa wa kijamii. <ref name="Pew_Research_Issues">{{cite web |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2024/02/29/americans-top-policy-priorities-for-2024/ |title=Americans’ Top Policy Priorities for 2024 |website=pewresearch.org |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=February 29, 2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Mgawanyiko wa kisiasa kati ya vyama vikuu umeongezeka katika miongo ya hivi karibuni, na kusababisha tofauti kubwa za kiitikadi kuhusu sera mbalimbali. Licha ya hali hiyo, Marekani inaendelea kudumisha mfumo thabiti wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wenye uchaguzi wa mara kwa mara, taasisi huru, na ushiriki mkubwa wa raia kupitia kupiga kura, mijadala ya umma, na mapitio ya kimahakama. <ref name="FreedomHouse_US">{{cite web |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/united-states/freedom-world/2024 |title=Freedom in the World 2024: United States |website=Freedom House |date=2024 |access-date=May 8, 2026 }} </ref> == Tazama pia == * [[Orodha ya majimbo ya Marekani]] * [[Orodha ya Marais wa Marekani]] * [[Orodha ya chaguzi za Rais wa Marekani]] * [[Peace Corps]] * [[Jamii:Marekani]] * [[Orodha ya nchi kufuatana na wakazi]] * [[Uchumi wa Marekani]] ==Marejeo== {{marejeo}} == Bibliografia == {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |title=Regulating Wall Street: The Dodd-Frank Act and the New Architecture of Global Finance |url=https://archive.org/details/regulatingwallst0000unse |ref=Acharya10 |first1=Viral V. |last1=Acharya |first2=Thomas F. |last2=Cooley |first3=Matthew P. |last3=Richardson |first4=Ingo |last4=Walter |page=592 |publisher=Wiley |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-470-76877-8}} * {{cite journal |last1=Barth |first1=James |first2=John |last2=Jahera |title=US Enacts Sweeping Financial Reform Legislation |ref=Barth10 |journal=Journal of Financial Economic Policy |volume=2 |issue=3 |year=2010 |pages=192–195 }} * {{cite book |last=Berkin |first=Carol |last2=Miller |first2=Christopher L. |last3=Cherny |first3=Robert W. |last4=Gormly |first4=James L. |title=Making America: A History of the United States, Volume I: To 1877 |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2007 |ref=Berkin |page=75}}, [http://books.google.com/books/about/Making_America_Volume_1_To_1877_A_Histor.html?id=cyEI21RClZkC Book] * {{cite journal |last1=Bianchine |first1=Peter J. |journal=Allergy and Asthma Proceedings|last2=Russo |first2=Thomas A. |year=1992 |title=The Role of Epidemic Infectious Diseases in the Discovery of America |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=225–232 |ref=Bianchine |publisher=OceanSide Publications, Inc. |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ocean/aap/1992/00000013/00000005/art00002 |accessdate=September 9, 2012 }} * {{cite book |author1=Boyer, Paul S. |author2=Clark, Clifford E. Jr. |author3=Kett, Joseph F. |last4=Salisbury|first4=Neal|last5=Sitkoff|first5= Harvard|last6=Woloch|first6=Nancy |title=The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People |ref=Boyer |year=2007|publisher=Cengage Learning |page=588 |isbn=978-0-618-80161-9}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=9KT3lI76-0cC&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last=Clingan |first=Edmund |title=An Introduction to Modern Western Civilization |ref=Clingan |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=978-1-4620-5439-8}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=FS3TnrLu7y8C&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |first=Colin G. |last=Calloway |title=New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press|JHU Press]] |ref=Calloway1998 |page=229 |isbn=978-0-8018-5959-5}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=edYbAZ7ECEoC&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last=Davis |first=Kenneth C. |title=Don't know much about the Civil War |url=https://archive.org/details/dontknowmuchabou00davi_1 |ref=Davis96 |publisher=William Marrow and Co. |location=New York |year=1996 |isbn=0-688-11814-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dontknowmuchabou00davi_1/page/518 518] }}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Dphzw2cbaoQC&vq=1670&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last=Daynes |first=Byron W. |last2=Sussman |first2=Glen |title=White House Politics and the Environment: Franklin D. Roosevelt to George W. Bush |url=https://archive.org/details/whitehousepoliti0000dayn |ref=Daynes |publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]] |year=2010 |page=320 |isbn=978-1-60344-254-1 |quote=Presidential environmental policies, 1933–2009 }}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=HIOQ1FYHtcYC&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |first= Sylvan G. |last=Feldstein |first2=Frank J., CFA |last2=Fabozzi |title=The Handbook of Municipal Bonds |ref=Feldstein |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]], January 13, 2011 |page=1376 |isbn=978-1-118-04494-0}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=Juc4fb1Fx1cC&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last=Gold |first=Susan Dudley |title=United States V. Amistad: Slave Ship Mutiny |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesvami0000gold |ref=Gold2006 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesvami0000gold/page/144 144] |isbn=978-0-7614-2143-6 }}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=mbV6kPGO4OAC&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite journal |last1=Ferguson |first1=Thomas |last2=Rogers |first2=Joel |ref=Ferguson |year=1986 |title=The Myth of America's Turn to the Right |journal=[[The Atlantic]] |volume=257 |issue=5 |pages=43–53 |url=http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/95dec/conbook/fergrt.htm |accessdate=March 11, 2013 |archive-date=2015-01-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104235329/http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/95dec/conbook/fergrt.htm |dead-url=yes }} * {{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Steve |first2=Gary |last2=Gerstle |ref=Fraser |title=The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order: 1930–1980 |series=American History: Political science |url=http://books.google.com/?id=yd4GqkP5XYgC&lpg=PA229 |year=1989 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-00607-9 |page=311 }} * {{cite book |last=Gordon |first=John Steele |ref=Gordon |title=An Empire of Wealth: The Epic History of American Economic Power |url=https://archive.org/details/empireofwealthth00gord |year=2004 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] }}, [http://books.google.com/books/about/An_Empire_of_Wealth.html?id=rmsUs_KDgHAC Book] * {{cite book |last=Graebner |first=Norman A. |last2=Burns |first2=Richard Dean |last3=Siracusa |first3=Joseph M. |ref=Burns2008 |title=Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War |url=http://books.google.com/?id=r71u_AgE7iYC&lpg=PA142 |year=2008 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |series=Praeger Security International Series |isbn=978-0-313-35241-6 |page=180 }} * {{cite book |last=Hughes |first=David |title=The British Chronicles |volume=1 |page=347 |year=2007 |publisher=Heritage Books |location=[[Westminster, Maryland|Westminster]], [[Maryland]]}} * {{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Lawrence R. |title=Health Care Reform and American Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know: What Everyone Needs to Know |url=https://archive.org/details/healthcarereform0000jaco |ref=Jacobs10 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-978142-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Paul |ref=Johnson |title=A History of the American People |year=1997 |publisher=HarperCollins |pages=26–30}}, [http://books.google.com/books/about/A_History_of_the_American_People.html?id=RXSVQjz1_tMC eBook version] * {{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Native American Wars and Warfare |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofna0000unse_e3j5 |series=[[Infobase Publishing|Facts on File]] library of American History |last=Kessel |first=William B. |last2=Wooster |first2=Robert |authorlink= |year=2005 |publisher=[[Infobase Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-8160-3337-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofna0000unse_e3j5/page/398 398]|ref=Kessel}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=laxSyAp89G4C&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{Rejea kitabu |last= Kolko |first= Gabriel |authorlink= Gabriel Kolko |year= 1988 |title= Confronting the Third World: United States Foreign Policy, 1945–1980 |url= https://archive.org/details/confrontingthird0000kolk |location= New York, NY |publisher= [[Pantheo n Books|Pantheon]] |ref= harv }} * {{cite book |last=Leckie |first=Robert | authorlink = Robert Leckie (author)|title=None died in vain: The Saga of the American Civil War |ref=Leckie |publisher=Harper-Collins |location=New York |year=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/nonediedinvainsa00leck/page/682 682] |isbn=0-06-016280-5}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=gvIeAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last= Leffler |first= Melvyn P. |authorlink= Melvyn P. Leffler |year= 2010 |chapter= The emergence of an American grand strategy, 1945–1952 |title= ''In Melvyn P. Leffler and [[Odd Arne Westad]], eds.,''The Cambridge History of the Cold War, Volume 1: Origins ''(pp.&nbsp;67–89)'' |location= Cambridge |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-521-83719-4 |ref= harv }} * {{cite book |last=Lemon |first=James T. |editor=Robert D. Mitchell |editor2=Paul A. Groves |title=North America: the historical geography of a changing continent |chapter=Colonial America in the 18th Century |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=1987 |ref=Lemon}}, [http://cascourses.uoregon.edu/geog471/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Lemon.pdf PDF] {{Wayback|url=http://cascourses.uoregon.edu/geog471/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Lemon.pdf |date=20130123135724 }} * {{cite book |last=Lien, Ph.D. |first=Arnold Johnson |title=Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, Volume 54 |ref=Lien |publisher=Longmans, Green & Co., Agents, London; [[Columbia University]], New York |year=1913 |page=604 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=UYpVAAAAYAAJ }} * {{cite book |author=Karen Woods Weierman|title=One Nation, One Blood: Interracial Marriage In American Fiction, Scandal, And Law, 1820–1870 |url=https://archive.org/details/onenationonebloo0000weie|year=2005|publisher=[[University of Massachusetts Press]]|isbn=978-1-55849-483-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/onenationonebloo0000weie/page/214 214]}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=24mIQuLBuN8C&pg=PA44 Book] * Website sources{{cite book |last=Levenstein |first=Harvey |title=Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionattabl0000leve_d6o6 |ref=Levenstein |publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles |year=2003 |isbn=0-520-23439-1 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Mann |first1=Kaarin |year=2007 |ref=Mann |title=Interracial Marriage In Early America: Motivation and the Colonial Project |journal=Michigan Journal of History |issue=Fall |publisher=University of Michigan |url=http://www.umich.edu/~historyj/docs/2007-fall/Interracial_Marriage_in_Early_America_Mann.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515063053/http://www.umich.edu/~historyj/docs/2007-fall/Interracial_Marriage_in_Early_America_Mann.pdf |archivedate=2013-05-15 |deadurl=yes |access-date=2015-02-09 }} * {{cite book |last=Price |first=David A. |ref=Price |title=Love and Hate in Jamestown: John Smith, Pocahontas, and the Start of a New Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/lovehateinjamest00pric |publisher=Random House |year=2003}} [http://books.google.com/books?id=_EFbS_7fFcYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false eBook version] * {{cite book |last=Quirk |first=Joel |title=The Anti-Slavery Project: From the Slave Trade to Human Trafficking |url=https://archive.org/details/antislaveryproje0000quir |ref=Quirk |year=2011 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-4333-8 |page=344 }}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=qqxK4KlqKYMC&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last=Ranlet |first=Philip |title=New England Encounters: Indians and Euroamericans Ca. 1600–1850 |ref=Ranlet |publisher=North Eastern University Press |editor=Alden T. Vaughan |pages= |year=1999}} * {{cite book |last=Rausch |first=David A. |title=Native American Voices |url=https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanvo0000raus |ref=Rausch |publisher=Baker Books, Grand Rapids |page=[https://archive.org/details/nativeamericanvo0000raus/page/n180 180] |year=1994 }}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=iyZMeGMgIgEC&vq=triangle&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |title=The House: The History of the House of Representatives |url=https://archive.org/details/househistoryo00remi |ref=Remini |year=2007 |publisher=HarperCollins |pages=[https://archive.org/details/househistoryo00remi/page/2 2]–3 }}, [http://books.google.com/books/about/The_House.html?id=CAM6J6IoQFQC Book] * {{cite book |last=Ripper |first=Jason |title=American Stories: To 1877 |url=https://archive.org/details/americanstoriesl1877ripp |year=2008 |ref=Ripper2008 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |page=[https://archive.org/details/americanstoriesl1877ripp/page/n317 299] |isbn=978-0-7656-2903-6 }}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=vX-fYvoAeHwC&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last=Russell |first=John Henderson |title=The Free Negro in Virginia, 1619–1865 |url=https://archive.org/details/freenegroinvirgi31russ |ref=Russell1913 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University |year=1913 |page=196}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=G7AJAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s E'Book] * {{cite book |last=Schneider |first= Dorothy |last2= Schneider |first2= Carl J. |title=Slavery in America |ref=Schneider |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2007 |page=554 |isbn=978-1-4381-0813-1}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=QlemwRTsY20C&vq=census&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last=Schultz |first=David Andrew |title=Encyclopedia of the United States Constitution |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofun0001schu |ref=Schultz |year=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=904 |isbn=978-1-4381-2677-7}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=f7m713xwK58C&vq=twenty+seven+times&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last=Simonson |first=Peter |title=Refiguring Mass Communication: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/refiguringmassco0000simo |ref=Simonson |year=2010 |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |quote=He held high the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the nation's unofficial motto, ''e pluribus unum'', even as he was recoiling from the party system in which he had long participated. |location=Urbana |isbn=978-0-252-07705-0 }}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=N6lrAmPlbvIC&pg=PA79&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false Book] * {{cite book |last=Smith |first= Andrew F. |year=2004 |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America'' |ref=Smith2004 |publisher=New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 131–32. ISBN 0-19-515437-1}} * {{cite book |last=Soss |first=Joe |editor-last=Hacker |editor-first=Jacob S. |editor2-last=Mettler |editor2-first=Suzanne |ref=Soss |title=Remaking America: Democracy and Public Policy in an Age of Inequality |year=2010 |publisher=Russell Sage Foundation |isbn=978-1-61044-694-5 |pages=}}, [http://books.google.com/?id=JttyjBoyb3AC&lpg=PA12 Book] * {{cite book |ref=Tadman |last=Tadman |first=Michael |title=The Demographic Cost of Sugar: Debates on Slave Societies and Natural Increase in the Americas |journal=American Historical Review |volume=105 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |issue=5}}, [http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2652029?uid=3739560&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739256&purchase-type=article&accessType=RR&sid=21102125115943&showMyJstorPss=false&seq=1&showAccess=true Article] * {{cite book |ref=Taylor |last=Taylor |first=Alan |title=American Colonies: The Settling of North America |url=https://archive.org/details/americancolonies00tayl_1 |publisher=Penguin Books, New York |editor=Eric Foner |year=2002 |isbn=0-670-87282-2}}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=NPoAQRgkrOcC&vq=1670&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite book |last=Thornton |first=Russell |title=American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492 |url=https://archive.org/details/americanindianho00thor_0 |series=Volume 186 of Civilization of the American Indian Series |year=1987 |ref=Thornton |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-2220-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/americanindianho00thor_0/page/49 49] }}, [http://books.google.com/?id=9iQYSQ9y60MC&lpg=PA49 Book] * {{cite book|last=Tooze|first=Adam|authorlink=Adam Tooze|year=2006|title=[[The Wages of Destruction|The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy]]|location=London|publisher=Allen Lane|isbn=978-0-7139-9566-4|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Vaughan |first=Alden T. |ref=Vaughan |title=New England Encounters: Indians and Euroamericans Ca. 1600–1850 |publisher=North Eastern University Press |page= |year=1999}} * {{cite book |last=Walton |first=Gary M. |last2=Rockoff |first2=Hugh |title=History of the American Economy |year=2009 |ref=Walton |publisher=Cengage Learning}}, [http://books.google.com/books/about/History_of_the_American_Economy_With_Acc.html?id=lyhI1q_E4G0C Book] * {{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Daniel K. |year=2012 |ref=Williams |title=Questioning Conservatism's Ascendancy: A Reexamination of the Rightward Shift in Modern American Politics; {Reviews in American History} |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=325–331 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press }} * {{cite book | author=Winchester, Simon |title=The men who United the States |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780062079602| year=2013|publisher=Harper Collins | isbn=978-0-06-207960-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780062079602/page/198 198], 216, 251, 253 }} * {{cite book |last=Zinn |first=Howard |authorlink=Howard Zinn |title=[[A People's History of the United States]] |ref=Zinn |year=2005 |publisher=[[Harper Perennial|Harper Perennial Modern Classics]]|location= |isbn=0-06-083865-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peopleshistoryof0000zinn_p0k9/page/321 321]–357}} {{refend}} * {{CIA World Factbook link|us|United States}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-16761057 United States], from the [[BBC News]] * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=US Key Development Forecasts for the United States] from [[International Futures]] ;Serikali * [http://www.usa.gov/ Official U.S. Government Web Portal] Gateway to government sites * [http://www.house.gov/ House] Official site of the United States House of Representatives * [http://www.senate.gov/ Senate] Official site of the United States Senate * [http://www.whitehouse.gov/ White House] Official site of the President of the United States ;Historia * [http://www.nationalcenter.org/HistoricalDocuments.html Historical Documents] Collected by the National Center for Public Policy Research * [http://www.religioustolerance.org/nat_mott.htm U.S. National Mottos: History and Constitutionality] {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20061212193931/http://www.religioustolerance.org/nat_mott.htm |date=2006-12-12 }} Analysis by the Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance * [http://www.historicalstatistics.org/index2.html USA] Collected links to historical data ;Ramani * [http://nationalatlas.gov/ National Atlas of the United States] {{Wayback|url=http://nationalatlas.gov/ |date=20060720093336 }} Official maps from the U.S. Department of the Interior * {{wikiatlas|the United States}} * [http://www.measureofamerica.org/maps/ Measure of America] A variety of mapped information relating to health, education, income, and demographics for the U.S. ;Vingine * {{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm |title=''Country Profile: United States of America'' |ref=BBC18may |work=BBC News |location =London |date=April 22, 2008 |accessdate=May 18, 2008}} * {{cite web |author=Cohen, Eliot A. |ref=Cohen |location=Washington D.C. |url= http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/59919/eliot-a-cohen/history-and-the-hyperpower |title=''History and the Hyperpower'' |work=Foreign Affairs |date=July–August 2004 |accessdate=July 14, 2006}} * {{cite web |title=Slavery and the Slave Trade in Rhode Island |ref=Brown |url=http://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/jcbexhibit/Pages/exhibSlavery.html}} * {{cite web |url= http://www.treasury.gov/about/education/Pages/in-god-we-trust.aspx |title=History of "In God We Trust" |ref=God |publisher=U.S. Department of the Treasury |date=March 8, 2011 |accessdate=February 23, 2013}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.mchspa.org/body.htm |title=''Early History, Native Americans, and Early Settlers in Mercer County'' |year=427 |ref=Mercer |publisher=Mercer County Historical Society |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625185429/http://www.mchspa.org/body.htm |archivedate=2012-06-25 |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}, [http://books.google.com/books?id=2MjxPJ9W4gwC&source=gbs_navlinks_s Book] * {{cite news |title=Looking back 20 years: Who deserves credit for ending the Cold War? |author=Nick Hayes |ref=Hayes |url=http://www.minnpost.com/politics-policy/2009/11/looking-back-20-years-who-deserves-credit-ending-cold-war |newspaper=MinnPost |date=November 6, 2009 |accessdate=March 11, 2013}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.ushistory.org/us/59e.asp |title=59e. The End of the Cold War |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |work=U.S. History.org |ref=ushistory13|publisher=Independence Hall Association |accessdate=March 10, 2013}} * {{cite book |last=Levy |first=Peter B. |ref=Levy1996 |title=Encyclopedia of the Reagan-Bush Years |url=http://books.google.com/?id=7veohk0fkLYC&lpg=PA88 |year=1996 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn= 978-0-313-29018-3 |page=442}} * {{cite journal |last1=Wallander |first1=Celeste A. |year=2003 |ref=Wallander2003 |title=Western Policy and the Demise of the Soviet Union |journal=[[Journal of Cold War Studies]] |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=137–177 |publisher=[[President and Fellows of Harvard College]] and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] }} {{refend}} {{Marekani}} {{Amerika Kaskazini}} [[Jamii:Nchi za Amerika ya Kaskazini]] [[Jamii:Marekani| ]] [[Jamii:Nchi za G7]] [[Jamii:Nchi za G8]] [[Jamii:Nchi za G20]] [[Jamii:Nchi]] r9yrd6oig3y2nu47ojfkpfepsap67rm 0 5276 1580057 1518511 2026-07-17T23:33:03Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580057 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Sprachfamilien der Welt (non Altai).png|thumb|350px|Uenezi wa lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya (kijani cheupe) kati ya jamii za lugha nyingine duniani.]] [[Picha:IE5500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|Uenezi wa wasemaji wa [[Kihindi-Kiulaya asilia]] kufuatana na [[nadharia ya Kurgan]]]] [[Picha:IE4500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|Uenezi katikati ya [[milenia ya 3 KK]]]] [[Picha:IE3500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|Uenezi katikati ya [[milenia ya 2 KK]]]] [[Picha:IE2500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|Uenezi takriban mwaka [[250 KK]]]] '''Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya''' ni [[jamii]] ya [[lugha]] iliyo kubwa kuliko zote [[duniani]]. Imekadiriwa kuna [[lugha hai]] 445 za jamii hiyo na wasemaji [[bilioni]] 3.2 katika [[Bara|mabara]] yote (46[[%]] za watu wote wa leo). Uenezi huo umetokana hasa na [[historia]] ya [[ukoloni]] wa [[Wazungu|Kizungu]] uliopeleka lugha za [[Ulaya]] pande zote za [[dunia]]. Lugha zenye wasemaji zaidi ya milioni 100 ni: [[Kihispania]], [[Kiingereza]], [[Kihindustani]] ([[Kihindi]]/[[Kiurdu]]), [[Kireno]], [[Kibengali]], [[Kipanjabi]] na [[Kirusi]]. Nyingine zenye wasemaji zaidi ya milioni 50 ni: [[Kijerumani]], [[Kifaransa]], [[Kimarathi]], [[Kiitalia]] na [[Kiajemi]]. [[Picha:IndoEuropeanTree.svg|thumb|300px|Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya]] == Jina la Kihindi-Kiulaya == [[Jina]] la Kihindi-Kiulaya limepatikana tangu [[karne ya 19]]. [[Wataalamu]] walitambua ya kwamba lugha za kale zinazotunzwa [[Maandishi|kimaandishi]] kama [[Kilatini]], [[Kigiriki]], [[Kisanskrit]] na [[Kiajemi]] cha Kale zinafanana kati yake pia na lugha nyingine za kisasa za Ulaya na [[Uhindi]] wa [[Kaskazini]]. Lugha za jamii ya Kihindi-Kiulaya zinafanana katika [[msamiati]] na [[sarufi]]. [[File:Indo-European-speaking world.png|thumb|upright=1.55|{{legend|#013857|Lugha rasmi kuu}}{{legend|#0371b0|Lugha rasmi ya pili}}{{legend|#80a4c0|Iliyotambulika kisheria}}{{legend|#ccd2e8|Ya maana}}{{legend|#e5e5e5|Haitumiki}}]] == Nadharia ya asili na usambazaji == Inaaminika ya kwamba lugha hizo zilikuwa na [[asili]] moja katika lugha isiyojulikana tena ya [[Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya|Kihindi-Kiulaya]] asilia. Wasemaji wake wanaaminiwa kuwa walisambaa takriban miaka 6,000 iliyopita kutoka sehemu za [[Asia ya Magharibi]]. Sehemu ilikwenda [[magharibi]] na kuingia Ulaya, sehemu nyingine ilikwenda [[Uajemi]] na [[Bara Hindi]]. Kuna [[nadharia]] mbalimbali kuhusu historia hiyo. Kati ya lugha hizo kuna zifuatazo: ::''(† inamaanisha ya kwamba lugha hii haina wasemaji tena kama [[lugha hai]])'' * [[Kialbania]] * [[Lugha za Kianatolia]] † * [[Kiarmenia]] * [[Lugha za Kibalti-Kislavoni]] ** [[Kislavoni cha Mashariki]] (k.m. [[Kirusi]], [[Kiukraine]]) ** [[Kislavoni cha Magharibi]] (k.m. [[Kipolandi]], [[Kicheki]], [[Kislovakia]]) ** [[Kislavoni cha Kusini]] (k.m. [[Kibulgaria]], [[Kiserbia]], [[Kikroatia]]) ** [[Kibalti]] (k.m. [[Kilituania]] na [[Kilatvia]]) * [[Lugha za Kijerumaniki]] ** [[Kijerumaniki cha Kaskazini]] (k.m. [[Kiswidi]], [[Kidenmark]], [[Kinorwei]], [[Kiiceland]]) ** [[Kijerumaniki cha Mashariki]] † ** [[Kijerumaniki cha Magharibi]] (k.m. [[Kiingereza]], [[Kijerumani]], [[Kiholanzi]], [[Kiafrikaans]]) * [[Kigiriki]] * [[Lugha za Kihindi-Kiajemi]] (ndilo kundi kubwa, likiwa na lugha hai 313) ** [[Lugha za Kihindi-Kiarya]] (k.m. [[Kisanskrit]] †, [[Kihindi]], [[Kiurdu]]) ** [[Kiajemi]] (k.m. [[Kiajemi cha Kale]], [[Kiajemi]], [[Kidari]], [[Kikurdi]]) ** [[Lugha za Kinuristani]] * [[Lugha za Kiitalia]] ** [[Lugha za Kirumi]] (k.m. [[Kilatini]] †, [[Kiitalia]], [[Kifaransa]], [[Kihispania]], [[Kireno]], [[Kiromania]]) ** [[Lugha za Kiumbria]] † * [[Lugha za Kiselti]] (k.m. [[Kiskoti]], [[Kiwelisi]], [[Kieire]]) * [[Lugha za Kitokari]] † ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book | last = Anthony | first = David W. | title = The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World | url = https://archive.org/details/horsewheellangua0000anth | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 2007 | isbn =978-0-691-05887-0}} * {{cite book |last=Auroux |first=Sylvain |title=History of the Language Sciences |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |location=Berlin |year=2000 |isbn=978-3-11-016735-1}} * {{cite book | last=Fortson | first=Benjamin W. | title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction |location=Malden, Massachusetts | publisher=Blackwell | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-4051-0315-2}} * {{cite book |last=Houwink ten Cate |first=H.J. |last2=Melchert |first2=H. Craig |last3=van den Hout |first3=Theo P.J. |chapter=Indo-European languages, The parent language, Laryngeal theory |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |volume=22 |publisher=Helen Hemingway Benton |location=Chicago |edition=15th |year=1981}} * {{cite book |last=Holm |first=Hans J. |chapter=The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages |editor-first=Christine |editor-last=Preisach |editor2-first=Hans |editor2-last=Burkhardt |editor3-first=Lars |editor3-last=Schmidt-Thieme |editor4-first=Reinhold |display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=Decker |title=Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications |url=https://archive.org/details/springer_10.1007-978-3-540-78246-9 |series=Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, March 7–9, 2007 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=Heidelberg-Berlin |year=2008 |isbn=978-3-540-78239-1}} * {{cite journal |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |year=1990 |title=The Spread of the Indo-Europeans |journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies |volume=18 |issue=1–2 |pages=131–40 |doi= |url = http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art111e.pdf}} * {{cite journal |last=Lubotsky |first=A. |title=The Old Phrygian Areyastis-inscription |journal=Kadmos |volume=27 |issue= |pages=9–26 |year=1988 |url = https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/2660/299_011.pdf |doi=10.1515/kadmos-1988-0103}} * {{cite journal |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |title=The Thraco-Armenian consonant shift |journal=Linguistique Balkanique |volume=31 |issue= |pages=71–74 |year=1988 |doi=}} * {{cite book |last=Lane |first=George S. |last2=Adams |first2=Douglas Q. |chapter=The Tocharian problem |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |volume=22 |publisher=Helen Hemingway Benton |location=Chicago |edition=15th |year=1981}} * {{cite book |authorlink=Colin Renfrew, Baron Renfrew of Kaimsthorn |last=Renfrew |first=C. |chapter=The Anatolian origins of Proto-Indo-European and the autochthony of the Hittites |editor-first=R. |editor-last=Drews |editor-link=Robert Drews |title=Greater Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite language family |publisher=Institute for the Study of Man |location=Washington, DC |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-941694-77-3}} * {{cite book |last = Szemerényi |first = Oswald |authorlink=Oswald Szemerényi |first2=David |last2=Jones |first3=Irene |last3=Jones |title=Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-823870-6}} * {{cite book |last=Porzig |first=Walter |year=1954 |title=Die Gliederung des indogermanischen Sprachgebiets |publisher=Carl Winter Universitätsverlag |location=Heidelberg}} * {{cite book |title=Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen |first=Karl |last=Brugmann |author-link=Karl Brugmann |language=de |volume=Erster Band |location=Strassburg |publisher=Karl J. Trübner |year=1886}} * {{cite book |title=Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Od8ufB4lFWYC |first=August |last=Schleicher |authorlink=August Schleicher |language=Kijerumani |year=1861 |location=Weimar |publisher=Böhlau (reprinted by Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag) |isbn=978-3-8102-1071-5}} * {{cite book |title=Über Methode und Ergebnisse der arischen (indogermanischen) Alterthumswissenshaft |url=https://archive.org/details/bermethodeunde00brad |first=Peter |last=von Bradke |language=de |year=1890 |location=Giessen |publisher=J. Ricker'sche Buchhandlung |ref=CITEREFvon Bradke1890}} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== * {{cite book | author=Beekes, Robert S.P. | authorlink=Robert S. P. Beekes |title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics | url=https://archive.org/details/comparativeindoe0000beek | location=[[Amsterdam]] | publisher=John Benjamins | year=1995}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Byomkes Chakrabarti|last=Chakrabarti|first=Byomkes|year=1994|title=A comparative study of Santali and Bengali|location=Calcutta|publisher=K.P. Bagchi & Co.|isbn= 978-81-7074-128-2}} * {{cite book | author=Collinge, N.E. | title=The Laws of Indo-European | url=https://archive.org/details/lawsofindoeurope0000coll | location=[[Amsterdam]] | publisher=John Benjamins | year=1985}} * {{cite book|authorlink=J.P. Mallory|last=Mallory|first=J.P.|year=1989|title=In Search of the Indo-Europeans|url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofindoeu00jpma|location=London|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-27616-7}} * {{cite book|authorlink=Colin Renfrew|last=Renfrew|first=Colin|year=1987|title=Archaeology & Language. The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologylangu0000renf_b4r6|location=London|publisher=Jonathan Cape|isbn= 978-0-224-02495-2}} * [[Antoine Meillet|Meillet, Antoine]]. ''Esquisse d'une grammaire comparée de l'arménien classique'', 1903. * {{cite book | last1 = Ramat | first1 = Paolo | last2 = Ramat | first2 = Anna Giacalone | year=1998 | title=The Indo-European languages | publisher=Routledge}} * [[August Schleicher|Schleicher, August]], ''A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages'' (1861/62). * {{cite book | editor1-last=Strazny | editor1-first=Philip | editor2-last = Trask | editor2-first = R.L. | editor2-link = Larry Trask | year=2000 | title=Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics | url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhist0000tras | publisher=Routledge | edition=1 | isbn=978-1-57958-218-0}} * {{cite journal | author=[[Oswald Szemerényi|Szemerényi, Oswald]] | title=The problem of Balto-Slav unity | journal=Kratylos | year=1957 | volume=2 | pages=97–123}} * {{cite book | last = Watkins | first = Calvert | title = The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots | url = https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_v6q1 | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-618-08250-6}} * [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08531-5 The genetic origin of the Indo-Europeans] {{en}} * [[Pierre Chantraine|P. Chantraine]] (1968), ''[https://archive.org/details/Dictionnaire-Etymologique-Grec Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque],'' Klincksieck, Paris. * Remys, Edmund, ''General distinguishing features of various Indo-European languages and their relationship to Lithuanian''. Berlin, New York: Indogermanische Forschungen, Vol. 112, 2007. ==Viungo vingine== {{commons category|Indo-European languages}} ===Hazinadata=== * {{cite web|title=Comparative Indo-European|url=http://www.wordgumbo.com/ie/cmp/|first=Isidore|last=Dyen|first2=Joseph|last2=Kruskal|first3=Paul|last3=Black|year=1997|accessdate=13 December 2009|publisher=wordgumbo|archive-date=2010-05-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522002324/http://www.wordgumbo.com/ie/cmp/|url-status=dead}} * {{cite web|title=Indo-European|url=http://languageserver.uni-graz.at/ls/group?id=4|publisher=LLOW Languages of the World|accessdate=14 December 2009|archivedate=2017-10-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010183735/http://languageserver.uni-graz.at/ls/group?id=4}} * {{cite web|title=Indo-European Documentation Center |url=http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/iedocctr/ie.html |publisher=Linguistics Research Center, [[University of Texas at Austin]] |year=2009 |accessdate=14 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090903062241/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/iedocctr/ie.html |archivedate=3 September 2009 |df=}} * {{Rejea kitabu|editor-last=Lewis|editor-first=M. Paul|year=2009|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Online version|edition=Sixteenth|location=Dallas, Tex.|publisher=SIL International|contribution=Language Family Trees: Indo-European|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=2-16|postscript=<!--None-->}}. * {{cite web|title=Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien: TITUS|url=http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/indexe.htm|year=2003|publisher=TITUS, University of Frankfurt|language=Kijerumani |accessdate=13 December 2009}} ===Leksimu=== * {{cite web|title=Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED) |url=http://www.indoeuropean.nl |publisher=Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics, Leiden University |location=Leiden, Netherlands |accessdate=14 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727212756/http://www.indoeuropean.nl |archivedate=27 July 2011 |df=}} * {{cite book|title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |edition=Fourth |origyear=2000 |chapter=Indo-European Roots Index |date=August 22, 2008 |publisher=Internet Archive: Wayback Machine |chapter-url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/IEroots.html |accessdate=9 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217023123/http://bartleby.com/61/IEroots.html |archivedate=February 17, 2009}} * {{cite web|title=Lexicon of Early Indo-European Loanwords Preserved in Finnish|url=http://www.iki.fi/jschalin/?cat=10|first=Johan |last=Schalin|publisher=Johan Schalin|year=2009|accessdate=9 December 2009}} * {{cite book|last=Pokorny|first=Julius|title=Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch|url=https://archive.org/search.php?query=indogermanisches+bomhard|edition=1st|year=1959|publisher=Julius Pokorny|language=Kijerumani|accessdate=29 March 2015}} * {{cite book|last=Köbler|first=Gerhard|title=Indogermanisches Wörterbuch|url=http://www.koeblergerhard.de/idgwbhin.html|edition=5th|year=2014|publisher=Gerhard Köbler|language=Kijerumani|accessdate=29 March 2015}} [[Jamii:Makundi ya lugha]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya|H]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Ulaya]] [[Jamii:Lugha za Asia]] fjn7kjvapgwtpsq9kqrzjb56c198irt 0 5827 1580279 1574602 2026-07-18T03:16:09Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580279 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Tanzania Monduli location map.svg|thumb|250px|Mahali pa Monduli (kijani) katika [[mkoa wa Arusha]].]] '''Wilaya ya Monduli''' {{Audio-IPA|Monduli.ogg|Matamshi}} ni kati ya [[wilaya]] saba za [[Mkoa wa Arusha]] yenye [[postikodi]] '''23400'''. Katika [[sensa]] ya mwaka 2012, idadi ya wakazi wa Wilaya ya Monduli ilihesabiwa kuwa 158,929. Katika ile ya mwaka [[2022]] walihesabiwa 227,585 <ref>https://www.nbs.go.tz</ref>. Wilaya hii iko katika kaskazini mashariki ya Tanzania. Imepakana na [[Kenya]] upande wa kaskazini, [[Mkoa wa Kilimanjaro]] na [[Wilaya ya Arusha Vijijini]] upande wa mashariki, [[Mkoa wa Manyara]] upande wa Kusini na [[Wilaya ya Ngorongoro]] pamoja na [[Wilaya ya Karatu]] upande wa magharibi. ==Historia== Jina "Monduli" linasemekana kututoka kwa mmoja mzee wa Masai aliyeitwa "Monduli" na kukaa katika eneo la kata ya [[Monduli Juu]] wakati wa ukoloni wa Kijerumani. ==Utawala== Wilaya ya Monduli ilikuwa sawa na Jimbo la Uchaguzi la Monduli wakati wa uchaguzi wa bunge. Eneo limegawiwa kwa kata 15 na 51 vijiji au mitaa ya mjini. Eneo lote ni [[kilomita za mraba]] 6,419. Makao makuu ya wilaya iko [[Monduli Mjini]] ambayo ni moja wa miji midogo miwili (pamoja na [[Namanga]]) katika wilaya yenye tabia ya vijijini. ==Jiografia== Monduli iko upande wa magharibi wa [[Jiji la Arusha]] na [[Mlima Meru]]. Sehemu kubwa ya eneo lake ni milima pamoja na [[volkeno]] ya [[Oldoinyo Lengai]] iliyokatwa na [[Bonde la Ufa]]. Pia mlima karibu na Monduli mjini huitwa Monduli, ni [[volkeno bwete]]. ==Marejeo== {{Reflist}} ==Viungo vya Nje== *http://legacy.lclark.edu/~peck/EAf-Orient/Tanzania/T-independence.htm{{Wayback|url=http://legacy.lclark.edu/~peck/EAf-Orient/Tanzania/T-independence.htm |date=20110811131519 }} *http://www.arusha.go.tz/english/Pages/Health/index.php {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130418215927/http://www.arusha.go.tz/english/Pages/Health/index.php |date=2013-04-18 }} *http://www.parks.it/world/TZ/parchi.arusha/Epar.html *http://www.infohub.com/TRAVEL/SIT/sit_pages/18500.html {{Wayback|url=http://www.infohub.com/TRAVEL/SIT/sit_pages/18500.html |date=20201127090519 }} *http://www.trazzler.com/trips/the-maasai-red-market-at-monduli-juu-in-arusha-tanzania-tz{{Wayback|url=http://www.trazzler.com/trips/the-maasai-red-market-at-monduli-juu-in-arusha-tanzania-tz |date=20120224081416 }} *{{Rejea tovuti|title=educ|url=http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1514/Tanzania-HISTORY-BACKGROUND.html}} *http://www.infojep.com/culturaltours/monduli_juu_brochure.html *http://www.ieftz.org {{Wayback|url=http://www.ieftz.org/ |date=20160526204509 }} {{-}} {{Kata za Wilaya ya Monduli}} {{mbegu-jio-arusha}} [[Jamii:Wilaya za Mkoa wa Arusha|M]] [[Jamii:Wilaya ya Monduli| ]] trzb4qpmkiebn6rcq8jjmwwb7w4qo8j 14 6742 1579974 907924 2026-07-17T18:00:04Z ~2026-40404-38 91006 nimeongeza jina la mshairi wa kiswahili 1579974 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Waandishi wa Tanzania|Shairi]] [[Category:Washairi nchi kwa nchi|Tanzania]] Shaaban Maulidi rcchiotsu5zicfic5s4oe7ciw2lzh6k 1580322 1579974 2026-07-18T08:46:22Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Masahihisho aliyefanya [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40404-38|~2026-40404-38]] ([[User talk:~2026-40404-38|Majadiliano]]) yalirejeshwa hadi sahihisho la mwisho na [[User:Addbot|Addbot]] 907924 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Waandishi wa Tanzania|Shairi]] [[Category:Washairi nchi kwa nchi|Tanzania]] fy7trk27ctt31cdr3qvhdkleo9u1c0d 0 6940 1580093 1521864 2026-07-18T00:01:56Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580093 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries, by Jacques-Louis David (1812) - National Gallery of Art (Samuel H. Kress Foundation) - 2.jpg|thumb|right|Napoleon Bonaparte ofisini kwake. Picha ilichorwa na [[Jacques-Louis David]], 1812]] '''Napoléon Bonaparte''' (''Napoleone di Buonaparte'', [[15 Agosti]] [[1769]] – [[5 Mei]] [[1821]]) alikuwa kiongozi wa kijeshi na wa kisiasa nchini [[Ufaransa]] baada ya [[mapinduzi ya Kifaransa]]. == Kupanda ngazi kwenye jeshi la mapinduzi == Alizaliwa kwenye kisiwa cha [[Korsika]] akasomeshwa katika shule ya jeshi na kuwa mwanajeshi. Wakati wa mapinduzi mwaka 1793 alijipatia sifa dhidi ya watetezi wa ufalme kwenye mji wa Toulon waliosaidiwa na [[Uingereza]] akapandishwa cheo na kuwa jenerali akiwa na umri wa miaka 24. [[1796]] alipewa amri ya jeshi la Ufaransa katika [[Italia]] akafaulu dhidi ya jeshi la [[Austria]] iliyopaswa kuwachia Wafaransa utawala wa Italia. [[Picha:Francois-Louis-Joseph Watteau 001.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Jeshi la Ufaransa katika mapigano karibu na [[Piramidi]]]] == Vita ya Misri == [[1798]] aliongoza uvamizi wa Ufaransa katika Misri kwa shabaha ya kukata mawasiliano kati ya [[Uingereza]] na koloni yake ya [[Uhindi]]. Alifaulu kushinda Wamisri lakini manowari zake ziliharibiwa na Waingereza katika mapigano ya [[Abukir]]. 1799 Napoleon alipaswa kuacha jeshi lake nyuma na kujiokoa pekee yake kwa kurudi Ufaransa. Uvamizi wa Wafaransa ilikuwa muhimu kisayansi kwa sababu aliongozana na wataalamu waliochungulia majengo ya Misri ya kale na nchi kwa jumla. == Mapinduzi ya Kijeshi cha 1799 == Katika Ufaransa Napoleon alifanya mipango pamoja na wanasiasa wengine wa kuchukua utawala. Tarehe [[9 Novemba]] [[1799]] (ilikitwa [[18 Brumaire]] katika [[kalenda ya mapinduzi ya Kifaransa]]) Napoleon aliongoza wanejeshi wakiingia mjini Paris na kufukuza bunge. Katiba mpya ilimfanya mtawala wa pekee mwenye cheo cha "Konsuli ya kwanzaa". Kwa umri wa miaka 30 alikuwa mtawala wa Ufaransa. == Kipindi cha amani == Mwaka uliofuata 1800 alishambulia Austria na kuishinda katika mapigano ya Marengo tar. [[14 Juni]] [[1800]]. Baada ya ushindi huu Uingereza ulikubali amani na Ufaransa. Alitumia kipindi hiki kuongeza athira yake katika [[Ujerumani]], [[Uswisi]] na [[Uholanzi]]. == Kurudi nyuma katika Amerika == 1802 Napoléon alirudisha [[utumwa]] katika koloni za Ufaransa kwa sabau za kiuchumi akasababisha mapinduzi ya [[Haiti]] yaliyoleta uhuru wa nchi ile. Wafalme wa Ulaya waliendelea kuangalia jamhuri ya Ufaransa kwa wasiwasi kwa sababu ilikuwa nchi ya Ulaya kwanza iliyopindua utawala wa kifalme. Napoleon aliiuzia [[Marekani]] koloni za kifaransa katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]] ([[Lousiana]] na mji wa [[New Orleans]]) alipoona ya kwamba angeshindwa kuzitetea kama vita ingerudi. == Kaisari wa Wafaransa == [[Picha:Jacques-Louis David - Le Sacre de Napoléon.jpg|thumb|300px|Napoleon ajiwekea taji mwaka 1806]] Mwaka 1803 Uingereza ilitangaza upya hali ya vita. Hii ilikuwa mwanzo wa vita za mfulolizo hadi mwisho wa utawala wake. Katika Ufaransa aliendesha kempeni ya kuimarisha uatwala wake. Baada ya fitina nyingine na wafuasi wa familia ya mfalme aliyepinduliwa Napoleon aliamua kujiwekea taji. Lakini hakutumia cheo cha mfalme akajiwekea taji la "[[Kaisari]] ya Wafaransa" tar. [[2 Desemba]] [[1804]]. Mwaka uliofuata alipewa pia taji la mfalme wa Italia. == Kushinda ushirikiano ya kimataifa dhidi yake == 1805 Uingereza, Urusi na Austria walipatana kushindana pamoja dhidi ya Napoleon kwa sababu waliona mipango yake ilkuwa kutawala Ulaya yote. Jibu lake lilikuwa kuandaa jeshi kubwa la kuvamia Uingereza. Lakini Waingeerza waliwashinda Wafaransa katika [[mapigano ya bahari ya Trafalgar]] [[21 Oktoba]] [[1805]]. Kuanzia sasa Waingereza walikuwa mabwana wa bahari kimataifa. Barani Napoleon alifaulu kushinda jeshi la pamoja la Austria na Urusi na kuteka mji wa Vienna ([[mji mkuu]] wa Austria). Baadaye alishinda pia [[Prussia]] na kuteka [[Berlin]]. 1807 hata Warusi walikubali kuacha vita dhidi yake. Sasa Napoleon alikuwa mkuu wa Ulaya. Nchi zote isipokuwa Uingereza, [[Uswidi]] (pamoja na [[Skandinavia]]) na [[Dola la Uturuki]] zilikuwa ama chini yake au zilifanya mikataba ya kusaidiana naye. Alibadilisha mipaka katika Italia, Ujerumani na Uholanzi alipounda himaya mpya chini ya wafalme Wafaransa. Alipomweka nduguye kama mfalme wa [[Hispania]] aliona uasi wa Wahispania waliopata usaidizi wa Uingereza akashindwa kukomesha uasi huo. Dhidi ya Uingereza Napoleon alipiga marufuku kila aina ya biashara kati ya Ulaya bara na kisiwa cha Britania. [[Picha:Europe map Napoleon 1811.png|thumb|left|300px|Himaya ya Napoleoni 1811 kabla kuvamia Urusi; <br />buluu nyeusi: Ufaransa pamaoja na maeneo yaliyounganishwa; <br />buluu nyeupe: nchi zilizoshikamana na Ufaransa]] == Vita dhidi ya Urusi == Kaisari Alexander wa Urusi alianza tena kufanya biashara na Uingereza kuanzioa mwaka 1810. Napoleon alijibu kwa kushambulia Urusi kwa jeshi kubwa la askari 612,000 mwaka [[1812]]. Lakini vita hii hakufaulu. Akateka mji mkuu wa Mocow lakini Warusi walichoma mji moto. Katika baridi Napoleon alikosa chakula na usiadizi alipaswa kuondoka Moscow na kuelekea magharibi. Njiani jeshi lake lilishambuliwa vivbaya na Warusi wanajeshi wengi walikufa. Wafaransa 40,000 walirudi wote wengine walikuwa wamekufa au kukamatwa. Sasa Austria na Prussia walijiunga na Urusi na Uingereza wakamshambulia Napoleon pamoja. Mapigano ya [[Leipzig]] tar. 16 - 19 Oktoba 1813 (huitwa "Mapigano ya mataifa") yalimaliza nguvu ya Ufaransa. == Kujiuzulu, Mtemi wa Elba == Napoleon alijiuzulu tar. [[11 Aprili]] [[1814]]. Washindi hawakumfunga ndani lakini kwa heshima walimpa [[kisiwa cha Elba]] (Italia) kama himaya yake ndogo alipotakiwa kukaa bila kuondoka na kuitawala kama mtemi. Mdogo wake wa mfalme wa mwisho wa Ufaransa aliyeuawa katika mapinduzi alipewa taji la Mfalme wa Ufaransa kwa jina la Louis XVI. Mataifa washindi yalikutana [[mkutano wa Vienna|Vienna]] walipopanga jinsi gani kurudisha utaratibu wa kale katika Ulaya uliowahi kuharibiwa na Napoleoni. == Kurudi Ufaransa na utawala wa siku 100 == Wakati huohuo Napoleon aliamua kurudi Ufaransa. Tar. [[1 Machi]] [[1815]] alifika Ufaransa bara na wafuasi wachache. Serikali mpya alituma jeshi dhidi lake lakini wanajeshi walijiunga na Napoleoni. Akaingia Paris na kutawala tena kwa miezi michache. Austria, Urusi, Uingereza na Prussia walipatana kwenye mkutano wa Vienna kumshambulia na kumwondoa. Kabla hawakuwa tayari Napoleon aliwashambulia kwa jeshi jipya. Mapigano yalitokea katika Ubelgiji kati ya vijiji vya Waterloo na Belle Alliance. Jeshi la Waingereza na Waprussia waliwashinda Wafaransa [[18 Juni]] [[1815]]. [[Picha:Napoleon tomb bordercropped.jpg|thumb|250px|Kaburi la Napoleon katika kanisa la "Dome des Invalides" mjini Paris]] == Mwisho wake == Napoleon alikamatwa na Waingereza walioamua kumwondoa kabisa katika Ulaya. Alipelekwa kwenye [[kisiwa]] cha [[Saint Helena]] katika [[Atlantiki]] mbali na [[pwani]] ya [[Afrika]]. Hapo alikufa [[5 Mei]] [[1821]], labda kwa kutiwa [[sumu]] na Waingereza. Miaka 20 baada ya [[kifo]] chake [[maiti]] yake ilichukuliwa [[Kaburi|kaburini]] na kupelekwa Ufaransa alipozikwa kwa [[heshima]] tarehe [[15 Desemba]] [[1840]]. ==Marejeo== ===Maisha ya Napoleon=== * {{Rejea kitabu|title=Life of Napoleon Bonaparte|last=Abbott|first=John|isbn=1-4179-7063-4|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2005}} * {{Rejea kitabu|first=Rafe|last=Blaufarb|title=Napoleon: Symbol for an Age, A Brief History with Documents|url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonsymbolfo0000blau|year=2007|publisher=Bedford|isbn=0-312-43110-4}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Chandler|first=David|title=Napoleon|publisher=Leo Cooper|year=2002|isbn=0-85052-750-3}} * {{Rejea kitabu|first=Vincent|last=Cronin|authorlink=Vincent Cronin|title=Napoleon|url=https://archive.org/details/napoleon0000cron_y3x1|publisher=HarperCollins|year=1994|isbn=0-00-637521-9}} * Dwyer, Philip. ''Napoleon: The Path to Power'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-Path-Power-Philip-Dwyer-ebook/dp/B00280LN5G/ excerpt vol 1]; ''Citizen Emperor: Napoleon in Power'' (2013) [http://www.amazon.com/Citizen-Emperor-Napoleon-Philip-Dwyer-ebook/dp/B00GGSG3W4/ excerpt and text search v 2]; most recent scholarly biography * {{cite book|author=Englund, Steven |title=Napoleon: A Political Life|url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonpolitica0000engl |isbn=0674018036|year=2010|publisher=Scribner}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Johnson|first=Paul|title=Napoleon: A life|url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonpenguinl00unse|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2002 |isbn=0-670-03078-3}}; 200pp; quite hostile * {{cite book|author=Lefebvre, Georges |title=Napoleon from 18 Brumaire to Tilsit, 1799–1807|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=HwNoAAAAMAAJ|year=1969|publisher=Columbia University Press}} influential wide-ranging history ** {{cite book|author=Lefebvre, Georges |title=Napoleon; from Tilsit to Waterloo, 1807–1815|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mTwJAQAAIAAJ|year=1969|publisher=Columbia University Press}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Markham|first=Felix|title=Napoleon|publisher=Mentor|year=1963|url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968}}; 303pp; short biography by an Oxford scholar [https://www.questia.com/library/1446436/napoleon online] * {{Rejea kitabu|first=Frank|last=McLynn|title=Napoleon|publisher=Pimlico|year=1998|isbn=0-7126-6247-2|id= {{ASIN|0712662472|country=uk}}}}; well-written popular history * Roberts, Andrew. ''Napoleon: A Life'' (2014) * {{cite book|author=Thompson, J.M.|title=Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s2uTaPHPnZ8C|year=1951|publisher=Oxford U.P.}}, 412pp; by an Oxford scholar ===Utafiti kuhusu maswali ya pekee=== * {{Rejea kitabu|first=Ken|last=Alder|title=The Measure of All Things—The Seven-Year Odyssey and Hidden Error That Transformed the World|url=https://archive.org/details/measureofallthin00alde|publisher=[[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]]|year=2002|isbn=0-7432-1675-X}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Alter|first=Peter|title=Unity and Diversity in European Culture c. 1800|url=https://archive.org/details/unitydiversityin0000unse_f1p7|editor=[[T. C. W. Blanning]] and [[Hagen Schulze]]|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-19-726382-8}} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=Napoleon and Persia|first=Iradj|last=Amini|url=http://books.google.com/?id=n5IOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA12|year=2000|isbn=0-934211-58-2|publisher=Taylor & Francis}} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=World History of Warfare|url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryofwa00arch|first=Christon I.|last=Archer|first2=John R.|last2= Ferris|first3=Holger H. |last3=Herwig|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2002|isbn=0-8032-4423-1}} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=Between Salt Water And Holy Water: A History Of Southern Italy|url=https://archive.org/details/betweensaltwater00tomm|last=Astarita|first=Tommaso|year=2005|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=0-393-05864-6}} * {{Rejea kitabu|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Pw5jup_LyHAC&lpg=PA212|title=The First Total War|last=Bell|first=David|isbn=0-618-34965-0|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year=2007}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Bordes|first=Philippe|title=Jacques-Louis David|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-300-12346-9|year=2007}} * {{Rejea kitabu|first=Richard|last=Brooks|title=Atlas of World Military History|url=https://archive.org/details/atlasofworldmili0000harp|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2000|isbn=0-7607-2025-8}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Chandler|first=David|authorlink=David G. Chandler|title=The Campaigns of Napoleon|year=1973}}, the standard military history of N's battles * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Chesney|first=Charles|title=Waterloo Lectures:A Study Of The Campaign Of 1815|url=https://archive.org/details/waterloolectures0000char|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2006|isbn=1-4286-4988-3}} * {{Rejea kitabu|year=2006|title=Blundering to Glory: Napoleon's Military Campaigns|url=https://archive.org/details/blunderingtoglor00conn_0|first=Owen|last=Connelly|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=0-7425-5318-3}} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=The Billy Ruffian: The Bellerophon and the Downfall of Napoleon|url=https://archive.org/details/billyruffianbell0000cord_l4d4|first=David|last=Cordingly|year=2004|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=1-58234-468-X}} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=Is Arsenic an Aphrodisiac?|url=https://archive.org/details/isarsenicaphrodi0000cull|last=Cullen|first=William|year=2008|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=0-85404-363-2}} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=As Befits a Legend|url=https://archive.org/details/asbefitslegendbu0000dris|publisher=Kent State University Press|isbn=0-87338-484-9|last=Driskel|first=Paul|year=1993}} * {{Rejea kitabu|isbn=0-313-31912-X|title=Conscription and democracy: The Draft in France, Great Britain, and the United States|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2001|first=George Q.|last=Flynn}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Fremont-Barnes|first=Gregory|first2=Todd|last2= Fisher|title=The Napoleonic Wars: The Rise and Fall of an Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonicwarsri0000frem|publisher=Osprey|year=2004|isbn=1-84176-831-6}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.lib.unc.edu/ncc/gallery/napo.html|title=Death Mask of Napoleon|accessdate=4 August 2008|publisher=University of North Carolina|last=Fulghum|first=Neil|year=2007|archivedate=2013-06-22|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6HZlE2nZJ?url=http://www.lib.unc.edu/ncc/gallery/napo.html}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Gates|first=David|title=The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War|url=https://archive.org/details/spanishulcerhist0000gate_o1o7|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=2001|isbn=0-306-81083-2}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Gates|first=David|title=The Napoleonic Wars, 1803–1815|publisher=Pimlico|isbn=0-7126-0719-6|year=2003}} * {{cite book|author1=Godechot, Jacques|author2=Béatrice Fry Hyslop|author3=David Lloyd Dowd|title=The Napoleonic era in Europe|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9rFmAAAAMAAJ|year=1971|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|displayauthors=1}} * Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe'' (Macmillan, 2003), country by country analysis * {{Rejea kitabu|url=http://books.google.com/?id=FUaIGHxCIEwC&pg=PA181|title=Size Matters|year=2006|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|last=Hall|first=Stephen|isbn=0-618-47040-9}} * {{Rejea kitabu|first=Robert|last=Harvey|year=2006|title=The War of Wars|url=https://archive.org/details/warofwarsepicstr0000harv|publisher=Robinson|isbn=978-1-84529-635-3}} * {{Rejea jarida|journal=Clinical Chemistry|url=http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/reprint/54/12/2092 |title=The Death of Napoleon, Cancer or Arsenic?|last=Hindmarsh|first=J. Thomas|first2=John|last2= Savory|volume=54|page=2092 |doi=10.1373/clinchem.2008.117358 |publisher=American Association for Clinical Chemistry |year=2008 |accessdate=10 October 2010|issue=12}} * [[Dominic Lieven|Lieven, Dominic]] "Review article: Russia and the defeat of Napoleon." ''Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History'' (2006)7#2 pp: 283-308. * {{Rejea kitabu|title=Russia Against Napoleon: The Battle for Europe, 1807 to 1814 |url=https://archive.org/details/russiaagainstnap00liev_0 |last=Lieven | first=Dominic |year=2009 |publisher=Allen Lane/The Penguin Press |location= |isbn= |page=[https://archive.org/details/russiaagainstnap00liev_0/page/616 617]}}[http://www.literaryreview.co.uk/esdaile_10_09.html] {{Wayback|url=http://www.literaryreview.co.uk/esdaile_10_09.html |date=20130605171204 }} * {{Rejea kitabu|first=Marie Adelaide Belloc|last=Lowndes|authorlink=Marie Adelaide Belloc Lowndes|title=Where Love And Friendship Dwelt|publisher=Macmillan|year=1943|oclc=67554055}} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=Dom Pedro: The Struggle for Liberty in Brazil and Portugal, 1798–1834|url=https://archive.org/details/dompedrostruggle0000maca|last=Macaulay|first=Neill|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1986|isbn=0-8223-0681-6}} * {{cite web|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Measurement.html|title=The history of measurement|publisher=St Andrew's University|accessdate=18 July 2008|year=2003|last=O'Connor|first=J|first2=E F|last2= Robertson}} * {{Rejea jarida|title=1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict|edition=vol 28|last=Poulos|first=Anthi|journal=International Journal of Legal Information|year=2000|url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/ijli28&div=12&id=&page=}} * {{Rejea kitabu|url=http://books.google.com/?id=MdMZqhMzfpYC&pg=PR9|title=Heavy Words Lightly Thrown|publisher=Granta|isbn=1-86207-765-7|year=2004|last=Roberts|first=Chris}} * {{Rejea kitabu|isbn=1-84520-817-X|first=Raffael|last=Scheck|publisher=Berg|title=Germany, 1871–1945: A Concise History|url=https://archive.org/details/germany18711945c0000sche|year=2008}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Schom|first=Alan|authorlink=Alan Schom|title=Napoleon Bonaparte|url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonbonapart00scho|year=1997|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-017214-5}} * {{cite book|author=Schroeder, Paul W. |title=The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BS2z3iGPCigC|year=1996|publisher=Oxford U.P.|pages=177–560|isbn=9780198206545}} advanced diplomatic history of Napoleon and his era * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Schwarzfuchs|first=Simon|publisher=Routledge|year=1979|isbn=0-19-710023-6|title=Napoleon, the Jews and the Sanhedrin|url=https://archive.org/details/napoleonjewssanh0000schw}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A030078b.htm|title=Balcombe, Alexander Beatson (1811–77)|publisher=Australian Dictionary of Biography Online|last=Thomson|first=Kathleen|accessdate=27 May 2008|year=1969|archive-date=2013-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515154458/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/balcombe-alexander-beatson-2922|url-status=dead}} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=Tricolor and crescent|first=William|last=Watson|url=http://books.google.com/?id=o4vrUbMK5eEC&pg=PA13|isbn= 0-275-97470-7|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|accessdate=12 June 2009|year=2003}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Wells|first=David|title=The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Geometry|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|isbn=0-14-011813-6|year=1992}} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=Napoleon's Submarine|year=1972|last=Wilkins|first=William|isbn=0-450-01028-7|publisher=New English Library|origyear=1944}} * {{Rejea jarida|last=Wilson|first=J|year= 1975|title=Dr. Archibald Arnott: Surgeon to the 20th Foot and Physician to Napoleon|journal=[[British Medical Journal]]|issue=vol.3|pmc=1674241|pmid=1097047|volume=3|pages=293–5|doi=10.1136/bmj.3.5978.293}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Wood|first=Philip|title=The Law and Practice of International Finance Series|publisher=Sweet & Maxwell|year=2007|isbn=1-84703-210-9}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/MainArticle.aspx?m=31103&amid=30222626|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080425054948/http://www.historytoday.com/MainArticle.aspx?m=31103&amid=30222626|archivedate=2008-04-25|title=Napoleon's Last Journey|publisher=History Today|last=Woodward|first=Chris|issue=7|date=July 2005|accessdate=2015-05-25}} {{refend}} ===Napoleon katika elimu ya historia=== * {{cite journal |last= Dwyer |first= Philip |title= Remembering and Forgetting in Contemporary France: Napoleon, Slavery, and the French History Wars |journal= French Politics, Culture & Society |year= 2008 |volume= 26 |issue= 3 |pages= 110–122 |url= http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/viewarticle?data=dGJyMPPp44rp2%2fdV0%2bnjisfk5Ie42eqLtaashd%2ff7Ebj3u2L8ravSq2otEewpq9Lnq64SrewsFCet8s%2b8ujfhvHX4Yzn5eyB4rOrSbSptUmyqLdMt5zqeezdu33snOJ6u97neaTq33%2b7t8w%2b3%2bS7S7Ovs0mxp7Q%2b5OXwhd%2fqu4ji3MSN6uLSffbq&hid=4207 }} * {{Rejea kitabu|first=Pieter|last=Geyl|authorlink=Pieter Geyl|title=Napoleon For and Against|origyear=1947|year=1982|publisher=Penguin Books|url=http://www.questia.com/library/7932602/napoleon-for-and-against|access-date=2015-05-25|archive-date=2015-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714163645/https://www.questia.com/library/7932602/napoleon-for-and-against|dead-url=yes}} * {{cite web|title=The Claremont Institute: The Little Tyrant, A review of ''Napoleon: A Penguin Life''|url=|publisher=The Claremont Institute|author=Hanson, Victor Davis|year=2003}} * {{cite journal |last= Hazareesingh |first= Sudhir |title= Napoleonic Memory in Nineteenth-Century France: The Making of a Liberal Legend |journal= MLN |year= 2005 |volume= 120 |issue= 4 |pages= 747–773 |url= http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/mln/v120/120.4hazareesingh.html }} * {{cite book |last= Hazareesingh |first= Sudhir |title= The Legend of Napoleon |year= 2005}} [http://www.amazon.com/Legend-Napoleon-Sudhir-Hazareesingh/dp/1862077894/ excerpt and text search] ===Vyanzo asilia=== * Thompson, J.M., ed. ''Napoleon's Letters'' (1954) {{DEFAULTSORT:Bonaparte, Napoleon}} [[Jamii:Watawala wa Ufaransa|Bonaparte, Napoleon]] [[Jamii:Kaisari|Bonaparte, Napoleon]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1769]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1821]] erhrdq5dp2c51xl1fwjxvyuom4v1im0 0 6987 1580278 1355350 2026-07-18T03:14:21Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580278 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Tanzania Mbozi location map.svg|thumb|250px|Mahali pa Mbozi (kijani cheusi) katika [[mkoa wa Mbeya]] kabla haujamegwa.]] '''Wilaya ya Mbozi''' ni [[wilaya]] mojawapo kati ya 5 za [[Mkoa wa Songwe]]. Eneo la wilaya ni [[kilomita za mraba]] 3440. Katika [[sensa]] ya [[mwaka]] [[2002]], [[idadi]] ya wakazi wa wilaya hiyo ilihesabiwa kuwa 515,270. Baada ya kutenga maeneo ya [[Wilaya ya Momba|wilaya mpya ya Momba]] na Halmashauri ya [[mji]] wa [[Tunduma]] mnamo 2012/13, Mbozi kwa mujibu wa [[takwimu]] za [[sensa]] ya watu na makazi ya 2022 ina jumla ya watu 510,599, hii ikiwa sawa na [[asilimia]] 40 ya wakazi wote wa mkoa wa Songwe ambao kwa takwimu hizo ni 1,344,687 <ref>https://www.nbs.go.tz</ref>.. ==Wakazi== Wakazi ni hasa [[Wanyiha]], [[Wakinga]], [[Wanyakyusa]], [[Wandali]] na [[Wanyamwanga]]. Wanyiha ni takriban [[nusu]] ya wakazi wa wilaya wakikalia [[nyanda za juu]]. Wanyamwanga ni takriban [[asilimia]] 10 za wakazi wakikaa kwenye ukanda wa chini kata za [[Nambinzo]], [[Isalalo]] na [[Ipunga]]. [[Makabila]] mengine ni pamoja na [[Wawanda]], [[Walambya]], [[Wamalila]] na [[Wasafwa]]. Katika miaka ya mwisho [[Wamasai]] na [[Wasukuma]] wamehamia wilayani. Pato la wananchi wa mkoa wa Songwe kwa sehemu kubwa linabebwa na Halmashauri ya Mbozi kupitia zao la kahawa ambalo kwa mwaka huuingizia mkoa zaidi ya trilioni 1.3 na pato kwa mtu mmojammoja kwa mkoa wa Songwe ni milioni 2.23 ukiwa mkoa wa 19 kitaifa, kwa wilaya ya Mbozi pato lake ni wastani wa milioni 2.5. ==Eneo== [[File:Mbozi meteorite - 01.jpg|thumb|right|Kimondo cha Mbozi]] Eneo la wilaya liko katika [[kimo]] cha [[mita]] 1,500-2,750 [[juu ya UB|juu ya usawa wa bahari]]. Nyanda za juu ni maeneo ya [[Iyula]], [[Vwawa]], [[Igamba]] na [[Ndalambo]], yana ardhi [[nyekundu]]. [[Kimondo cha Mbozi]], ambacho ni maarufu [[duniani]] kama [[kimondo]] kikubwa cha [[chuma]], si mbali na [[misheni|misioni]] ya Mbozi. Kimondo hicho kina [[uzito]] unaokadiriwa kuwa [[tani]] 12. Mbozi Mission ndipo [[mche]] wa kwanza wa [[zao]] la [[kahawa]] ulipopandwa mwaka [[1902]] na [[wamisionari]] [[Wamoravian]] kutoka [[Ujerumani]] na baadaye kuenea katika maeneo mengi ya nyanda za juu za wilaya ya Mbozi, kituo cha kwanza cha ununuzi wa kahawa kilijengwa eneo la Igamba jirani na ilipo [[mahakama]] ya Mjerumani kwenye eneo la mwene Nzowa. === Maliasili na visukuku katika eneo la Magamba === Katika [[kijiji]] cha [[Magamba]], kilichopo kata ya [[Isansa]], kumegunduliwa [[makaa ya mawe]] [[hazina]] ya zaidi ya tani [[milioni]] 52, ambapo [[wakoloni]] [[Waingereza]] walifanya majaribio ya [[makaa]] hayo mwaka [[1934]] kuendeshea [[garimoshi]] na katika [[kufua umeme]] kwenye kituo cha [[umeme]] [[Mombasa]] mwaka [[1935]]. Eneo hilo limepata umaarufu zaidi baada ya kupatikana kwa [[visukuku]] vya [[mifupa]] ya [[Mjusi|mijusi]] mikubwa ya kale ([[dinosauri]]) kando ya [[kijito]] Mahoma. [[Profesa]] [[Patrick O'Connor]] wa [[Chuo kikuu cha Ohio]] nchini [[Marekani]] amekuwa akifanya [[utafiti]] tangu mwaka [[2002]] ambapo ameweza kugundua [[mabaki]] hayo. O'Connor anasema baadhi ya mifupa aliyogundua inadhihirisha kuwepo kwa dinosauri wadogo chini ya [[futi]] moja walioishi [[duniani]] hapa miaka [[milioni]] 100 iliyopita. Mifupa ya dinosauri inaonesha [[mnyama]] huyo alikuwa mkubwa na uzito wa zaidi ya tani 40. (Hayo yamo katika mahojiano kati ya Kenneth Mwazembe na Prof. O'Connor yaliyofanyika Julai 2008 kijijini [[Magamba]]) Katika [[kijiji]] cha Nkangamo kata ya Nkangamo [[tarafa]] ya Ndalambo kuna [[miamba]] yenye [[Michoro ya miambani|michoro]] ya kale inayokadiriwa kuchorwa miaka 3000 iliyopita. Katika eneo hilo pia kuna [[jiwe]] au mwamba wenye [[wayo]] wa [[binadamu]] unaoonekana kukanyagwa kabla jiwe halijawa gumu. Kwa bahati mbaya Idara ya Mambo ya Kale haijafuatilia habari hizo. Katika Wilaya ya Mbozi imegunduliwa kuwepo kwa [[dhahabu]] maeneo ya Idiwili na Shidunda, jirani na kimondo cha Mbozi. Pia eneo la Magamba inapopakana na [[wilaya ya Chunya]] ni ukanda wa dhahabu unaohitaji wataalamu kufanya utafiti zaidi ili kujua wingi wa dhahabu iliyopo katika maeneo hayo. Kwa upande wa kijiji cha Magamba mpakani na Chunya kumeonekana [[dalili]] za kuwepo kwa [[mafuta]] ya [[petroli]] hasa kwenye machimbo ya mkaa wa mawe ambao upo kiasi cha mita moja kutoka usawa wa ardhi. Kwa sasa [[kampuni]] ya Magamba Coal Mine au Troll Mining Company inayomilikiwa na [[jenerali]] mstaafu Robert Mboma inawekeza/kuvuna makaa hayo. Hao [[wawekezaji]] wanapaswa kujenga mitambo ya kufua umeme wa makaa ili uwepo wao huko uwe kwa faida ya Watanzania wote. ==Miji== Miji wilayani ni [[Mlowo]], penye [[kiwanda|viwanda]] vya kahawa vitatu vya GDM, Mbozi MCCO na LIMA (watu 37,000-50,000). Aidha [[Vwawa]] ndiko [[makao makuu]] ya wilaya ambapo idadi ya wakazi wake ni zaidi ya 60,000. Miji mingine miwili iko kando ya [[barabara kuu]] ya [[TANZAM]] kutoka [[Dar es Salaam]] kupitia [[Mbeya]] kwenda Zambia. [[Reli]] ya [[TAZARA]] inapita vilevile wilayani na kuna vituo huko Vwawa na Tunduma. ==Utawala== Katika wilaya hii kuna kata 29 za Vwawa, Mlowo, Ihanda, Ukwile, Ipunga, Kilimampimbi, Isalalo, Msia, Ruanda, Mahenje, Nanyala, Iyula, Hezya na Nyimbili. Nyingine ni Ichenjezya, Ilolo, Hasanga, Igamba, Nambinzo, Itaka Halungu, Isansa, Itumpi, Shiwinga, Mlowo, Magamba, Mlangali na Bara. ==Misheni ya Moravian Mbozi== Kitovu cha kihistoria kilikuwa kijiji cha Mbozi penye kituo cha misheni cha [[Moravian]] pamoja na [[hospitali]] na [[shule]] ya [[sekondari]]. Kituo kilianzishwa mwaka [[1899]] na mmisionari [[Mjerumani]], [[Traugott Bachmann]]. Bachmann aliyejipa jina la wenyeji la [[Mwalwizi]] alichagua mahali pa misioni kwa sababu palikuwa mpakani wa maeneo ya Nzova na Mwasenga waliokuwa [[Chifu|machifu]] muhimu wa Wanyiha. ==Asili ya jina la Mbozi== Asili ya jina Mbozi linatokana na [[dawa]] za [[asili]] zilizotengenezwa yaani majani ya [[miti]] yanachumwa kisha hutwanga kwenye [[kinu]] na kuongezewa [[maji]] kidogo kisha huchujwa na kupewa [[mgonjwa]]. [[Wanyiha]] huita dawa hiyo ''Mbozyo'' lakini [[Wazungu]] walishindwa kutamka Mbozyo wakasema Mbozi. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Viungo vya Nje== *[http://www.nbs.go.tz/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=88:village-stat&Itemid=106] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20061003123910/http://www.tanzania.go.tz/govdirf.html Tanzanian Government Directory Database] *[http://www.tzonline.org/pdf/Mboziprf.pdf] {{Wayback|url=http://www.tzonline.org/pdf/Mboziprf.pdf |date=20160303172020 }} {{Kigezo:Kata za Wilaya ya Mbozi}} {{mbegu-jio-songwe}} [[Jamii:Wilaya za Mkoa wa Songwe|M]] [[Jamii:Wilaya ya Mbozi| ]] m1z39jkcyak3stc9my3l8ifyni6ut1z 0 7601 1580092 1574557 2026-07-18T00:01:21Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580092 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Jedwali la Shirika | jina_rasmi = Umoja wa Ulaya | jina_asili = European Union (EU) | bendera = Flag of Europe.svg | kaulimbiu = "United in diversity" ("Umoja katika utofauti") | wimbo = "Ode to Joy" | ramani = European Union map.svg | mji_mkubwa = [[Berlin]] | mji_mkuu = [[Brussels]] (de facto) | majiranukta1 = | majiranukta2 = Bahari ya Atlantiki, Bahari ya Mediterania, Bahari ya Kaskazini, Bahari ya Baltiki | lugha_rasmi = [[Kiholanzi]], [[Kiingereza]], [[Kifaransa]], [[Kijerumani]], [[Kihispania]], [[Kiitaliano]], na lugha nyingine 18 | lugha_taifa = Lugha za mataifa wanachama | serikali = Muungano wa kisiasa na kiuchumi | muundo_uhuru = '''Muungano''' | tukio1 = Mkataba wa Maastricht | tukio2 = Kuanzishwa kwa Euro | tukio3 = Brexit (Uingereza kujiondoa) | tukio1_tarehe = 1993 | tukio2_tarehe = 1999 | tukio3_tarehe = 2020 | kiongozi1 = Charles Michel | kiongozi2 = Ursula von der Leyen | cheo_kiongozi1 = Rais wa Baraza la Ulaya | cheo_kiongozi2 = Rais wa Tume ya Ulaya | eneo_jumla = 4,233,255 | cheo_eneo = 7 | maji = 3% | watu_kadirio = {{increase}} 448,400,000 | mwaka_kadirio = 2025 | pato = {{increase}} $20.287 trilioni | mwaka_pato = 2025 | pato_kwa_mtu = {{increase}} $43,194 | pato_ppp = {{increase}} $29.005 trilioni | pato_ppp_kwa_mtu = {{increase}} $64,080 | mwaka_maendeleo = 2021 | maendeleo = {{increase}} 0.899 (HDI) | fedha = [[Euro]] | majira_saa = +1 CET / CEST (UTC+2) | udereva = Kushoto na kulia (inategemea nchi) | msimbo_simu =+3 , +4 | tovuti = https://europa.eu | gini = 29.6 | mwaka_gini = 2022 |tanbihi= Data inatokana na Jumla au wastani wa data ya mataifa ya Umoja wa Ulaya }} '''Umoja wa Ulaya''' ([[kifupisho]]: '''[[EU]]''') ni muungano wa kisiasa na wa kiuchumi wa nchi 27 za [[Ulaya]], baada ya [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] kujitoa [[tarehe]] [[31 Januari]] [[2020]], tukio la kwanza la namna hiyo. Ulianzishwa mwaka [[1991]] juu ya msingi wa [[Jumuiya ya Kiuchumi ya Ulaya]]. Shabaha kuu zilikuwa kujenga [[uchumi]] wa pamoja, kuboresha maisha ya watu wa Ulaya na kuzuia [[vita]] kati ya nchi za Ulaya. Nchi 19 za Umoja huo hutumia [[pesa]] moja ya [[Euro]]. Nchi nyingi za Umoja zimepatana kufungua mipaka yao bila vizuizi kwa wakazi wote. [[File:Belgique - Bruxelles - Schuman - Berlaymont - 01.jpg|thumb|right|European Commission (Brussels)]] == Historia == [[Jumuiya ya Kiuchumi ya Ulaya]] ilibadilisha jina lake mwaka [[1992]] kufuatana na [[mikataba ya Maastricht]] kuwa Umoja wa Ulaya. Nchi wanachama zilipatana kujenga [[siasa]] ya pamoja ya kiuchumi, kifedha, kisheria na katika mambo ya nje. [[Mapatano ya Schengen]] ilifungua mipaka ili wakazi wa nchi hizo waweze kusafiri bila [[pasipoti]] wala vibali. Nchi 10 tena zilijiunga na Umoja wa Ulaya mwaka [[2004]]. Mbili zaidi ziliingia [[2007]] na [[Kroatia]] mwaka [[2013]]. <gallery> Image:Quai d'Orsay.jpg|[[Quai d'Orsay]] ([[Paris]]) Image:Eurotower in Frankfurt.jpg|Euro Tower ([[Frankfurt]]) File:Donald Tusk - 2017 (35494428931) (cropped).jpg|[[Donald Tusk]] (2017) File:Cecilia Malmström (cropped).jpg|[[Cecilia Malmström]] </gallery> ==Demografia== Jumla ya wakazi ni [[milioni]] 447 (mwanzoni mwa [[2020]]), sawa na 5.8% za [[watu]] wote [[duniani]]. Kuna miji 15 yenye watu zaidi ya milioni moja kila mmojawapo, kuanzia [[Paris]] ambayo inazidi milioni 10. === Lugha === Upande wa [[lugha]], [[lugha rasmi]] ni 24, lakini lugha inayotumika zaidi ni [[Kiingereza]], kinachoweza kuzungumzwa na 51% za wakazi wote, ingawa ni lugha ya kwanza ya 1% tu. Lugha nyingine ambazo ni za kwanza kwa wananchi wengi ni: [[Kijerumani]] (18%), [[Kifaransa]] (13%) na [[Kiitalia]] (12%). Pia kuna lugha 150 hivi za kieneo. === Dini === Upande wa [[dini]], wakazi wengi ni [[Wakristo]] (71.6%), hasa [[Wakatoliki]] (45.3%), [[Waprotestanti]] 11.1% na [[Waorthodoksi]] 9.6%. [[Waislamu]] ni 1.8%. Wafuasi wa dini nyingine ni 2.6%. Wengine 24% hawana dini au ni [[Wakanamungu]]. == Uhuru wa kuhama == Kila mtu mwenye [[uraia]] wa nchi ya Umoja anaruhusiwa kuhamia nchi yoyote nyingine na kufanya [[kazi]] au [[biashara]] huko bila vibali vya pekee. Vilevile [[bidhaa]] zote zinazotengenezwa kote katika Umoja wa Ulaya zinaweza kuuzwa katika kila nchi. Hii ni sababu ya kuwa na sheria za pamoja zinazotawala masharti ya bidhaa na uzalishaji. == Utawala na Serikali == === Halmashauri ya Ulaya === Halmashauri hii ni mkutano wa viongozi wa serikali za nchi wanachama. Wanakutana mara mbili kwa mwaka na kutoa maazimo muhimu. Nafasi ya uraisi hubadilika kila baada ya miezi 6. Ufini ilishika uraisi kati ya Julai 2006 hadi Desemba 2006, ikafuatiliwa na Ujerumani tangu Januari hadi Juni 2007. === Baraza za mawaziri === Katika baraza hizi mawaziri ya Kilimo, Sheria, Mambo ya Nje hukutana na kupanga siasa ya pamoja. === Kamati ya Ulaya === Hii ni kamati ya utawala inayotekeleza maazimio ya Halmashauri na bunge. Kuna makamishna 24 na mwenyekiti. Inaelekea kuwa serikali lakini haina madaraka ya serikali bado. === Bunge la Ulaya === [[File:European-parliament-brussels-inside.JPG||thumb|Bunge la Umojwa wa Ulaya huko Brussels.]] [[File:Tratado de Lisboa 13 12 2007 (08) edited.jpg|thumb|Picha ya pamoja wakati wa kusaini mkataba wa Lisboa tarehe 13 Desemba 2007.]] Bunge la Ulaya lina wabunge 751 wanaochaguliwa na wananchi kila baada ya miaka mitano. ==Wanachama == <imagemap>File:Member States of the European Union (polar stereographic projection) EN.svg|upright=2.5|thumb|Map showing the member states of the European Union (clickable) poly 230 284 229 287 233 291 237 284 241 287 242 293 248 302 250 305 252 306 263 312 263 311 258 307 259 305 249 295 245 290 246 285 251 288 257 286 263 287 270 287 273 289 274 285 276 284 272 281 271 277 268 279 262 279 258 275 254 272 252 271 247 274 246 278 244 279 244 283 239 284 237 281 236 283 232 282 230 284 [[Croatia]] poly 261 28 273 39 279 59 284 61 286 66 271 97 275 105 275 116 284 122 308 111 320 83 308 75 310 71 302 60 305 54 297 46 298 36 290 32 291 16 282 16 277 22 280 28 275 33 270 32 264 26 [[Finland]] poly 260 29 259 38 252 37 252 42 248 41 244 54 238 64 238 72 235 77 237 83 226 83 223 100 227 106 230 111 227 115 229 121 223 127 220 141 229 160 227 163 231 173 238 171 238 168 242 164 250 164 254 135 261 130 262 117 252 115 257 93 270 83 271 66 279 59 273 39 [[Sweden]] poly 312 142 307 131 311 123 294 123 279 132 280 142 290 137 295 138 304 141 [[Estonia]] poly 310 164 319 155 318 148 313 142 295 140 298 153 288 149 282 142 277 161 295 158 [[Latvia]] poly 288 180 295 184 301 184 309 178 307 170 312 168 308 162 294 157 279 161 279 174 289 174 [[Lithuania]] poly 300 198 294 182 290 180 270 183 265 184 264 179 250 182 248 186 238 190 238 197 234 199 239 203 241 223 249 225 251 229 255 226 261 230 265 232 268 235 270 237 273 235 276 240 281 237 283 237 289 236 296 242 297 239 297 234 301 223 305 222 304 217 301 214 296 201 [[Polandi]] poly 254 250 257 245 261 244 269 236 272 235 276 240 279 238 289 235 297 243 274 250 269 253 269 257 259 254 [[Slovakia]] poly 299 251 291 245 270 252 269 257 258 252 249 268 254 271 260 279 268 278 275 274 290 272 294 258 [[Hungary]] poly 355 291 354 280 361 274 355 269 349 272 346 270 343 259 332 248 330 243 328 242 324 247 314 250 312 248 301 250 294 255 292 265 288 271 282 274 288 281 293 284 293 288 296 290 302 287 301 291 308 294 308 297 317 297 322 297 329 295 339 287 347 288 [[Romania]] poly 309 327 312 322 309 318 305 316 305 310 308 305 302 298 304 294 309 295 310 298 328 297 340 287 354 291 350 297 352 301 348 304 355 309 348 314 347 311 340 316 339 317 339 321 329 324 323 321 316 325 [[Bulgaria]] poly 308 383 305 376 306 374 293 368 294 359 289 351 289 344 294 339 295 333 301 332 304 328 310 326 317 326 322 322 329 325 340 321 340 316 342 319 340 328 328 329 320 331 325 335 339 340 336 342 348 344 350 348 347 358 344 353 348 352 349 348 343 347 345 344 334 341 335 338 328 335 317 341 313 337 311 342 320 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256 189 255 183 256 185 244 190 241 181 235 178 224 181 214 180 207 185 201 190 195 192 187 197 187 199 189 202 186 [[Germany]] poly 177 225 174 229 172 235 180 237 180 229 [[Luxembourg]] poly 155 210 157 220 166 225 175 232 173 226 178 225 177 215 171 210 164 212 160 209 [[Belgium]] poly 191 188 178 189 162 209 167 209 171 207 170 210 179 215 180 207 188 204 184 200 188 198 [[Netherlands]] poly 201 177 209 177 222 181 228 176 227 159 219 170 221 177 216 175 214 163 218 158 215 143 202 157 [[Denmark]] poly 102 181 92 179 82 181 79 179 75 173 78 168 89 162 84 159 89 151 98 154 100 153 97 150 104 146 109 147 100 156 108 166 106 174 103 177 [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] desc bottom-left </imagemap> ==== Wanachama tangu [[1958]] (waanzilishi) ==== * [[Ubelgiji]] * [[Ufaransa]] * [[Ujerumani]] * [[Italia]] * [[Luxemburg]] * [[Uholanzi]] ==== Wanachama tangu [[1973]] ==== * [[Denmark]] * [[Ueire]] * [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] (hadi [[2020]] [<nowiki/>[[Brexit|<nowiki>Brexit]</nowiki>]]) ==== Mwanachama tangu [[1981]] ==== * [[Ugiriki]] ==== Wanachama tangu [[1986]] ==== * [[Ureno]] * [[Hispania]] ==== Wanachama tangu [[1995]] ==== * [[Austria]] * [[Ufini]] * [[Uswidi]] ==== Wanachama tangu [[2004]] ==== * [[Kupro]] * [[Ucheki]] * [[Estonia]] * [[Hungaria]] * [[Latvia]] * [[Lithuania]] * [[Malta]] * [[Polandi]] * [[Slovakia]] * [[Slovenia]] ==== Wanachama tangu [[2007]] ==== * [[Bulgaria]] * [[Romania]] ==== Wanachama tangu [[2013]] ==== * [[Kroatia]] ==== Nchi zinazoomba uanachama ==== * [[Uturuki]] * [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] * [[Montenegro]] * [[Albania]] * [[Serbia]] ==Jeshi la Uropa/Ulaya== [[picha:EU_PESCO_map.svg|thumb]] ==Tazama pia== * [[Mkataba wa Schengen]] * [[Umoja wa Forodha wa Ulaya]] ==Marejeo== {{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book |last=Berend |first= Ivan T. |title=The Contemporary Crisis of the European Union: Prospects for the Future |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporarycris0000bere |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year= 2017 |isbn= 978-1-138-24419-1}} * {{cite book|editor-first1=Elizabeth |editor-last1=Bomberg |editor-first2=John |editor-last2=Peterson |editor-first3=Richard |editor-last3=Corbett |authorlink3=[[Richard Corbett]] |title=The European Union: How Does it Work? (New European Union) |url=https://archive.org/details/europeanunionhow0000unse |edition=3rd |year=2012|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-957080-5}} * {{cite book|last1=Corbett |first1=Richard|last2=Jacobs|first2=Francis|author2-link=Francis Jacobs|last3=Shackleton|first3=Michael|title=The European Parliament|url=https://archive.org/details/europeanparliame0000corb |edition=8th |publisher=[[Harper (publisher)|John Harper Publishing]]|year=2011|location=London|isbn=978-0-9564508-5-2}} * {{cite book|last1=Craig|first1=Paul|first2=Gráinne|last2=de Búrca|title=EU Law, Text, Cases and Materials|edition=4th|year=2007|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-927389-8}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Federiga |editor-first=Bindi|title=The Foreign Policy of the European Union: Assessing Europe's Role in the World|url=https://archive.org/details/foreignpolicyofe0000unse |publisher=[[Brookings Institution|Brookings Institution Press]]|year=2010|location=Washington, DC|isbn=978-0-8157-2252-6|edition=2nd}} The E.U.'s foreign-policy mechanisms and foreign relations, including with its neighbours. * {{cite book |editor-last1=Gareis |editor-first1= Sven |editor-last2= Hauser |editor-first2= Gunther |editor-last3= Kernic |editor-first3=Franz |title=The European Union – A Global Actor? |location=Leverkusen, Germany|publisher= Barbara Budrich Publishers |year= 2013 |isbn= 978-3-8474-0040-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Grinin |first1=L. |last2=Korotayev |first2= A. |last3=Tausch |first3=A. |year=2016 |title=Economic Cycles, Crises, and the Global Periphery |publisher=Springer International Publishing |location= Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London |isbn=978-3-319-17780-9}} * {{cite book|first1=Erik|last1=Jones|first2=Menon|last2=Anand|first3=Stephen|last3=Weatherill|title=The Oxford Handbook of the European Union|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhandbookof0000unse_a3u9|year=2012|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-954628-2}} * {{cite book|editor-first1=A.J. |editor-last1=Jordan |editor-first2= Camilla |editor-last2=Adelle|title=Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics|edition=3rd|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=[[Abingdon-on-Thames]]|isbn=978-1-84971-469-3|year=2012}} * {{cite book|last=Kaiser|first=Wolfram|title=Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union (New Studies in European History)|year=2009|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-511-49705-6}} * {{cite book |last1=Le Gales |first1= Patrick |last2= King |first2= Desmond |title= Reconfiguring European States in Crisis |location= Corby |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2017 |isbn= 978-0-19-879337-3}} * McAuley, James, "A More Perfect Union?" (review of [[Luuk van Middelaar]], ''Alarums and Excursions: Improving Politics on the European Stage'', translated from the Dutch by Liz Waters, Agenda, 2019, 301 pp.; and Stéphanie Hennette, [[Thomas Piketty]], Guillaume Sacriste, and Antoine Vauchez, ''How to Democratize Europe'', translated from the French by Paul Dermine, Marc LePain, and Patrick Camiller, Harvard University Press, 2019, 209 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVI, no. 13 (15 August 2019), pp.&nbsp;46–48. James McAuley writes: "There was never a single moment that marked the definitive establishment of the European Union, which... has continued to define itself since [[World War II]]. The major turning points have all been quiet steps on the way to further [[economic integration]] while preserving [[national sovereignty]]. Today there is only an incomplete [[monetary union]] without a real political contract to manage it... [Nevertheless, the Union's] various peoples have grown remarkably closer... The European Union now has open borders, a single market from Portugal to the Baltics, and more or less monthly meetings of member state leaders [the [[European Council]]]. What's more, those member states are now closer to each other than they are to the [[United States]]... [T]his transformation has occurred informally and organically... Robust supranational politics are taking root in Europe... [[Luuk van Middelaar]] writes: 'What unites us as Europeans on this continent is bigger and stronger than anything that divides us.'" (pp.&nbsp;47–48.) * {{cite book|first1=John|last1=McCormick|title=The European Union: Politics and Policies|publisher=[[Westview Press]]|location=Boulder, CO|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8133-4202-3|edition=5th|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/europeanunionpol0000mcco_d3k0}} * [[Ferdinand Mount|Mount, Ferdinand]], "Why We Go to War", ''[[London Review of Books]]'', vol. 41, no. 11 (6 June 2019), pp.&nbsp;11–14. "Historians have tended to weave their narratives around [...] high-flown themes: the struggle to maintain the [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]], the struggles against [[fascism]] and [[communism]], against the [[French Revolution]] or [[Militarism#Germany|German militarism]]. In reality, most large [[war]]s have contained within them a violent and persistent economic conflict. [p. 12.] Not for one second do [the [[U.K.]]'s [[Brexit]]eers] pause to think how hard-won [Europe's economic integration and peace, within the European Union, have] been. They are the feckless children of seventy years of peace." [p.&nbsp;14.] * {{cite book|last1=Pinder|first1=John|first2=Simon|last2=Usherwood|title=The European Union: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/europeanunionver0000pind|year=2013|edition=3rd|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-968169-3}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199233977 excerpt and text search] * {{cite book|title=The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream|first=Jeremy|last=Rifkin|publisher=[[Penguin Group#Imprints|TarcherPerigee]]|year=2005|location=[[City of Westminster]], London|isbn=978-1-58542-435-1|url=https://archive.org/details/europeandreamhow00rifk_0}} * {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Charles|authorlink=Charles Emrys Smith|title=International Trade and Globalisation|url=https://archive.org/details/internationaltra0000smit_k3f7|edition=3rd|publisher=Anforme Ltd|year=2007|location=[[Stocksfield]]|isbn=978-1-905504-10-7}} * {{cite book|last=Staab|first=Andreas|title=The European Union Explained: Institutions, Actors, Global Impact|publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|year=2011|location=Bloomington, IN|isbn=978-0-253-22303-6}} [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0253220181 excerpt and text search] * {{cite book|last1=Steiner|first1=Josephine|first2=Lorna|last2=Woods|first3=Christian|last3=Twigg-Flesner|title=EU Law|url=https://archive.org/details/eulaw0009stei|edition=9th|year=2006|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-927959-3}} * {{Rejea kitabu | last=Tausch | first=Arno | authorlink=Arno Tausch | title= Globalization, the Human Condition, and Sustainable Development in the Twenty-first Century: Cross-national Perspectives and European Implications. With Almas Heshmati and a Foreword by Ulrich Brand | url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationhum0000taus |publisher=Anthem Press, London|year=2012 | edition=1st | isbn= 978-0-85728-410-5}} * {{cite book|last1=Yesilada|first1=Birol A.|first2=David M.|last2=Wood|title=The Emerging European Union|url=https://archive.org/details/emergingeuropean0000yesi|edition=5th|year=2009|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=[[Abingdon-on-Thames]]|isbn=978-0-205-72380-5}} {{Refend}} == Viungo vya nje == '''Tovuti rasmi:''' * [http://europa.eu/index_en.htm EUROPA] – official web portal * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090601191547/http://europa.eu/institutions/index_en.htm Institutions] * [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20170609145325/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/da/european-council/ European Council] * [http://www.ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm European Commission] * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090706224730/http://www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.aspx?id=242&lang=en Council] * [http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/default_en.htm European Parliament] {{Wayback|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/default_en.htm |date=20080728172056 }} * [http://www.ecb.europa.eu/home/html/index.en.html European Central Bank] * [http://curia.europa.eu/ Court of Justice of the European Union] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091222231135/http://eca.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eca_main_pages/home Court of Auditors] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070716180819/http://europa.eu/agencies/index_en.htm Agencies] * [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/index.htm EUR-Lex] – Sheria * [http://www.eui.eu/Research/HistoricalArchivesOfEU/Index.aspx Historical Archives of the European Union] '''Mandhari na data:''' * [http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained Eurostat – European Union Statistics Explained] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100315151022/http://www.ckan.net/tag/read/eutransparency Datasets related to the EU on CKAN] * {{CIA World Factbook link|ee|CIA World Factbook: European Union}} * [http://www.britishpathe.com/workspace.php?id=2537&display=list/ British Pathé] – Online newsreel archive of the 20th century {{Wayback|url=http://www.britishpathe.com/workspace.php?id=2537&display=list%2F |date=20120106052118 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160827225957/http://eu.data-list-search.com/ Search EU Financial Sanctions List] * [https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21372.pdf {{Wayback|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21372.pdf |date=20200309092959 }} The European Union: Questions and Answers] {{Wayback|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21372.pdf |date=20200309092959 }} [[Congressional Research Service]] * {{Gutenberg author | id=European+Union | name=European Union}} '''Taarifa:''' * [http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/spiegel-interview-with-helmut-schmidt-and-valery-giscard-d-estaing-a-855127.html ''Der Spiegel'' interview with Helmut Schmidt and Valery Giscard d'Estaing] '''Misaada ya kufundishia:''' * [http://hum.port.ac.uk/europeanstudieshub European Studies Hub] – interactive learning tools and resources to help students and researchers better understand and engage with the European Union and its politics. {{Wayback|url=http://hum.port.ac.uk/europeanstudieshub |date=20200201074011 }} == Viungo vya nje == {{Lango|Ulaya}} {{Commons|European Union}} * [http://europa.eu/ European Union online portal] * [http://www.eu2006.fi/en_GB/ Finland's EU Council Presidency] {{Wayback|url=http://www.eu2006.fi/en_GB/ |date=20061227035210 }} * [http://ec.europa.eu/youreurope/ Your Europe - information website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121230200345/http://www.europedia.moussis.eu/discus/ Europedia: Guide to European policies and legislation] [[Jamii:Siasa]] [[Jamii:Umoja wa Ulaya| ]] [[Jamii:Mashirika ya kimataifa]] [[Jamii:Brussels]] ji2dg5pbt4lbw9nmiyypegbfn6c8i0k 0 11743 1580242 1573356 2026-07-18T01:42:59Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580242 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Gregor7 g.jpg|thumb|right|Mt. Gregori VII]] '''Papa Gregori VII, [[O.S.B.]]''' ([[Soana]], [[Toscana]], [[1020]] hivi – [[Salerno]], [[Campania]], [[25 Mei]] [[1085]]) alikuwa [[Papa]] kuanzia [[tarehe]] [[22 Aprili]] au [[30 Juni]] [[1073]] hadi [[kifo]] chake ugenini<ref>https://www.vatican.va/content/vatican/en/holy-father.index.html#holy-father</ref>. [[Jina]] lake la kuzaliwa lilikuwa ''Ildebrando''<ref>https://www.vatican.va/content/vatican/en/holy-father.index.html#holy-father</ref>. Alimfuata [[Papa Aleksanda II]] akafuatwa na [[Papa Vikta III]]. Alitangazwa na [[Papa Gregori XIII]] kuwa [[mwenye heri]] ([[1584]]), halafu ([[1728]]) kuwa [[mtakatifu]] na [[Papa Benedikto XIII]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa tarehe ya kifo chake<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. ==Maisha== Baada ya kuishi kama [[mmonaki]] wa [[Wabenedikto|Kibenedikto]] alichangia sana [[urekebisho]] wa [[Kanisa]] kama [[kardinali]] na [[balozi wa Papa]]. Kisha kuchaguliwa mwenyewe kuwa Papa alipigania kwa [[nguvu]] zote [[utakatifu]] wa [[Kuhani|ukuhani]] na [[uhuru]] wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]] dhidi ya [[mamlaka]] ya [[serikali]], akifungua njia kwa Mapapa waliofuata. Ni kwamba wakati huohuo [[Kaizari|kaizari]] [[Heinrich IV wa Ujerumani]] aliwahi kumsimika [[askofu]] mmoja nchini [[Ujerumani]] kufuatana na [[desturi]] ya huko. Kumbe Papa aliona [[haki]] yake ya kuteua maaskofu imeingiliwa, hivyo akatafuta na kupata tamko la wakubwa wa [[Kanisa]] huko [[Italia]], kuwa washauri wa mfalme watengwe na Kanisa. [[Mfalme]] alikasirika akaita maaskofu wa Ujerumani waliamua Papa huyo asiwe Papa tena. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/henry4-to-g7a.html |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2021-10-22 |archivedate=2014-11-12 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112003454/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/henry4-to-g7a.html }}</ref> Wakati Gregori VII aliposikia hayo alimtenga Heinrich IV na Kanisa, alitangaza kuwa hakuwa mfalme tena akafuta [[kiapo|viapo]] ambavyo watu walikuwa wamemwapia mfalme. Kutengwa kwa mfalme kulisababisha [[hisia]] kali huko Ujerumani na Italia. [[Babu]] wa mfalme Henry III [https://simple.wiktionary.org/wiki/deposition aliwahi kuwaondoa mamlakani] Mapapa watatu, lakini wakati Henry IV alipojaribu kuiga mfano huo, hakuungwa mkono na watu. Hali ikawa mbaya sana kwa mfalme. Papa alimtenga mfalme katika Kanisa. Alipiga marufuku askofu au [[Upadri|padre]] yeyote kumruhusu katika [[ibada]] au kumhudumia kwa namna yoyote. Ilibainika kuwa ilibidi apate [[msamaha]] kutoka kwa Papa. Mwanzoni alijaribu kufanya hivyo kwa kutuma [[balozi]]. Baada ya Papa kumkataa balozi huyo, mfalme alikwenda Italia mwenyewe. Alimkuta Papa huko Canossa akapiga [[goti|magoti]] mbele ya [[ngome]] ya Papa na kuomba msamaha. Kwa kuonyesha [[unyenyekevu]] vile alimfanya Papa kumsamehe na kumrudisha katika [[jumuiya]] ya Kanisa. Wakubwa huko Ujerumani waliwahi kutumia nafasi ya kutengwa kwa mfalme kanisani ili kumtangaza mfalme mpinzani. Papa aliamua kumuunga mkono huyo mfalme wa upinzani akamtenga Heinrich upya mwaka [[1080]]. Lakini baada ya miezi michache yule mfalme mpinzani alifariki [[dunia]], hivyo Heinrich alianza kupigania upya kuwa mfalme. Mnamo [[1081]] alianzisha vita dhidi ya Papa Gregori VII nchini Italia. Aliitisha mkutano wa maaskofu waliomwunga mkono na mkutano huo ulitangaza kufukuzwa kwa Papa Gregori wakamchagau [[Antipapa]]. [[Jeshi]] la mfalme Heinrich liliingia Roma mnamo mwaka [[1084]], kumtangaza papa mpya aliyeweka [[taji]] la ukaizari kwenye [[kichwa]] cha mfalme. Hatimaye mfalme alipaswa kuondoka Roma tena, Papa Gregori aliaga dunia uhamishoni<ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/27400</ref>. ==Tazama pia== *[[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] *[[Orodha ya Mapapa]] ==Maandishi yake== [[Barua]] zake nyingi kwa mtetezi wake, [[Matilda wa Toscana]] zinapatikana katika: * [http://epistolae.ccnmtl.columbia.edu/woman/29.html ''Women's Biography: Matilda of Tuscany, countess of Tuscany, duchess of Lorraine''] {{Wayback|url=http://epistolae.ccnmtl.columbia.edu/woman/29.html |date=20140510092533 }}. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo ya Kiswahili== * Masomo ya Breviari - Sikukuu za Bwana, za Bikira Maria na za Watakatifu - Ndanda Mission Press 1978, uk 162-164 * John Kabeya na wengine - Maisha ya Watakatifu – ed. T.M.P. Book Department – Tabora 1965, 1989, uk. 179-180 == Marejeo ya lugha nyingine== * {{cite book|first=H.E.J.|last=Cowdrey|year=1998|title=Pope Gregory VII: 1073–1085|url=https://archive.org/details/popegregoryvii100000cowd|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Clarendon Press}} * {{Rejea kitabu |title=The correspondence of Pope Gregory VII: Selected letters from the Registrum |last=Emerton |first=Ephraim |authorlink=Ephraim Emerton |year=1932 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn= |oclc=1471578 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EgRbpkgRSZAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+correspondence+of+Pope+Gregory+VII&hl=en&ei=MyOyTd6BGenL0QG6h4WGCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false <!--|accessdate=2011-06-02--> }} * {{cite book | title=Authority and Resistance in the Investiture Contest: the Polemical Literature of the Late Eleventh Century| url=https://archive.org/details/authorityresista0000robi| author= Robinson, Ian Stuart.| year=1978 | publisher=Manchester University Press}} == Viungo vya nje == *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06791c.htm Papa Gregori VII katika ''Kamusi Elezo ya Kikatoliki''] {{Mapapa}} {{Mbegu-Papa}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Gregori VII}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1029]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1085]] [[Jamii:Mapapa]] [[Jamii:Wamonaki]] [[Jamii:Wabenedikto]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Italia]] artph60m7jut72gy8sm7cwuxjkashbi 0 12669 1580238 1574272 2026-07-18T01:40:36Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580238 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Pope Miltiades.jpg|thumb|right|Papa Miltiades.]] '''Papa Miltiades''' alikuwa [[Papa]] kuanzia [[tarehe]] [[2 Julai]] [[311]] hadi [[kifo]] chake tarehe [[10 Januari]] [[314]]<ref>https://www.vatican.va/content/vatican/en/holy-father.index.html#holy-father</ref>. Kadiri ya ''[[Liber Pontificalis]]'', Miltiades alikuwa na [[asili]] ya [[Afrika]]<ref>https://dacb.org/stories/tunisia/militiades/</ref>, ingawa aliweza pia kuwa mtu wa [[Roma]].<ref>Richard P. McBrien, ''Lives of the Popes'', (HarperCollins, 2000), 56.</ref> Alimfuata [[Papa Eusebius]] akafuatwa na [[Papa Silvester I]]. Alifurahia [[amani]] ambayo [[Kanisa]] lilirudishiwa na [[kaisari]] [[Konstantino Mkuu]], na ingawa alipingwa sana na Wadonati, alishughulikia kwa [[busara]] [[Upatanisho|upatanisho]]<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. Wakati wa Upapa wake [[Hati ya Milano]] iliwapa wananchi [[uhuru wa dini]] ([[313]]) na [[Kanisa]] lilirudishiwa [[mali]] yake iliyotaifishwa. Alipinga fundisho la [[Donato Mkuu|Donatus wa Carthago]] la kwamba [[mapadri]] na [[Askofu|maaskofu]] walioasi [[ubatizo|wabatizwe]] tena. Uaumuzi huo wa Sinodi ya Laterano (313) haukumaliza uenezi wa farakano la Donato katika [[Afrika Kaskazini]]. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa na [[Wakatoliki]] na [[Waorthodoksi]] kama [[mtakatifu]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa tarehe ya kifo chake<ref>''Martyrologium Romanum: ex Decreto Sacrosancti oecumenici Concilii Vaticani II instauratum auctoritate Ioannis Pauli P.P. II promulgatum'', Romae 2001, ISBN 8820972107</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] *[[Orodha ya Mapapa]] *[[Mababu wa Kanisa]] == Maandishi yake == * [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/01_01_0311-0314-_Miltiades_(Melchiades),_Sanctus.html Opera Omnia] == Tanbihi == {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Burris |first=Ronald D. |date=2012 |title=Where Is the Church?: Martyrdom, Persecution, and Baptism in North Africa from the Second to the Fifth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/whereischurchmar0000burr |location=Eugene, OR |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=9781608998081 }} * {{cite book |title=Calendarium Romanum |location=Vatican |publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana |date=1969 |ref={{harvid|Calendarium Romanum|1969}}}} * {{cite book |last=De Clerq |first=Victor Cyril |date=1954 |title=Ossius of Cordova: A Contribution to the History of the Constantinian Period |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_KU-576-964 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Catholic University of America Press }} * {{cite book |last=Finn |first=Thomas M. |date=2004 |title=Quodvultdeus of Carthage: The Creedal Homilies |url=https://archive.org/details/quodvultdeusofca0000quod |location=Mahwah, New Jersey |publisher=The Newman Press |isbn=9780809105724 }} * {{cite book |last=Gibbon |first=Edward |date=2008 |title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire |location=New York City|publisher=Cosimo, Inc. |isbn=9781605201221 }} * {{cite book |last=Green |first=Bernard |date=2010 |title=Christianity in Ancient Rome: The First Three Centuries |url=https://archive.org/details/christianityinan0000gree |location=London |publisher=T&T Clark International |isbn=9780567032508 }} * {{cite book |last=Kirsch |first=Johann Peter |date=1909 |chapter=Eusebius, Pope St. |editor1-last=Herbermann |editor1-first=Charles G. |editor2-last=Pace |editor2-first=Edward A. |editor3-last=Pallen |editor-first3=Condé B. |editor4-last=Shahan |editor4-first=Thomas J. |editor5-last=Wyne |editor5-first=John J. |title=The Catholic Encyclopedia |volume=5 |location=New York |publisher=Encyclopedia Press, Inc. }} * {{cite book |last=Kirsch |first=Johann Peter |date=1912 |chapter=Marcellinus, Pope St. |editor1-last=Herbermann |editor1-first=Charles G. |editor2-last=Pace |editor2-first=Edward A. |editor3-last=Pallen |editor-first3=Condé B. |editor4-last=Shahan |editor4-first=Thomas J. |editor5-last=Wyne |editor5-first=John J. |title=The Catholic Encyclopedia |volume=9 |location=New York |publisher=Encyclopedia Press, Inc. }} * {{cite book |last=Kirsch |first=Johann Peter |date=1913 |chapter=Miltiades, Pope St. |editor1-last=Herbermann |editor1-first=Charles G. |editor2-last=Pace |editor2-first=Edward A. |editor3-last=Pallen |editor-first3=Condé B. |editor4-last=Shahan |editor4-first=Thomas J. |editor5-last=Wyne |editor5-first=John J. |title=The Catholic Encyclopedia |volume=10 |location=New York |publisher=Encyclopedia Press, Inc. }} * {{cite book |last=Lenski |first=Noel Emmanuel |date=2012 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_d6c3 |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107013407 }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Levillain |editor-first=Philippe |date=2002 |title=The Papacy: an Encyclopedia |volume=2 |location=New York City |publisher=Routledge }} * {{cite book |last=Malveaux |first=Ethan |date=2015 |title=The Color Line: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/colorlinehistory0000malv |location=Bloomington, IN |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |isbn=9781503527591 }} * {{cite book |title=Martyrologium Romanum |location=Vatican |publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana |date=2001 |isbn=978-8820972103 |ref={{harvid|Martyrologium Romanum|2001}}}} * {{cite book |last=McBrien |first=Richard P. |date=2000 |title=Lives of the Popes |location=New York, NY |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=9780060653040 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/livesofpopes00mcbr }} * {{cite book |last=O'Malley |first=John |date=2009 |title=A History of the Popes: From Peter to the Present |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=Government Institutes |isbn=9781580512299 }} * {{cite book |last=Serralda |first=Vincent |last2=Huard |first2=André |date=1984 |title=Le Berbère – lumière de l'Occident |trans-title=The Berbers – the Light of the West |location=Paris |publisher=Nouvelles Editions Latines |language=fr |isbn=9782723302395 }} * {{cite book |last=White |first=Cynthia |date=2007 |title=The Emergence of Christianity |url=https://archive.org/details/emergenceofchris0000whit_v8i4 |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=9780313327995 }} {{Refend}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10318a.htm Kuhusu Papa Miltiades katika Kamusi Elezo ya Kikatoliki] * [http://plaza.ufl.edu/dmorgan/Articles/const-bishop-j-relig-history-v26-i1-p1.pdf ''Historical "Gift of Constantine"'':] {{Wayback|url=http://plaza.ufl.edu/dmorgan/Articles/const-bishop-j-relig-history-v26-i1-p1.pdf |date=20060924205626 }} Journal Article Concerning Miltiades and Constantine {{Mapapa}} {{mbegu-Papa}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Miltiades}} [[Jamii:Mapapa]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa karne ya 3]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 314]] [[jamii:Mababu wa Kanisa]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Algeria]] mciezgumchnuf079ded3n2r5ujarly6 0 12694 1580062 1574349 2026-07-17T23:37:25Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580062 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Fabian Sebastian 1490.jpg|thumb|right|Papa Fabian na Mtakatifu Sebastian.]] '''Papa Fabian''' alikuwa [[Papa]] kuanzia [[mwaka]] [[236]] hadi [[kifodini]] chake [[tarehe]] [[20 Januari]] [[250]]<ref>https://www.vatican.va/content/vatican/en/holy-father.index.html#holy-father</ref>. Alitokea [[Roma]], [[Italia]]. Alimfuata [[Papa Antero]] akafuatwa na [[Papa Kornelio]]. Alichaguliwa akiwa bado [[mlei]]<ref name="Attwater">{{cite book |last1 = Attwater |first1 = Donald |first2 = Catherine Rachel |last2 = John |title = The Penguin Dictionary of Saints |url = https://archive.org/details/penguindictionar03edattw |edition = 3rd |location = New York |publisher = Penguin Books |year = 1993 |isbn = 0-14-051312-4 }}</ref>, akatoa mfano mtukufu wa [[imani]] na [[maadili]] <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/25750</ref>. Aliongoza [[Kanisa]] miaka mingi katika hali ya utulivu, hasa chini ya [[kaisari]] [[Philippus Mwarabu|Filipo Mwarabu]] ambaye anasemekana [[Ubatizo|alibatizwa]] naye<ref name ="EB">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Fabian, Saint |volume= 10 | page= 113}}</ref>. Kadiri ya [[wanahistoria]] [[Wakristo]]<ref>Gregory, ''Historia Francorum'' I §30, giving as his source the Martyrdom of [[Saturnin]].</ref><ref>The ''[[Roman Martyrology|Vetus Martyrologium Romanum]]'' (1961) under Die 18 Decembris: Quintodecimo Kalendas Januarii: "Turonis, in Gallia, Sancti Gatiani Episcopi, qui, a Sancto Fabiano Papa primus ejusdem civitatis Episcopus ordinatus est, et multis clarus miracolis obdormivit in Domino".</ref>, chini ya [[kaisari]] [[Decius]] ([[250]] BK), Papa Fabian alituma maaskofu 7 kutoka [[Roma]] kwenda [[Gallia]] (Ufaransa wa leo) wakahubiri [[Injili]]: [[Grasyano wa Tours|Grasyano]] huko Tours, [[Trofimo wa Arles|Trofimo]] huko [[Arles]], [[Paulo wa Narbonne|Paulo]] huko [[Narbonne]], [[Saturnini wa Toulouse|Saturnini]] huko [[Toulouse]], [[Denis wa Paris|Denis]] huko [[Paris]], [[Austremoni]] huko [[Clermont-Ferrand|Clermont]] na [[Martial wa Limoges|Martial]] huko [[Limoges]]. Hatimaye alifia [[dini]] yake katika [[dhuluma]] ya kaisari Decius. [[Sipriani mfiadini|Sipriano]] wa [[Karthago]] alisifu [[ushindi]] wake na kwamba alitoa kielelezo bora cha [[uongozi]]<ref>Fabian was highly esteemed by [[Cyprian]]. Cyprian's letter to Fabian's successor, [[Pope Cornelius|Cornelius]], calls him "incomparable" and says that the glory of his martyrdom answered the purity and holiness of his life (Cyprian, ''Epistle'' 30).</ref>. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa na [[Wakatoliki]] na [[Waorthodoksi]] kama [[mtakatifu]] [[mfiadini]]<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Pope St. Fabian}}</ref>. [[Sikukuu]] yake ni tarehe [[20 Januari]]<ref>''[[Martyrologium Romanum]]: ex Decreto Sacrosancti oecumenici Concilii Vaticani II instauratum auctoritate Ioannis Pauli P.P. II promulgatum'', Romae 2001, ISBN 8820972107</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] *[[Orodha ya Mapapa]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo ya Kiswahili== * John Kabeya na wengine - Maisha ya Watakatifu – ed. T.M.P. Book Department – Tabora 1965, 1989, uk. 26 * Pd. Leandry Kimario, [[Wakapuchini|O.F.M.Cap.]] - Mfahamu Mtakatifu Somo Wako - Maisha ya Watakatifu wa Kila Siku pamoja na Watakatifu Wafransisko - Toleo la pili - Dar es Salaam 2021, uk. 20 * Maurice Soseleje, Kalendari yetu – Maisha ya Watakatifu – Toleo la pili – ed. Benedictine Publications Ndanda Peramiho – Peramiho 1986 – ISBN 9976-63-112-X, uk. 13 ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons category|Fabianus}} *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05742d.htm Kuhusu Papa Fabian katika Kamusi Elezo ya Kikatoliki] *[http://www.stpetersbasilica.info/Exterior/Colonnades/Saints/St%20Fabian-78/StFabian.htm Colonnade Statue in St Peter's Square] {{Mapapa}} {{mbegu-Papa}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Fabiani}} [[Jamii:Mapapa]] [[Category:Waliofariki 250]] [[Jamii:Wafiadini Wakristo]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Italia]] j55k4e3yken3vtwl4t4x7tpy1dnpiv1 0 12964 1580178 1574240 2026-07-18T00:56:13Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580178 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Fonetiki''' (kutoka [[Kiingereza]] "Phonetics") ni [[tawi]] la [[sayansi]] ya [[isimu]]. Inashughulikia [[uchunguzi]] wa [[sauti]] za [[lugha]] za [[binadamu]], pamoja na utamkaji na usikiaji wake. Kwa ujumla, fonetiki ni tawi la isimu linalochunguza jinsi sauti zinavyozalishwa, zinavyosafirishwa na zinavyomfikia msikilizaji. [[Etimolojia]] ya [[neno]] fonetiki imebeba [[dhana]] [[mbili]]: foni na etiki. Foni humaanisha sauti, ilihali etiki ni dhana pana kidogo. [[Kitamkwa|Vitamkwa]] huandikwa kwa kutumia [[alfabeti ya kifonetiki ya kimataifa]] (au [[kifupi]] cha [[jina]] lake kwa [[Kiingereza]], ''International Phonetic Alphabet''). Fonetiki inagawanyika katika: * fonetiki akustika * fonetiki maabara (au fonetiki majaribio) * fonetiki masikizi * fonetiki matamshi * fonetiki tibamatamshi ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} == Marejeo == ===Ya Kiswahili=== * [[TUKI]] 1990, "Kamusi Sanifu ya Isimu na Lugha", [[Chuo Kikuu cha Dar es Salaam]] * Massamba, David 2004, "Kamusi ya Isimu na Falsafa ya Lugha", Chuo Kikuu cha Dar es Salaam ===Mengineyo=== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Abercrombie|first=D.|year=1967|title=Elements of General Phonetics|url=https://archive.org/details/elementsofgenera0000aber|place=Edinburgh|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Catford|first=J. C. |title=A Practical Introduction to Phonetics|url=https://archive.org/details/practicalintrodu00catf|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|edition=2nd|isbn=0-19-924635-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Halle|first=Morris | year = 1983 | title = On Distinctive Features and their articulatory implementation|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_natural-language-linguistic-theory_1983_1_1/page/91| journal = Natural Language and Linguistic Theory| volume = 1| number = 1| pages = 91 - 105|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofintern0000inte|publisher=Cambridge University Press|ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last1=Jakobson|first1=Roman|first2=Gunnar |last2=Fant |first3=Morris |last3=Halle|year=1976|title=Preliminaries to Speech Analysis: The Distinctive Features and their Correlates|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=0-262-60001-3|ref={{sfnref|Jakobson, Fant, and Halle|1976}}}} * {{cite journal|last=Jones|first=Daniel|year=1948|title=The London school of phonetics|journal=Zeitschrift für Phonetik|volume=11|number=3/4|pages=127 - 135|ref=harv}} (Reprinted in {{cite book|editor1-first=W. E. |editor1-last=Jones|editor2-first=J.|editor2-last=Laver|title=Phonetics in Linguistics|url=https://archive.org/details/phoneticsinlingu00jone |publisher=Longman|year=1973|pages=[https://archive.org/details/phoneticsinlingu00jone/page/180 180]–186}}) * {{cite book| last=Kingston |first=John |year=2007|chapter=The Phonetics-Phonology Interface|title=The Cambridge Handbook of Phonology| url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehandboo0000unse_h4q0 |editor-first=Paul|editor-last=DeLacy|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-84879-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|year=2005|title=A Course in Phonetics|url=https://archive.org/details/courseinphonetic0000pete|place=Boston|publisher=Thomson/Wadsworth|edition=5th|isbn=1-413-00688-4|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|first2=Ian|last2=Maddieson|year=1996|title=The Sounds of the World’s Languages|url=https://archive.org/details/soundsofworldsla0000lade|place=Oxford|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=0-631-19815-6|ref={{sfnref|Ladefoged and Maddieson|1996}}}} * {{cite book|last1=O'Connor|first1=J.D.|title=Phonetics|date=1973|publisher=Pelican|isbn=978-0140215601|pages=16-17|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | title=Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction | url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryling0005unse | last=O'Grady | first=William| edition=5th | publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's | year=2005 | isbn=0-312-41936-8|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Stearns|first=Peter|title=World Civilizations|url=https://archive.org/details/worldcivilizatio0000stea|year=2001|publisher=Longman|location=New York|isbn=0-321-04479-7|edition=3rd|author2=Adas, Michael |author3=Schwartz, Stuart |author4= Gilbert, Marc Jason|ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Trask|first=R.L.|authorlink=Larry Trask|year=1996|title=A Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology| url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofphon0000tras|place=Abingdon|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-11261-3|ref=harv}} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== *[http://www.phonetique.info the Web Site of the Phonetic Sciences Laboratory of the Université de Montréal.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.phonetique.info/ |date=20090223193923 }} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20071012153309/http://isphs.org/main.htm The International Society of Phonetic Sciences (ISPhS)] *[http://www.peterroach.net/glossary.html A little encyclopedia of phonetics], Peter Roach. (pdf) *[https://web.archive.org/web/20050402150951/http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Summer_2004/ling001/lecture2.html The sounds and sound patterns of language] U Penn *[https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Kiel_2015.pdf Official IPA chart] (International Phonetic Association) *[http://sail.usc.edu/span/rtmri_ipa/ Real-time MRI videos of the articulation of speech sounds, from the USC Speech Articulation and kNowledge (SPAN) Group] {{Wayback|url=http://sail.usc.edu/span/rtmri_ipa/ |date=20180402043504 }} *[http://www.unc.edu/~jlsmith/pht-url.html Extensive collection of phonetics resources on the Web] {{Wayback|url=http://www.unc.edu/~jlsmith/pht-url.html |date=20180825101030 }} (University of North Carolina) *[http://www.elloandfriends.uni-osnabrueck.de/wikis/1/show?n=PhoneticsandPhonology.PhoneticsandPhonology Phonetics and Phonology] {{Wayback|url=http://www.elloandfriends.uni-osnabrueck.de/wikis/1/show?n=PhoneticsandPhonology.PhoneticsandPhonology |date=20100520013620 }} (University of Osnabrück) *[http://www.peterroach.net/practical-phonetic-training.html A note on practical phonetic training] {{mbegu-lugha}} [[Jamii:Isimu]] kucxbxb0fsum7acuos4ut5w4d60fjxa 0 13462 1580237 1426356 2026-07-18T01:40:07Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580237 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:10 Gebote (Lucas Cranach d A).jpg|thumb|350px|Amri 10 - taswira ya [[Lucas Cranach Mzee]].]] '''Amri Kumi''' ni orodha ya [[amri]] kuu za [[Mungu]] katika [[Biblia]]. Za kwanza zinamhusu Mwenyezi Mungu mwenyewe, na zile zinazofuata mpaka mwisho zinahusu jirani, yaani [[binadamu]] wengine kuanzia [[wazazi]]. Toleo la awali linapatikana katika [[kitabu]] cha [[Kutoka (Biblia)|Kutoka]] 20:1-17. Toleo la pili liko katika [[Kumbukumbu la Torati]] 5:1-21. Amri hizi ni sehemu ya [[Torati]] ya [[Uyahudi|Kiyahudi]] na kukubaliwa pia na [[Ukristo|Wakristo]] walio wengi kama amri zinazowahusu wao pia, tena wanaziona kuwa kimsingi zinawadai [[watu]] wote. Hata hivyo [[wafuasi]] wa [[Yesu Kristo]] wanazishika kadiri ya utimilifu wake ulioletwa naye kama [[Agano Jipya]]. Mifano ya ukamilisho huo ni mafundisho ya [[Yesu]] katika [[Injili ya Mathayo]] 5:17-48. == Maneno ya Amri Kumi == Maneno yanayojulikana kama “Amri Kumi” yanapatikana katika vitabu vya Biblia "[[Kutoka (Biblia)|Kutoka]]" na "[[Kumbukumbu la Sheria|Kumbukumbu la Torati]]". {| class="wikitable" !'''Kitabu cha Kutoka 20:2–17''' !'''Kitabu cha Kumbukumbu la Torati 5:6–21''' |- | valign="top" style="padding:0.5em" width=33% |2. Mimi ni BWANA, Mungu wako, niliyekutoa katika nchi ya Misri, katika nyumba ya utumwa.<br /> 3. Usiwe na miungu mingine ila mimi.<br /> 4. Usijifanyie sanamu ya kuchonga, wala mfano wa kitu cho chote kilicho juu mbinguni, wala kilicho chini duniani, wala kilicho majini chini ya dunia. 5. Usivisujudie wala kuvitumikia; kwa kuwa mimi. BWANA Mungu wako, ni Mungu wenye wivu; nawapatiliza wana maovu ya baba zao, hata kizazi cha tatu na cha nne cha wanichukiao, 6. nami nawarehemu maelfu elfu wanipendao, na kuzishika amri zangu.<br /> 7. Usilitaje bure jina la BWANA hatamhesabiwa kuwa hana hatia mtu alitajaye jina lake bure.<br /> 8. Ikumbuke siku ya sabato uitakase. 9. Siku sita fanya kazi, utende mambo yako yote; 10. lakini siku ya saba ni sabato ya BWANA, Mungu wako, siku hiyo usifanye kazi yo yote, wewe, wala mwana wako, wala binti yako, wala mtumwa wako, wala mjakazi wako, wala mnyama wako wa kufuga, wala mgeni aliye ndani ya mlango yako. 11. Maana kwa siku sita BWANA alifanya mbingu, na nchi, na bahari, na vyote vilivyomo akastarehe siku ya saba; kwa hiyo BWANA akaibarikia siku ya sabato akaitakasa.<br /><br /><br /><br /> 12. Waheshimu baba yako na mama yako; siku zako zipate kuwa nyingi katika nchi upewayo na BWANA, Mungu wako.<br /> 13. Usiue.<br /> 14. Usizini.<br /> 15. Usiibe.<br /> 16. Usishuhudie jirani yako uongo.<br /> 17. Usiitamani nyumba ya jirani yako; wala mke wake, wala mtumwa wake, wala mjakazi wake, wala ng'ombe wake, wala punda wake, wala cho chote alicho nacho jirani yako. | valign="top" style="padding:0.5em" width=33% |6. Mimi ni Bwana, Mungu wako, niliyekutoa katika nchi ya Misri, katika nyumba ya utumwa. <br /> 7. Usiwe na miungu mingine ila mimi. <br /> 8. Usijifanyie sanamu ya kuchonga, mfano wa kitu cho chote kilicho juu mbinguni, au kilicho chini duniani, au kilicho majini chini ya nchi. 9. Usivisujudie wala kuvitumikia; kwa kuwa mimi Bwana, Mungu wako, ni Mungu mwenye wivu, nawapatiliza wana uovu wa baba zao; hata kizazi cha tatu na cha nne cha wanichukiao, 10. nami nawarehemu maelfu elfu wanipendao, na kuzishika amri zangu.<br /> 11. Usilitaje bure Jina la Bwana, Mungu wako; maana Bwana hatamhesabia kuwa hana hatia, mtu alitajaye jina lake bure. <br /> 12. Ishike siku ya Sabato uitakase, kama Bwana, Mungu wako, alivyokuamuru. 13. Siku sita fanya kazi, utende mambo yako yote; 14. lakini siku ya saba ni Sabato ya Bwana, Mungu wako; siku hiyo usifanye kazi yo yote, wewe, wala mwanao, wala binti yako, wala mtumwa wako, wala mjakazi wako, wala ng'ombe wako, wala punda wako, wala mnyama wako ye yote, wala mgeni aliye ndani ya malango yako, ili mtumwa wako na mjakazi wako wapumzike vile vile kama wewe. 15. Nawe utakumbuka ya kuwa wewe ulikuwa mtumwa katika nchi ya Misri, na ya kuwa Bwana, Mungu wako, alikutoa huko kwa mkono wenye nguvu, na mkono ulionyoshwa; kwa sababu hiyo Bwana, Mungu wako, alikuamuru uishike sabato. <br /> 16. Waheshimu baba yako na mama yako; kama Bwana, Mungu wako, alivyokuamuru, siku zako zipate kuzidi, nawe upate kufanikiwa katika nchi upewayo na Bwana, Mungu wako. <br /> 17. Usiue. <br /> 18. Wala usizini. <br /> 19. Wala usiibe. <br /> 20. Wala usimshuhudie jirani yako uongo. <br /> 21. Wala usimtamani mke wa jirani yako; wala usiitamani nyumba ya jirani yako, wala shamba lake, wala mtumwa wake, wala mjakazi wake, wala ng'ombe wake, wala punda wake, wala kitu cho chote alicho nacho jirani yako. |} [[Picha:Decalogue parchment by Jekuthiel Sofer 1768.jpg|thumb|200px|Amri Kumi kwa maandishi ya [[Kiebrania]] katika [[sinagogi]] la [[Amsterdam]].]] == Mpangilio wa Amri Kumi == Maneno katika Kutoka 20 huwa na amri mbalimbali. Namba [[kumi]] ni [[hesabu]] iliyotiwa baadaye katika orodha hii, haikuwa nia asili kuwa na amri “10” kamili. Ila tu wakati wa Biblia ilikuwa kawaida tayari kuziita "amri 10", lakini bila kuonyesha [[namba]] au mpangilio katika maneno ya Biblia yenyewe. Hali hii ilisababisha tofauti ndogo katika [[hesabu]] ya amri hizi kati ya [[mapokeo]] ya [[madhehebu]] mbalimbali. Tofauti kuu ni kati ya Wayahudi wakifuatwa na Wakristo mbalimbali kwa upande mmoja na [[Wakatoliki]] pamoja na [[Walutheri]] na [[Wamoravian]] kwa upande mwingine kuhusu kutokuwa na [[sanamu]] za kuchonga. Tangu [[Agostino wa Hippo]] Wakatoliki walijumlisha sehemu kuhusu kutoabudu sanamu za kuchongwa pamoja na amri ya kutokuwa na [[miungu]] mingine. Kwa kufikia namba [[kumi]] Agostino aligawa sehemu ya mwisho kuwa amri [[mbili]]. [[Martin Luther]] alimfuata Agostino lakini [[Wareformed]] waliona mpangilio tofauti wakaihesabu kama amri ya pekee. <center> {| class="wikitable" |+ ''Mpangilio wa Amri Kumi katika dini/madhehebu mbalimbali'' ! align="left" | Amri ! width="80" | [[Wayahudi]] ! width="80" | [[Waanglikana]], [[Wareformed]] na wengineo ! width="80" | [[Waorthodoksi]] ! width="80" | [[Kanisa Katoliki|Wakatoliki]], [[Walutheri]], [[Wamoravian]] |- |Mimi ni Bwana Mungu wako | align="center" | 1 | align="center" | (utangulizi) | rowspan="2" align="center" | 1 | rowspan="3" align="center" | 1 |- | Usiwe na miungu mingine ila mimi | rowspan="2" align="center" | 2 | align="center" | 1 |- | Usijifanyie sanamu ya kuchonga | align="center" | 2 | align="center" | 2 |- | Usilitaje bure jina la Bwana | align="center" | 3 | align="center" | 3 | align="center" | 3 | align="center" | 2 |- |Ikumbuke siku ya sabato uitakase | align="center" | 4 | align="center" | 4 | align="center" | 4 | align="center" | 3 |- |Waheshimu baba yako na mama yako | align="center" | 5 | align="center" | 5 | align="center" | 5 | align="center" | 4 |- |Usiue | align="center" | 6 | align="center" | 6 | align="center" | 6 | align="center" | 5 |- |Usizini | align="center" | 7 | align="center" | 7 | align="center" | 7 | align="center" | 6 |- |Usiibe | align="center" | 8 | align="center" | 8 | align="center" | 8 | align="center" | 7 |- |Usishuhudie jirani yako uongo | align="center" | 9 | align="center" | 9 | align="center" | 9 | align="center" | 8 |- |Usiitamani nyumba ya jirani yako<br />Usitamani mke wake | rowspan="2" align="center" | 10 | rowspan="2" align="center" | 10 | rowspan="2" align="center" | 10 | align="center" | 9 |- |Usiitamani cho chote alicho nacho jirani yako | align="center" | 10 |} </center> ==Amri Kumi katika Ukristo== [[Faili:Tablets of the Ten Commandments in The Ten Commandments trailer 2.jpg|thumb|Vibao vyenye amri kumi za Mungu]] Katika Ukristo, amri za Mungu alizopewa [[Musa]] zinatazamiwa kutekelezwa chini ya uongozi wa [[Roho Mtakatifu]], anayeweka wafuasi wa Yesu huru kutoka utumwa wa sheria, kwa sababu ni masharti ya [[upendo]] yaliyodaiwa na [[Yesu]] pia. “Ninyi, ndugu, mliitwa mpate uhuru; lakini uhuru wenu usiwe sababu ya kuufuata mwili, bali tumikianeni kwa upendo. Maana torati yote imetimilika katika neno moja, nalo ni hili: Umpende jirani yako kama nafsi yako” ([[Gal]] 5:13-14). “Katika hili twajua kwamba twawapenda watoto wa Mungu: tumpendapo Mungu, na kuzishika amri zake. Kwa maana huku ndiko kumpenda Mungu, kwamba tuzishike amri zake; wala amri zake si nzito” ([[1Yoh]] 5:2-3). Yesu alidai wafuasi wake washike amri za Mungu ili waufikie [[uzima wa milele]]. “Tazama, mtu mmoja alimwendea akamwambia, ‘Mwalimu, nitende jambo gani jema, ili nipate uzima wa milele?’ Akamwambia, ‘Kwani kuniuliza habari ya wema? Aliye mwema ni mmoja. Lakini ukitaka kuingia katika uzima, zishike amri’. Akamwambia, ‘Zipi?’ Yesu akasema, ‘Ni hizi: Usiue, usizini, usiibe, usishuhudie uongo, waheshimu baba yako na mama yako, na, mpende jirani yako kama nafsi yako” ([[Math]] 19:16-19). Bila kushika amri hizo mtu hawezi kutukuzwa mbinguni kwa sababu anaonyesha hajali vya kutosha [[uhai]], [[utakatifu]] wa [[ndoa]], [[mali]] ya [[watu]], [[ukweli]], [[heshima]] kwa wakubwa na upendo kwa watu kwa jumla. Kupuuzia [[tunu]] hizo muhimu ni kumpuuzia [[Muumba]] aliyeziweka ziongoze wote [[Maisha|maishani]]. “Ee Israeli, tu heri sisi, maana mambo yampendezayo Mungu yamejulishwa kwetu” ([[Bar]] 4:4). “Au hamjui ya kuwa wadhalimu hawataurithi ufalme wa Mungu? Msidanganyike; waasherati hawataurithi ufalme wa Mungu, wala waabudu sanamu, wala wazinzi, wala wafiraji, wala walawiti, wala wevi, wala watamanio, wala walevi, wala watukanaji, wala wanyang’anyi” ([[1Kor]] 6:9-10). “Maana neno hili mnalijua hakika, ya kwamba hakuna mwasherati, wala mchafu, wala mwenye tamaa, ndiye mwabudu sanamu, aliye na urithi katika ufalme wa Kristo na Mungu” ([[Ef]] 5:5). Injili haitaji amri zinazohusu [[ibada]] kwa Mungu kwa sababu Yesu aliona haja ya kusisitiza zile zinazohusu jirani, na kwa sababu hakutaka hizo za kwanza zifuatwe na [[Kanisa]] lake kama [[Wayahudi]] wanavyofanya. “Livunjeni hekalu hili, nami katika siku tatu nitalisimamisha... Wayahudi walizidi kutaka kumwua, kwa kuwa hakuivunja sabato tu, bali pamoja na hayo alimwita Mungu Baba yake, akijifanya sawa na Mungu” ([[Yoh]] 2:19; 5:18). “Mwana wa Adamu ndiye Bwana wa sabato pia” ([[Mk]] 2:28). “Basi, mtu asiwahukumu ninyi katika vyakula au vinywaji, au kwa sababu ya sikukuu au mwandamo wa mwezi, au sabato; mambo hayo ni kivuli cha mambo yajayo; bali mwili ni wa Kristo” ([[Kol]] 2:16-17). “Basi, torati, kwa kuwa ni kivuli cha mema yatakayokuwa, wala si sura yenyewe ya mambo hayo, kwa dhabihu zilezile wanazozitoa kila mwaka daima, haiwezi wakati wowote kuwakamilisha wakaribiao... Lakini msisahau kutenda mema na kushirikiana, maana sadaka kama hizi ndizo zimpendezazo Mungu” ([[Eb]] 10:1; 13:16). ==Marejeo== * {{Cite book|last=Aaron |first=David H |year=2006 |title=Etched in Stone: The Emergence of the Decalogue |publisher=Continuum |isbn=0-567-02791-0}} * {{Cite book|last=Abdrushin |year=2009 |title=The Ten Commandments of God and the Lord's Prayer |url=https://archive.org/details/tencommandmentso0000abdr |publisher=Grail Foundation Press |isbn=1-57461-004-X}} http://the10com.org/index.html {{Wayback|url=http://the10com.org/index.html |date=20100523082204 }} * {{citation | last = Barenboim | first = Peter | year = 2005 | title = Biblical Roots of Separation of Powers | place = Moscow | publisher = Letny Sad | ISBN = 5-94381-123-0 | url = http://lccn.loc.gov/2006400578}}. * {{Cite book|last=Freedman |first=David Noel |authorlink=David Noel Freedman |year=2000 |title=The Nine Commandments. Uncovering a Hidden Pattern of Crime and Punishment in the Hebrew Bible |url=https://archive.org/details/ninecommandments00free |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=0-385-49986-8}} * {{Cite book|last=Friedman |first=Richard Elliott |authorlink=Richard Elliott Friedman |year=1987 |title= Who Wrote the Bible? |url=https://archive.org/details/whowrotebible0000frie |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |isbn=0-671-63161-6}} * {{Cite book|last=Hazony |first=David |authorlink=David Hazony |year=2010 |title=The Ten Commandments: How Our Most Ancient Moral Text Can Renew Modern Life |url=https://archive.org/details/tencommandmentsh0000hazo |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |isbn=1-4165-6235-4}} * {{Cite book|last=Kaufmann |first=Yehezkel |authorlink=Yehezkel Kaufmann |year=1960 |others=trans. Moshe Greenberg |title=The Religion of Israel, From Its Beginnings To the Babylonian Exile |url=https://archive.org/details/religionofisrael0000kauf |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago}} * {{Cite book|last=Kuntz |first=Paul Grimley |year=2004 |title=The Ten Commandments in History: Mosaic Paradigms for a Well-Ordered Society |url=https://archive.org/details/tencommandmentsi0000kunt | publisher= Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, Emory University Studies in Law and Religion | isbn= 0-8028-2660-1}} * {{Cite book|last=Mendenhall |first= George E |authorlink= George E. Mendenhall |year= 2001 |title= Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction To the Bible In Context |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientisraelsfa0000mend |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville |isbn= 0-664-22313-3}} * {{Cite book|last= Mendenhall |first= George E|year= 1973 |title= The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition |url= https://archive.org/details/tenthgenerationo0000mend |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |isbn=0-8018-1267-4}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/command.htm Ulinganishaji wa matoleo ya Amri Kumi katika [[Katekisimu ya Kanisa Katoliki]], tafsiri ya [[Kiingereza]], katika [[tovuti]] ya [[Vatikani]]. Katika kurasa zinazofuata kuna ufafanuzi mrefu wa amri hizo kwa jumla na mojamoja] [[Jamii:Maadili]] [[Jamii:Biblia]] [[Jamii:Uyahudi]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] 2xs7hrd9phgj7dbyr5vvgy8om6qem7g 0 13687 1580252 1574188 2026-07-18T01:52:59Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580252 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Mtu Mashuhuri |jina = Leonardo da Vinci |picha = Possible Self-Portrait of Leonardo da Vinci.jpg |caption = Leonardo da Vinci alivyojichora |tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = [[15 Aprili]] [[1452]] |mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = |tarehe_ya_kufa = [[2 Mei]] [[1519]] |mahala_alipofia = |majina_mengine = |anajulikana_kwa_ajili_ya = |kazi_yake = [[mwanahisabati]], [[mhandisi]], [[mwanasayansi]], [[mgunduzi]], [[mwanaanatomi]], [[mchoraji]], [[mchongaji]], [[msanifuujenzi]], [[mwanabotania]], [[mwanamuziki]] na [[mwandishi]] |utaifa = [[Italia]] }} '''Leonardo Da Vinci''' ([[Vinci]], [[Toscana]], [[Italia]], [[15 Aprili]] [[1452]] – [[Amboise]], [[Ufaransa]], [[2 Mei]] [[1519]]) alikuwa [[mtu]] mwenye [[kipaji|vipaji]] vingi<ref name=genius>Vasari, Boltraffio, Castiglione, "Anonimo" Gaddiano, Berensen, Taine, Fuseli, Rio, Bortolon, etc as quoted in della Chiesa, see Bibliography</ref> kutoka nchini [[Italia]]. Kifupi, alikuwa [[mwanahisabati]], [[mhandisi]], [[mwanasayansi]], [[mgunduzi]], [[mwanaanatomi]], [[mchoraji]], [[mchongaji]], [[msanifuujenzi]], [[mwanabotania]], [[mwanamuziki]] na [[mwandishi]]. Ndiye mwakilishi bora wa [[tapo]] la [[Renaissance]]. Leonardo alikuwa mdadisi wa kila [[uasilia|kitu asilia]]. Alitaka kujua kila kitu kinavyofanya kazi. Alikuwa hodari sana katika kusoma, kuunda na kutengeneza vitu vya aina mbalimbali tena vya kupendeza.<ref name=HG> {{citation | first = Helen | last = Gardner | title = Art through the Ages | year = 1970 | publisher = Harcourt, Brace and World }}</ref> Mwanahistoria wa [[sanaa]] [[Helen Gardner]] alisema hakuna mtu aliyewahi kuwa kama yeye kwa sababu alikuwa na [[shauku]] na vitu vingi sana: "...[[Akili]] yake na [[utu]] wake vinaonekana kuwa zaidi ya mtu, ni mtu wa ajabu na tofauti". Leonardo siku zote alikuwa akifiria kugundua mambo mapya. Vitu vingi alivyogundua havikuwahi kufanywa. Hata hivyo, tunajua fikra zake, kwa sababu aliweka kwenye vijitabu na kuandika na kuvichora mara kwa mara. Baadhi ya [[nadharia]] alizofikiria ni pamoja na [[helikopta]], [[kifaru (jeshi)|kifaru]], [[baiskeli]], [[kikokotoo]], [[roboti]] na vifaa vinavyogeuza [[nishati ya jua]] kuwa [[umeme]]. Leonardo aliweza kufanya vitu vya aina nyingi vya kijanja, lakini alikuwa maarufu sana kama mchoraji. Watu wengi hufikiria kwamba Leonardo alikuwa mmoja kati ya wachoraji bora wa [[historia]] yote. Amefanya michoro mingi sana. Miongoni mwa [[picha]] zake, mbili zilizo maarufu zaidi duniani ni ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' na ''[[Karamu ya mwisho]]''. [[Mchoro]] mwingine unaojulikana sana ni ''Vitruvian Man''. Unajulikana sana hata [[Homer Simpson]] na [[Garfield]] ambazo zilichorwa kwa [[mraba]] na [[mzunguko]] ili kuonekana kama mchoro. == Maisha == === Utoto, 1452–1466 === [[Picha:Study of a Tuscan Landscape.jpg|thumb|Mchoro uliojulikana awali wa Leonardo, Arno Valley, (1473) - [[Uffizi]], Florence, Italia.]] Leonardo alizaliwa tarehe [[15 Aprili]] [[1452]], mkoani [[Toscana]], katika mji mdogo wa [[kilima]]ni wa Vinci, katika ma[[bonde]] ya [[Mto Arno]], karibu na [[Florence]] nchini [[Italia]]. [[Babu]] yake, Ser Antonio, anajivunia kwa kuweka kumbukumbu ya maelezo. Wazazi wa Leonardo walikuwa [[ndoa|hawajaoana]]. Baba yake alikuwa [[mwanasheria]], Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci.<ref name=AV> {{citation | first = Alessandro | last = Vezzosi | title = Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance Man }}</ref><ref name=Chiesa>Angela Ottino della Chiesa, ''The Complete Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci''</ref> Mama yake, Caterina, alikuwa mhudumu. Yawezekana alikuwa [[mtumwa]] kutoka [[Mashariki ya Kati]].<ref>According to Alessandro Vezzosi, Head of the Leonardo Museum in Vinci, Piero may have owned a Middle Eastern slave called Caterina. A study of Leonardo's fingerprint suggests that he may have had Middle Eatern blood.[http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2006Dec01/0,4670,LeonardoapossFingerprint,00.html Experts Reconstruct Leonardo Fingerprint]" 12 Desemba 2001</ref><ref> {{citation | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/01/AR2006120100961_pf.html | title = Experts Reconstruct Leonardo Fingerprint | publisher = The Associated Press | accessdate = 2007-12-14 }}</ref> [[Jina]] kamili la Leonardo lilikuwa "Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci", ambalo lina manaa ya "Leonardo, mtoto wa Bwana Piero kutoka Vinci". Leonardo alitumia miaka yake mitano ya awali akiishi katika nyumba ya [[shamba]]ni na mama yake. Halafu akaja kuishi Vinci na baba yake, [[mke]] wa baba yake aliyeitwa Albiera, ma[[bibi]]/ma[[babu]] zake na [[mjomba|wajomba]] zake, Francesco. Wakati Leonardo ameshakua, aliandika vitu viwili tu kuhusu maisha yake ya [[utoto]]ni. Alikumbuka kwamba alivyokuwa amelala kwenye [[kitanda]] chake cha watoto nje ya nyumba yao [[ndege]] mkubwa alikuwa akipaa na kumzungukazunguka juu yake. [[Mkia|Mikia]] yake ikawa inamfutafuta sura yake.<ref name= LB> {{citation | first = Liana | last = Bortolon | title = The Life and Times of Leonardo | publisher = Paul Hamlyn | publication-place=London | year = 1967 }}</ref> Kumbukumbu nyingine muhimu ya Leonardo ilikuwa vipi aligundua [[pango]] milimani wakati anapeleleza. Alikuwa na [[hofu]] kubwa sana huenda kukawa na [[kiumbe]] kikubwa cha ajabu kimejificha mle ndani ya pango. Lakini pia alikuwa na hamu na shauku ya kujua kilichopo mle ndani. [[Giorgio Vasari]] aliandika kuhusu maisha ya Leonardo kwa ufupi baada ya [[kifo]] chake. Ameelezea [[hadithi]] za kuvutia kibao kuhusu [[utundu]] aliokuwa nao Leonardo. Anasema kwamba Leonardo alichora [[bamba]] la [[taarifa]] la [[mbao-mzunguko]] likiwa na picha ya mijoka inayotema [[moto]]. Messer Piero alichukua michoro ya mwanawe hadi Florence na kuiuza kwa wauzaji wa [[bidhaa]] za kisanaa.<ref name="Vasari">Giorgio Vasari, ''Lives of the Artists'', 1568; this edition Penguin Classics, trans. George Bull 1965, ISBN 0-14-044164-6</ref> ===Ujana na utu uzima=== [[Picha:Andrea_del_Verrocchio,_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg|thumb|left|220px|''[[The Baptism of Christ (Verrocchio)|Ubatizo wa Kristo]]'' kadiri ya Verrocchio na Leonardo (1472–1475) — [[Uffizi]].]] Leonardo alianza kuchora tangu yungali bado [[kijana]]. Alifunzwa usanii na mchongaji na mchoraji [[Verrocchio]]. Sehemu kubwa ya maisha yake alimtumikia [[tajiri]] mmoja maarufu wa Italia. Mwaka [[1516]] Leonardo alikwenda [[Amboise]], Ufaransa, baada ya kupata [[mwaliko]] kutoka kwa mfalme [[Fransisko I]]. Kati ya mizigo aliyosafiri nayo ulikuwemo mchoro maarufu wa [[Monalisa]]. Leonardo aliishi mjini Amboise, katika [[nyumba]] yake nzuri aliyopewa na [[Mfalme]] huyo wa [[Ufaransa]], miaka yake ya mwisho, toka mwaka huo mpaka mwaka [[1519]]. [[Afya]] yake haikuwa nzuri kwa sababu alipatwa na [[ugonjwa]] wa [[kiharusi]] toka mwaka [[1517]], lakini taarifa za ugonjwa wake zikatolewa [[wiki]] chache kabla ya kifo chake. === Kifo === Alifariki huko Amboise tarehe 2 Mei 1519 akiwa na [[umri]] wa miaka 67, akazikwa St. Hubert. == Tanbihi == {{Marejeo}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book | author = Daniel Arasse| title = Leonardo da Vinci | url = https://archive.org/details/leonardodavincir0000aras| publisher = Konecky & Konecky | year = 1997 | isbn = 1-56852-198-7}} * {{cite book | author = [[Michael Baxandall]] | title = Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy | url = https://archive.org/details/paintingexperien00baxa | year = 1974 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | isbn = 0-19-881329-5}} * {{cite book | author=Andrea Bayer | url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/96665|title=Painters of reality: the legacy of Leonardo and Caravaggio in Lombardy | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-58839-116-2}} * {{cite book | author = Fred Bérence | title = Léonard de Vinci, L'homme et son oeuvre | publisher = Somogy | year = 1965 | id = Dépot légal 4° trimestre 1965}} * {{cite book | author = Luciano Berti | title = The Uffizi | year = 1971 | publisher = Scala}} * {{cite book | author = Liana Bortolon| title = The Life and Times of Leonardo | publisher = Paul Hamlyn, London | year = 1967 | id = }} * {{cite book | author = Hugh Brigstoke| title = The Oxford Companion the Western Art | url = https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000unse_r1z5| publisher = U.S.: Oxford University Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-19-866203-3}} * {{cite book | author = Gene A. Brucker| title = Renaissance Florence | url = https://archive.org/details/renaissanceflore00bruc| publisher = Wiley and Sons| year = 1969 | isbn = 0-471-11370-0}} * {{cite book | author = [[Fritjof Capra]] | title = The Science of Leonardo | url = https://archive.org/details/scienceofleonard00capr | publisher = Doubleday | location = U.S. | year = 2007 |isbn = 978-0-385-51390-6}} * {{cite book | author = Cennino Cennini | title = Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato Della Pittui | publisher = BiblioBazaar | location = U.S. | year = 2009 |isbn = 978-1-103-39032-8}} * {{cite book | author = Angela Ottino della Chiesa| title = The Complete Paintings of Leonardo da Vinci | url = https://archive.org/details/completepainting0000leon| publisher = Penguin Classics of World Art series | year = 1967 | isbn = 0-14-008649-8}} * {{cite book | author = Simona Cremante | title = Leonardo da Vinci: Artist, Scientist, Inventor | publisher = Giunti | year = 2005 | isbn = 88-09-03891-6}} * {{cite book | author = Frederich Hartt| title = A History of Italian Renaissance Art | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofitalian0000hart_h8b7| publisher = Thames and Hudson | year = 1970 | isbn = 0-500-23136-2}} * {{cite book | author = [[Martin Kemp (art historian)|Martin Kemp]]| title = Leonardo | url = https://archive.org/details/leonardo00kemp| publisher = Oxford University Press| year = 2004 | isbn = 0-19-280644-0}} * {{cite book | url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/84801/rec/2|title=Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1983 | isbn=978-0-87099-362-6}} * {{cite book| author = Mario Lucertini, Ana Millan Gasca, Fernando Nicolo | title = Technological Concepts and Mathematical Models in the Evolution of Modern Engineering Systems| url = https://archive.org/details/technologicalcon0000unse | work = | publisher = Birkhauser| year = 2004| isbn = 3-7643-6940-X}} * {{cite book | author = John N. Lupia| title = The Secret Revealed: How to Look at [[Italian Renaissance Painting]] | publisher = Medieval and Renaissance Times, Vol. 1, no. 2 (Summer, 1994): 6–17 | issn = 1075–2110}} * {{cite book | author = Andrew Martindale| title = The Rise of the Artist | url = https://archive.org/details/riseofartistinmi0000mart_a6t2| publisher = Thames and Hudson | year = 1972 | isbn = 0-500-56006-4}} * {{cite book | author = [[Roger Masters]] | title = Machiavelli, Leonardo and the Science of Power | url = https://archive.org/details/machiavellileona0000mast | publisher = University of Notre Dame Press | year = 1996 | isbn = 0-268-01433-7}} * {{cite book | author = [[Roger Masters]] | title = Fortune is a River: Leonardo Da Vinci and Niccolò Machiavelli's Magnificent Dream to Change the Course of Florentine History | url = https://archive.org/details/fortuneisriverle0000mast | publisher = Simon & Schuster | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-452-28090-7}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gri_33125000944930|author=Müntz, Eugène |year= 1898|title=Leonardo da Vinci. Artist, Thinker, and Man of Science. Volume 1|publisher=William Heinemann|place=London}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/gri_33125000944922|author=Müntz, Eugène |year= 1898|title=Leonardo da Vinci. Artist, Thinker, and Man of Science. Volume 2|publisher=William Heinemann|place=London}} * {{cite book | author = Charles D. O'Malley and J. B. de C. M. Sounders | title = Leonardo on the Human Body: The Anatomical, Physiological, and Embryological Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci. With Translations, Emendations and a Biographical Introduction | publisher = Henry Schuman, New York | year = 1952 | id = }} * {{cite book | author = Charles Nicholl | authorlink = Charles Nicholl (author) | title = [[Leonardo da Vinci: The Flights of the Mind]] | publisher = Penguin | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-14-029681-6}} * {{cite book | author = Sherwin B. Nuland | authorlink = Sherwin B. Nuland | title = Leonardo Da Vinci | url = https://archive.org/details/leonardodavinci0000nula | publisher = Phoenix Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-7538-1269-X}} * {{cite book | author =A.E. Popham | authorlink = Arthur E. Popham | title = The Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci | publisher = Jonathan Cape | year = 1946 | isbn = 0-224-60462-7}} * {{cite book | author =Shana Priwer & Cynthia Phillips | title = The Everything Da Vinci Book: Explore the Life and Times of the Ultimate Renaissance Man | url =https://archive.org/details/everythingdavinc0000phil | publisher = Adams Media | year = 2006 | isbn = 1-59869-101-5}} * {{cite book | author = Ilan Rachum| title = The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia'' | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780706408577| publisher = Octopus | year = 1979 | isbn = 0-7064-0857-8}} * {{cite book | author = [[Jean Paul Richter]] | title = The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci | url = https://archive.org/details/notebooksofleona01leon | publisher = Dover | year = 1970 | isbn = 0-486-22572-0}} volume 2: ISBN 0-486-22573-9. A reprint of [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5000 the original 1883 edition]. * {{cite book | author = Marco Rosci| title = Leonardo | publisher = Bay Books Pty Ltd| year = 1977 | isbn = 0-85835-176-5}} * {{cite book | author = Paolo Rossi| title = The Birth of Modern Science | url = https://archive.org/details/birthofmodernsci0000ross| publisher = Blackwell Publishing| year = 2001 | isbn = 0-631-22711-3}} * {{cite book | author = Bruno Santi | title = Leonardo da Vinci | url = https://archive.org/details/leonardodavinci0000unse_r9r4 | publisher = Scala / Riverside | year = 1990}} * {{cite book |author = Theophilus | title = On Divers Arts |url = https://archive.org/details/ondiversartstrea00theo | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location=U.S. |year = 1963 | isbn = 978-0-226-79482-2}} * {{cite book | author = Jack Wasserman | title = Leonardo da Vinci | url = https://archive.org/details/leonardo0000leon | publisher = Abrams | year = 1975 | isbn = 0-8109-0262-1}} * {{cite book | author = [[Giorgio Vasari]]| title = Lives of the Artists'' | url = https://archive.org/details/livesofartists0000vasa_e8b4| publisher = Penguin Classics, trans. George Bull 1965| year = 1568 | isbn = 0-14-044164-6}} * {{cite book | first = Hugh Ross | last = Williamson | authorlink = Hugh Ross Williamson | title = Lorenzo the Magnificent | url = https://archive.org/details/lorenzomagnifice0000ross | year = 1974 | publisher = Michael Joseph | isbn = 0-7181-1204-0}} * {{cite book | author = Emanuel Winternitz | title=Leonardo Da Vinci As a Musician | url = https://archive.org/details/leonardodavincia0000wint | year=1982 | publisher=Yale University Press | location=U.S. | isbn=978-0-300-02631-3}} * {{cite book | author = [[Alessandro Vezzosi]] | title = Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance Man | url = https://archive.org/details/leonardodavincir0000vezz | publisher = Thames & Hudson Ltd, London | year = 1997 |edition=English translation | isbn = 0-500-30081-X}} * {{cite book | author = Frank Zollner | title = Leonardo da Vinci: The Complete Paintings and Drawings | publisher = Taschen | year = 2003 | isbn = 3-8228-1734-1}} [The chapter "The Graphic Works" is by Frank Zollner & Johannes Nathan]. ==Viungo vya Nje== {{Sister project links|wikt=no|v=no|n=no|b=no|s=Author:Leonardo da Vinci}} * [[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Leonardo da Vinci|Leonardo da Vinci]]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' * [http://leonardovirginoftherocks.blogspot.com/ Leonardo da Vinci and ''the Virgin of the Rocks'', A different point of view] {{Wayback|url=http://leonardovirginoftherocks.blogspot.com/ |date=20180703103754 }} * {{Gutenberg author |id=Leonardo+da+Vinci | name=Leonardo da Vinci}} * {{gutenberg|no=7785|name=Leonardo da Vinci'' by Maurice Walter Brockwell'}} * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/aor/dv/index.htm Complete text & images of Richter's translation of the Notebooks] * [http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/l/leonardo/ Web Gallery of Leonardo Paintings] * [http://www.drawingsofleonardo.org/ Drawings of Leonardo da Vinci] * [http://arts.guardian.co.uk/features/story/0,,1860869,00.html Da Vinci Decoded] Article from ''[[The Guardian]]'' * [http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/view/id/235 The true face of Leonardo Da Vinci?] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/view/id/235 |date=20080626075636 }} * [http://www.ivu.org/history/davinci/hurwitz.html Leonardo da Vinci's Ethical Vegetarianism] * [http://fulltextarchive.com/page/The-Notebooks-of-Leonardo-Da-Vinci-Complete1/ The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/leonardo Leonardo da Vinci at BBC Science] * [http://news.yahoo.com/blogs/sideshow/exclusive-500-old-leonardo-da-vinci-sculpture-horse-201456519.html Yahoo news, 500-year-old Leonardo da Vinci sculpture 'Horse and Rider' unveiled] * [http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/exhibitions/leonardo-da-vinci-anatomist Leonardo da Vinci: Anatomist] The Queen's Gallery, Buckingham Palace, Friday, 4 May 2012 to Sunday, 7 October 2012. High-resolution anatomical drawings. *[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/90258 ''Leonardo da Vinci, Master Draftsman''], Catalog of an exhibition held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Jan. 22-Mar. 30, 2003. {{mbegu-mwanasayansi}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Da Vinci, Leonardo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1452]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1519]] [[Jamii:Wanasayansi wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Washairi wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wachoraji wa Italia]] hynio6cd2fbv7ykn7brzliclwkoub32 0 14804 1579963 1496519 2026-07-17T15:17:06Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579963 wikitext text/x-wiki [[picha:US_Navy_060806-N-0411D-109_Kenyan_Army_Brig._Gen._and_Natural_Fire_Commanding_Officer,_Leonard_Ngondi,_left,_greets_U.S._Marine_Lt._Col._Steve_Nichols,_left,_at_Camp_Lonestar.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Wanajeshi wa Kenya na Marekani,mwaka 2006]] '''Uasi wa kijeshi wa [[1982]] nchini [[Kenya]]''' ulikuwa jaribio lililoshindikana la [[mapinduzi|kumpindua]] [[rais]] [[Daniel arap Moi]]. ==Matukio== [[Tarehe]] [[1 Agosti]] [[1982]], siku ya [[Jumapili]], [[kundi]] la [[wanajeshi]] wa [[anga]] walivamia kituo cha Redio ya [[Sauti ya Kenya]] wakidai kuwa wamepindua [[serikali]]. [[Kiongozi]] wao alikuwa [[Hezekiah Ochuka]] ambaye alikuwa [[afisa]] wa ngazi ya chini ya jeshi akishirikiana na wenzake. Tangazo lao lilisema, "Serikali ya Kenya imepinduliwa na majeshi na sasa iko mikononi mwa majeshi. Viongozi wetu wamekuwa watu wafisadi wenye matumbo makubwa wasiojali maskini." Tangazo lilitolewa na kikundi cha wanajeshi waasi lilisababisha watu wengi kuandamana [[Mji|mjini]] na kupora [[mali]] ya [[Duka|maduka]] wakilenga hasa [[raia]] wa [[asili]] ya [[Uhindi]] mjini [[Nairobi]]. Inakadiriwa ya kwamba zaidi ya maduka 1,000 yaliporwa na [[nyumba]] za Wahindi zilivunjwa pamoja na [[wanawake]] wao kunajisiwa. Inasemekana kwamba, sababu za kuporwa kwa maduka ya Wahindi ilikuwa kutokuwepo kwa [[usawa]] wa kimaisha kati ya Wakenya na Wahindi mjini Nairobi. ==Jeshi la ardhi na polisi walipambana na uasi== Jaribio la mapinduzi halikudumu kwa [[muda]] mrefu baada ya [[jeshi la ardhi]] pamoja na [[polisi]] kuingilia kati na kupambana na uasi kwa baada ya saa sita tu. Rais Moi alikuwa nje ya Nairobi na mipango ya kurusha [[mabomu]] kwa nyumba yake huko [[Kabarnak]] haikutekelezwa. Hezekiah Ochuka alipanda [[Ndege (uanahewa)|ndege]] akakimbilia [[Tanzania]] alipokamatwa na kurudishwa Kenya baadaye alipopelekwa [[mahakama|mahakamani]] na kuhukumiwa kunyongwa kama msaliti. ==Sababu za uasi== [[Idadi]] kubwa ya [[viongozi]] wa uasi walikuwa wanajeshi kutoka [[kabila]] la [[Waluo]]. Inasemekana kwamba jaribio la mapinduzi lilisababishwa na azimio la Bunge la Kenya la tarehe [[9 Juni]] [[1982]] lililofanya Kenya kuwa nchi ya [[chama kimoja]]. [[Sheria]] hiyo ilizuia jaribio la kiongozi wa Kiluo [[Jaramogi Oginga Odinga]] kuanzisha [[chama cha upinzani]]. ==Nini kilifuata baada ya kushindwa kwa jaribio la Mapinduzi?== Uasi ulisababisha ukandamizi mkubwa sana. Polisi walipita katika nyumba za [[askari]] wa anga pia katika mitaa ya vibanda ambako maelfu ya wakazi walikamatwa. Pia jeshi la anga lilifutwa kufuatia tuhuma za kushindwa kutekeleza vema [[jukumu|majukumu]] yake. Jumla ya watu 145 waliuawa ama na waasi au baadaye katika ukandamizi wake. Viongozi wa Waluo walikamatwa pia; Jaramogi Odinga alifungwa katika nyumba yake na kushtakiwa: baadaye mashtaka yaliondolewa lakini [[Mwana|mwanae]] [[Raila Odinga]] alifungwa [[jela]] kwa miaka sita bila kuhukumiwa. Kwa jumla [[siasa]] ya rais Moi ilibadilika kuwa ya [[udikteta|kidikteta]] baadaye na polisi ilipewa [[mamlaka]] pana kutafuta wapinzani kata kuwatesa na kuwakamata bila kuwapeleka mahakamani. ==Viungo vya Nje== *[http://www.nationaudio.com/News/EastAfrican/05082002/Features/Magazine6.html Taarifa ya East African juu ya siku za uasi] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nationaudio.com/News/EastAfrican/05082002/Features/Magazine6.html |date=20051114152236 }} *[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9804EED91139F932A2575BC0A964948260&nTop%2fNews%2fWorld%2fCountries%20and%20Territories%2fKenya (taarifa ya New York Times juu ya vifo vya uasi)] *[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70B11F7345D0C718EDDA10894DA484D81&n=Top%2fNews%2fWorld%2fCountries%20and%20Territories%2fKenya (taarifa ya New York Times kuhusu mashtaki dhidi ya Raila Odinga)] {{Hoja Kuhusu Kenya}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Kenya]] [[Jamii:1982]] 91d21kagpass535z8my03fzb7jfdavt 0 15503 1580374 1544473 2026-07-18T11:33:02Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 /* Tazama pia */ 1580374 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Stigmata.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Fransisko wa Asizi akijaliwa [[madonda ya Yesu]] juu ya mlima [[La Verna]].]] '''Wafransisko''' ni [[jina]] la jumla la wafuasi wote wa [[Fransisko wa Asizi]] wanaokadiriwa kuwa [[milioni]] moja hivi [[duniani]] kote. ==Historia== [[Mwanzilishi]] mwenyewe katika [[karne XIII]] alivuta [[umati]] wa waamini wa [[Ukristo]] katika njia ya [[toba]]. [[Wanaume]] wengi walimfuata [[utawa]]ni kama [[Ndugu Wadogo]], [[wanawake]] wengi pia walikusanyika [[monasteri]]ni kama Mabibi Fukara [[Waklara]], wengine tena wa [[jinsia]] zote mbili walishika [[Injili]] katika [[maisha]] ya [[ndoa]], [[mkaapweke|upwekeni]] au kwa kuunda jumuia zisizo na [[nadhiri]]. [[tawi|Matawi]] hayo yakaja kuitwa Utawa wa Kwanza, wa Pili na [[Utawa wa Tatu wa Mt. Fransisko|wa Tatu wa Mt. Fransisko]]. Mapema zilitokea tofauti za mitazamo kuhusu [[karama]] halisi ya Mt. Fransisko, hivyo matawi yalianza kugawanyika, hasa kwa nia ya [[urekebisho]]. ==Hali ya sasa== Siku hizi kuna [[shirika|mashirika]] ya kitawa [[mia]] [[nne]] hivi yanayofuata mojawapo ya [[kanuni]] zilizokubaliwa na ma[[papa]] kwa matawi hayo. Katika ngazi ya kimataifa, Wafransisko wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]] wana [[Baraza la Familia ya Kifransisko]] ambalo lina uwakilishi katika [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] kama [[Shirika Lisilo la Kiserikali|Asasi isiyo ya kiserikali]] iliyo kuu kuliko zote. Kuna wafuasi wa Mt. Fransisko hata katika [[madhehebu]] mengine, na hasa [[Waanglikana]] ambao wana mashirika ya kitawa ya Kifransisko. ==Tazama pia== * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] == Marejeo == ===Vitabu=== * ''The Poor and the Perfect: The Rise of Learning in the Franciscan Order, 1209–1310'' by Neslihan Senocak. (Cornell University Press; 2012) 280 pages; shows how Franciscans shifted away from an early emphasis on poverty and humility and instead emphasized educational roles *''A History of the Franciscan Order: From Its Origins to the Year 1517'' by [[John Moorman|John Richard Humpidge Moorman]], [[St. Bonaventure University|Franciscan Institute]] Publications, 1988. ISBN 978-0-8199-0921-3 *''Origins of the Franciscan Order'' by Cajetan Esser, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1970. ISBN 978-0-8199-0408-9 *''The Leonine Union of the Order of Friars Minor'' by Maurice Carmody, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1994. ISBN 978-1-57659-084-3 *''Friars Minor in China: 1294 – 1944'', by Arnulf Camps and Pat McCloskey, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1996. ISBN 978-1-57659-002-7 *''In the Name of St. Francis: A History of the Friars Minor and Franciscanism until the Early Sixteenth Century'', by Grado Giovanni Merlo, translated by Robert J. Karris and Raphael Bonanno, Franciscan Institute Publications, 2009. ISBN 978-1-57659-155-0 *''The History of Franciscan Theology'', by Kenan Osborne, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1994. ISBN 978-1-57659-032-4 *''Friars Minor in Ireland from Their Arrival to 1400'', by Francis Cotter, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1994. ISBN 978-1-57659-083-6 *''The Franciscan Spirituals and the Capuchin Reform'', by Thaddeus MacVicar, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1986. ISBN 978-1-57659-086-7 *''Medieval Franciscan Houses'', by John R. H. Moorman, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1983. ISBN 978-1-57659-079-9 *''A Poor Man's Legacy: An Anthology of Franciscan Poverty'', by Cyprian Lynch, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1989. ISBN 978-1-57659-069-0 *''The Franciscan Concept of Mission in the High Middle Ages'', by E. Randolph Daniel, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1992. ISBN 0-8131-1315-6 *''Peace and Good in America, A History of the Holy Name Province, Order of the Friars Minor, 1850s to the Present'', by Joseph M. White, Franciscan Institute Publications, 2004. ISBN 978-1-57659-196-3 *''The Birth of a Movement'', by David Flood and Thaddee Matura, Franciscan Institute Publications, 1975. ISBN 978-0-8199-0567-3 *''A History of the Franciscan Order: From Its Origins to the Year 1517'' by John R. H. Moorman, Oxford University Press, Oxford, (1968) ISBN 0-19-826425-9; reprint: Franciscan Herald Press, Chicago, IL (1988) ISBN 0-8199-0921-1 *''Franciscan Philosophy at Oxford in the Thirteenth Century'' by D.E. Sharp, Oxford University Press, London (1930); (a more recent ed.: ISBN 0-576-99216-X) *''Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages (3rd Edition)'' by C.H. Lawrence, ISBN 0-582-40427-4 *''The Spiritual Franciscans: From Protest to Persecution in the Century After Saint Francis'' by David Burr. ISBN 0-271-02128-4 *''Francis and Clare: The Complete Works'' By Ignatius C. Brady, Regis J. Armstrong, Paulist Press, Mahwah, New Jersey, (1982) ISBN 0-8091-2446-7 *''The Fraternal Economy: A Pastoral Psychology of Franciscan Economics'' By David B. Couturier, Cloverdale Books, South Bend (2007) ISBN 978-1-929569-23-6 *''Francis of Assisi: Early Documents'' 3 Volumes. Edited by Regis J. Armstrong, OFM Cap., J.A. Wayne Hellmann, OFM Conv., and William J. Short, OFM. New York: New City Press. Copyright 1999, Franciscan Institute of Saint Bonaventure University, Saint Bonaventure, NY. ISBN 978-1-56548-110-7. * "The Franciscan Story" by Maurice Carmody, Athena Press Publishing Co. UK (2008). ISBN 1-84748-141-8 ; ISBN 978-1-84748-141-2 * "Santo António de Lisboa - Da Ciência da Escritura ao Livro da Natureza", Maria Cândida Monteiro Pacheco, Imprensa Nacional casa da Moeda,Lisboa, (1997), ISBN 972-27-0855-4 * "O Simbolismo da Natureza em Santo António de Lisboa", José Acácio Aguiar e Castro,Universidade Católica Portugesa- Fundação Engº António de Almeida, Porto, 1997, ISBN UCP 972-9290.13-X /FEAA 972-8386-03-6 ===Makala=== * Schmucki, Oktavian (2000) "Die Regel des Johannes von Matha und die Regel des Franziskus von Assisi. Ähnlichkeiten und Eigenheiten. Neue Beziehungen zum Islam" (pp.&nbsp;219–244) in Cipollone, Giulio (ed.). ''La Liberazione dei 'Captivi' tra Cristianità e Islam: Oltre la Crociata e il Gihâd: Tolleranza e Servizio Umanitario.'' (CollectaneaArchivi Vaticani, 46.) Archivio Segreto Vaticano, Vatican City. * [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00263206.2012.653139 , Masha Halevi, Between Faith and Science: Franciscan Archaeology in the Service of the Holy Places, Middle Eastern Studies Volume 48, Issue 2, 2012pages 249-267] == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Franciscans}} ===Tovuti rasmi=== ====Matawi matatu ya Utawa wa Kwanza==== * [http://www.ofm.org/ Ordo Fratrum Minorum] * [http://www.ofmcap.org/ Ordo Fratrum Minorum Capuccinorum] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ofmcap.org/ |date=20190816054340 }} * [http://www.ofm-conv.org/ Ordo Fratrum Minorum Conventualium] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ofm-conv.org/ |date=20080509065748 }} ====Utawa wa Tatu==== * [http://www.franciscan.org/ Tertius Ordo Regularis] * [http://www.ciofs.org/en.htm Ordo Franciscanus Saecularis] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ciofs.org/en.htm |date=20130723233555 }} * [http://www.franciscan-brothers.net/ Brothers of the Poor of St. Francis of Assisi] ===Wafransisko Walutheri=== * [http://lutheranfranciscans.org/ Order of Lutheran Franciscans] *{{de icon}} [http://www.hochkirchliche-vereinigung.de/evt.html Evangelische Franziskaner-Tertiaren] {{Wayback|url=http://www.hochkirchliche-vereinigung.de/evt.html |date=20070625145621 }} in Germany. *{{sv icon}} [http://www.fto.st/ Franciskus Tredje Orden] in Sweden. * [http://www.marysisters.org.au/international/kanaan/kanaan-brothers.htm The Kanaan Franciscan Brothers] {{Wayback|url=http://www.marysisters.org.au/international/kanaan/kanaan-brothers.htm |date=20110706125151 }} *{{sv icon}} [http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/klostren/Francisk.htm Helige Franciskus Systraskap] {{Wayback|url=http://www.svenskakyrkan.se/klostren/Francisk.htm |date=20071214030418 }} *{{sv icon}} [http://www.franciskus.fi/ Franciskus-Sällskapet i Finland] ===Wafransisko Waanglikana=== *[http://www.franciscans.org.uk/ Anglican Franciscans] {{Wayback|url=http://www.franciscans.org.uk/ |date=20110717021315 }} *[http://www.osffranciscans.com Order of Saint Francis (OSF)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.osffranciscans.com/ |date=20210609173449 }} *[http://www.stclarelittlesisters.org/ The Little Sisters of St. Clare] {{Wayback|url=http://www.stclarelittlesisters.org/ |date=20100902173451 }} *[http://www.holycrossfranciscans.com/ Franciscan Servants of the Holy Cross – Original Province (FSHC)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.holycrossfranciscans.com/ |date=20141220013315 }} *[http://companyofjesus.org/ The Company of Jesus (CJ)] *[http://www.fodc.net// The Franciscan Order of the Divine Compassion] {{Wayback|url=http://www.fodc.net// |date=20141217105120 }} *[http://cfw.dionc.org// The Community of the Franciscan Way] {{Wayback|url=http://cfw.dionc.org// |date=20140915034157 }} ===Wafransisko wasiobaguana kwa msingi wa madhehebu=== *[http://scjesus.co.uk/ Companions of Jesus] {{Wayback|url=http://scjesus.co.uk/ |date=20140516194105 }}, a non-denominational order. *[http://www.franciscans.com/ Order of Ecumenical Franciscans] {{Wayback|url=http://www.franciscans.com/ |date=20230208111212 }}, a non-denominational group. == Marejeo kwa utafiti zaidi == * [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt5199r1g0/ Online guide to the Academy of American Franciscan History Microfilm Collection, 1526–1972], [[The Bancroft Library]] {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Wafransisko| ]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Kanisa Katoliki]] [[Jamii:Mashirika ya kitawa]] nyc1z8lqwndcclr1xf35wyn8k5bcyjg 0 15958 1580119 1226342 2026-07-18T00:18:42Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580119 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kanisa Katoliki}} '''Ualimu wa Kanisa''' katika [[imani]] ya [[Wakatoliki]] linamaanisha [[mamlaka]] ya [[Kanisa]], kupitia hasa [[Askofu|maaskofu]] wake, katika kufundisha imani na [[maadili]] ili kudumisha, kustawisha na kueneza [[karne]] hadi karne [[hazina ya imani]] [[ufunuo|iliyofunuliwa]] na [[Mungu]] hasa katika [[Yesu Kristo]] na kukabidhiwa kwa [[Mitume wa Yesu|Mitume]] wake. ==Ngazi za uzito wa ualimu== [[Ualimu]] huo unaweza kuwa wa kawaida na usio wa kawaida. Ule wa kawaida ndiyo namna ambayo [[Papa]] wa [[Roma]] na Maaskofu wenzake wanatoa mafundisho yao [[siku]] kwa siku kwa njia ya [[hotuba]], [[barua]] na [[maandishi]] mengine. Kumbe ule usio wa kawaida unatolewa kwa fahari ya pekee, kwa mfano katika [[Mtaguso mkuu]] au katika tamko rasmi la kudumu linalotolewa na Papa kwa niaba ya Maaskofu wote. ==Marejeo== * {{cite book | last = Boyle | first = John | title = Church Teaching Authority: Historical and Theological Studies | url = https://archive.org/details/churchteachingau0000boyl | year = 1995 | publisher = University of Notre Dame Press | isbn = 0-268-00805-1 }} * {{cite book | last = [[Richard Gaillardetz|Gaillardetz]] | first = Richard | title = By What Authority?: A Primer on Scripture, the Magisterium, and the Sense of the Faithful | url = https://archive.org/details/bywhatauthorityp0000gail| year = 2003 | isbn = 0-8146-2872-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Gaillardetz | first = Richard | title = Teaching With Authority: A Theology of the Magisterium in the Church | url = https://archive.org/details/teachingwithauth0000gail_o0f2 | series = Theology and Life Series, vol. 41 | year = 1997 | publisher = Liturgical Press | isbn = 0-8146-5529-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Gaillardetz | first = Richard | title = Witnesses to the Faith: Community, Infallibility, and the Ordinary Magisterium of Bishops | url = https://archive.org/details/witnessestofaith0000gail | year = 1992 | publisher = Paulist Press | isbn = 0-8091-3350-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Sullivan | first = Francis | authorlink = Francis A. Sullivan | title = Creative Fidelity: Weighing and Interpreting Documents of the Magisterium | url = https://archive.org/details/creativefidelity0000sull | year = 2003 | publisher = Wipf & Stock Publishers | isbn = 1-59244-208-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Sullivan | first = Francis | authorlink = Francis A. Sullivan | title = The Magisterium: Teaching Authority in the Catholic Church | url = https://archive.org/details/magisteriumteach0000sull | year = 1983 | publisher = Paulist Press | isbn = 0-8091-2577-3 (paper), ISBN 1-59244-060-6 (Wipf & Stock 2002 reprint) }} * Gerard Mannion, Richard Gaillardetz, Jan Kerkhofs, Kenneth Wilson (eds.), ''Readings in Church Authority - Gifts and Challenges for Contemporary Catholicism'', Ashgate Press, 2003; 572pp ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.cin.org/jp2ency/conviva.html Truth in the Magisterium – Pope John Paul II] * [http://www.centreleonardboyle.com/Tradition-Magisterium.html Church-Tradition-Magisterium, by Brunero Gherardini] {{Wayback|url=http://www.centreleonardboyle.com/Tradition-Magisterium.html |date=20120120192923 }} * [http://www.clsp.org.ph/docs/2000-safeguarding.pdf The Canonical Safeguarding of the Word of God] {{Wayback|url=http://www.clsp.org.ph/docs/2000-safeguarding.pdf |date=20090320035029 }} by Jaime B. Achacoso, J.C.D., Philippine Canonical Forum, Volume II, Januari–Desemba 2000. * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15006b.htm Tradition and Living Magisterium Article in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia] {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Kanisa Katoliki]] [[Jamii:Teolojia]] cpk2rq8vntkupctra1j8c8m4sdh6zse 0 16027 1580216 1186815 2026-07-18T01:25:00Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580216 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Zheng He.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Sanamu]] ya kisasa ya Zheng He.]] '''Zheng He''' (pia: '''Cheng Ho'''; [[1371]]-[[1433]]) alikuwa [[baharia]], [[kiongozi]] wa kijeshi na [[mpelelezi]] kutoka [[China]] wakati wa [[nasaba ya Ming]]. Akiwa mkuu wa [[jeshi la maji]] la China aliongoza misafara ya [[Jahazi|majahazi]] yake hadi [[pwani]] za [[Afrika]] hadi [[Msumbiji]] akapeleleza [[Bahari Hindi]] na [[visiwa]] vya [[Asia ya Kusini-Mashariki]]. == Maisha yake == Zheng He alizaliwa kwa [[jina]] la Ma He katika [[familia]] ya [[Wachina Waislamu]] kwenye [[jimbo]] la [[Yunnan]]<ref>{{cite book|author=J. V. G. Mills|year=1970|title=Ying-yai Sheng-lan, The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores (1433), translated from the Chinese text edited by Feng Ch'eng Chun with introduction, notes and appendices by J. V. G. Mills|publisher=White Lotus Press|isbn=974-8496-78-3|page=5}}</ref>. [[Baba]] yake aliwahi kusafiri [[Maka]] kwa [[hajj]]. Alipozaliwa Yunnan ilikuwa chini ya [[utawala]] wa [[Wamongolia]] lakini mnamo [[mwaka]] [[1381]] [[jeshi]] la Ming lilivamia na kuteka Yunnan. Kwenye [[vita]] hiyo [[kijana]] alikamatwa kama mfungwa akafikishwa kwenye [[makao makuu]] ya [[Kaisari]] wa China. Huko alihasiwa kuwa [[towashi]] jinsi ilivyokuwa kawaida kwa [[watumishi]] wa [[wafalme]] huko China<ref name="Dreyer">{{cite book|author=Edward L. Dreyer|year=2007|title=Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming, 1405–1433|url=https://archive.org/details/zhenghechinaocea0000drey|publisher=Library of World Biography Series|publisher=Longman|isbn=0-321-08443-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/zhenghechinaocea0000drey/page/12 12]}}</ref>. Alikuwa [[rafiki]] wa [[mtoto]] wa Kaisari akafundishwa mengi pamoja naye. Huyo alipokuwa Kaisari mwenyewe kwa jina la [[Yongle]] alimpa [[madaraka]] juu ya [[jeshi la maji]]<ref name="Tsai">Tsai, Shih-shan Henry. "Zheng He." World Book Student. World Book, 2013. 4 December 2013.</ref> . [[Picha:ShenDuGiraffePainting.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Twiga]] kutoka [[Malindi]] alifika China kwa [[meli]] za Zheng He.]] == Safari == Kati ya miaka [[1405]] na [[1433]] Zheng He aliongoza misafara 7 za [[Bahari|baharini]] kama kiongozi wa vikundi vikubwa vya [[meli]]. Meli zake zilikuwa majahazi makubwa sana yaliyobeba hadi [[tani]] 1500. Kila [[safari]] Zheng He alipewa meli 50-60 na [[idadi]] ya [[wanajeshi]] na mabaharia ilikuwa takriban 25,000 - 30,000. [[Picha:ZhengHeShips.gif|thumb|180px|left|Meli za Zheng He kwenye picha ya Kichina ya [[karne ya 16]].]] Safari tatu za kwanza zilipeleleza maeneo yanayoitwa leo [[Indonesia]], [[Uhindi]] na [[Sri Lanka]]. Katika safari za tatu hadi saba aliendelea hadi pwani za Afrika. Miaka [[1413]]–[[1415]] alisafiri mara ya kwanza [[Afrika ya Mashariki]]. Alitembelea [[Mogadishu]] na [[Malindi]] kwenye pwani ya [[Kenya]]. [[Sultani]] wa Malindi alimtuma [[balozi]] na meli za Zheng He aliyeleta [[twiga]] kama [[zawadi]] kwa Kaisari wa China. [[Mnyama]] huyo alisababisha Wachina kushangaa na kuna picha yake iliyochorwa wakati ule. == Kufika hadi Atlantiki na Amerika? == [[Wataalamu]] kadhaa wamedai ya kwamba kwenye safari ya [[1421]] [[kundi]] dogo la meli zake liliingia [[Atlantiki]] na kuivuka hadi kufika [[Amerika]]. Lakini hii inapingwa na wataalamu wengi. Hata hivyo kuna [[ramani]] ya [[dunia]] ya [[Mwitalia]] [[Fra Mauro]] ya mwaka [[1459]] aliyechora meli ya Kichina katika Atlantiki pamoja na maelezo ya kwamba yeye alipata habari kuhusu meli kubwa kutoka [[mashariki]] iliyoingia Atlantiki. Maelezo yale hayaeleweki kabisa kwa sababu wakati ule [[Wareno]] walikuwa hawajafika bado kusini mwa Afrika wala hawakuingia Bahari Hindi bado na Amerika haikujulikana, hivyo Fra Mauro hakuwa na majina kwa yale aliyosikia. Zheng alikufa ama wakati wa safari yake ya mwisho au mara moja baada ya kurudi akazikwa karibu na [[mji]] wa [[Nanjing]]. == Mwisho wa safari == Makaisari wa baadaye walisimamisha safari. Mitindo wa Zheng He ilikuwa na [[gharama]] kubwa sana. Yote ililipiwa na [[serikali kuu]] na gharama zilipita [[faida]] ya [[bidhaa]] zilizoletwa. Tofauti na safari za Wareno na [[Wahispania]] waliofika Amerika, Afrika Mashariki na Uhindi miaka 60 baada ya Zheng He, China haikutafuta faida ya kiuchumi katika upelelezi wake na pia haikutambua nafasi za [[biashara]] katika nchi hizo za mbali. Meli kubwa za Zheng He zilifungwa [[Bandari|bandarini]] zikaoza polepole. ==Marejeo== <references/> ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Zheng He}} * [https://www.ancient.eu/article/1334/the-seven-voyages-of-zheng-he/ Ancient History Encyclopedia - The Seven Voyages of Zheng He] * [http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=218 Zheng He – The Chinese Muslim Admiral] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060310203031/http://en.chinabroadcast.cn/2245/2005-6-13/Zt119%40569.htm Zheng He 600th Anniversary] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/swimming_dragons.shtml BBC radio programme "Swimming Dragons".] * [http://www.time.com/time/asia/features/journey2001/ TIME magazine special feature on Zheng He (August 2001)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/features/journey2001/ |date=20010913001234 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060221135224/http://www.elibraryhub.com/zhengHe/home.html Virtual exhibition from elibraryhub.com] * [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200609/25/eng20060925_306133.html ''Ship imitates ancient vessel navigated by Zheng He''] at peopledaily.com (25 September 2006) * {{cite news| last= Kahn| first= Joseph| year= 2005| url= https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/20/international/asia/20letter.html |title= China Has an Ancient Mariner to Tell You About| work= [[The New York Times]]}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141118011340/http://proj.ncku.edu.tw/chengho/ Newsletter, in Chinese, on academic research on the Zheng He voyages] {{BD|1371|1433|Zheng He}} [[Jamii:Wapelelezi kutoka China]] q4mhrasjmd8poyyirsfntjp2yxbxdc6 0 16586 1580188 1578109 2026-07-18T01:03:16Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580188 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Zuccone Donatello OPA Florence.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Sanamu ya Habakuki]] iliyotengenezwa na [[Donatello]], [[Museo dell'Opera del Duomo (Florence)|Museo dell'Opera del Duomo]], [[Florence]].]] '''Habakuki''' ni [[jina]] la [[nabii]] wa [[Israeli ya Kale]] na pia la [[kitabu]] kinacholeta habari zake katika [[Tanakh]] (yaani [[Biblia ya Kiebrania]]), na kwa hiyo pia katika [[Agano la Kale]], sehemu ya kwanza ya [[Biblia ya Kikristo]]. ==Muda na mada== Wakati alipofanya [[kazi]] nabii [[Yeremia]] aliishi pia Habakuki ([[600 KK|600 hivi K.K.]]), aliyeandika kitabu kifupi ambamo alithubutu kumuuliza [[Mungu]] kwa nini anaadhibu [[Israeli]] vikali kwa [[mikono]] ya watu wabaya kuliko wao. Jibu ni kwamba [[Mwenyezi Mungu]] ana [[njia]] zake ambazo anaandaa [[ushindi]] wa [[haki]]: hivyo mwadilifu ataishi kwa [[imani]] yake (1:12-2:4). Usemi huo ukaja kutumika sana katika [[Agano Jipya]]. [[Mtume Paulo]] ameufanya msingi wa msimamo wake kuwa [[wokovu]] unapatikana kwa imani, si kwa kujitahidi kutekeleza masharti yote ya [[Torati]]. ==Ufafanuzi== Kama vitabu vingine vyote vya [[Biblia]], hiki pia kinatakiwa kisomwe katika mfululizo wa [[historia ya wokovu]] ili kukielewa kadiri ya maendeleo ya [[ufunuo]] wa [[Mungu]] kwa [[binadamu]]. ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book | last=Achtemeier | first=Elizabeth | year=1993 | chapter=Habbakuk, The Book of | title=The Oxford Companion to the Bible | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458 | editor1-last=Metzger | editor1-first=Bruce M. | editor2-last=Coogan | editor2-first=Michael D. | location=New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-504645-5 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458/page/265 265]–266 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Andersen | first=Francis I. | year=2001 | title=Habbakuk | url=https://archive.org/details/galatiansnewtran0025unse | series=The Anchor Bible | location=New York | publisher=Doubleday | isbn=0-385-08396-3 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Bailey | first=Waylon | year=1998 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah | series=The New American Commentary | volume=20 | location=Nashville, TN | publisher=Broadman & Holman Publishers | isbn=0-8054-0120-2 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Baker | first=David W. | year=1988 | title=Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah | url=https://archive.org/details/nahumhabakkukzep0000bake | series=Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries | location=Downers Grove, IL | publisher=Inter-Varsity Press | isbn=0-87784-249-3 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Barber | first=Cyril J. | year=1985 | title=Habakkuk and Zephaniah | url=https://archive.org/details/habakkukzephania0000barb | series=Everyman's Bible Commentary | location=Chicago | publisher=Moody Press | isbn=0-8024-2069-9 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Ben Zvi | first=Ehud | editor1-last=Berlin | editor1-first=Adele | editor2-last=Brettler | editor2-first=Marc Zvi | year=2004 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=The Jewish Study Bible | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515 | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-529751-5 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515/page/1226 1226]–1233 | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last=Betteridge | first=Walter R. | year=1903 | title=The interpretation of the prophecy of Habakkuk | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-theology_1903-10_7_4/page/647 | journal=The American Journal of Theology | volume=7 | issue=4 | pages=647–661 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Brettler | first=Marc Zvi | editor1-last=Berlin | editor1-first=Adele | editor2-last=Brettler | editor2-first=Marc Zvi | year=2004 | chapter=Nevi'im | title=The Jewish Study Bible | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515 | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-529751-5 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515/page/451 451]–461 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Brownlow | first=Leroy | year=1961 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=The Old Testament Books and their Messages in the Christian Age | location=Fort Worth | series=Second Annual Fort Worth Christian College Lectureship | publisher=The Manney Company | pages=439–453 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Bruce | first=F. F. | authorlink=F. F. Bruce | editor-last=McComiskey | year=2009 | chapter=Habakkuk | editor-first=Thomas Edward | title=The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Baker Academic | pages=831–896 | isbn=978-0-8010-3631-6 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Chisholm | first=Robert B., Jr. | year=1990 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=Interpreting the Minor Prophets | url=https://archive.org/details/interpretingmino0000chis | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Academie Books | isbn=0-310-30801-1 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/interpretingmino0000chis/page/183 183]–199 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last1=Clark | first1=David J. | last2=Hatton | first2=Howard A. | year=1989 | title=A Translator’s Handbook on The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah | url=https://archive.org/details/translatorshandb0000clar_m5c6 | location=New York | publisher=United Bible Societies | isbn=0-8267-0141-8 | lastauthoramp=y | ref={{sfnref|Clark|Hatton|1989}} }} * {{cite book | last=Coffman | first=James Burton | year=1982 | title=Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, and Haggai | edition=revised | series=Commentary on the Minor Prophets | volume=3 | location=Abilene, TX | publisher=ACU Press | isbn=0-915547-46-5 | pages=61–116 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last1=Coggins | first1=Richard | last2=Han | first2=Jin H. | year=2011 | title=Six Minor Prophets Through the Centuries | url=https://archive.org/details/sixminorprophets0000cogg | series= Blackwell Bible Commentaries | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | isbn=978-1-4051-7675-0 | ref={{sfnref|Coggins|Han|2011}} }} * {{cite book | editor1-last=Cross | editor1-first=F. L. | editor2-last=Livingston | editor2-first=E. A. | year=2005 | title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church | url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_o5w8 | edition=3rd | location=New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-280290-9 | lastauthoramp=y | ref={{sfnref|Cross|2005}} }} * {{cite book | editor-last=Driver | editor-first=S. R. | year=1906 | title=The Minor Prophets: Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi | url=https://archive.org/details/centurybiblemino0000srdr | series=The Century Bible | location=Edinburgh | publisher=T. C. & E. C. Jack, Ltd | ref={{sfnref|Driver|1906}} }} * {{cite web | last=Gigot | first=F. | year=1910 | title=Habacuc (Habakkuk) | work=The Catholic Encyclopedia | location=New York | publisher=Robert Appleton Company | accessdate=2100-12-19 | at=New Advent | url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07097a.htm }} * {{cite book | last=Gowan | first=Donald E. | year=1976 | title=The Triumph of Faith in Habakkuk | url=https://archive.org/details/triumphoffaithin00gowa | location=Atlanta | publisher=John Knox Press | isbn=0-8042-0195-1 | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last=Haak | first=Robert D. | year=1988 | title="Poetry" in Habakkuk 1:1–2:4? | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_july-september-1988_108_3/page/437 | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=108 | issue=3 | pages=437–444 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Hailey | first=Homer | authorlink=Homer Hailey | year=1972 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=A Commentary on the Minor Prophets | url=https://archive.org/details/commentaryonmino0000hail | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Baker Book House | isbn=0-8010-4049-3 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/commentaryonmino0000hail/page/271 271]–296 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Harris | first=J. G. | year=1966 | title=The Qumran Commentary on Habakkuk | series=Contemporary Studies in Theology | location=London | publisher=A. R. Mowbray & Co | pages=22–30 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Henderson | first=Ebenezer| authorlink=Ebenezer Henderson | year=1980 | origyear=First published 1858 | title=The Twelve Minor Prophets | url=https://archive.org/details/twelveminorproph0000hend | series=Thornapple Commentaries | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Baker Book House | isbn=0-8010-4217-8 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Hirsch | first=Emil G. | authorlink=Emil G. Hirsch | year=1906 | chapter=Habakkuk, Book of | title=Jewish Encyclopedia | url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6976-habakkuk-book-of | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last1=Hirsch | first1=Emil G. | last2=Blau | first2=Ludwig | last3=Kohler | first3=Kaufmann | last4=Schmidt | first4=Nathaniel | year=1906 | chapter=Bible Canon | title=Jewish Encyclopedia | url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3259-bible-canon | lastauthoramp=y | authormask=7 | ref={{sfnref|Hirsch|Blau|Kohler|Schmidt|1906}} }} * {{cite book | last=Humbert | first=Paul | year=1944 | title=Problèmes du Livre d'Habacuc | series=Mémoires de l'Université de Neuchatel, '''18''' | location=Neuchatel | publisher=Secrétariat de l'Université | isbn=0-8042-0195-1 | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last=Irving | first=T. Johnstone | year=1908 | title=Habakkuk | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biblical-world_1908-01_31_1/page/51 | journal=The Biblical World | volume=31 | issue=1 | pages=51–61 | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last=Irwin | first=William A. | year=1956 | title=The mythological background of Habakkuk, chapter 3 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-near-eastern-studies_1956-01_15_1/page/47 | journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume=15 | issue=1 | pages=47–50 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Johnson | first=Robert L. | year=1969 | title=The Letter of Paul to the Galatians | series=The Living Word Commentary | location=Abilene, TX | publisher=ACU Press | isbn=0-915547-29-5 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Kachelman | first=John L., Jr. | year=2000 | title=Habakkuk: When God Seems So Silent | publisher=Freed-Hardeman University Press | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last=Kelly | first=Fred T. | year=1902 | title=The strophic structure of Habakkuk | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-semitic-languages-and-literatures_1902-01_18_2/page/94 | journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures | volume=18 | issue=2 | pages=94–119 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last1=LaSor | first1=William Sanford | authorlink=William Sanford La Sor | last2=Hubbard | first2=David Allan | last3=Bush | first3=Frederic Wm. | year=1982 | title=Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans | isbn=0-8028-3556-2 | lastauthoramp=y | ref={{sfnref|LaSor|Hubbard|Bush|1982}} }} * {{cite book | last=Lehrman | first=S. M., Rabbi | year=1948 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=The Twelve Prophets | url=https://archive.org/details/twelveprophetshe0008unse | editor=A. Cohen | location=London | publisher=The Soncino Press | pages=[https://archive.org/details/twelveprophetshe0008unse/page/209 210]–220 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Leslie | first=E. A. | year=1962 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible: An Illustrated Encyclopedia | editor=[[George Arthur Buttrick|Buttrick, George Arthur]], et al | location=Nashville, TN | publisher=Abingdon Press | isbn=0-687-19271-4 | volume=2 | pages=503–505 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Lloyd-Jones | first=D. Martyn | authorlink=Martyn Lloyd-Jones | year=1966 | origyear=First published 1953 | title=From Fear to Faith: Studies in the Book of Habakkuk | location=Leicester, UK | publisher=Inter-Varsity Press | isbn=0-85110-332-4 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=McGee | first=J. Vernon | year=1991 | title=Nahum and Habakkuk | series=Thru the Bible Commentary Series | location=Nashville, TN | publisher=Thomas Nelson Publishers | isbn=0-7852-1033-4 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Moore | first=Carey A. | year=1977 | title=Daniel, Esther and Jeremiah: The Additions | url=https://archive.org/details/danielestherjere00tari | series=The Anchor Bible | location=Garden City, NY | publisher=Doubleday & Company | isbn=0-385-04702-9 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Neusner | first=Jacob | year=1994 | title=Introduction to Rabbinic Literature | url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontora0000neus | series=The Anchor Bible Reference Library | location=New York | publisher=Doubleday | isbn=0-385-47093-2 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Patterson | first=Richard D. | year=2003 | title=An Exegetical Commentary: Nahum, Habbakuk, Zephaniah | publisher=Biblical Studies Press | url=http://bible.org/series/exegetical-commentary-nahum-habakkuk-zephaniah | isbn=0-7375-0019-0 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Pusey | first=E. B. | authorlink= Edward Bouverie Pusey | year=1950 | origyear=First published 1860 | title=The Minor Prophets: A Commentary | volume=2 | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Baker Book House | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Robertson | first=O. Palmer | year=1990 | title=The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah | url=https://archive.org/details/booksofnahumhaba0000robe | series=The New International Commentary on the Old Testament | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans | isbn=978-0-8028-2532-2 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Smith | first=Ralph L. | year=1984 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=Micah–Malachi | series=Word Biblical Commentary | volume=32 | location=Waco, TX | publisher=Words Books | isbn=0-8499-0231-2 | pages=92–117 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Széles | first=Mária Eszenyei | year=1987 | title=Wrath and Mercy: A Commentary on the Books of Habakkuk and Zephaniah | others=trans. George A. F. Knight | series=International Theological Commentary | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans | isbn=0-8028-0242-7 | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last1=Walker | first1=H. H. | last2=Lund | first2=N. W. | year=1934 | title=The literary structure of the book of Habakkuk | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-biblical-literature_1934-12_53_4/page/355 | journal=Journal of Biblical Literature | volume=53 | issue=4 | pages=355–370 | lastauthoramp=y | ref={{sfnref|Walker|Lund|1934}} }} * {{cite book | editor=Whelpton, George | year=1916 | chapter=song 279 | title=The Church Hymnal | url=https://archive.org/details/churchhymnalabo00whelgoog | location=New York | publisher=The Century Co | ref={{sfnref|Whelpton|1916}} }} * {{cite book | editor=Wiegand, John P. | year=1992 | chapter=song 685 | title=Praise for the Lord | url=https://archive.org/details/praiseforlord0000wieg | location=Nashville, TN | publisher=Praise Press | isbn=0-89098-119-1 | ref={{sfnref|Wiegland|1992}} }} * {{cite book | last1=Wise | first1=Michael | last2=Abegg | first2=Martin, Jr. | last3=Cook |first3=Edward | year=1996 | title=The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060692001 | location=San Francisco | publisher=HarperSanFrancisco | isbn=0-06-069200-6 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060692001/page/114 114]–122 | lastauthoramp=y | ref={{sfnref|Wise|Abegg|Cook|1996}} }} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya Nje== * [http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/habakkuk The Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll], ''The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls'', hosted by the [[Israel Museum]], Jerusalem. * [http://www.powerofchange.org/storage/docs/habakkuk_intro.pdf A Brief Introduction to The Prophecy of Habakkuk for Contemporary Readers] {{Wayback|url=http://www.powerofchange.org/storage/docs/habakkuk_intro.pdf |date=20111009182923 }} (Christian Perspective) * [http://www.ibs.org/niv/studybible/habakkuk.php Introduction to the book of Habakkuk] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ibs.org/niv/studybible/habakkuk.php |date=20080801154610 }} from the [[NIV Study Bible]] {{Biblia AK}} {{mbegu-Biblia}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Habakuki}} [[Category:Vitabu vya Agano la Kale]] rstb074hn9bilb1imfi8ghrb0l55ypp 0 16596 1580115 1506693 2026-07-18T00:15:24Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580115 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Codex Alexandrinus 088a - Ro 1,1 ff.jpg|thumb|Mwanzo wa waraka huu katika [[Codex Alexandrinus]].]] {{Agano Jipya}} '''Waraka kwa Waroma''' ni [[kitabu]] kimojawapo cha [[Agano Jipya]] katika [[Biblia ya Kikristo]]. Andiko hili ni [[barua]] ya [[Paulo wa Tarso]] kwa [[ushirika]] wa [[Wakristo]] katika [[mji mkuu]] wa [[Dola la Roma]]. Kama vitabu vingine vyote vya [[Biblia]], hiki pia kinatakiwa kisomwe katika mfululizo wa [[historia ya wokovu]] ili kukielewa kadiri ya [[maendeleo]] ya [[ufunuo]] wa [[Mungu]] kwa [[binadamu]]. ==Umuhimu wake== Kati ya [[maandiko]] matakatifu ya [[Agano Jipya]] na ya [[Biblia]] kwa jumla, barua ya [[Mtume Paulo]] kwa [[Wakristo]] wa [[Roma]] ina umuhimu wa pekee uliokusudiwa naye mwenyewe. ==Mazingira== Paulo alikaa [[Efeso]] karibu miaka mitatu, lakini [[moyo]] wake wa [[umisionari|kimisionari]] haukutulia kwa sababu alikumbuka alivyotabiriwa atafanya [[kazi]] hata mbali zaidi. Ndiyo maana alitaka kwenda [[Ulaya magharibi]], yaani [[Roma]] na halafu [[Hispania]], [[nchi]] iliyohesabika kuwa mwisho wa [[dunia]]. Ila kabla ya kwenda huko alipanga kuwaletea Wakristo wa [[Yerusalemu]] mchango wa wenzao wa mataifa. Basi, mwishoni mwa miezi mitatu aliyokaa [[Korintho]] ([[Mdo]] 20:2-3) akijiandaa kupanda [[meli]], yaani mwanzoni mwa [[mwaka]] [[58]], Paulo aliwaandikia Wakristo wa Roma ili kuandaa [[utume]] atakaoufanya katika [[jiji]] hilo. Huko [[Ukristo]] uliingia toka mwanzo kabisa, ukiletwa na baadhi ya [[Wayahudi]] wengi walioishi Roma ambao [[ubatizo|walibatizwa]] [[Yerusalemu]] kwenye [[Pentekoste]] ya mwaka [[30]] (Mdo 2:1-12). Wayahudi wote walipofukuzwa na [[Kaisari Klaudio]] ([[49]]), Wakristo wa [[mataifa]] mengine wakabaki ndio wengi, nao wakaachana na masharti mbalimbali za dini ya [[Uyahudi|Kiyahudi]], kama yale kuhusu [[vyakula]]. [[Muda]] mfupi baada ya Klaudio kufa ([[54]]), Wayahudi walianza kurudi, kumbe wale ambao kati yao walikuwa wamemuamini [[Yesu]] wakakuta mabadiliko hayo makubwa ndani ya [[Kanisa]], nao wakajiona wamewekwa pembeni kidogo, kama si kudharauliwa na Wakristo wa mataifa. Mtume Paulo akijua [[umuhimu]] wa Roma, [[mji mkuu]] wa [[ulimwengu]] wa zamani hizo, aliwaandikia Wakristo wa huko [[barua]] ndefu tena nzito kuliko zote. Alitaka kuwaeleza kwa maandishi ya mpango mafundisho yake kuhusu [[wokovu]], kwa sababu walikuwa wamesikia habari tofautitofauti juu yake bila ya kukutana naye. Pamoja na kuwaandaa hivyo wampokee vizuri, alichukua nafasi ya kuimarisha [[umoja]] wao ulioingia [[dosari]]. Akiandika kwa [[utulivu]] mkubwa kuhusu mambo aliyokwishawaongelea kwa [[hasira]] [[Wagalatia]], Paulo aliweza kuinua pande zote [[mbili]] za [[Kanisa]] hilo zielewe zaidi [[fumbo]] la mpango wa [[Mungu]] kwa ajili ya [[watu]] wote, na hivyo ziheshimiane kwa [[upendo]], ulio [[utimilifu]] wa [[Torati]]. Hasa aliwaonya Wakristo wa mataifa wasidharau [[Wayahudi]], kwa sababu hao bado ni wateule wa Mungu. ==Mpangilio na mada== Ingawa haina mafundisho yote ya Paulo, barua hii imechangia [[teolojia]] ya Kikristo kwa kiasi kikubwa, hasa upande wa [[ukristo wa magharibi|magharibi]]. Kwa namna ya pekee inajibu kinaganaga maswali kuhusu [[wokovu]]: unapatikana kwa njia gani? Kwa nini Wayahudi wengi walishindwa kumuamini [[Yesu]] ili kuupata? Kwa nini mataifa yameupokea badala yao? Aliyepata wokovu anaishi vipi? Je, Wayahudi wametupwa moja kwa moja? Ndiyo sehemu kuu ya barua (Rom 1:16-32; 2:1-29; 3:9-20; 3:21-31; 4:1-8; 4:23-25; 5:1-21; 6:1-14; 7:7-25; 8:1-39; 9:1-5; 11:1-36), ambayo inafuata [[salamu]] (1:1-8) na [[shukrani]]. Paulo alisisitiza kwamba wote ni wakosefu na wanaweza kuokolewa na Mungu tu: hiyo ni [[neema]] tupu, maana hakuna anayeweza kuistahili kwa [[juhudi]] zake. Neema hiyo tunaipata kwa kumuamini [[Yesu]] ambaye [[Kifo cha Yesu|alikufa]] [[Ufufuko wa Yesu|akafufuka]] kwa ajili yetu ili sisi tuishi upya kwa ajili yake tukiongozwa na [[Roho Mtakatifu]]. Chini yake Mkristo atafanya mema mengi na makubwa kuliko yale yanayodaiwa na Torati, ambayo ni njema lakini haitutii [[nguvu]] ya kuitekeleza. Upande wa mataifa, toka mwanzo Mungu aliwapa [[mwongozo]] mwingine wa maisha, yaani [[dhamiri]]. Hata hivyo pande zote mbili zilishindwa kufaidika na miongozo hiyo wakahitaji [[msaada]] bora zaidi ili kumpendeza Mungu. [[Uadilifu]] sasa unapatikana kwa [[imani]] na [[ubatizo]] katika [[Kifo cha Yesu|kifo]] na [[ufufuko wa Yesu]]. Hiyo [[njia]] mpya ya Mungu kuwaokoa watu wote haiendi kinyume cha [[ahadi]] zake kwa [[Israeli ya Kale]]. Paulo anathibitisha hilo kwa hatua nne akitumia madondoo mengi ya [[Agano la Kale]]. Hamzungumzii Myahudi mmojammoja, bali wote jumla; wala hazungumzii [[jukumu]] lao kuhusu kifo cha Yesu. [[Maadili]] mema yatafuata kama [[matunda]], na Paulo, kama kawaida ya Wakristo wa kwanza, baada ya [[ujumbe]] au fundisho la [[imani]], anayaeleza hasa katika sehemu ya pili ambayo ina [[mawaidha]] mbalimbali (Rom 12:1-2,9-21; 13:8-14), yakifuatwa na [[taarifa]], [[salamu]] na [[doksolojia]]. Kwa kuwa Paulo hakuwafahamu vizuri Wakristo wa Roma, maneno yake ni ya jumla na si ya kinaganaga. Hasa ni kwamba madai ya [[Torati]] hayawezi kuongoza mwenendo wa Mkristo, lakini huyo anatakiwa kuzingatia anavyodaiwa hasa [[upendo]] kwa wote. [[Maisha]] ya Mkristo yawe [[ibada]] kwa [[Mungu]] katika [[Roho Mtakatifu]]. [[Umoja wa Kanisa]] unamdai ajitahidi kushinda mabaya kwa mema. Kila [[kiungo]] cha [[mwili]] huo mmoja anadaiwa [[juhudi]] kwa ajili ya [[ustawi wa wote]] ili maisha yawe [[sadaka]] kwa Mungu. Akigusa zaidi maisha ya [[Kanisa la Roma]] ya wakati huo, yaliyovurugwa na masuala madogomadogo kuhusu vyakula na [[sikukuu]], Paulo alidai wenye nguvu watekeleze upendo kwa walio dhaifu zaidi, pamoja na [[busara]], uelewa, mfano wa [[Yesu]] na [[uaminifu]] kwake. Maelekezo hayo yanaweza kusaidia daima kukabili mvutano wowote kati ya wenye mitazamo tofauti (finyu na mpana, au wa kizamani na wa kisasa zaidi). Lengo ni ule [[umoja]] uliofundishwa katika [[sura]] [[nane]] za kwanza. ==Marejeo== * {{cite book | author = Bruce, F. F. |authorlink= F. F. Bruce | year = 1983 | title = The Epistle of Paul to the Romans: An Introduction and Commentary | url = https://archive.org/details/epistleofpaultor0000bruc_q9y1 |series= [[Tyndale New Testament Commentaries]] | publisher = Inter-Varsity Press |location= Leicester, England | isbn = 0851118550}} * {{cite book | author = Dunn, J. D. G. | year = 1988b | title = Romans 9–16 | url = https://archive.org/details/romans9160038dunn |series= Word Bible Commentary | publisher = Word Books, Publisher |location= Dallas, Texas |isbn = }} * {{cite book |last= Fitzmyer |first= J. A. |authorlink= Joseph Fitzmyer |title= Romans |url= https://archive.org/details/anchorbibleroman0000jose |series= Anchor Bible Commentary |year= 1992 |publisher= Doubleday |location= New York |isbn= }} * {{cite book | author = Dunn, J. D. G. |authorlink= James Dunn (theologian) | year = 1988a | title = Romans 1–8 | url = https://archive.org/details/romans180038dunn |series= Word Bible Commentary | publisher = Word Books, Publisher |location= Dallas, Texas | isbn = }} * Rutherford, Graeme (1993). ''The Heart of Christianity: Romans [chapters] 1 to 8''. Second ed. Oxford, Eng.: Bible Reading Fellowship. 248 p. ISBN 0-7459-2810-2 * {{cite book | author = Stuhlmacher, Peter | year = 1994 | title = Paul's Letter to the Romans: A Commentary | url = https://archive.org/details/paulslettertorom0000stuh | publisher = John Knox Press |location= Westminster | isbn = 0-664-25287-7}} ==Viungo vya nje== ===Tafsiri ya Kiswahili=== * [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/SWA0013/_INDEX.HTM] Agano Jipya kwa lugha ya Kiswahili. ===Tafsiri nyingine=== * [http://www.biblegateway.com "Bible Gateway 35 languages/50 versions"] * [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/romans.html "Epistle to the Romans" – Early Christian Writings] * [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Romans+1 "Online Bible" – gospelhall.org] * [http://www.christnotes.org/bible.php?q=Romans "Romans, Online Bible" – ChristNotes.org] * [http://unbound.biola.edu "Unbound Bible 100 + languages/versions" – Biola University] * [http://xn-----7kcagabcx1bboelivelc9a1ae5h2keg.xn--p1ai/63_poslanie_k_rimlyanam_svyatogo_apostola_pavla.docs.htm Epistle to the Romans] {{Wayback|url=http://xn-----7kcagabcx1bboelivelc9a1ae5h2keg.xn--p1ai/63_poslanie_k_rimlyanam_svyatogo_apostola_pavla.docs.htm |date=20120801161444 }} ===Ufafanuzi=== * [http://www.vts.edu/ftpimages/95/download/download_group10628_id314975.pdf A Brief Introduction to Romans] {{Wayback|url=http://www.vts.edu/ftpimages/95/download/download_group10628_id314975.pdf |date=20160305005622 }} * [http://www.christians.eu/understanding-romans-7/ Understanding Romans 7 – www.christians.eu] * [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/16-04.htm A Wesleyan Interpretation of Romans 5–8 – Jerry McCant] {{Wayback|url=http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/16-04.htm |date=20050526100114 }} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13156a.htm Epistle to the Romans – Catholic Encyclopedia] * [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom38.toc.html John Calvin on Romans] * [http://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionaries/eastons-bible-dictionary/the-romans-epistle-to.html Easton's Bible Dictionary on Romans, Epistle to the] on BibleStudyTools.com * [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/henry/mhc6.vi_1.i.html Matthew Henry on Romans] * [http://www.chbcaudio.org/1999/09/19/justification-the-message-of-romans/ Romans Overview, by Mark Dever] {{Wayback|url=http://www.chbcaudio.org/1999/09/19/justification-the-message-of-romans/ |date=20080626081628 }} * [http://www.smashwords.com/books/view/349879 Reading Through Romans, by Michael Morrison] * [http://www.desiringgod.org/ResourceLibrary/Sermons/BySeries/2/ Romans the Greatest Letter Ever Written: John Piper] * [http://www.whataboutjesus.com/new-testament/romans Book by Book: Romans] {{Wayback|url=http://www.whataboutjesus.com/new-testament/romans |date=20150910132859 }}, by [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod|WELS]]-WhatAboutJesus.com {{mbegu-AganoJ}} [[Category:Vitabu vya Agano Jipya|Rom]] [[Jamii:Mtume Paulo]] [[Jamii:Roma]] rh0tvhr9qgtnw2iy06r02jua8e8f9p5 0 16625 1580073 1578206 2026-07-17T23:47:37Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580073 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Zuccone Donatello OPA Florence.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Sanamu ya Habakuki]] iliyotengenezwa na [[Donatello]], [[Museo dell'Opera del Duomo (Florence)|Museo dell'Opera del Duomo]], [[Florence]].]] '''Habakuki''' alikuwa [[nabii]] wa [[Israeli ya Kale]] aliyeishi na kufanya [[kazi]] wakati mmoja na nabii [[Yeremia]] ([[karne ya 7 KK]]). Mbele ya [[uovu]] na [[ukatili]] wa [[binadamu]] alitabiri [[hukumu]] ya [[Mungu]], lakini pia [[huruma]] [[Huruma ya Mungu|yake]]<ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/92470</ref>. Hababuki aliandika [[kitabu]] kifupi ambamo alithubutu kumuuliza [[Mwenyezi Mungu]] kwa nini anaadhibu [[Israeli]] vikali kwa [[mikono]] ya [[watu]] wabaya kuliko wao. Jibu ni kwamba [[Mwenyezi Mungu]] ana [[njia]] zake ambazo anaandaa [[ushindi]] wa [[haki]]: hivyo mwadilifu ataishi kwa [[imani]] yake (1:12-2:4). [[Misemo|Usemi]] huo ukaja kutumika sana katika [[Agano Jipya]]. [[Mtume Paulo]] ameufanya [[msingi]] wa msimamo wake kuwa [[wokovu]] unapatikana kwa imani, si kwa kujitahidi kutekeleza masharti yote ya [[Torati]]. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa kama [[mtakatifu]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa [[tarehe]] [[2 Desemba]]<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref><ref>https://catholicsaints.info/habakkuk-the-prophet/</ref>. ==Tazama pia== *[[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book | last=Achtemeier | first=Elizabeth | year=1993 | chapter=Habbakuk, The Book of | title=The Oxford Companion to the Bible | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458 | editor1-last=Metzger | editor1-first=Bruce M. | editor2-last=Coogan | editor2-first=Michael D. | location=New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-504645-5 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458/page/265 265]–266 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Andersen | first=Francis I. | year=2001 | title=Habbakuk | url=https://archive.org/details/galatiansnewtran0025unse | series=The Anchor Bible | location=New York | publisher=Doubleday | isbn=0-385-08396-3 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Bailey | first=Waylon | year=1998 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah | series=The New American Commentary | volume=20 | location=Nashville, TN | publisher=Broadman & Holman Publishers | isbn=0-8054-0120-2 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Baker | first=David W. | year=1988 | title=Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah | url=https://archive.org/details/nahumhabakkukzep0000bake | series=Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries | location=Downers Grove, IL | publisher=Inter-Varsity Press | isbn=0-87784-249-3 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Barber | first=Cyril J. | year=1985 | title=Habakkuk and Zephaniah | url=https://archive.org/details/habakkukzephania0000barb | series=Everyman's Bible Commentary | location=Chicago | publisher=Moody Press | isbn=0-8024-2069-9 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Ben Zvi | first=Ehud | editor1-last=Berlin | editor1-first=Adele | editor2-last=Brettler | editor2-first=Marc Zvi | year=2004 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=The Jewish Study Bible | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515 | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-529751-5 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515/page/1226 1226]–1233 | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last=Betteridge | first=Walter R. | year=1903 | title=The interpretation of the prophecy of Habakkuk | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-theology_1903-10_7_4/page/647 | journal=The American Journal of Theology | volume=7 | issue=4 | pages=647–661 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Brettler | first=Marc Zvi | editor1-last=Berlin | editor1-first=Adele | editor2-last=Brettler | editor2-first=Marc Zvi | year=2004 | chapter=Nevi'im | title=The Jewish Study Bible | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515 | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-529751-5 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515/page/451 451]–461 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Brownlow | first=Leroy | year=1961 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=The Old Testament Books and their Messages in the Christian Age | location=Fort Worth | series=Second Annual Fort Worth Christian College Lectureship | publisher=The Manney Company | pages=439–453 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Bruce | first=F. F. | authorlink=F. F. Bruce | editor-last=McComiskey | year=2009 | chapter=Habakkuk | editor-first=Thomas Edward | title=The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Baker Academic | pages=831–896 | isbn=978-0-8010-3631-6 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Chisholm | first=Robert B., Jr. | year=1990 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=Interpreting the Minor Prophets | url=https://archive.org/details/interpretingmino0000chis | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Academie Books | isbn=0-310-30801-1 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/interpretingmino0000chis/page/183 183]–199 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last1=Clark | first1=David J. | last2=Hatton | first2=Howard A. | year=1989 | title=A Translator’s Handbook on The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah | url=https://archive.org/details/translatorshandb0000clar_m5c6 | location=New York | publisher=United Bible Societies | isbn=0-8267-0141-8 | lastauthoramp=y | ref={{sfnref|Clark|Hatton|1989}} }} * {{cite book | last=Coffman | first=James Burton | year=1982 | title=Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, and Haggai | edition=revised | series=Commentary on the Minor Prophets | volume=3 | location=Abilene, TX | publisher=ACU Press | isbn=0-915547-46-5 | pages=61–116 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last1=Coggins | first1=Richard | last2=Han | first2=Jin H. | year=2011 | title=Six Minor Prophets Through the Centuries | url=https://archive.org/details/sixminorprophets0000cogg | series= Blackwell Bible Commentaries | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | isbn=978-1-4051-7675-0 | ref={{sfnref|Coggins|Han|2011}} }} * {{cite book | editor1-last=Cross | editor1-first=F. L. | editor2-last=Livingston | editor2-first=E. A. | year=2005 | title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church | url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_o5w8 | edition=3rd | location=New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=0-19-280290-9 | lastauthoramp=y | ref={{sfnref|Cross|2005}} }} * {{cite book | editor-last=Driver | editor-first=S. R. | year=1906 | title=The Minor Prophets: Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi | url=https://archive.org/details/centurybiblemino0000srdr | series=The Century Bible | location=Edinburgh | publisher=T. C. & E. C. Jack, Ltd | ref={{sfnref|Driver|1906}} }} * {{cite web | last=Gigot | first=F. | year=1910 | title=Habacuc (Habakkuk) | work=The Catholic Encyclopedia | location=New York | publisher=Robert Appleton Company | accessdate=2100-12-19 | at=New Advent | url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07097a.htm }} * {{cite book | last=Gowan | first=Donald E. | year=1976 | title=The Triumph of Faith in Habakkuk | url=https://archive.org/details/triumphoffaithin00gowa | location=Atlanta | publisher=John Knox Press | isbn=0-8042-0195-1 | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last=Haak | first=Robert D. | year=1988 | title="Poetry" in Habakkuk 1:1–2:4? | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_july-september-1988_108_3/page/437 | journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society | volume=108 | issue=3 | pages=437–444 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Hailey | first=Homer | authorlink=Homer Hailey | year=1972 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=A Commentary on the Minor Prophets | url=https://archive.org/details/commentaryonmino0000hail | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Baker Book House | isbn=0-8010-4049-3 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/commentaryonmino0000hail/page/271 271]–296 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Harris | first=J. G. | year=1966 | title=The Qumran Commentary on Habakkuk | series=Contemporary Studies in Theology | location=London | publisher=A. R. Mowbray & Co | pages=22–30 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Henderson | first=Ebenezer| authorlink=Ebenezer Henderson | year=1980 | origyear=First published 1858 | title=The Twelve Minor Prophets | url=https://archive.org/details/twelveminorproph0000hend | series=Thornapple Commentaries | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Baker Book House | isbn=0-8010-4217-8 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Hirsch | first=Emil G. | authorlink=Emil G. Hirsch | year=1906 | chapter=Habakkuk, Book of | title=Jewish Encyclopedia | url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6976-habakkuk-book-of | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last1=Hirsch | first1=Emil G. | last2=Blau | first2=Ludwig | last3=Kohler | first3=Kaufmann | last4=Schmidt | first4=Nathaniel | year=1906 | chapter=Bible Canon | title=Jewish Encyclopedia | url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3259-bible-canon | lastauthoramp=y | authormask=7 | ref={{sfnref|Hirsch|Blau|Kohler|Schmidt|1906}} }} * {{cite book | last=Humbert | first=Paul | year=1944 | title=Problèmes du Livre d'Habacuc | series=Mémoires de l'Université de Neuchatel, '''18''' | location=Neuchatel | publisher=Secrétariat de l'Université | isbn=0-8042-0195-1 | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last=Irving | first=T. Johnstone | year=1908 | title=Habakkuk | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biblical-world_1908-01_31_1/page/51 | journal=The Biblical World | volume=31 | issue=1 | pages=51–61 | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last=Irwin | first=William A. | year=1956 | title=The mythological background of Habakkuk, chapter 3 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-near-eastern-studies_1956-01_15_1/page/47 | journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies | volume=15 | issue=1 | pages=47–50 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Johnson | first=Robert L. | year=1969 | title=The Letter of Paul to the Galatians | series=The Living Word Commentary | location=Abilene, TX | publisher=ACU Press | isbn=0-915547-29-5 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Kachelman | first=John L., Jr. | year=2000 | title=Habakkuk: When God Seems So Silent | publisher=Freed-Hardeman University Press | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last=Kelly | first=Fred T. | year=1902 | title=The strophic structure of Habakkuk | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-semitic-languages-and-literatures_1902-01_18_2/page/94 | journal=The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures | volume=18 | issue=2 | pages=94–119 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last1=LaSor | first1=William Sanford | authorlink=William Sanford La Sor | last2=Hubbard | first2=David Allan | last3=Bush | first3=Frederic Wm. | year=1982 | title=Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans | isbn=0-8028-3556-2 | lastauthoramp=y | ref={{sfnref|LaSor|Hubbard|Bush|1982}} }} * {{cite book | last=Lehrman | first=S. M., Rabbi | year=1948 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=The Twelve Prophets | url=https://archive.org/details/twelveprophetshe0008unse | editor=A. Cohen | location=London | publisher=The Soncino Press | pages=[https://archive.org/details/twelveprophetshe0008unse/page/209 210]–220 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Leslie | first=E. A. | year=1962 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible: An Illustrated Encyclopedia | editor=[[George Arthur Buttrick|Buttrick, George Arthur]], et al | location=Nashville, TN | publisher=Abingdon Press | isbn=0-687-19271-4 | volume=2 | pages=503–505 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Lloyd-Jones | first=D. Martyn | authorlink=Martyn Lloyd-Jones | year=1966 | origyear=First published 1953 | title=From Fear to Faith: Studies in the Book of Habakkuk | location=Leicester, UK | publisher=Inter-Varsity Press | isbn=0-85110-332-4 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=McGee | first=J. Vernon | year=1991 | title=Nahum and Habakkuk | series=Thru the Bible Commentary Series | location=Nashville, TN | publisher=Thomas Nelson Publishers | isbn=0-7852-1033-4 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Moore | first=Carey A. | year=1977 | title=Daniel, Esther and Jeremiah: The Additions | url=https://archive.org/details/danielestherjere00tari | series=The Anchor Bible | location=Garden City, NY | publisher=Doubleday & Company | isbn=0-385-04702-9 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Neusner | first=Jacob | year=1994 | title=Introduction to Rabbinic Literature | url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontora0000neus | series=The Anchor Bible Reference Library | location=New York | publisher=Doubleday | isbn=0-385-47093-2 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Patterson | first=Richard D. | year=2003 | title=An Exegetical Commentary: Nahum, Habbakuk, Zephaniah | publisher=Biblical Studies Press | url=http://bible.org/series/exegetical-commentary-nahum-habakkuk-zephaniah | isbn=0-7375-0019-0 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Pusey | first=E. B. | authorlink= Edward Bouverie Pusey | year=1950 | origyear=First published 1860 | title=The Minor Prophets: A Commentary | volume=2 | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Baker Book House | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Robertson | first=O. Palmer | year=1990 | title=The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah | url=https://archive.org/details/booksofnahumhaba0000robe | series=The New International Commentary on the Old Testament | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans | isbn=978-0-8028-2532-2 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Smith | first=Ralph L. | year=1984 | chapter=Habakkuk | title=Micah–Malachi | series=Word Biblical Commentary | volume=32 | location=Waco, TX | publisher=Words Books | isbn=0-8499-0231-2 | pages=92–117 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Széles | first=Mária Eszenyei | year=1987 | title=Wrath and Mercy: A Commentary on the Books of Habakkuk and Zephaniah | others=trans. George A. F. Knight | series=International Theological Commentary | location=Grand Rapids, MI | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans | isbn=0-8028-0242-7 | ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last1=Walker | first1=H. H. | last2=Lund | first2=N. W. | year=1934 | title=The literary structure of the book of Habakkuk | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-biblical-literature_1934-12_53_4/page/355 | journal=Journal of Biblical Literature | volume=53 | issue=4 | pages=355–370 | lastauthoramp=y | ref={{sfnref|Walker|Lund|1934}} }} * {{cite book | editor=Whelpton, George | year=1916 | chapter=song 279 | title=The Church Hymnal | url=https://archive.org/details/churchhymnalabo00whelgoog | location=New York | publisher=The Century Co | ref={{sfnref|Whelpton|1916}} }} * {{cite book | editor=Wiegand, John P. | year=1992 | chapter=song 685 | title=Praise for the Lord | url=https://archive.org/details/praiseforlord0000wieg | location=Nashville, TN | publisher=Praise Press | isbn=0-89098-119-1 | ref={{sfnref|Wiegland|1992}} }} * {{cite book | last1=Wise | first1=Michael | last2=Abegg | first2=Martin, Jr. | last3=Cook |first3=Edward | year=1996 | title=The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060692001 | location=San Francisco | publisher=HarperSanFrancisco | isbn=0-06-069200-6 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060692001/page/114 114]–122 | lastauthoramp=y | ref={{sfnref|Wise|Abegg|Cook|1996}} }} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/habakkuk The Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll], ''The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls'', hosted by the [[Israel Museum]], Jerusalem. * [http://www.powerofchange.org/storage/docs/habakkuk_intro.pdf A Brief Introduction to The Prophecy of Habakkuk for Contemporary Readers] {{Wayback|url=http://www.powerofchange.org/storage/docs/habakkuk_intro.pdf |date=20111009182923 }} (Christian Perspective) * [http://www.ibs.org/niv/studybible/habakkuk.php Introduction to the book of Habakkuk] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ibs.org/niv/studybible/habakkuk.php |date=20080801154610 }} from the [[NIV Study Bible]] {{mbegu-mtu-Biblia}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Habakuki}} [[Jamii:waliozaliwa karne ya 7 KK]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Israeli]] [[Category:Manabii wa Agano la Kale]] 77ggau9gvhrbw2o8wovttqigj68nmz8 0 16778 1580144 1578171 2026-07-18T00:33:41Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580144 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Saint Irenaeus.jpg|200px|thumb|Mt. Irenaeus, Askofu wa Lyon.]] '''Mtakatifu Ireneo''' (kwa [[Kigiriki]]: Εἰρηναῖος, ''Eirēnaios'' [[135]] hivi – [[202]] hivi) alikuwa [[askofu]] wa pili wa [[mji]] wa [[Lyon]], leo nchini [[Ufaransa]], aliyewajibika kueneza [[Ukristo]] katika eneo hilo lote. Zaidi ya hayo, alistawisha [[teolojia]] kwa kupinga [[uzushi]] hata kwa [[maandishi]] bora <ref>His best-known work is ''Adversus Haereses'', a refutation of [[gnosticism]], in particular that of [[Valentinus (Gnostic)|Valentinus]]. To counter the doctrines of the gnostic sects claiming [[Sofia (Gnosi)|secret wisdom]], he offered three pillars of [[imani sahihi|orthodoxy]]: the [[Biblia|scripture]]s, the [[Mapokeo ya Mitume|tradition]] handed down from the [[Mitume wa Yesu|apostles]], and the teaching of the apostles' [[mlolongo wa Kitume|successors]]. Intrinsic to his writing is that the surest source of Christian guidance is the Church of [[Upapa|Rome]], and he is the earliest surviving witness to regard all four of the now-[[kanuni ya Biblia|canonical]] [[Injili|gospel]]s as essential. Sehemu ndogo imetafsiriwa katika Masomo ya Breviari - Sikukuu za Bwana, za Bikira Maria na za Watakatifu - Ndanda Mission Press 1978, uk 210-212</ref> ya [[Kigiriki]], [[Lugha ya kwanza|lugha mama]] yake. Ni muhimu kwa juhudi zake za kupigania [[umoja wa Kanisa]] dhidi ya [[uzushi]], akisisitiza umuhimu wa [[mlolongo wa kitume]] wa maaskofu, akitoa kama mfano orodha ya wale wa [[Kanisa la Roma]] baada ya [[Mtume Petro]]. Alidai ma[[kanisa]] yalingane na imani ya Kanisa hilo. Hata hivyo alimsihi [[Papa Viktor I|Papa Vikta I]] asiwatenge na Kanisa Wakristo wa [[Asia Ndogo]] kwa sababu tu ya tofauti za [[Liturgia|kiliturujia]]<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm Book V Chapter 24, Section 1ff]</ref>. Katika maandishi yake alijitahidi sana kutetea [[imani]] ya [[Kanisa Katoliki]] inayotegemea [[mapokeo]] ya [[Mitume wa Yesu]]<ref>Irenaeus cited the New Testament approximately 1,000 times. About one third of his citations are made to Paul's letters. </ref> dhidi ya mafundisho ya [[Gnosis]] yaliyotegemea ujuzi ambao yeyote aliweza kudai kuwa nao akianzisha kikundi chake <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/23500</ref>. Ni wa kwanza pia kushuhudia [[Injili]] [[nne]] kuwa [[Neno la Mungu]]. Ametambuliwa tangu kale kuwa [[mtakatifu]], hata kama [[mfiadini]]. [[Tarehe]] [[21 Januari]] [[2022]] [[Papa Fransisko]] alimuongezea [[sifa]] ya "[[mwalimu wa Kanisa]]" <ref>http://www.causesanti.va/it/notizie/notizie-2022/decreto-del-santo-padre-per-il-conferimento-del-titolo-di-dottor.html</ref> [[Sikukuu]] yake ni [[tarehe]] [[28 Juni]]<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. == Maisha == Ireneo<ref>The biographical information on him comes from his own testimony, handed down to us by Eusebius in his fifth book on Church History.</ref> alizaliwa yapata [[mwaka]] 135 akalelewa [[Kikristo]] katika [[mji]] wa [[Smirna]] (leo [[İzmir]] nchini [[Uturuki]]), akiwa [[mwanafunzi]] wa [[Polikarp Mtakatifu|Mt. Polikarpo]] aliyekuwa askofu wa mji huo baada ya kuwa mfuasi wa [[Mtume Yohane]]. Haijulikani ni lini alipohama [[Asia Ndogo]] kwenda [[Gallia]], lakini ndio wakati wa [[jumuia]] ya [[Ukristo|Wakristo]] wa Lyon kuanza kustawi. Huko, mwaka [[177]], Ireneo aliorodheshwa kati ya [[mapadri]]. Mwaka huohuo alitumwa kidogo [[Roma]] na [[barua]] ya [[kanisa]] lake kwa [[Papa Eleutero]], akinusurika hivyo kuuawa katika [[dhuluma]] ya [[Kaizari|kaisari]] [[Marcus Aurelius]] dhidi ya Wakristo iliyoua [[Wafiadini wa Lyon|walau waumini 48]], akiwemo askofu mkongwe [[Potinus wa Lyon|Potinus]]<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250105.htm Book V Chapter 4, Section 1]</ref>. Hapo Ireneo aliporudi aliteuliwa kuwa askofu akafanya [[bidii]] kubwa hadi mwaka 202-203 alipofariki, labda kwa kufia [[dini]]. ==Mchango wake== Ireneo alikuwa hasa mtu wa [[imani]] na [[mchungaji]] wa waamini. Kama mchungaji mwema, alikuwa na kipaji cha kuwianisha mambo mbalimali, [[utajiri]] wa mafundisho, na [[juhudi]] za [[umisionari|kimisionari]]. Kama [[mwandishi]], alilenga mawili: kutetea [[imani sahihi]] dhidi ya mashambulizi ya [[uzushi]], na kufafanua vizuri [[ukweli]] wa imani. Vitabu vyake vilivyotufikia - vitano kuhusu Kutambua na Kukanusha Maarifa ya Uongo na Uthibitisho wa Mafundisho ya Mitume (kinachoweza kuitwa [[katekisimu]] ya kwanza) - vinatimiza kikamilifu malengo hayo. Kifupi, Ireneo anaweza kutambulishwa kama [[shujaa]] wa mapigano dhidi ya aina mbalimbali za uzushi. [[Karne]] ya pili ya [[Kanisa Katoliki]] iliingia hatari ya kufuata [[Ujuzilio]], uzushi uliodai kwamba imani inayofundishwa ndani ya Kanisa ni kidokezo tu cha kuwafaa watu sahili mno wasioweza kuelewa mawazo ya juu; kumbe, wasomi walioelimishwa peke yao walidai kuelewa yaliyofichwa na kidokezo hicho, na kwa namna hiyo waliunda Ukristo maalumu kwa wachache bora. Ni rahisi kuelewa kwamba Ukristo huo wa wasomi ulizidi kugawanyika kwa kufuata mawazo tofautitofauti na mara nyingi ya ajabuajabu, ambayo hata hivyo yaliweza kuvutia wengi. Jambo lililounganisha [[Kundi|makundi]] yote ya Ujuzilio ni "dualism": kukana imani katika [[Umoja wa Mungu|Mungu pekee]], [[Mungu Baba|Baba]] wa wote, [[Muumba]] na [[Mwokozi]] wa [[binadamu]] na wa [[ulimwengu]] mzima. Ili kueleza uwepo wa mabaya [[dunia|duniani]], hao walisema kuna chanzo kingine kibaya, mbali na Mungu Mwema, nacho ndicho kilichosababisha [[mata]]. Ireneo, akiwa imara katika msimamo wa [[Biblia ya Kikristo|Biblia]] kuhusu [[uumbaji]], alikataa mafundisho hayo yenye mtazamo hasi kuhusu vitu vinavyoonekana, alisisitiza [[utakatifu]] wa mata na wa [[mwili]] sawa na ule wa [[roho]]. Kwake, [[heshima]] ya binadamu, mwili na roho, ina [[msingi]] imara katika uumbaji wa Kimungu, katika kuwa sura ya Kristo na katika [[kazi]] ya kudumu ya Roho Mtakatifu kwa ajili ya [[utakaso]]. Bila kuishia katika kukanusha uzushi, alijitokeza kama [[Mwanatheolojia|mwanateolojia]] wa kwanza wa Kanisa kwa kupanga [[ufafanuzi]] wa mafundisho ya imani na kuonyesha yanavyolingana yote sawasawa. Kiini cha [[teolojia]] yake ni suala la "[[kanuni]] ya imani" na uenezaji wake. Kwake kanuni hiyo ni [[Kanuni ya Imani ya Mitume|ile ya Mitume]], ambayo inatuwezesha kufafanua [[Injili]] na kuifafanua yenyewe kwa mwanga wa Injili. Kanuni hiyo, ikiwa kama [[muhtasari]] wa Injili, inatusaidia kuelewa maana yake na jinsi ya kusoma Injili yenyewe. Injili aliyoihubiri Ireneo ni ile aliyofundishwa na Polikarpo, ambayo tena ilitokana na Mtume Yohane, mwalimu wake. Hivyo mafundisho halisi si yale ambayo yanabuniwa na wasomi na kwenda mbali kukiko imani sahili ya Kanisa. Injili halisi ni ile inayotangazwa na maaskofu waliyoipokea kutoka wa [[Mitume wa Yesu]] kwa mlolongo usiokatika. Hao walifundisha hiyo imani sahili tu, ambayo ndiyo [[kina]] halisi cha [[ufunuo]] wa Mungu. Hivyo, hakuna mafundisho ya siri yaliyofichika ndani ya kanuni ya imani ya Kanisa lote. Hakuna Ukristo wa hali ya juu kwa ajili ya wasomi tu. Imani inayoungamwa na Kanisa hadharani ndiyo imani ya wote kabisa. Imani hiyo tu ni ya Kitume, imepokezwa na Mitume, yaani na Yesu na Mungu. Kwa kushika imani hiyo, iliyokabidhiwa rasmi na Mitume kwa [[Mlolongo wa Kitume|waandamizi]] wao, Wakristo wanatakiwa kuzingatia kinachosemwa na maaskofu wao na hasa kinachofundishwa na [[Kanisa la Roma]], lililo kuu na la kale sana, hivi kwamba ni la Kitume kwa namna ya pekee, likitokana na [[mtume Petro|Petro]] na [[Mtakatifu Paulo|Paulo]], [[nguzo]] za [[rika]] la Mitume. Makanisa yoye yanapaswa kukubaliana na Kanisa la Roma, yakitambua ndani yake [[kipimo]] cha [[Mapokeo ya Mitume]] kilicho halisi, imani pekee ya Kanisa lote. Kwa hoja hizo, zilizofupishwa sana humu, Ireneo alikataa toka mwanzo madai ya hao wajuzi. Kwanza kabisa, hao hawakuwa na ukweli wowote wa juu kuliko ule wa imani ya kawaida, kwa sababu waliochosema hakikuwa na asili kwa Mitume, bali kilibuniwa nao tu. Pili, ukweli na [[wokovu]] si [[mali]] ya wachache, bali viko tayari kwa wote kwa njia ya mahubiri ya waandamizi wa Mitume, hasa ya [[Papa|askofu wa Roma]]. Kwa namna ya pekee, akipinga tena [[tabia]] ya siri ya Ujuzilio na [[tawi|matawi]] yake mengi yaliyoshindana, Ireneo aliona umuhimu wa kufafanua vizuri Mapokeo ya Mitume namna tunayoweza kuifupisha katika mambo matatu. a) Mapokeo ya Mitume ni "ya hadhara", si ya binafsi wala ya siri. Ireneo hakutia shaka kwamba yaliyomo katika imani inayopokezwa na Kanisa ni yale yaliyokana na Mitume na Yesu, [[Mwana wa Mungu]]. Hakuna mafundisho zaidi ya hayo. Hivyo, kwa yeyote anayetamani kujua ukweli, inatosha kujua "Mapokeo yaliykabidhiwa na Mitume na imani iliyotangazwa kwa watu": mapokeo na imani ambavyo "vimetufikia kwa njia ya mlolongo wa maaskofu" (Adversus Haereses, 3, 3, 3-4). Kwa maana hiyo, mlolongo wa maaskofu na Mapokeo ya Mitume ni mamoja. b) Mapokeo ya Mitume yana "[[umoja]]". Kweli, wakati Ujuzilio uligawanyika katika makundi mengi, Mapokeo ya Kanisa yanadumisha umoja, kwa kushikilia kanuni ya imani au ya ukweli: kwa kuwa hiyo ni moja, inaunda umoja kati ya [[Taifa|mataifa]], [[Utamaduni|tamaduni]] na [[lugha]] mbalimbali. Kauli ya thamani sana ya Ireneo inayopatikana katika kitabu chake Adversus Haereses ni hii: "Kanisa, ingawa limetawanyika duniani kote... kwa kuwa limepokea [imani hiyo kutoka kwa Mitume]... linaitunza kwa makini kama kwamba lingeishi [[nyumba]] moja. Tena linasadiki mafundisho hayo kama kwamba lingekuwa na roho moja na [[moyo]] mmoja, nalo linayatangaza na kuyafundisha na kuyapokeza kwa ulinganifu kamili kama kwamba lingekuwa na [[kinywa]] kimoja. Kwa kuwa, ingawa lugha za ulimwengu ni tofauti, dhati ya mapokeo ni ileile moja tu. Kwa sababu Makanisa yaliyoanzishwa Ujerumani, wala yale yaliyoko Hispania, wala yale yaliyoko Gallia, wala yale yaliyoko Mashariki, wala yale yaliyoko Misri, wala yale yaliyoko Libya, wala yale yaliyoanzishwa katikati ya dunia hayasadiki wala kupokeza chochote tofauti" (1, 10, 1-2). Wakati huo - kwenye mwaka 200 - iliwezekana tayari kutambua katika Kanisa umataifa, [[katoliki|ukatoliki]] na uwezo wa ukweli wa kuunganisha mataifa tofauti sana katika umoja wa imani iliyofunuliwa na Kristo. c) Hatimaye, Mapokeo ya Mitume ni "ya Kiroho", akiongozwa na [[Roho Mtakatifu]] kwa kuwa hayapokezwi kadiri ya uwezo wa watu wenye elimu zaidi, bali kadiri ya Roho wa Mungu anayehakikisha uaminifu katika kueneza imani: hayo ndiyo "maisha" ya Kanisa, yanayolifanya daima kuwa na ujana na uhai, likizaa kwa [[karama]] nyingi. Kwa Ireneo, Kanisa na Roho Mtakatifu hawatenganiki: "Imani hiyo ambayo imepokezwa kwetu na Kanisa, na kwa hiyo tunaidumisha, na ambayo daima, kwa Roho wa Mungu, ikipata ujana upya kama kwamba ingekuwa amana ya thamani iliyotunzwa katika chombo bora, inasababisha chombo chenyewe kilicho nayo kuwa kipya pia.... Kwa sababu Kanisa lilipo, ndipo Roho wa Mungu alipo; na Roho wa Mungu alipo, ndipo Kanisa na aina zote za neema vilipo" (Adversus Haereses, 3, 24, 1). Ireneo hasimami kufafanua Mapokeo. Kwake hayo hayakatiki, hivyo hayaishii katika yale yaliyopita, bali yanaumuliwa kwa ndani na Roho Mtakatifu, anayeyafanya kuishi upya, anasababisha yafafanuliwe na kueleweka katika uhai wa Kanisa. Akishikilia mafundisho nyake, Kanisa linapaswa kupokeza imani kwa namna ambayo iweze kuonekana ilivyo: "ya hadhara", "yenye umoja" na "ya Kiroho". Kwa kuzingatia sifa hizo tatu, inawezekana kufanya upambanuzi wa kufaa wa uenezaji sahihi wa imani leo. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] *[[Mababu wa Kanisa]] *[[Walimu wa Kanisa]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo ya Kiswahili== * John Kabeya na wengine - Maisha ya Watakatifu – ed. T.M.P. Book Department – Tabora 1965, 1989, uk. 223 * Pd. Leandry Kimario, [[Wakapuchini|O.F.M.Cap.]] - Mfahamu Mtakatifu Somo Wako - Maisha ya Watakatifu wa Kila Siku pamoja na Watakatifu Wafransisko - Toleo la pili - Dar es Salaam 2021, uk. 188-189 * Maurice Soseleje, Kalendari yetu – Maisha ya Watakatifu – Toleo la pili – ed. Benedictine Publications Ndanda Peramiho – Peramiho 1986 – ISBN 9976-63-112-X, uk. 51 == Marejeo ya lugha nyingine== {{refbegin}} * {{cite CE1913|first=John P. |last=Arendzen|wstitle=Demiurge|volume=4}} * {{cite journal|last=Bandstra|first= Andrew J. |title=Paul and an Ancient Interpreter: A Comparison of the Teaching of Redemption in Paul and Irenaeus|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_calvin-theological-journal_1970-04_5_1/page/43|journal=Calvin Theological Journal|volume= 5 |date=1970|pages= 43–63}} * {{cite book|last=Blackwell|first=Ben C. |title=Christosis: Pauline Soteriology in Light of Deification in Irenaeus and Cyril of Alexandria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDZxSq9nx4IC&pg=PR7|year=2011|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=978-3-16-151672-6}} *{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Raymond Edward |authorlink=Raymond Edward Brown|title=An Introduction to the New Testament|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gk_uAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA14|year=1997|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-24767-2}} *{{cite journal |last=Bruce |first=F. 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Cleveland Coxe|location=Buffalo, NY|publisher= Christian Literature Publishing Co.|date= 1885a}} *{{cite book|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/irenaeus/demonstr.preaching_the_demonstration_of_the_apostolic_preaching.html |author=Irenaeus|title= Demonstration of Apostolic Preaching|date=1920|publisher=[[SPCK]]|translator=Armitage Robinson}} *{{cite book|editor=Dominic J. Unger |author=Irenaeus |translator=M.C. Steenberg |title=St Irenaeus of Lyons: Against the Heresies III|series= Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation |location=New York|publisher= The Newman Press|date= 2012}} *{{cite book|editor-first=W. A. |editor-last=Jurgens|title=The Faith of the Early Fathers: A Source-book of Theological and Historical Passages from the Christian Writings of the Pre-Nicene and Nicene Eras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WTswAAAAYAAJ|year=1970|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-1021-3}} *{{cite book| last= Klager|first= Andrew P. |chapter="Retaining and Reclaiming the Divine: Identification and the Recapitulation of Peace in St. Irenaeus of Lyons' Atonement Narrative|title=Stricken by God? Nonviolent Identification and the Victory of Christ|editor1= Brad Jersak |editor2=Michael Hardin|location=Grand Rapids|publisher= Eerdmans|date= 2007}} * {{cite journal|last=Litwa|first= M. David|title=The Wonderous Exchange: Irenaeus and Eastern Valentinians on the Soteriology of Interchange|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-early-christian-studies_fall-2014_22_3/page/311|journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies|volume= 22 |date=2014|issue= 3|pages= 311–340|doi=10.1353/earl.2014.0029|s2cid= 170888989}} *{{cite book|last=Most|first= William G.|title=The Holy Spirit and the Church|publisher=Notre Dame Institute Press|date= 1991}} *{{cite book|last1=McDonald|first1=Lee Martin |last2=Sanders|first2=James A. |title=The Canon Debate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxW-AgAAQBAJ|year=2001|publisher=Baker|isbn=978-1-4412-4163-4}} * {{cite book|last=Nielsen|first= J.T. |title=Adam and Christ in the Theology of Irenaeus of Lyons: An Examination of the function of the Adam-Christ Typology in the Adversus Haereses of Ireaneus, against the Background of the Gnosticism of His Time|series=Van Gorcum's Theologische Bibliotheek|location= Asen, The Netherlands|publisher= Koninkliijke Van Gorcum 7 Comp. N.V.|date= 1968}} *{{cite book|last=Norris|first=Richard A |editor1=Frances Young|editor2= Lewis Ayres |editor3=Andrew Louth|title=The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aepYpUVf9OkC&pg=PA47|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-46083-5|chapter=Irenaeus of Lyons}} *{{Rejea kitabu|title=The Gnostc Gospels|url=https://archive.org/details/gnosticgospels00page_0|last=Pagels|first=Elaine|publisher=Vintage Books|year=1979}} *{{cite book|last=Pagels|first= Elaine|title=Beyond Belief|publisher= Pan |date= 2005}} *{{cite book|last=Parvis|first=Paul|editor=Sara Parvis|editor2=Paul Foster|title=Irenaeus: Life, Scripture, Legacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5CrpwAACAAJ|year=2012|publisher=Fortress Press|location=Minneanpolis|isbn=978-0-8006-9796-9|chapter=Who was Irenaeus? An Introduction to the Man and His Work}} *{{cite CE1913|last1=Poncelet |first1=Albert |wstitle=St. Irenaeus |volume=8}} *{{cite book|last=Stark|first= Rodney|title=Cities of God|publisher= HarperCollins|date= 2007}} * Steenberg, Ireaneus M.C. "The Role of Mary as Co-Recapitulator in St. Irenaeus of Lyons." ''Vigilae Christianae'' 58 (2004):117–137. *{{cite book|first=Rev. J.|last= Tixeront|title=A Handbook of Patrology|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/tixeront/section1-4.html#irenaeus|chapter= Section IV: The Opponents of Heresy in the Second Century|location= St. Louis, MO|publisher= B. Herder Book Co.|date= 1920}} *{{citation|first=Gustaf |last=Wingren|date=n.d.|title=Saint Irenaeus|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Irenaeus}} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== {{refbegin|2|indent=yes}} * Irenaeus, ''Proof of the Apostolic Preaching'', trans JP Smith, (ACW 16, 1952) * Irenaeus, ''Proof of the Apostolic Preaching'', trans John Behr (PPS, 1997) * Irenaeus, [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103.htm ''Against Heresies''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316114638/http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103.htm |date=16 March 2016 }}, trans. Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut, in ''Ante-Nicene Fathers'', vol. 1, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Co., 1885). * {{cite book|editor-last=Coxe|editor-first=Arthur Cleveland|url=https://archive.org/details/antenicenefathe05menzgoog|title=The Ante-Nicene Fathers|year=1885|publisher=The Christian Literature Company|location=Buffalo, NY|isbn=9780802880871}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Edwards|first=Mark|year=2009|title=Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church|publisher=Ashgate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9acTl-jAkAC|isbn=9780754662914}} * {{cite book |last=Eusebius|title=The Ecclesiastical History|year=1932|publisher=Putnam|location=New York|others=Kirsopp Lake and John E.L. Oulton, trans}} * {{cite book |last=Hägglund|first=Bengt|title=History of Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/historyoftheolog0000hggl|year=1968|publisher=Concordia Publishing|location=St. Louis|others=Gene J.Lund, trans}} * {{cite book |last=Minns|first=Denis|title=Irenaeus|url=https://archive.org/details/irenaeus0000minn|year=1994|publisher=Georgetown University Press|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=0-87840-553-4}} * Payton Jr., James R. ''Irenaeus on the Christian Faith: A Condensation of 'Against Heresies'' (Cambridge, James Clarke and Co Ltd, 2012). * {{cite book |last=Quasten|first=J.|title=Patrology: The Beginnings of Patristic Literature|year=1960|publisher=Newman Press|location=Westminster, MD}} * {{cite book|last=Schaff|first=Philip|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofthechri009648mbp|title=History of the Christian Church: Ante-Nicene Christianity, A.D. 100–325|year=1980|publisher=Wm. Eerdmans|location=Grand Rapids, Mich|isbn=0-8028-8047-9}} * {{cite book |last=Tyson|first=Joseph B.|title=A Study of Early Christianity|url=https://archive.org/details/studyofearlychri0000tyso|year=1973|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York}} * {{cite book |last=Wolfson|first=Henry Austryn|title=The Philosophy of the Church Fathers: Faith, Trinity, Incarnation|url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofchur0000harr|year=1970|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, MA}} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Sister project links|s=Author:Irenaeus|wikt=no|n=no|voy=no|v=no|b=no}} * [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/irenaeus.html Early Christian Writings Irenaeus] * [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0134.htm Fragments from his lost works] * [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103.htm Alexander Roberts and William Rambaut 1885 Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 1. translation of Against Heresies] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060925041929/http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/TOC.htm A nineteenth-century translation of Irenaeus's work] ** [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/irenaeus/demonstr.toc.html Demonstration of the Apostolic Preaching] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20080520122853/http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-59.htm#P7011_1802900 Book II, ch. 22], where Irenaeus argues his unconventional views about the age of Jesus and the length of his ministry. * [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/irenaeus.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography. * [https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/audiences/2007/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20070328.html [[Papa Benedikto XVI]] on St. Irenaeus] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100207140719/http://www.revneal.org/Writings/evil.htm Gregory S. Neal: "The Nature of Evil and the Irenaean Theodicy" ''Grace Incarnate'' (1988)] * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/story/emergence.html Critique of Irenaeus], [[Elaine H. Pagels]] * [http://www.catholicculture.org/news/features/index.cfm?recnum=43736 Critique of Pagel's article by Paul Mankowski] * [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/20_30_0130-0202-_Iraeneus.html Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes] * [http://www.bartleby.com/210/6/281.html "St. Irenæus, Bishop of Lyons, Martyr"], ''Butler's Lives of the Saints'' * [http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=291 "Catholic Online"] * [http://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/23500 "Santiebeati"] *{{YouTube|id=6hH4g-Thmg0|title=The First Theologians: Irenaeus and Tertullian }} a lecture by [[James L. Papandrea]] {{walimu wa Kanisa}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ireneo wa Lyon}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 135]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 202]] [[Jamii:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Jamii:Wafiadini Wakristo]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Uturuki]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:Mababu wa Kanisa]] d43gbwlsuwe37z797js30o82fhhepvp 0 17055 1580011 1386921 2026-07-17T21:28:04Z Amanich7 44301 /* Marekani */ 1580011 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Vladimir_Nabokov_1973.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Vladimir Nabokov 1973]] {{Infobox_Person | jina = Vladimir Nabokov | nchi = | majina_mengine = | picha = | ukubwawapicha = 200px | maelezo_ya_picha = Nabokov mnamo 1969 | jina_la_kuzaliwa = Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = [[22 Aprili]] [[1899]] | mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Urusi]] | tarehe_ya_kufariki = [[2 Julai]] [[1977]] | mahala_alipofia = [[Uswisi]] | sababu_ya_kifariki = | anajulikana kwa = ''The Defense'' (1930)<br />''The Real Life of Sebastian Knight'' (1941)<br />''Lolita'' (1955)<br />''Pale Fire'' (1962)''<br />''Speak, Memory'' (1936–1966) | kazi_yake = Mwandishi, Profesa. | cheo = | mshahara = | kipindi = | alitanguliwa_na = | akafuatiwa_na = | chama = | bodi = | dini = | ndoa = Vera Nabokov|Véra Nabokova | rafiki = | watoto = Dmitri Nabokov | mahusiano = | tovuti = | maelezo = | mwajiri = | urefu = | uzito = }} '''Vladimir Nabokov''' ([[Kirusi]] '''Владимир Владимирович Набоков''' ''vladimir vladimirowich nabokov''; [[10 Aprili]] [[1899]] - [[2 Julai]] [[1977]]) alikuwa mwandishi kutoka nchini [[Urusi]] aliyekuwa baadaye raia wa [[Marekani]]. Alizaliwa katika familia ya kikabaila akapata elimu nzuri akaaanza kutunga mashairi akiwa na umri mdogo na kutoa kitabu chake cha kwanza mwaka 1916. == Uhamisho wa Ulaya == Baada ya [[Mapinduzi ya Urusi ya 1917]] familia ilikimbia na kuhamia Ulaya ya Kati na Magharibi. Vladimir alianza kusoma sayansi na fasihi kwenye [[chuo kikuu cha Cambridge]] ([[Uingereza]]). 1922 baada ya kifo cha baba alijiunga na familia iliyokuwa na nyumba mpya huko [[Berlin]] (Ujerumani). Hapa Vladimir alifanya kazi kama mwalimu wa nyumbani akaendelea kuandika na kutoa riwaya zake za kwanza. 1925 alimwoa Mrusi mwenzake Vera Jevseyevna Slonim akaendelea kuandika. Riwaya 9 alitoa wakati alipoishi Ujerumani. Tangu 1933 hali ya familia ilikuwa vigumu baada ya [[chama cha Nazi]] kuchukua serikali ya Berlin kwa sababu mke wake Vera alikuwa Myahudi. 1934 mtoto wa pekee Dimitri alizaliwa. 1936 waliondoka Ujerumani wakakaa [[Ucheki]] na baadaye [[Ufaransa]]. Vladimir alianza kuandika kwa Kiingereza. == Marekani == Mwaka 1940 wakati wa [[Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia]] familia ilikimbia wakafaulu kupata nafasi kwenye meli kwenda Marekani iliyoondoka Ufaransa wakati jeshi la Ujerumani limeshaanza kuvamia nchi. Vladimir alipata kazi kama bingwa wa vipepeo kwenye American Museum of Natural History mjini [[New York]] kwa muda kidogo lakini aliendelea kuwa mwalimu wa fasihi kwenye vyuo mbalimbali na tangu 1948 profesa wa fasihi kwenye chuo kikuu cha Cornell. Tangu 1945 alikuwa raia wa Marekani. 1955 alitoa kitabu kilichoendelea kumfanya mtu maarufu kimataifa na kumpatia mapato makubwa. Riwaya "Lolita" ilisimulia habari za mapenzi kati ya mwanaume mzee na binti mdogo. Baada ya kufaulu vema kiuchumi aliacha kazi yake kwenye chuo kikuu na 1961 akahamia [[Montreux]] ([[Uswisi]]) pamoja na mke wake alipoaga dunia mwaka 1977.{{fact}} == Viungo vya Nje == * [http://www.mochola.org/nabokov/index.htm Nabokov Library] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mochola.org/nabokov/index.htm |date=20060307134454 }} {{mbegu-mwandishi}} {{BD|1899|1977|Nabokov, Vladimir}} [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Urusi|Nabokov, Vladimir]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Marekani|Nabokov, Vladimir]] egk3apxvpvzolom5olzuyem0l00ila2 0 17404 1580334 1054410 2026-07-18T09:04:59Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 /* Viungo vya nje */ 1580334 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Settlement |jina_rasmi = Kisangani |pushpin_map = Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo |pushpin_map_caption = Mahali pa mji wa Kisangani katika Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo |settlement_type = Jiji |motto = |picha_ya_satelite = |maelezo_ya_picha = |image_blank_emblem = |blank_emblem_type = |blank_emblem_size = |subdivision_type = [[Madola|Nchi]] |subdivision_name = [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] |subdivision_type1 = [[Mikoa ya Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo|Mkoa]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Mkoa wa Tshopo]] |subdivision_type2 = |subdivision_name2 = |idadi_ya_wakazi_kwa_mwaka_wa = 2015 |wakazi_kwa_ujumla = 1,602,144 |latd=0 |latm=31 |lats=0 |latNS=S |longd=25 |longm=12 |longs=0 |longEW=E |website = }} [[Picha:Kisangani Ville.png|thumb|200px|[[Nembo]] ya Kisangani.]] [[Picha:Usine de Bralima à Kisangani.JPG|thumb|200px|Kiwanda cha Bralima mjini Kisangani.]] '''Kisangani''' ni [[mji]] mkubwa wa mashariki mwa [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo|Kongo]] wenye wakazi zaidi ya 1,600,000. Ni mji mkubwa wa [[tatu]] wa nchi hiyo. Mji uko kando ya [[mto Kongo]] mahali ambako [[mto]] huu mkubwa umepita [[maporomoko ya Bayoma]] na kuwa njia ya maji hadi [[Kinshasa]]. ==Historia== Kisangani ilianzishwa na [[mpelelezi]] [[Henry Morton Stanley]] [[mwaka]] [[1883]] kama kituo cha [[kampuni]] ya [[mfalme]] [[Leopold II wa Ubelgiji]] ikaitwa baadaye '''Stanleyville''' hadi mwaka [[1966]]. Mwanzoni [[utawala]] wa [[Wabelgiji]] ulikuwa hafifu katika mashariki ya [[koloni]] na 1888 [[mfanyabiashara]] [[Waswahili|Mswahili]] [[Tippu Tip]] akafanywa kuwa [[gavana]] wa mfalme Leopold II kwa sehemu za mashariki akikaa Stanleyville. Tangu mwaka [[1892]] Wabelgiji waliachana na Waswahili wakapigana nao [[vita]] na kuchukua utawala [[Mikono|mikononi]] mwao moja kwa moja. Kisangani iliathiriwa mara nyingi na vita, hasa wakati wa [[uhuru]] wa Kongo katika [[miaka ya 1960]] na tangu [[1996]] katika vita vilivyosababisha anguko la [[dikteta]] [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] mwaka [[1997]] na kuendelea katika mapigano kati ya [[Rwanda]], [[Uganda]] na vikundi vya Kikongo. Hivyo hali ya [[uchumi]] ni duni ingawa mji una nafasi nzuri [[Jiografia|kijiografia]]. [[Lugha]] kuu zinazotumiwa mjini ni hasa [[Kilingala]] na [[Kiswahili]]. == Tazama pia == * [[Orodha ya miji ya Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] == Marejeo == {{marejeo}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{commonscat}} {{Mbegu-jio-Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo}} [[Jamii:Kisangani| ]] [[Jamii:Miji ya Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] [[Jamii:Mkoa wa Tshopo]] [[jamii:mto Kongo]] j7wby6t870rn9krpyk6g21z4x2l4tlg 0 17884 1580244 1578784 2026-07-18T01:44:45Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580244 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:William Wordsworth - Project Gutenberg eText 12933.jpg|thumb|William Wordsworth]] '''William Wordsworth''' ([[7 Aprili]] [[1770]] – [[23 Aprili]] [[1850]]) alikuwa mwandishi na mshairi muhimu wa karne ya 19 nchini [[Uingereza]]. Maandiko yake yahesabiwa kati ya fasihi ya kiromantiki na amesifiwa hasa kwa shairi ya "The Prelude" ''(= Utangulizi)''. == Maisha yake == Alizaliwa kama mtoto wa mwanasheria akasoma kwenye chuo kikuu cha Cambridge. Alipokuwa mwanafunzi alipenda habari za [[mapinduzi ya Ufaransa]] akatembelea nchi hii mwaka 1890. Baadaye alichukia siasa ya mapinduzi Wafaransa walipovamia Uswisi mwaka 1798 akaendelea kusimama upande wa watetezi wa utaratibu wa kale. Tangu 1793 alianza kutoa shairi zake zilizopendwa na wasomaji. 1805 alimwoa Mary Hutchinson akazaa naye watoto 5. Akaendelea kuwa maarufu na mwaka 1843 akapokea cheo cha mshairi rasmi wa mfalme. == Maandiko muhimu == * ''Lyrical Ballads, with a Few Other Poems'' ([[1798]]) * ''Lyrical Ballads, with Other Poems'' ([[1800]]) * ''Poems, in Two Volumes'' ([[1807]]) * ''The Excursion'' ([[1814]]) * ''Ecclesiastical Sketches'' ([[1822]]) * ''The Prelude'' ([[1850]], posthumous) == Marejeo ya Nje == * {{cite book | title=The Norton Anthology of English Literature: Volume 2A, The Romantic Period (7th ed.) | url=https://archive.org/details/nortonanthologyo0002unse_g0i1 | publisher=W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. | location=New York | year=2000 | editor=M. H. Abrams | id=ISBN 0-393-97568-1}} * {{cite book | title=William Wordsworth: The Major Works | publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc. | location=New York | year=2000 | editor=Stephen Gill | id=ISBN 0-19-284044-4}} {{wikiquote}} {{commons|William Wordsworth}} === Viungo vingine === * [http://www.victorianweb.org/previctorian/ww/bio.html Short biographical sketch by Glenn Everett] * [http://www.clainesfriends.org.uk/wordsworth.html Worsworth's links with Claines, Worcester] {{Wayback|url=http://www.clainesfriends.org.uk/wordsworth.html |date=20081105091257 }} * [http://www.english-lakes.com/william_wordsworth.html Wordsworth and the Lake District] * [http://www.poetsgraves.co.uk/wordsworth.htm Wordsworth's Grave] * [http://www.usd.edu/~tgannon/txts/wordsfaq.txt A Wordsworth FAQ by Thomas C. Gannon] * [http://www.online-literature.com/wordsworth Biography and Works] * [http://www.visitcumbria.com/wilword.htm Wordsworth and the Lake District] {{Wayback|url=http://www.visitcumbria.com/wilword.htm |date=20070622045106 }} * [http://www.wordsworth.org.uk The Wordsworth Trust] * [http://www.rc.umd.edu/ Romantic Circles -- Excellent Editions & Articles on Wordsworth and other Authors of the Romantic period] {{Wayback|url=http://www.rc.umd.edu/ |date=20110228024220 }} === Maandiko ya Wordsworth mtandaoni === * [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:William_Wordsworth en:wikisource] * [http://www.bartleby.com/145/wordchrono.html Bartleby.com's complete poetical works by Wordsworth] * [http://www.poetseers.org/the_romantics/william_wordsworth/library Selected Poems by W.Wordsworth] * [http://www.online-literature.com/wordsworth Biography and Works] * {{gutenberg author|id=William_Wordsworth|name=William Wordsworth}} * [http://www.sanjeev.net/poetry/wordsworth-william/index.html Poetry Archive: 166 poems of William Wordsworth] * [http://thelouvertureproject.org/wiki/index.php?title=To_Toussaint_Louverture_-_poem_by_Wordsworth To Toussaint Louverture - poem by William Wordsworth] {{Wayback|url=http://thelouvertureproject.org/wiki/index.php?title=To_Toussaint_Louverture_-_poem_by_Wordsworth |date=20060223132458 }} * [http://www.thetalisman.org.uk/tintern/index.htm Extensive Information on Wordsworth's Poem, '' Lines Written a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey''] {{Wayback|url=http://www.thetalisman.org.uk/tintern/index.htm |date=20050311013036 }} {{BD|1770|1850|Wordsworth, William}} [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Uingereza|Wordsworth, William]] osq6v1q88gjcjgqvwpfj5uoip2uqc2m 0 18504 1580142 1527683 2026-07-18T00:32:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580142 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Baptism - Marcellinus and Peter.jpg|thumb|right|200 px|Mchoro wa kale wa Ubatizo huko [[Roma]], [[Italia]].]] [[Picha:Benin baptism2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ubatizo wa [[mkatekumeni]] huko [[Benin]].]] [[Picha:Act of baptizing.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ubatizo wa mtoto mchanga huko [[Odessa]], [[Ukraina]].]] {{Ukristo}} '''Ubatizo''' ni [[sakramenti]] ya kwanza ya [[Ukristo]]. Unaitwa "mlango wa sakramenti", kwa sababu ni lazima kuupokea kabla ya kupokea nyingine yoyote, hasa [[ekaristi]]. ==Sakramenti ya kwanza== Sakramenti ya kwanza daima ni ubatizo, kwa kuwa ndio kupata [[uzima mpya]] kwa kushiriki [[kifo]] na [[ufufuko wa Yesu]], inavyodokezwa wazi zaidi mtu akizamishwa na kutolewa majini. “Je, hamfahamu ya kuwa sisi sote tuliobatizwa katika Kristo Yesu tulibatizwa katika mauti yake? Tulizikwa pamoja naye kwa njia ya ubatizo katika [[mauti]] yake, kusudi kama [[Kristo]] alivyofufuka katika wafu kwa njia ya [[utukufu]] wa [[Baba]], vivyo hivyo na sisi tuenende katika upya wa [[uzima]]. Kwa maana kama tulivyounganika naye katika mfano wa mauti yake, kadhalika tutaunganika kwa mfano wa kuunganika naye; tukijua nano hili, ya kuwa utu wetu wa kale ulisulubishwa pamoja naye, ili mwili wa dhambi ubatilike, tusitumikie dhambi tena” ([[Rom]] 6:3-6). Sakramenti nyingine zote ama zinastawisha ama zinafufua uzima huo wa Kimungu ambao ni sharti la kuingia mbinguni. “Amin, Amin, nakuambia: Mtu asipozaliwa kwa [[maji]] na kwa Roho, hawezi kuuingia [[ufalme wa Mungu]]” ([[Yoh]] 3:5). Kwa hiyo kubatizwa ni kuzika utu wa kale "maana ninyi nyote mliobatizwa katika Kristo mmemvaa Kristo" ([[Gal]] 3:27). Ubatizo huonyesha mambo muhimu matatu: # Kuifia dhambi. # Kuzaliwa upya katika Kristo. # Kumpokea Kristo milele. Ubatizo ni lazima uendane na imani ya kweli. Maana wote wenye imani ya kweli ni watoto wa Mungu: “Kwa maana kilichozaliwa na Mungu huushinda ulimwengu; na huko ndiko kuushinda ulimwengu, hiyo imani yetu” ([[1Yoh]]. 5:4). == Jina == Jina la [[Kiswahili]] na la [[lugha]] nyingine nyingi linatokana na kitenzi cha [[Kigiriki]] βαπτίζω (''baptizo'', maana yake ''nazamisha (nazika, nafunika) majini'', ''naosha'', lakini pia ''nanawa''). Maana ya kwanza inadokeza lengo la kumzika mtu ili afufuke pamoja na [[Yesu Kristo]] katika uzima mpya. Maana ya pili na ya tatu zinadokeza lengo la kumtakasa mtu kutoka [[dhambi]] zake. Ibada zinazotumia maji zinapatikana katika [[dini]] nyingi, kutokana na kitu hicho kumaanisha wazi uzima na [[usafi]]. Ubatizo unafanyika kwa maji kwa kuwa ndiyo [[ishara]] ya usafi na ya uhai unaotupatia kwa uwezo wa [[Roho Mtakatifu]]. “Nami nitawanyunyizia maji safi, nanyi mtakuwa safi; nitawatakaseni na uchafu wenu wote, na [[vinyago]] vyenu vyote. Nami nitawapa ninyi [[moyo mpya]], nami nitatia [[roho mpya]] ndani yenu” ([[Ez]] 36:26-27). “Kisha akanionyesha [[mto]] wa [[maji ya uzima]], wenye kung’aa kama [[bilauri]], ukitoka katika [[kiti cha enzi]] cha [[Mungu]], na cha [[Mwanakondoo]]” ([[Ufu]] 22:1). Ubatizo unatolewa pia kwa maji machache tangu mwanzo wa [[Kanisa]]. Kutokana na umuhimu wa sakramenti hiyo [[Yesu]] ametuagiza twende kubatiza watu duniani kote. Kitabu cha [[Matendo ya Mitume]] kinaonyesha waamini walivyotekeleza agizo hilo katika [[mazingira]] mbalimbali, si tu yalipopatikana maji mengi. Hivyo [[Mtume Paulo]] alipokuwa ndani ya [[nyumba]] “akasimama akabatizwa” ([[Mdo]] 9:18). Kumbe [[Yohane Mbatizaji]] hakusogea mbali na [[mto Yordani]], akisubiri watu wamuendee kutoka maeneo yote ya nchi ile kame. “Alikuwa akibatiza huko [[Ainoni]], karibu na [[Salimu]], kwa sababu huko kulikuwa na maji tele” (Yoh 3:23). == Ubatizo wa Yohane == [[Yohane Mbatizaji]] alipotikisa [[Wayahudi]] wenzake kwa kuhubiri [[toba]] kandokando ya mto Yordani aliwadai wapokee "ubatizo wa maji" kama ishara ya kuongoka na ya kuwa tayari kumpokea [[Masiya]] ajaye, atakayebatiza "kwa [[Roho Mtakatifu]] na [[moto]]" ([[Math]] 3:11). Ubatizo uliotolewa na Yohane Mbatizaji haukuwa sakramenti, kwa sababu yeye alikuwa mtangulizi tu wa Yesu, [[mwanzilishi]] wa sakramenti zote. “Kweli mimi nawabatiza kwa maji kwa ajili ya [[toba]]; bali yeye ajaye nyuma yangu ana nguvu kuliko mimi, wala sistahili hata kuvichukua viatu vyake; yeye atawabatiza kwa Roho Mtakatifu na kwa [[moto]]” (Math 3:11). Paulo aliuliza watu, “‘Mlibatizwa kwa ubatizo gani?’ Wakasema, ‘Kwa ubatizo wa Yohane’. Paulo akasema, ‘Yohane alibatiza kwa ubatizo wa toba, akiwaambia watu wamwamini yeye atakayekuja nyuma yake, yaani, Yesu’. Waliposikia haya wakabatizwa kwa jina la Bwana Yesu” (Mdo 19:3-5). Tofauti kubwa kati ya ubatizo wa Yohane na ule wa Yesu ni kwamba sakramenti inategemea [[imani]] kwa Kristo na kutushirikisha kifo na ufufuko wake. “Maana ninyi nyote mliobatizwa katika Kristo mmemvaa Kristo” ([[Gal]] 3:27). Ndivyo inavyoondolea dhambi zote na kuingiza katika uzima wa [[Utatu Mtakatifu]]. Kwa sababu hiyo Yesu aliagiza tubatize “kwa jina la Baba, na [[Mwana]], na Roho Mtakatifu” (Math 28:19). Maneno hayo ndiyo muhimu zaidi katika sakramenti hiyo. Maji peke yake, hasa yakiwa mengi, yanaweza kuosha [[mwili]], lakini si [[roho]]. Kumbe ubatizo unaotuokoa “siyo kuwekea mbali uchafu wa mwili, bali jibu la [[dhamiri]] safi mbele za Mungu” ([[1Pet]] 3:21). == Ubatizo alioupokea Yesu == [[Yesu]] alibatizwa na Yohane akiwa na umri wa miaka 30 hivi akithibitisha ubora wa kazi ya mtangulizi wake na utayari wa kubeba [[dhambi]] za [[ulimwengu]] kama [[mwanakondoo]] wa [[sadaka]] ya [[upatanisho]]. Hapo Roho Mtakatifu alimshukia kwa sura ya [[njiwa]] na [[Mungu Baba]] alimshuhudia kuwa ndiye [[Mwana]] wake mpendwa, aliyempendeza kwa [[utiifu]] wake ([[Mk]] 1:11). == Ubatizo uliotolewa na Yesu == [[Injili ya Yohane]] inashuhudia kwamba Yesu pia alianza kubatiza, tena watu wengi kuliko Yohane, ingawa kwa njia ya wanafunzi wake (Yoh 3:22; 4:1-2). Ubatizo huo ulifanana kabisa na ule wa Yohane na kulenga Wayahudi. ==Ubatizo ulioagizwa na Yesu== Kumbe baada ya kufufuka aliwaagiza wanafunzi wake wakabatize mataifa yote akifafanua watumie maneno yapi katika ibada hiyo: "Nimepewa [[mamlaka]] yote mbinguni na duniani. Basi, enendeni, mkawafanye mataifa yote kuwa wanafunzi, mkiwabatiza kwa jina la Baba, na Mwana, na Roho Mtakatifu" (Math 28:19). ==Mambo muhimu kabla ya mtu mzima kubatizwa== # Mtu mzima huanza kwa kulisikia [[neno la Mungu]]; kwa maana "imani huja kwa kusikia" (Rum 10:17). # Ni lazima kujifunza mambo unayopaswa kuyafanya ili kuikuza imani hiyo. "Enendeni mkayafanye mataifa yote kuwa wanafunzi, mkiwabatiza ... na kuwafundisha kuyashika yote niliyoyaamuru mimi" (Math 28:19,20). # Kisha fanya uamuzi sahihi wa kumfuata Kristo kimaisha. # Ni lazima kupata toba na msamaha wa dhambi. “Tubuni mkabatizwe kila mtu kwa jina lake Yesu Kristo, mpate ondoleo la dhambi” (Mdo 2:38). == Ubatizo wa watoto wachanga == Kadiri ya [[madhehebu]] mengi, watoto wachanga wanaweza kubatizwa kwa sababu hawakatai [[neema]] ya Mungu. Wanafunzi wa Yesu walipotaka kuwazuia wasiletwe kwake “alichukizwa sana, akawaambia, ‘Waacheni watoto wadogo waje kwangu, msiwazuie; kwa maana watoto kama hawa [[ufalme wa Mungu]] ni wao. Amin, nawaambieni: Yeyote asiyeukubali ufalme wa Mungu kama mtoto mdogo hatauingia kabisa” (Mk 10:14-15). [[Yeremia]] aliambiwa, “Kabla hujatoka tumboni, nalikutakasa; nimekuweka kuwa [[nabii]] wa mataifa” ([[Yer]] 1:5). Yohane Mbatizaji alitabiriwa “atajazwa Roho Mtakatifu hata tangu tumboni mwa mamaye” ([[Lk]] 1:15). Ingawa watoto wachanga hawawezi kuelewa kinachofanyika, Mungu anaweza kuwamiminia rohoni mwanga wa imani. “Vinywani mwa watoto wachanga na wanyonyao umeiweka misingi ya nguvu” ([[Zab]] 8:2). “[[Elisabeti]] aliposikia kule kuamkia kwake [[Bikira Maria|Mariamu]], kitoto kichanga kikaruka ndani ya tumbo lake... kwa shangwe” (Lk 1:41,44). “Nakushukuru, Baba, Bwana wa [[mbingu]] na [[nchi]], kwa kuwa mambo haya uliwaficha wenye [[hekima]] na [[akili]], ukawafunulia watoto wachanga. Naam, Baba, kwa kuwa ndivyo ilivyopendeza mbele zako” (Math 11:25-26). Hata watu wazima hawawezi kuelewa sakramenti kwa dhati, kwa kuwa zote ni ma[[fumbo]] yanayotuzidi. Basi, kama [[Mtume Petro]] alipooshwa miguu, tumuachie [[Bwana]] atufanyie kazi anavyojua yeye. “Nifanyalo wewe hujui sasa; lakini utalifahamu baadaye” (Yoh 13:7). Kisha kuoshwa tuzidi kuchimba mafumbo hayo kwa mwanga wa [[Neno]] na wa Roho Mtakatifu. “Je, mmeelewa na hayo niliyowatendea?... Kwa kuwa nimewapa kielelezo; ili kama mimi nilivyowatendea, nanyi mtende vivyo” (Yoh 13:12,15). Kumbe, imani ya watu wazima inaweza kufaidisha watoto kama wengine pia. Walimletea Yesu “mtu mwenye kupooza, anachukuliwa na watu wanne... Yesu, alipoiona imani yao, akamwambia yule mwenye kupooza, ‘Mwanangu, umesamehewa dhambi zako” (Mk 2:5). Kwa ubatizo watoto wanaunganishwa naye na kuanza kuponywa madonda ya dhambi ya asili. “Tazama, mimi naliumbwa kati hali ya [[uovu]], mama yangu alinichukua [[mimba]] hatiani” (Zab 51:5). “Ikiwa kwa kukosa mtu mmoja mauti ilitawala kwa sababu ya yule mmoja, zaidi sana wao wapokeao wingi wa neema, na kile kipawa cha [[haki]], watatawala katika uzima kwa yule mmoja, Yesu Kristo” (Rom 5:19). Ubatizo wa watoto wachanga unafanyika tangu mwanzo, usipingwe na yeyote kwa miaka elfu na zaidi. Ni kwamba [[Wayahudi]] walipokea watoto katika dini yao kwa [[tohara|kuwatahiri]] siku ya nane baada ya kuzaliwa. “Hata zilipotimia siku nane za kumtahiri, aliitwa jina lake Yesu” (Lk 2:21). Watu wa mataifa walipoongokea dini hiyo, walioshwa na kutahiriwa pamoja na watoto wao. [[Mitume]] pia walipokea katika Kanisa [[familia]] nzima, si wazazi tu. Walibatizwa “yeye na nyumba yake”, “yeye na watu wake wote” (Mdo 16:15,33); “watu wa nyumbani mwa [[Stefana]]” ([[1Kor]] 1:16). == Ubatizo na sakramenti nyingine == {{Sakramenti}} Kadiri ya [[Kanisa Katoliki|Wakatoliki]] na [[Waorthodoksi]], ubatizo hautoshi, bali unahitaji kukamilishwa na [[kipaimara]] na [[ekaristi]], kama vile baada ya kuzaliwa tunahitaji kukomaa na kudumisha uhai wetu kwa [[chakula]]. Sakramenti hizo tatu kwa pamoja ni msingi wa maisha ya Wakristo wote, kumbe nyingine zinahitajika tu katika hali na nafasi maalumu. Mitume waliwaendea [[Wasamaria]] “wakawaombea wampokee Roho Mtakatifu; kwa maana bado hajawashukia hata mmoja wao, ila wamebatizwa tu kwa jina lake Bwana Yesu. Ndipo wakaweka mikono yao juu yao, nao wakampokea Roho Mtakatifu” (Mdo 8:15-16). “Amin, amin, nawaambieni: Msipoula mwili wake Mwana wa Adamu na kuinywa damu yake, hamna uzima ndani yenu” (Yoh 6:53). ==Marejeo== * {{cite book |author=Canadian Council of Churches, Commission on Faith and Witness |year=1992 |url=https://www.councilofchurches.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/INITIATION-INTO-CHRIST.pdf|title=Initiation into Christ: Ecumenical Reflections and Common Teaching on Preparation for Baptism] |location=Winfield, B.C. |publisher=Wood Lake Books |isbn=2-89088-527-5}} * {{Rejea kitabu | last=Chaney |first=James M. |author-link=James McDonald Chaney |title=William the Baptist |url=http://www.doulosresources.org/books/william/william.html |publisher=[[Doulos Resources]] |location=Oakland, TN |year=2009 |page=160 |isbn=978-1-4421-8560-9 |oclc=642906193 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708014704/http://www.doulosresources.org/books/william/william.html |archive-date=July 8, 2009 }} * {{Rejea kitabu| last=Dallmann |first=Robert| title=Baptisms - One? Many? Or Both?| publisher=ChristLife, Inc.| year=2014| isbn=978-0991489107| url=http://www.christ-like.net/baptisms.html}} * {{cite book |last=Gerfen |first=Ernst |year=1897 |title="Baptizein": the Voice of the Scriptures and Church History Concerning Baptism |location= Columbus, Ohio |publisher=Press of F.J. Heer}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Guelzo |first=Allen C |year=1985 |title=Who Should Be Baptized?: a Case for the Baptism of Infants |series=Reformed Episcopal Pamphlets |number=4 |place=Philadelphia, PA |publisher=Reformed Episcopal Publication Society}}. 26 pp. N.B.: States the Evangelical Anglican position of the Reformed Episcopal Church. * {{Citation |last=Guelzo | first=Allen C | year=1985 |title=What Does Baptism Mean?: a Brief Lesson in the Spiritual Use of Our Baptisms |series=Reformed Episcopal Pamphlets |number=5 |place=Philadelphia, PA |publisher=Reformed Episcopal Publication Society}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Jungkuntz |first=Richard |title=The Gospel of Baptism |location=St. Louis |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1968 |oclc=444126}} * {{Rejea kitabu| last=Kolb| first=Robert W.|title=Make Disciples, baptizing: God's gift of new life and Christian witness | url=https://archive.org/details/makedisciplesbap0000robe|publisher=Concordia Seminary |location=St. Louis |year=1997 |isbn=0-911770-66-6 |oclc= 41473438}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last= Linderman |first=Jim |title=Take Me to the Water: Immersion Baptism in Vintage Music and Photography 1890–1950 |url= https://archive.org/details/takemetowaterimm0000unse |publisher=Dust to Digital |location=Atlanta |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-9817342-1-7}} * {{Rejea jarida |last=Matzat |first=Don |date=Spring 1997 |title=In Defense of Infant Baptism |url = http://www.issuesetcarchive.org/issues_site/resource/journals/v2n3.htm |access-date=February 26, 2009 |journal= Issues, Etc. Journal |volume=2 |issue=3}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Root |editor-first1=Michael |editor-first2=Risto |editor-last2=Saarinen |year=1998 |title=Baptism and the Unity of the Church |url=https://archive.org/details/baptismunityofch0000unse |location=Grand Rapids, MI |publisher=W.B. Eerdmans; Geneva: W.C.C. [i.e. World Council of Churches] Publications. Also mentioned on t.p.: "Institute for Ecumenical Research, Strasbourg, France" |isbn=2-8254-1250-3}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last= Scaer |first=David P. |title=Baptism |location=St. Louis |publisher= The Luther Academy |year=1999 | oclc=41004868}} * {{Rejea kitabu| last=Schlink | first=Edmund |title=The Doctrine of Baptism | url=https://archive.org/details/doctrineofbaptis0000schl |publisher=Concordia Publishing House | location=St. Louis, Mo |year=1972 |isbn=0-570-03726-3 |oclc= 228096375}} * {{cite journal|last1=Slade|first1=Darren M.|title=The Early Church's Inconsequential View of the Mode of Baptism|journal=American Theological Inquiry|date=August 15, 2014|volume=7|issue=2|pages=21–34|url=https://www.academia.edu/8008124|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903085434/http://atijournal.org/ATI_Vol7_No2.pdf|archive-date=September 3, 2014|df=mdy-all}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Stookey |first=Laurence Hull |title=Baptism, Christ's act in the church |url=https://archive.org/details/baptismchristsac00stoo_0 |publisher=Abingdon |location=Nashville, TN |year=1982 |isbn=0-687-02364-5 |oclc= 7924841}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Torrell |first=Jean-Pierre |title=A Priestly People: Baptismal Priesthood and Priestly Ministry |publisher=Paulist Press |location=New York/ Mahwah, NJ |year=2011 |isbn= 978-0-8091-4815-8}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last= Ware |first=Kallistos |author-link=Timothy Ware |title=The Orthodox Church |url= https://archive.org/details/orthodoxchurch0000kall_q2l6 |publisher= Penguin Books | location =New York |year=1993 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/orthodoxchurch0000kall_q2l6/page/277 277]–278 |isbn=0-14-014656-3 |oclc=263544700}} * {{cite journal |last1=Weigel |first1=George |title=The Most Important Day of Your Life |journal=First Things |year=2016 |url=https://www.firstthings.com/web-exclusives/2016/04/the-most-important-day-of-your-life |access-date=2021-11-07 |archive-date=2021-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107151142/https://www.firstthings.com/web-exclusives/2016/04/the-most-important-day-of-your-life |url-status=dead }} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Willimon |first=William H. |author-link=William Willimon |title=Remember who you are: baptism, a model for Christian life |publisher=Upper Room |location=Nashville |year=1980 |isbn=0-8358-0399-6 |oclc=6485882 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/rememberwhoyouar0000will }} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=Baptism, Eucharist, and ministry |publisher=[[World Council of Churches]] |location=Geneva |year = 1982 |isbn=2-8254-0709-7 |oclc=9918640 |author=World Council of Churches}} {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Liturujia]] [[Jamii:Sakramenti]] hie39jhx900borpitjz8g7s7gugtt1a 0 20506 1580137 1536704 2026-07-18T00:29:49Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580137 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Statue of St Richard at Chichester Cathedral.JPG|thumb|[[Sanamu]] ya Mt. Richard mbele ya [[kanisa kuu]] la Chicester.]] [[Picha:Chichester Cathedral and St Richard - geograph.org.uk - 229843.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kanisa kuu]] la Chicester (la Mt. Richard wa Chichester).]] '''Richard wa Chichester''' ([[1197]] - [[Dover]], [[3 Aprili]] [[1253]]) alikuwa [[askofu]] wa [[Uingereza]] ambaye alipigania [[adhimisho]] la [[ekaristi]] lifanyike kwa [[heshima]], [[sakramenti]] zitolewe bure kwa waamini na ma[[kasisi]] washike vema [[useja]] kwa ajili ya [[ufalme wa mbinguni]]. [[Papa Urban IV]] alimtangaza kuwa [[mtakatifu]] [[tarehe]] [[22 Januari]] [[1262]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa tarehe ya [[kifo]] chake<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. ==Maisha== ===Kijana=== [[Ujana|Ujanani]] alitakiwa kufanya [[kazi]] nzito ili kutegemeza [[familia]] yake. Baadaye aliweza kwenda masomoni kwenye [[chuo kikuu cha Oxford]], chini ya [[Edmund Rich]] na [[Grosseteste]], halafu [[Paris]] ([[Ufaransa]]) na [[Bologna]] ([[Italia]]). ===Katibu mkuu wa jimbo=== Akiwa na [[umri]] wa miaka 38 akarudi [[Oxford]], alipochaguliwa mara awe [[gombera]] wa [[chuo kikuu]], lakini [[mwaka]] [[1237]] [[mwalimu]] wake wa zamani Rich, kisha kuchaguliwa [[Askofu mkuu]] wa [[Canterbury]], alimtaka awe [[katibu mkuu]] wa [[Dayosisi|jimbo]] lake; katika kazi hiyo alijitokeza katika jitihada za [[Urekebisho|kurekebisha]] mwenendo wa [[upadri|mapadri]] na kupinga [[uvamizi]] wa [[serikali]] katika [[mamlaka]] ya [[Kanisa]]. ===Padri=== Aliposhuhudia [[kifo]] cha askofu wake huko [[Soissy]], [[Ufaransa]], mwaka [[1240]], na kuachiwa [[kikombe]] cha [[Misa]] kama [[urithi]], aliamua kuingia [[upadri]] akaenda kusomea [[teolojia]] miaka miwili kwa [[Wadominiko]] wa [[Orléans]]. Baada ya [[Upadirisho|kupadirishwa]] mwaka [[1242]] akiwa na miaka 45, akarudi [[Uingereza]] na kufanya kazi ya [[paroko]] Charing na Deal ([[mkoa]] wa [[Kent]]), lakini akarejeshwa mapema katika ukatibu mkuu. ===Askofu=== Mwaka [[1244]] alichaguliwa na maaskofu kuongoza [[jimbo]] la Chichester, lakini [[mfalme]] [[Henry II]] alimtaka Richard Passelewe, hivyo akazuia [[mali]] na mapato ya jimbo. [[Papa Inosenti IV]] alipoombwa usuluhisho alimtibithisha na kumweka [[wakfu]] mwaka [[1245]] huko [[Lyons]]. Askofu mpya aliporudi Chichester, alilazimika kuishi kifukara katika [[nyumba]] ya paroko wa Tarring ([[Sussex]]), akifanya kazi za [[mikono]] na kutembelea jimbo lote kwa [[miguu]]. Miaka miwili baadaye mfalme [[Henry III]] alilazimishwa na [[Papa]] kulirudishia jimbo mali zote. ===Matendo ya upendo=== Richard alikuwa mkarimu sana kwa [[fukara]] na mpole kwa wakosefu <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/48300</ref>. Alitunga [[sheria]] za jimbo, ambazo zinadumu hadi leo, kuhusu masuala mbalimbali. ==Kifo== Akiwa Dover ili kumjengea [[kanisa]] hayati [[mwalimu]] wake [[Edmund Rich]], aliugua sana akafa tarehe 3 Aprili 1253. ==Sala yake== Asante kwako, Bwana wangu Yesu Kristo, kwa fadhili zote ulizonistahilia. Kwa mateso na matusi yote uliyoyavumilia kwa ajili yangu. Mkombozi, rafiki na kaka mwenye huruma nyingi, naomba niweze kukufahamu wazi zaidi, kukupenda kwa hisani zaidi, kukufuata kwa karibu zaidi, siku kwa siku. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Marejeo== * {{cite book |last=Atkinson|first=Pete. |coauthors=Ruth Poyner |title=Chichester Cathedral|publisher=Jarold Publishing|location=Norwich |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7117-4478-3 }} * {{cite web |url=http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=34293 |title=Bishops |author=Diana E. Greenway |publisher=Institute of Historical Research |year=1996 |work=Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae 1066-1300: volume 5: Chichester |accessdate=21 Oktoba 2007 |archivedate=2012-02-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208073049/http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=34293 }} * {{cite book|last=Bullock-Webster|first=G.R.|year=1913|title=The Churchman's Prayer Manual|url=https://archive.org/details/churchmansprayer00bulluoft|publisher=Published by Author|location=London}} * Butler, Alban. ''Lives of the Saints.'' Tan Books and Publishers: Rockford, 1955 * {{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?entry=t100.e1382&srn=2&ssid=979941847#FIRSTHIT|title= The Oxford Dictionary of Saints.|last= Farmer|first=David Hugh|publisher=Oxford University Press. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. West Sussex County Library Service|year=2003|accessdate= 28 Januari 2011}} -subscription required. * {{cite book |editor-last=Foster|editor-first=Paul|title= ''Richard of Chichester (1197 - 1253)''|publisher=University of Chichester|location=Chichester |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-948765-42-1 }} * {{cite book |author=Fryde, E. B. |coauthors=Greenway, D. E.; Porter, S.; Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbritis0000unse_f1u2 |edition=Third Edition, revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X }} * {{cite book|author=Compiled By The Community of the Resurrection Mirfield|year=1922|title=Mirfield Mission Hymn Book|publisher= Community of the Resurrection|authorlink= Community of the Resurrection|location=Mirfield, Yorkshire}} * {{cite book|last=Headlam|first=Cecil|year=1898|title=Prayers of Saints :Being A Manual of Devotions Compiled from the Supplications of the Holy Saints and Blessed Martyrs and Famous Men |url=https://archive.org/details/prayersofsaintsb00head|publisher=F.E. Robinson|location=London}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Hobbs|editor-first=Mary|year=1994|title=''Chichester Cathedral. An Historic Survey''|publisher=Phillimore|location=Chichester}} * {{Rejea tovuti|url=http://www.stgeorgesnews.org/2004/02f14.htm|title=St Georges News ''in'' St George's Parish Magazine|date= Machi 2004|publisher=St Georges Church|location=Waterlooville, Hampshire|accessdate= 21 Oktoba 2007}} * {{Rejea tovuti|last=Lawrence|first=C. H.|title= ‘Wyche, Richard of St Richard of Chichester (d. 1253)’|publisher= Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press|year=2004; online edn, Jan 2008|url= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/23522| accessdate=13 Aprili 2011}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Lower|first=Mark Anthony|title=The Worthies of Sussex|publisher=Sussex Advertiser|year=1865|location=Lewes, Sussex}} * {{cite journal|last=Schwartz|first=Simon|title=Godspell: Vocal Selections|url=https://archive.org/details/vocalselectionsf0000schw|publisher=Hal Leonard|location=Wisconsin |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-88188-446-3 }} * {{cite book|last=Stephens|first=W.R.W.|title=''Memorials of the South Saxon See and Cathedral Church of Chichester''|url=https://archive.org/details/memorialssouths00stepgoog|year=1876|publisher= Bentley|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Stephens|first=W.R.W.|title=The South Saxon Diocese, Selsey - Chichester|url=https://archive.org/details/southsaxondioces00stepuoft|year=1881|publisher= SPCK|location=London}} * {{cite book |last= Roberts|first= Holly Harlayne|title= Vegetarian Christian Saints: Mystics, Ascetics & Monks|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=ZEuamyoZIXwC&printsec=frontcover|isbn= 978-0-9754844-0-1|date= 2004-09-01|accessdate= 2010-12-09|publisher= Anjeli Press|location= New York}} * {{cite book|editor=Ralph Vaughan Williams, Percy Dearmer, Martin Shaw|title=Songs of Praise. Enlarged Edition (Full music version)|url=https://archive.org/details/songsofpraisewit0000unse_t6i7|year=1931 repr. 1963|publisher= OUP|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-231207-3}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929132954/http://www.westsussex.gov.uk/ccm/content/your-council/news-room/press-releases/2006/2006-10/a-day-to-show-you-re-proud-of-sussex.en West Sussex County Council A Day To Show You're Proud Of Sussex] accessed on 25 Agosti 2007 ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=4603 Biography of St Richard of Chichester] from ''Catholic Online'' * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13043b.htm St. Richard de Wyche] from ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' * [http://www.bartleby.com/210/4/032.html St. Richard, Bishop and Confessor] from ''The Lives of the Saints'' by [[Alban Butler]] * [http://www.strichardschichester.co.uk/ St Richard's RC Parish, Chichester] {{Wayback|url=http://www.strichardschichester.co.uk/ |date=20220123132701 }} * [http://www.aldwick.org.uk The Parish Church of St Richard, Aldwick] {{Wayback|url=http://www.aldwick.org.uk/ |date=20120324120106 }} in memory of St Richard, Bishop of Chichester 1244-1253 {{mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1197]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1253]] [[Jamii:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Uingereza]] hqa1i01uv7p2o0qi0ht836jvmoy11tw 0 22719 1580257 1529186 2026-07-18T01:57:36Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580257 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Lutherrose.svg|thumb|Lebo ya Luther: msalaba, moyo na waridi]] [[File:Lutheranism_by_country.png|thumbnail|Walutheri nchi kwa nchi mwaka 2019]] {{Ukristo}} '''Walutheri''' ni [[jina]] linalotumika kuwataja kwa jumla wafuasi wa [[Yesu Kristo]] wanaozingatia mafundisho yaliyotolewa na [[Martin Luther]] katika [[karne ya 16]]. ==Muundo, imani, liturujia== Muundo wao wa kanisa ni ama [[dayosisi]]/jimbo au kanisa la kitaifa. Msingi wao ni [[Biblia ya Kikristo]] yenye vitabu 66 tu. Walutheri husisitiza mafundisho ya [[Katekisimu]] zilizotungwa na Martin Luther. Mafundisho yake yalipofanywa kuwa rasmi, katika Ujerumani makanisa ya Kilutheri yaliendeshwa kama [[idara]] za [[serikali]] za sehemu za Kilutheri chini ya uongozi wa [[wataalamu]] wa [[teolojia]], lakini katika [[karne ya 20]] kanisa na serikali vilitengana. Kumbe hali hiyo inadumu mpaka leo katika nchi za Skandinavia (Sweden, Norway, Denmark n.k.) ambapo [[wafalme]] waliamua kugeuza Kanisa zima la nchi zao kuwa la Kiinjili-Kilutheri. Ila Sweden Walutheri waliendelea na cheo cha uaskofu na desturi nyingi za Kanisa la kale, wakifanana zaidi na [[Waanglikana]] wa [[Uingereza]]. Walutheri wote wanaadhimisha [[sakramenti]] 2, yaani [[Ubatizo]] na [[Chakula cha Bwana]]. [[Asilimia]] 80 za makanisa yao zinakubali [[Mchungaji|wachungaji]] [[Mwanamke|wanawake]]. ==Uenezi== [[Madhehebu]] ya Kilutheri yalienea nje ya [[Ulaya Kaskazini]] kule ambako Wajerumani na Waskandinavia walihamia, kama vile [[Marekani]]. [[Bara]]ni [[Afrika]] Walutheri wako hasa katika nchi zilizokuwa ma[[koloni]] ya [[Ujerumani]], kama vile [[Tanzania]], [[Namibia]] na [[Kamerun]], lakini pia [[Ethiopia]]. [[Idadi]] ya Walutheri ni kama [[milioni]] 80 na wanazidi kuongezeka barani [[Asia]] na [[Afrika]], huku wakipungua sehemu nyingine.. [[Asilimia]] kubwa (zaidi ya milioni 77<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|date=2013-05-19|title=About the LWF|url=https://www.lutheranworld.org/content/about-lwf|access-date=2021-08-03|website=The Lutheran World Federation|language=en}}</ref>) wako pamoja katika [[Shirikisho la Kimataifa la Kilutheri]] (Lutheran World Federation) lenye [[makao makuu]] mjini [[Geneva]], [[Uswisi]]. Walio wengi wengi wanaishi [[Marekani]] milioni 11.7, [[Ujerumani]] 10.8, [[Ethiopia]] 10.4, [[Tanzania]] 7.9, [[Uswidi]] 5.9, [[Indonesia]] 5.7, [[Uhindi|India]] 4.4, [[Denmark|Udani]] 4.4, [[Madagaska]] 4.0, [[Ufini]] 3.8. [[Norwei]] 3.7, Nigeria 2.3. Kwa kuwatazama kama asilimia ya wakazi katika nchi mbalimbali Walutheri ni jumuiya kubwa kabisa ya kidini katika nchi zote za [[Skandinavia]], [[Namibia]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] na [[Majimbo ya Marekani|majimbo ya]] [[Minnesota]] na [[North Dakota]] la [[Marekani]]. ==Tanbihi== <references/> ==Marejeo== * CLC Perspective: {{cite book |url=http://clclutheran.org/library/ccf.html |title=Concerning Church Fellowship: A Statement of Principle |location=Eau Claire, WI |publisher=CLC Book House |year=1996}} * Confessional & Historical Perspective: Günther Gassmann & Scott Hendrix. Fortress Introduction to the Lutheran Confessions. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8006-3162-5. * European Lutheran perspective: Elert, Werner. ''The Structure of Lutheranism: the Theology and Philosophy of Life of Lutheranism, Especially in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries'', trans. by Walter A. Hansen. Saint Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House, 1962. ''N.B''.: Trans. of ''Morphologie des Luthertums'', vol. 1 of which was published in 1931 at Munich by C.H. Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1931, vol. 2 in German appearing in 1932; the t.p. of this English-language ed. states "Volume One", but there has been no publication, as part of this English ed., of vol. 2. * Fellowship of Lutheran Congregations Perspective: ''What True Lutherans Teach''. Oak Parks, Ill.: E.L.C. Tract Center, [199-?]. 11 p. ''N.B''.: There is no personal author or specific committee credited with this brochure. * General Council Historical Perspective: {{cite book |last=Krauth |first=Charles Porterfield |url=http://books.google.com/?id=qiURAAAAIAAJ |title= The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church |page=840 |edition=2nd|location=Philadelphia |publisher=J. P. Lippincott |year=1875 |isbn=0-7586-0994-9}} * LCA Historical Perspective: {{cite book |last=Braaten |first=Carl E. |title= Principles of Lutheran Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofluth0000braa |location=Philadelphia |publisher= Fortress Press |year=1983 |isbn=0-8006-1689-8}} * LCA Historical Worship Perspective: Reed, Luther D. ''The Lutheran Liturgy: a Study [especially] of the Common Service of the Lutheran Church in America''. Philadelphia, Penn.: Muhlenberg Press, 1947. ''N.B''.: This study also includes some coverage of other Lutheran liturgical services, especially of Matins and Vespers. * LCMS Perspective: {{cite book |authorlink=Franz August Otto Pieper |last=Pieper |first=Franz |title= Christian Dogmatics |url=https://archive.org/details/christiandogmati0003piep |page=[https://archive.org/details/christiandogmati0003piep/page/3 3] Volumes |location= Saint Louis, MO |publisher=[[Concordia Publishing House]] |year=1950–1957 |isbn=0-570-06714-6}} * LCMS Perspective: {{cite book |last=Engelder |first=Theodore E.W. |url=http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1|title=Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture |page=526 |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1934}} * LCMS Perspective: ''Brief Statement of the Doctrinal Position of the Missouri Synod'' (1932). Saint Louis, Mo.: Concordia Publishing House. * LCMS Perspective: {{cite book |last=Graebner |first=Augustus Lawrence |url=http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/graebner.html |title=Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology |page=250 |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1910 |isbn=0-524-04891-6 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060709205945/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/graebner.html |archivedate=2006-07-09 |access-date=2014-06-18 |dead-url=yes }} * LCMS Perspective: Kretzschmar, Karl (198-?). ''What Lutherans Teach''. St. Louis, Mo.: Concordia Tract Mission. * LCMS Perspective: Neuhaus, Richard John (1969). ''The Lutherans'' (in "Ecumenical Series"). New York: Paulist Press. ''N.B''.: At the time of the publication of this document, Neuhaus was still a Lutheran pastor, of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. * LCR Perspective: {{cite book |last=McLaughlin |first=Wallace H. |url=http://lutherantheology.com/uploads/works/wabiotg/index.html |title=We All Believe in One True God: A Summary of Biblical Doctrine |location=Midland, Michigan |publisher=Cross of Christ Press |year=1963 |access-date=2014-06-18 |archive-date=2011-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714002919/http://lutherantheology.com/uploads/works/wabiotg/index.html |url-status=dead }} * Neo-Lutheran Historical Perspective: {{cite book |last=Schmid |first=Heinrich Friedrich Ferdinand |url=http://books.google.com/?id=eK9ZAAAAMAAJ |title=The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Lutheran Publication Society |year=1876 |isbn=0-7905-8877-3}} * Norwegian Synod Historical Perspective: {{cite book |last=Monson |first=Ingvar Grøthe |url=http://books.google.com/?id=HlJGAAAAYAAJ |title=The Difference: A Popular Guide to Denominational History and Doctrine |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1915}} * Slovak Synod Historical Perspective: {{cite book |last=Richter|first=V. W. |url=http://books.google.com/?id=OPL0XZG7j70C |title=Why Should a Lutheran Not Join Any Sectarian Church? |location=Streator, Illinois |publisher=Svedok Publishing House |year=1913}} * WELS Perspective: {{cite book |last=Lange |first=Lyle W. |title=God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine |publisher=[[Northwestern Publishing House]] |year=2006 |isbn=0-8100-1744-X}} * Comparison of about 50 Lutheran church bodies in America: {{cite book |last=Brug, John F. |url=https://archive.org/details/welsotherluthera0000brug|title=WELS & Other Lutherans|edition=2nd |publisher=Northwestern Publishing House |year=2009 |isbn=0-8100-0543-3}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons category|Lutheranism}} *[http://www.lutheransonline.com/trinitybillings/divineservice Historic Worship of the Lutheran Church] {{Wayback|url=http://www.lutheransonline.com/trinitybillings/divineservice |date=20081201163841 }} *Moldehnke, Edward F. "Was ist denn eigentlich ein Lutheraner?" ''Evangelish-Lutherisches Gemeinde-Blatt''. Vol. 1, nos. 8–10 (1866). Trans. Nathaniel J. Biebert. [http://www.studiumexcitare.com/content/111 "So What Actually Is a Lutheran?"] ''Studium Excitare''. Issue #12 (2010). *A historical study of the Laestadian Lutheran Church, the SRK, and Conservative Laestadianism. [http://examinationofthepearl.org/] {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Walutheri]] [[Category:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Uprotestanti]] 0t7vbxj1blec8q0yecc85c8dr80kqm1 0 23351 1580210 1532783 2026-07-18T01:20:13Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580210 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Isaiah (Bible Card).jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Nabii Isaya'' alivyochorwa mwaka [[1904]] hivi.]] '''Nabii Isaya''' (kwa [[Kiyahudi]] '''יְשַׁעְיָהוּ''', yaani "YHWH anaokoa"), [[kuhani]] wa [[Yerusalemu]] mwenye [[elimu]] nzuri, alizaliwa katika [[Ufalme wa Yuda]] mwaka [[765 KK]] hivi, akatabiri kwa [[muda]] usiopungua miaka 50, chini ya [[Mfalme|wafalme]] [[Uzia]], [[Yothamu wa Yuda|Yothamu]], [[Ahazi]] na [[Mfalme Hezekia|Hezekia]], akiingilia kati matukio yote ya [[siasa]], ambayo yalikuwa ya kutisha kutokana na nguvu za [[Waashuru]] ambao waliangamiza [[Ufalme wa Israeli|Israeli]] na kukaribia kufuta hata [[ufalme]] wa [[Kusini]]. [[Mungu]] alimtuma kulifunulia [[taifa]] la wakosefu na lisiloaminika kwamba yeye ni mwaminifu na ataleta [[wokovu]] aliouahidia mfalme [[Daudi (Biblia)|Daudi]]. [[Maandishi]] yake yanapendeza kuliko yote ya [[Agano la Kale]], hasa upande wa [[ushairi]]. Lakini ukuu wa [[Isaya]] uko hasa upande wa [[imani]]. [[Mapokeo]] ya [[Wayahudi]] yanasimulia kwamba aliuawa na mfalme [[mfalme Manase|Manase]] kwa kuchanwa kwa [[msumeno]] <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/60950</ref>. Tangu kale huheshimiwa kama [[mtakatifu]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa [[tarehe]] [[9 Mei]]<ref>''[[Martyrologium Romanum]]: ex Decreto Sacrosancti oecumenici Concilii Vaticani II instauratum auctoritate Ioannis Pauli P.P. II promulgatum'', Romae 2001, ISBN 8820972107</ref><ref>https://catholicsaints.info/isaiah-the-prophet/</ref>. == Unabii wake == Kuanzia [[wito]] wake alioupata [[Hekalu la Yerusalemu|hekaluni]], alipong’amua kwamba [[Mungu]] ni mtakatifu kabisa, yaani tofauti mno na yeyote na chochote (6), alitawaliwa na wazo la [[utukufu]] wa Mungu na la [[unyonge]] wa [[binadamu]] anayehitaji kutakaswa naye. Kwa msingi huo alidai wafalme na wananchi wote wa Yuda wamtegemee Mungu tu, si [[Taifa|mataifa]] yenye nguvu, hata upande wa siasa] na mbele ya [[hatari]] kubwa namna gani. Lakini toka mwanzo aliambiwa hatasikilizwa, hivyo ikambidi atabiri [[adhabu]]. Kweli hali haikuwa [[shwari]], ndiyo sababu wengi walishindwa kuamini na kutulia, wakaendelea kujifanyia mipango na kutafuta [[msaada]] kutoka kwa binadamu, hasa [[Farao]] wa [[Misri]]. Hapo Mungu alimuagiza Isaya atembee [[uchi]] mwaka mmoja unusu ili kudokeza kuwa Wamisri watafanywa [[watumwa]] wa Waashuru wasiweze kusaidia kitu (20:1-6). Katika kutuliza watu alimtabiria [[mfalme]] [[Ahazi]] kwamba [[mwanamwali]] atamzaa [[mtoto]] wa kiume atakayethibitisha uwepo wa Mungu pamoja na watu wake, [[jina]] lake [[Emanueli]] linavyomaanisha (7:1-17). Kweli [[mke]] wa Ahazi alimzaa [[Hezekia]] atakayeendeleza [[ufalme]] wa [[ukoo]] wa [[Daudi]], lakini [[utabiri]] huo ulimlenga zaidi [[Yesu]], [[mwana]] wa [[Bikira]] (walivyoelewa watafsiri wa kwanza wa [[Biblia]] katika [[Kigiriki]]) ambaye kweli ni Mungu pamoja nasi, na ni mwana wa Daudi ambaye atatawala [[milele]] kwa [[amani]] na [[haki]] (11:1-9). Hivyo, pamoja na adhabu kwa utovu wao wa imani (22:1-14), Isaya aliwatabiria watu wa Yuda kuwa Mungu hataangamiza kabisa taifa lake, bali ataacha mabaki yake ambayo yataleta [[wokovu]] (10:20-23): katika mabaki hayo Bikira atamzaa [[Masiya]] ambaye ni Mungu pamoja nasi, mwana wa Daudi ambaye ataleta amani na haki duniani. Nafasi ya mwisho kwa Isaya kutuliza watu ilikuwa mwaka [[701 K.K.]] ambapo [[jeshi]] kubwa la Waashuru lilizingira Yerusalemu na kutamka maneno ya kumkufuru Mungu. Isaya aliwarudishia jibu la [[dharau]], nao kweli wakakimbia haraka baada ya kupatwa na [[tauni]]. Isaya ni maarufu pia kwa ubora wa ma[[shairi]] yake yaliyofanya ujumbe wake upendeze na uguse zaidi. Kwa sababu hiyo wengi walipenda kuyakariri na kuyasoma na hata kuiga mtindo wake: ndiyo maana [[kitabu]] [[Kitabu cha Isaya|chake]] kiliongezewa [[maandishi]] mengine mengi mpaka miaka mingi baada ya [[kifodini]] chake. ==Tazama pia== *[[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} == Marejeo == * {{cite book|last=Church|first=Brooke Peters|title=The Private Lives of the Prophets and the Times in Which They Lived|url=https://archive.org/details/privatelivesofpr0000chur|year=1953|publisher=Rinehart|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=Cohon|first=Beryl D.|title=The Prophets: Their Personalities and Teachings|url=https://archive.org/details/prophetstheirper0000coho|year=1939|publisher=Scribner|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=Herbert|first=Arthur Sumner|title=The book of the prophet Isaiah : Commentary|url=https://archive.org/details/197300comm_0|year=1975|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-08624-8}} * {{cite book|last=Herbert|first=Arthur Sumner|title=The book of the Prophet Isaiah, chapters 40-66|url=https://archive.org/details/bookofprophetisa0000unse_c1y5|year=1975|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-20721-5}} * {{cite book|last=Kraeling|first=Emil G.|title=The Prophets|url=https://archive.org/details/prophets0000krae|year=1969|publisher=Rand McNally|location=Chicago}} * {{cite book|last=Miscall|first=Peter D.|title=Isaiah|year=1993|publisher=JSOT Press|location=Sheffield, England|isbn=1-85075-435-7}} * {{cite book|last=Quinn-Miscall|first=Peter D.|title=Reading Isaiah : poetry and vision|url=https://archive.org/details/readingisaiahpoe0000quin|year=2001|publisher=Westminster Press|location=Louisville|isbn=0-664-22369-9}} * {{cite book|last=Phillips|first=J.B.|title=Four Prophets, Amos, Hosea, First Isaiah, Micha: A Modern Translation from the Hebrew|url=https://archive.org/details/fourprophetsamos012976mbp|year=1963|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=Sawyer|first=John F.A.|title=The fifth gospel : Isaiah in the history of Christianity|url=https://archive.org/details/fifthgospelisaia0000sawy|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-44007-6}} * {{cite book|last=Scott|first=R.B.Y.|title=The Relevance of the Prophets|year=1968|publisher=London|location=Macmillan}} * {{cite book|last=Smith|first=J.M. Powis|title=The Prophets and Their Times|url=https://archive.org/details/prophetstheirtim0000smit_t8n2|year=1941|publisher=University of Chicago|location=Chicago}} == Viungo vya nje == {{commons category}} {{wikiquote|Isaiah}} {{wikisource|Isaiah}} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08179b.htm Isaya] katika [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] * [http://www.wisdomlib.org/christianity/book/from-faith-to-faith/d/doc4206.html From Faith to Faith, Chapter IV - Prophecy] {{Wayback|url=http://www.wisdomlib.org/christianity/book/from-faith-to-faith/d/doc4206.html |date=20150223222804 }} (A study of Isaiah of Jerusalem) * [http://www.isaiahexplained.com Avraham Gileadi's new translation and commentary on Isaiah] * [http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=101331 Prophet Isaiah] Orthodox [[icon]] and [[synaxarion]] {{mbegu-mtu-Biblia}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 765 KK]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki karne ya 7 KK]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Biblia|I]] [[Jamii:Manabii wa Agano la Kale|I]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Israeli|I]] s5y2t7g42ihlg1o6agyt6k5juu9b2mh 0 23452 1580032 1460406 2026-07-17T23:16:59Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580032 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Maadili bawaba}} [[Picha:Iustitia Papstgrab Bamberg aus Gottfried Henschen u Daniel Papebroch 1747.jpg|thumb|200px|Haki.]] [[File:Luca Giordano 013.jpg|thumb|Haki ilivyoonyeshwa na [[Luca Giordano]].]] [[File:JMR-Memphis1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Bibi Haki]], kielelezo cha adili hili, amechorwa kama [[mungu]] wa kike akiwa na vifaa vitatu: [[upanga]], [[mizani]] na [[kitambaa]] [[macho]]ni.<ref>Luban, ''Law's Blindfold'', 23.</ref>]] '''Haki''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''justice'', kutoka neno la [[Kilatini]]: ''justitia'' ambalo [[mzizi]] wake ni ''jus'', haki, unaopatikana katika ''justus'', mwenye kujali haki) ndiyo [[utaratibu]] unaotakiwa katika mafungamano yoyote kwa kuwa ni [[adili]] la msingi la [[utu]] linalotufanya tumpatie mwingine anachostahili.. Kwa [[Kigiriki]] inaitwa ''dikaiosyne'', kutokana na [[neno]] asili ''dike'' yaani ''anayeelekeza'' na kwa hiyo pia ''mwongozo, utaratibu''. Tofauti na ''[[nomos]]'', yaani [[sheria]] inayoongoza [[wanyama]] pia, ''dike'' inahitajiwa na [[binadamu]] ili kuishi kwa utaratibu. Ni kinyume cha ''bie'', [[ukatili]], nguvu inayoangamiza. ''Dikaios'' (mwenye kujali haki), ni mtu anayemtendea kila mmoja haki yake. ''Dikaia zoe'' ni maisha ya kiutu yanayopingana na ''[[hybris]]'' (kiburi) na ushenzi. Maana ya haki inatofautiana kwa kila [[utamaduni]]. Katika maana ya kwanza kabisa ambayo ilitafsiriwa na [[mwanafalsafa]] wa Ugiriki, [[Plato]] kwenye kazi yake ''Jamhuri''<ref>Plato, ''Republic'' trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984).</ref>. Kutokana na [[historia]] [[dhana]] mbalimbali zimegunduliwa. ==Katika dini== Katika [[Uyahudi]], [[Ukristo]] na [[Uislamu]], haki, pamoja na [[huruma]], ni sifa ya [[Mwenyezi Mungu]]<ref>"Righteousness and justice [as] the foundation of [His] throne;...." ([[Zaburi|Psalms]] 89:14)</ref>. Kadiri ya [[Biblia]], [[Torati]] ilitolewa naye ili kuwashirikisha [[Waisraeli]] haki yake. ===Katika Kanisa Katoliki=== Kati ya [[maadili bawaba]] manne, lile la haki mara nyingi halizingatiwi vya kutosha na wale wanaofuata [[maisha ya Kiroho]]: wanajali aina mbalimbali za [[kiasi]], mpango wa [[busara]] katika [[maisha]], na [[upendo]] kwa jirani, lakini pengine wanapuuzia madai kadhaa ya haki. Kumbe tukitekeleza aina zake mbalimbali, tutaunda [[utashi]] wetu kwa namna bora. Kwa kuwa adili la haki limo ndani ya utashi ili kuukomboa na [[umimi]], kama vile busara imo ndani ya [[akili]] ili kuizuia isipime mambo kijuujuu, na kama vile [[Nguvu (adili)|nguvu]] na kiasi vimo katika [[hisi]] ili kuzikinga na [[hofu]] na [[tamaa]] zisizoratibiwa. Utashi ukikosa maadili yanayotarajiwa kuwemo ndani yake una upungufu mkubwa; kinyume chake, ukiwa nayo una nguvu mara kumi zaidi. Humo zinatakiwa kupatikana aina nne za haki, na juu yake maadili ya [[ibada]], [[tumaini]] na upendo. Ndivyo utashi na [[tabia]] vinavyoundwa ili [[Mkristo]] aonekane na kuwa kweli mwenye akili nyofu na hasa [[mtoto]] wa Mungu. Basi, tutasema juu ya aina mbalimbali za haki tunazozivunja namna nyingi tunaposahau kimatendo kwamba hatutakiwi kuwatendea wengine tusivyopenda kutendewa. Mara nyingi tunafikiria tu [[haki katika mabadilishano]] (aina ya chini inayoratibu mabadilishano), bila kuzingatia vya kutosha [[haki katika ugawaji]] (inayoratibu kazi ya [[viongozi]] ya kugawa faida na mizigo kulingana na [[stahili]], hitaji na umuhimu wa kila mtu) na hasa aina ya juu ya haki inayolenga moja kwa moja ustawi wa jamii nzima kwa kutunga na kutekeleza [[sheria]] na maagizo mengine (ndiyo [[haki ya kisheria]]). Juu tena upo [[usawa]], ambao unazingatia si maneno tu ya sheria, bali [[roho]] yake, tena si ya sheria za nchi tu, bali ya zile zote zinazoratibu mwenendo wa Mkristo. Tungezingatia aina hizo nne za haki zinazotupasa, tungekwepa mashindano mengi kati ya watu binafsi, [[tabaka|matabaka]] na [[kundi|makundi]] mbalimbali yanayotakiwa kufanya kazi ileile moja chini ya Mungu. ====Haki katika mabadilishano, haki katika ugawaji na maisha ya Kiroho==== Tunatambua majukumu yetu kuhusu haki tukifikiria kasoro za kuepwa, kwa sababu [[Uchungu|uchungu]] unaotupata tukikosewa haki unatufanya tung’amue [[thamani]] yake. Basi, matendo dhidi ya haki katika mabadilishano ni [[uuaji]], [[wizi]], [[dhuluma]], [[riba]] ipitayo kiasi, masingizio, shuhuda za [[uongo]] [[mahakama|mahakamani]], lakini pia matusi ya [[hasira]], dharau, shutuma na lawama zisizo na msingi, masengenyo, minong’ono ya kutia shaka juu ya wengine, porojo zinazopunguza [[heshima]] wanazostahili, na usahaulifu wa kwamba jirani anahitaji sifa njema ili atende mema (kiasi kwamba waliokamilika wanapaswa kujitetea, si kwa ajili yao, bali kusudi waweze kuwatendea mema wengine). Ni [[ushujaa]] bandia kumcheka asiyeweza kujitetea au asiyekuwepo. Tukivunja haki katika mabadilishano kwa namna yoyote kati ya hizo, tunapaswa kurudisha au kufidia madhara tuliyosababisha. Kasoro inayopingana na haki katika ugawaji ni [[ubaguzi]]. Ni halali kumpa mmoja kuliko mwingine, ila ni [[dhambi]] kufanya hivyo kwa kumnyima huyo wa pili kitu anachokistahili, k.mf. tukijali [[utajiri]] wa watu hata kuwanyima [[maskini]] heshima au misaada ya Kiroho wanayohitaji. Dhambi hiyo ni kubwa katika mambo ya roho kuliko katika malimwengu. Tuangalie upande huo tusije tukawakosea marafiki wa Mungu aliojichagulia kati ya watu duni. Pengine tunawakosea haki watumishi wake wavumilivu tukijua watastahimili yote wasilalamike. Kumbe ni [[wajibu]], tuzo na [[furaha]] kuuhisi [[utakatifu]] unaotupitia karibu chini ya sura nyenyekevu. ====Haki ya kisheria, usawa na kuunda tabia==== Juu kuliko haki katika mabadilishano na katika ugawaji, ipo haki ya kisheria (au ya kijamii) ambayo haihusu tu haki za watu binafsi bali [[ustawi wa jamii]] (yaani [[nchi]], [[Kanisa]] na makundi yaliyomo ndani yake); inaelekeza kujifunza na kushika kikamilifu sheria za [[jamii]] husika. Kwa [[Mkatoliki]] ni kujifunza pia miongozo ya [[Papa]] kuhusu masuala ya kisasa. Kutofanya hivyo ni kosa linaloleta madhara makubwa kwa wote. Haki ya kijamii inatufanya tuhisi na kujali ustawi wa jamii ikituondolea [[ubinafsi]] na kutuelekeza tujitahidi kwa faida ya wote, tukijikana na kujinyima [[muda]], [[starehe]] na maridhisho kadiri inavyohitajika. Kwa kuwa jamii inatupatia mengi, tunapaswa kujitolea kwa ajili yake. La sivyo tunainyonya badala ya kuichangia iendelee. Kila jamii ina wanyonyaji wake ambao, kama baadhi ya vijidudu na vijimea, wanaweza wakasababisha hata [[Mauti|kifo]] chake. Ili tushinde [[kilema]] hicho tunapaswa kutimiza wajibu wa kisheria, kujitolea kwa ustawi wa jamii, bila kusahau ulivyo muhimu kuliko ule wa binafsi. Upande huo, kupenda sheria za [[utawa]] na za Kanisa ni [[adili]] kubwa linalokinga dhidi ya vurugu nyingi. Kwa msingi huo [[Mtawa|mashirika ya kitawa]] yanastawi katika [[sala]] na [[utume]]; lakini [[kanuni]] ikipuuzwa, sala na utume vinadumaa. Ndiyo sababu Mungu alitokeza mara kadhaa watakatifu waliofufua [[juhudi]] za mwanzoni. Hatimaye, juu ya haki ya kijamii upo usawa (kwa Kigiriki “epi dikaion” = juu ya haki) ambao hauzingatii tu maneno ya sheria, bali hasa lengo la yule aliyeitunga. Kwa kuwa unazingatia roho ya sheria, hauitafsiri vikali mno bali kwa akili ya juu, kwa namna ya pekee katika nafasi maalumu ambapo haifai kuitekeleza ilivyoandikwa isije ikatimia [[mithali]] ya [[Kilatini]] inayosema, “summum jus summa injuria” (= ukali wa sheria ni utovu mkubwa wa haki). Mtungasheria anazingatia yanayotokea kawaida, ingawa sheria anayoitunga haitaweza kutekelezwa na mtu fulani katika nafasi za pekee, ngumu na chungu. Kwa mfano, [[kitu]] kilichowekezwa kinatakiwa kurudishwa kwa mmiliki, lakini haifai tumrudishie tukijua atakitumia vibaya (kama vile [[silaha]] katika hasira). Usawa, unaotukinga na [[Mafarisayo|Ufarisayo]], ndio aina ya haki iliyo bora na inayolingana zaidi na [[hekima]]. Haudharau sheria, ila unapima utekelezaji wake mmojawapo kwa kulenga juu kuliko maneno ya sheria, kwenye mahitaji halisi ya jamii na heshima anayostahili [[binadamu]]. Jambo hilo muhimu linakuja kueleweka tu baada ya kuishi miaka mingi. Basi, usawa unafanana na [[upendo]] ambao uko juu zaidi tena. ====Haki na upendo==== Kisha kujua ukuu wa haki na aina zake, tunaweza kuona wazi zaidi uhusiano wake na upendo unaotakiwa kuihuisha kutoka juu. Maadili hayo mawili yanaratibu mafungamano ya watu, ila yanatofautiana kwa kuwa haki inatudai tumpe kila mmoja anachostahili na tumuache atumie haki yake. Kumbe kwa upendo tunampenda Mungu kuliko yote, na kwa ajili yake tunampenda jirani kama nafsi yetu. Hivyo haki inamtazama jirani kama mtu mwingine, wakati upendo unamtazama kama mimi mwingine. Adili la haki linaheshimu stahili za mtu, kumbe upendo unatoa zaidi, kutokana na kumpenda Mungu na mtoto wake. Hivyo tunaelewa kwamba “amani ni tunda la haki si moja kwa moja, ila kwa sababu haki inaondoa vinavyozuia amani. Lakini amani ni moja kwa moja tunda la upendo, kwa kuwa upendo unazaa amani kwa umbile lake. Hii ni kwa sababu upendo ni nguvu inayounganisha; na amani ndiyo muungano wa mioyo na matakwa” ([[Thoma wa Akwino]]). ====Maadili yanayotegemea haki katika maisha ya Kikristo==== Haki inayohuishwa na upendo inafuatana na maadili mengine ya kufanana nayo. Mojawapo ni bora kuliko haki yenyewe, yaani adili la [[ibada]] ambalo linampatia Mungu heshima inayotakiwa kwa ndani na nje, [[utiifu]], sala na [[sadaka]] ya kuabudu, ya kufidia, ya kudua, ya kushukuru; pia linatukumbusha tuwaheshimu watakatifu na kwa namna ya pekee [[Mama wa Mungu]]. Hilo lifuatane na [[toba]] ili kufidia makosa dhidi ya Mungu. Haki inategemeza pia heshima ya kitoto kwa [[wazazi]] na nchi, heshima kwa watu kulingana na stahili, [[umri]] na [[cheo]] chao, utiifu kwa wakubwa, [[shukrani]] kwa misaada, uangalifu wa kuadhibu kwa haki inapofaa (pamoja na kutumia huruma), hatimaye [[usemakweli]] katika maneno na mwenendo. Inatukumbusha kuwa [[urafiki]] una haki na wajibu wa namna yake, ingawa hauwezi kudai kitu mahakamani. Pia, kuna wajibu wa [[upendevu]], unaopingana na ulaghai na mabishano ya bure vilevile. Hatimaye kuna wajibu wa [[ukarimu]], unaokwepa kwa pamoja [[uroho]] na [[ubadhirifu]]. Hayo yote ni muhimu, lakini hata wanaofuata maisha ya Kiroho hawayafikirii vya kutosha, hivyo wanajipendea kuliko kuwajali wenzao. Pengine kwa kisingizio cha upendo, [[ari]] chungu inavunja upendo na haki kwa kuhukumu bila msingi, kusengenya na kutia shaka juu ya jirani. Kinyume chake, tungeyatimiza kwa bidii tuliyoyazungumzia, utashi ungenyoshwa na kuimarishwa na kuandaliwa uishi kwa maadili ya juu zaidi, yaani tumaini na upendo, yanayotakiwa kutuunganisha na Mungu na kudumisha muungano huo katika nafasi mbalimbali za maisha, hasa zile ngumu na zisizotarajiwa. Kuwa Wakristo hata katika matendo madogo, ndiyo [[heri]] halisi ya wanaomfuata [[Yesu]]. Adili la haki, ambalo ni la pili kati ya maadili bawaba, ni bora kuliko nguvu na kiasi, hata kuliko [[ubikira]]. Ukuu wake unajitokeza hasa katika tamko la Yesu alipolizungumzia katika maana ya juu ambamo yote tuliyoyasema yamo, tena kwa namna bora iwezekanavyo: “Heri wenye njaa na kiu ya haki, maana hao watashibishwa” ([[Injili ya Mathayo|Math]] 5:6). ==Haki ya kishujaa== Ili tupate picha ya haki kamili tukumbuke adili hilo halikatazi tu wizi na utapeli, bali pia uongo wowote, unafiki, ulaghai, kuvunja siri, kuwakosea watu heshima kwa masingizio, masengenyo na vitendo, kuwahukumu bila msingi na kuwacheka kwa dharau. Mara nyingi haki yetu ina dosari tunapoitekeleza walau kiasi kwa faida yetu, k.mf. tukilipa madeni ili kukwepa pia gharama ya kesi, au tukisema ukweli kwa kuzingatia usumbufu unaoweza ukatokana na uongo. Hapo inahitaji kutakaswa kama maadili mengine yote. Haki kamili inahitajiwa na wale wanaolenga muungano wa dhati na Mungu, kwa kuwa wanatakiwa wasiwe na kosa lolote dhidi ya wenzao bali watimize wajibu wowote wa haki na upendo kwao. “Uishindanie kweli hata kufa, naye Bwana atakupigania wewe. Usiwe mwepesi wa kunena, mlegevu wa kutenda, msahaulifu. Usiwe kama simba nyumbani mwako, mwenye kutuhumu watumishi wako. Mkono wako usinyoshwe kupokea, ukarudishwa wakati wa kulipa” ([[Kitabu cha Yoshua bin Sira|YbS]] 4:28-31). Mtu aliyefikia hatua ya muungano anatakiwa kutimiza kishujaa aina zote za haki, zikiwa ni pamoja na usawa. Ashike kikamilifu [[sheria]] zote za Mungu na za kibinadamu, za [[Kanisa]] na za nchi. Akipaswa kugawa mema au mizigo, afanye hivyo kadiri ya [[stahili]] za kila mmoja, asijali undugu wala urafiki. Aepe dhara lolote kwa yeyote. Haki ya kishujaa inadhihirika hasa pale ambapo ni vigumu kuipatanisha na mapendo ya dhati: kwa mfano [[Hakimu|jaji]] anapotakiwa kumhukumu mwanae mwenye makosa; au mkubwa anapotakiwa kumtuma mwanae mpenzi wa Kiroho mahali pa mbali na pa hatari. == Tazama pia == * [[Carlo Biotti]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * Clive Barnett, ''The Priority of Injustice: Locating Democracy in Critical Theory'' (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2017), ISBN 978-0-8203-5152-0 * Brian Barry, ''Theories of Justice'' (Berkeley: [[University of California Press]], 1989) * Harry Brighouse, ''Justice'' (Cambridge: [[Polity (publisher)|Polity Press]], 2004) * Anthony Duff & David Garland eds, ''A Reader on Punishment'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) * Colin Farrelly, ''An Introduction to Contemporary Political Theory'' (London: Sage, 2004) * Barzilai Gad, ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities'' (Ann Arbor: [[University of Michigan Press]], 2003) * David Gauthier, ''Morals By Agreement'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986) * Robert E. Goodin & Philip Pettit eds, ''Contemporary Political Philosophy: An anthology'' (2nd edition, Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2006), Part III * [[Serge Guinchard]], ''La justice et ses institutions'' (Judicial institutions), Dalloz editor, 12 edition, 2013 * [[Eric Heinze]], ''The Concept of Injustice'' (Routledge, 2013) * Ted Honderich, ''Punishment: The supposed justifications'' (London: [[Hutchinson & Co.]], 1969) * James Konow (2003) "Which Is the Fairest One of All? A Positive Analysis of Justice Theories", ''Journal of Economic Literature'', 41(4)[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3217459 pp. 1188–1239] * Will Kymlicka, ''Contemporary Political Philosophy: An introduction'' (2nd edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) * Nicola Lacey, ''State Punishment'' (London: [[Routledge]], 1988) * John Stuart Mill, ''Utilitarianism'' in ''On Liberty and Other Essays'' ed. John Gray (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991) * Robert Nozick, ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974) * {{cite book |author=Amartya Sen |title=The Idea of Justice |url=https://archive.org/details/ideaofjustice00amar |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-674-06047-0 }} * Marek Piechowiak, ''Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity'' (2nd edition, revised and extended, Berlin: Peter Lang Academic Publishers, 2021), ISBN 978-3-631-84524-0. * C.L. Ten, ''Crime, Guilt, and Punishment: A philosophical introduction'' (Oxford: [[Clarendon Press]], 1987) * [[Plato]], ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'' trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) * John Rawls, ''A Theory of Justice'' (revised edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) * David Schmidtz, ''Elements of Justice'' (New York: [[Columbia University Press]], 2006) * Peter Singer ed., ''A Companion to Ethics'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), Part IV * Reinhold Zippelius, ''Rechtsphilosophie, §§ 11–22'' (6th edition, Munich: [[C.H. Beck]], 2011), ISBN 978-3-406-61191-9 ==Viungo vya nje== {{Wikiquote|Justice}} {{commons category}} {{Wikivoyage|Justice history}} * Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entries: ** [http://www.iep.utm.edu/dist-jus/ Distributive Justice], by Michael Allingham ** [http://www.iep.utm.edu/punishme/ Punishment], by Kevin Murtagh ** [http://www.iep.utm.edu/justwest/ Western Theories of Justice], by Wayne P. Pomerleau * Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entries: ** [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice/ "Justice"] by David Miller ** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-distributive/ "Distributive Justice"] by Julian Lamont ** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justice-virtue/ "Justice as a Virtue"] by Michael Slote ** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/punishment/ "Punishment"] by [[Hugo Adam Bedau]] and Erin Kelly * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091204190016/http://unrol.org/article.aspx?article_id=30 United Nations Rule of Law: Informal Justice], on the relationship between informal/community justice, the [[rule of law]] and the [[United Nations]] * [http://www.justiceharvard.org Justice: What's The Right Thing To Do?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427043908/http://www.justiceharvard.org/ |date=27 April 2014 }}, a series of 12 videos on the subject of justice by Harvard University's Michael Sandel, with reading materials and comments from participants. {{mbegu}} [[Jamii:Maadili]] [[Jamii:Falsafa]] [[Jamii:Dini]] 9ondluijvp3v43f71qm6khmth36rnxc 0 23737 1580108 1534120 2026-07-18T00:10:46Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580108 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:SaintDominic.jpg|right|thumb|Dominiko wa Guzmán, [[mwanzilishi]] wa Shirika la Ndugu Wahubiri]] '''Dominiko wa Guzmán''' ([[Calaroga]], [[Hispania]], [[1170]] hivi - [[Bologna]], [[Italia]], [[6 Agosti]] [[1221]]) alikuwa [[upadri|padri]] wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]] akaanzisha [[Wadominiko|Shirika la Wahubiri]] ili kufufua [[Mitindo|mtindo]] wa [[maisha]] ya [[Mitume wa Yesu]] <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/23950</ref>. Mtu ambaye alikuwa anasema tu na [[Mungu]] au juu ya Mungu, alitangazwa [[mtakatifu]] na [[Papa Gregori IX]] [[tarehe]] [[2 Julai]] [[1234]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa tarehe [[8 Agosti]]<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. == Maisha == Dominiko wa Guzman alikuwa [[kanoni]] wa [[jimbo]] la [[Burgo de Osma-Ciudad de Osma]]: [[mwaka]] [[1203]] aliongozana na [[askofu]] wake [[Diego wa Acevedo]] katika [[safari]] ya [[balozi|kibalozi]] kwa niaba ya [[mfalme]] [[Alfonso VIII wa Castilia]] kwa [[mfalme]] [[Valdemaro II wa Denmark]]. Wakati wa kurudi, wakipitia [[mkoa]] wa [[Langadoque]] ([[Ufaransa]] Kusini), waling'amua [[uzushi]] wa [[Wakatari]] ulivyoenea, naye akaamua kuungana na mabalozi wa [[Papa Inosenti III]] katika [[Juhudi|jitihada]] za kurudisha watu hao katika [[Kanisa Katoliki]]. Akikusanya [[kundi]] dogo la [[Msichana|wasichana]] walioacha Ukatari, mwaka [[1207]] alianzisha huko Notre-Dame-de-Prouille, karibu [[Fanjeaux]], [[monasteri]] ya kike ambayo ikawa [[kitovu]] cha [[kazi]] yake ya [[utume|kitume]]. Dominiko aliendelea kuwahubiri kwa [[unyenyekevu]] na [[amani]] Wakatari hata baada ya [[balozi]] wa [[Papa]] [[Petro wa Castelnau]] kuuawa ([[1208]]), akikataa kujiunga na [[vita vya msalaba]] vilivyotangazwa dhidi ya Wakatari. Kwa msaada wa askofu wa [[Tolosa]] Folco, mwaka [[1215]] alikusanya wenzi kadhaa wenye nia ya kuhubiri kama yeye katika [[Ufukara wa hiari|ufukara]] mkubwa akawaingiza katika [[utawa|maisha ya kitawa]]. Shirika hilo lilipata kwanza kibali fulani cha [[Papa Inosenti III]] halafu kibali rasmi cha [[mwandamizi]] wake, [[Papa Onori III]], tarehe [[22 Desemba]] [[1216]]. Mwenyewe aliwaachia wafuasi wake himizo la kuhudumia jirani kwa [[sala]], masomo na huduma ya [[Neno la Mungu]]. Baada ya hapo Shirika la Ndugu Wahubiri lilienea kati [[Ulaya]] nzima, hasa katika miji ambapo vilikuwa vinaanza [[chuo kikuu|vyuo vikuu]], kama vile vya [[Bologna]] na [[Paris]], vilivyosaidiwa sana na Wadominiko kupata ustawi. Kwa agizo la [[Mtaguso IV wa Laterano]] ndugu hao walipaswa kujichagulia [[kanuni]] iliyowahi kukubaliwa na [[Kanisa]], wakaamua kushika ile ya [[Agostino wa Hippo]], wakiiongezea [[katiba]] ya kwao, maarufu hasa kwa kutumia kiasi fulani cha [[demokrasia]], ambayo ilitumiwa kama mwongozo kwa nyingine hata za kiserikali. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo ya Kiswahili== * Masomo ya Breviari - Sikukuu za Bwana, za Bikira Maria na za Watakatifu - Ndanda Mission Press 1978, uk 276-278 * John Kabeya na wengine - Maisha ya Watakatifu – ed. T.M.P. Book Department – Tabora 1965, 1989, uk. 271-273 * Pd. Leandry Kimario, [[Wakapuchini|O.F.M.Cap.]] - Mfahamu Mtakatifu Somo Wako - Maisha ya Watakatifu wa Kila Siku pamoja na Watakatifu Wafransisko - Toleo la pili - Dar es Salaam 2021, uk. 232-233 * Maurice Soseleje, Kalendari yetu – Maisha ya Watakatifu – Toleo la pili – ed. Benedictine Publications Ndanda Peramiho – Peramiho 1986 – ISBN 9976-63-112-X, uk. 61-62 == Marejeo ya lugha nyingine== * {{cite book |title=Saint Dominic: The Grace of the Word |url=https://archive.org/details/saintdominicgrac0000unse |first=Guy |last=Bedouelle |year=1995 |publisher=Ignatius Press |isbn=0-89870-531-2}} * [http://www.op.org/international/english/Documents/Articles/bedouelle1.htm Guy Bedouelle, "The Holy Inquisition: Dominic and the Dominicans," an article on the main Dominican website] {{Wayback|url=http://www.op.org/international/english/Documents/Articles/bedouelle1.htm |date=20080704073448 }} * {{cite book |title=Saint Dominic |first=Jean |last=Guiraud |year=1913 |publisher=Duckworth |other=Digitized by Google Books 16 Agosti 2007}} [http://www.archive.org/details/saintdominic00guirrich Full text at archive.org] * Francis C. Lehner, ed., ''St Dominic: biographical documents''. Washington: Thomist Press, 1964 [http://www.domcentral.org/trad/domdocs/default.htm Full text] * {{cite book |title=The Dominican Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/dominicantraditi00unse |first1=Thomas |last1=McGonigle |first2=Phyllis |last2=Zagano |location=Collegeville, MN |publisher=The Liturgical Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0814619117 |ref=harv}} * Pierre Mandonnet, M. H. Vicaire, ''St. Dominic and His Work''. Saint Louis, 1948 [http://www.domcentral.org/trad/domwork/default.htm Full text at Dominican Central] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05106a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: ''St. Dominic''] by John B. O'Conner, 1909. * {{cite book |title=Early Dominicans: Selected Writings |first=Simon |last=Tugwell |location=New York |publisher=Paulist Press |year=1982 |url=http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0809124149/ref=sib_dp_ptu#reader-link |isbn=978-0809124145 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |title=Saint Dominic and his Times |first=M.-H. |last=Vicaire |other=Translated by Kathleen Pond |publisher=Alt Publishing |location=Green Bay, Wisconsin |year=1964 |asin=B0000CMEWR}} * {{cite book |title= A Short History of Monks and Monasteries |first=Alfred Wesley |last=Wishart |year=1900 |publisher= |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13206 |other=Freely available eText}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Saint Dominic}} * [http://www.bartleby.com/210/8/041.html St. Dominic] ([http://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/dominic.pdf pdf] {{Wayback|url=http://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/dominic.pdf |date=20120427101003 }}) from [[Alban Butler|Fr. Alban Butler]]'s [http://www.bartleby.com/210/ ''Lives of the Saints''] * [http://www.op.org/ ORDO PRAEDICATORUM (OP) – The homepage of Dominicans (Black Friars).] * [http://op.cz/ The website of Czech Dominicans.] * [http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Statues/Founders/Dominic/Dominic.htm Founder Statue in St Peter's Basilica] * [http://dominicanhistory.blogspot.com/ Lectures in Dominican History] * [http://www.stjudemonastery.org/dominic.html Dominican Monastery of St. Jude] {{Wayback|url=http://www.stjudemonastery.org/dominic.html |date=20100610032833 }} * [http://catholicism.org/st-dominic.html Saint Dominic de Guzman] article at Catholicism.org * [http://www.aug.edu/augusta/iconography/dominic.html St. Dominic page] {{Wayback|url=http://www.aug.edu/augusta/iconography/dominic.html |date=20090819012403 }} at Christian Iconography * [http://www.aug.edu/augusta/iconography/goldenLegend/dominic.htm "Here Followeth of St. Dominic"] {{Wayback|url=http://www.aug.edu/augusta/iconography/goldenLegend/dominic.htm |date=20111107010003 }} from the Caxton translation of the ''Golden Legend'' {{mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1170]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1221]] [[Jamii:Wakanoni]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wadominiko]] [[Jamii:Watawa waanzilishi]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Hispania]] ijyna13d12yrel8vfvjcmskawadd5tz 0 26831 1580069 1548030 2026-07-17T23:44:28Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580069 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Konrad Witz - The Queen of Sheba before Solomon (c. 1435).jpg|300px|right|thumb|Solomoni na [[malkia wa Saba]] (mchoro wa [[Konrad Witz]], alias Conradus Sapientis, [[1434]]-[[1435]]).]] '''Mfalme Solomoni''' kadiri ya [[Biblia]] alikuwa mfalme wa tatu na wa mwisho wa [[Israeli]] nzima, akitawala kuanzia [[970 KK]] hadi [[930 KK]] hivi. ==Maisha yake== [[File:Ingobertus 001.jpg|thumb|left|Solomoni katika [[ikulu]] yake (kadiri ya [[Ingobertus]], [[880]] hivi).]] Alikuwa mwana wa [[Daudi (Biblia)|Daudi]] na Bath-Sheba ([[Betsheba]]), aliyewahi kuwa [[mke]] wa [[Uria Mhiti]]. Daudi alimchagua kuwa mrithi wake kwa sababu alikuwa uthibitisho hai wa [[msamaha]] aliopewa na [[Mungu]] kwa [[kuzini]] na hatimaye kumuua Uria. Ufalme wake ulitazamwa na [[Wayahudi]] kuwa na ustawi usio na mfano, kutokana na [[hekima]] yake na [[amani]] iliyopatikana wakati wote wa utawala wake. Ufalme wake uliweza kustawi kuliko ule wa baba yake kutokana na msingi imara aliouweka Daudi. Lakini mwenyewe aliudhoofisha na kusababisha mara baada ya kifo chake utokee utengano kati ya makabila ya Kaskazini na yale ya Kusini. Kati ya kazi muhimu alizozifanya, mojawapo ni kujenga [[hekalu la Yerusalemu]] na kuliweka wakfu kwa sherehe kubwa ya siku saba, ambapo Mungu alionyesha kibali chake kwa kulijaza kwa sura ya wingu ([[1Fal]] 8). Polepole [[hekalu]] hilo likaja kuwa la pekee hata [[patakatifu]] pengine pote pakakatazwa chini ya mfalme [[Yosia]]. Ingawa Solomoni anasifiwa kwa [[hekima]] yake, alishindwa kukwepa [[majivuno]] na [[tamaa]], akataka kuwapendeza wake zake waliokuwa 700 (mbali na masuria 300), wengi wao [[Wapagani]], hata akawajengea mahali pa kuabudia miungu yao akamchukiza Mungu hata akamtabiria mtoto wake atanyang’anywa sehemu kubwa ya ufalme (1Fal 11:1-13) ikawa hivyo. Hata hivyo mwishoni aliweza kulaumiwa kwa kuzidisha fahari, hasa upande wa wanawake waliomvuta kwenda kinyume cha [[imani]] ya [[Mungu]] pekee. ===Sala zake=== "Nipe mimi mtumwa wako moyo wa adili niwahukumu watu wako, na kupambanua mema na mabaya; maana ni nani awezaye kuwahukumu hawa watu wako walio wengi"? (1Fal 3:9) "Ee Bwana, Mungu wa Israeli, hakuna Mungu kama wewe, mbinguni juu wala duniani chini! Ushikaye maagano na rehema kwa watumishi wako, waendao mbele zako kwa mioyo yao yote". (1Fal 8:23) ==Baada ya kifo chake== Kwa sababu hiyo, ufalme ulivunjika pande mbili mara baada ya kifo chake. Hata hivyo, Wayahudi waliendelea kumuona kama kielelezo cha hekima, wakaandika vitabu kwa kutumia jina lake au kwa kujifananisha naye. [[Yesu]] alijitangaza kuwa mkuu na mwenye hekima kuliko Solomoni. ==Marejeo== *{{cite book|first= William G. |last= Dever |authorlink= William G. Dever |title= Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From? |url= https://archive.org/details/whowereearlyisra0000deve |publisher= [[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company]] |year= 2003 |isbn= 0-8028-0975-8 }} *{{cite book|first= Israel |last= Finkelstein |authorlink= Israel Finkelstein |coauthors= [[Neil Asher Silberman]] |title= David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition |url= https://archive.org/details/davidsolomoninse00fink |publisher= [[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]] |year= 2006 |isbn= 0-7432-4362-5 }} *{{cite book|first= Israel |last= Finkelstein |authorlink= Israel Finkelstein |coauthors= [[Neil Asher Silberman]] |title= The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision |url= https://archive.org/details/bibleunearthedar00fink |publisher= [[Simon & Schuster]] |year= 2002 |isbn= 978-0-684-86913-1 }} *{{cite book|editor= Thomas E. Levy & Thomas Higham (eds.) |title= The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Text and Science |year= 2005 |url= https://archive.org/details/bibleradiocarbon0000unse |publisher= Equinox Publishing (UK) |location= London ; [[Oakville (Watertown, Connecticut)|Oakville, CT.]] |origdate= 2005-12-30 |isbn= 978-1-84553-056-3 |oclc= 60453952 }} *{{cite book|last= Dever |first= William G. |authorlink= William G. Dever |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title= What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archaeology Can Tell Us about the Reality of Ancient Israel |url= https://archive.org/details/whatdidbiblicalw0000deve |year= 2001 |origmonth= Juni |publisher= [[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|Eerdmans Pub.]] |location= Grand Rapids, Mich. |isbn= 978-0-8028-4794-2 |oclc= 45487499 |ref= CITEREFDever2001 }} *{{cite book|last= Kitchen |first= Kenneth A. |authorlink= Kenneth Kitchen |title= On the reliability of the Old Testament |url= https://archive.org/details/onreliabilityofo00kitc |year= 2003 |publisher= [[Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|Eerdmans]] |location= Grand Rapids, Mich. |isbn= 0-8028-4960-1 |oclc= |doi= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= CITEREFKitchen2003 }} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category}} *[http://web.archive.org/web/20080115144348rn_1/www.vdu.lt/~ktv/solomon/ A collection of King Solomon links on the web] *[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=894&letter=S Jewish Encyclopedia] (1901–1905) *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14135b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Solomon] entry by Gabriel Oussani (1913) *{{imdb title|id=0167409|title=Solomon}} Animated depiction of the life of Solomon *{{imdb title|id=0143889|title=Solomon}} Artistic movie about the rise and the reign of King Solomon *[http://www.warsofisrael.com/solommon.html Wars of King Solomon] {{Wayback|url=http://www.warsofisrael.com/solommon.html |date=20100125105342 }} The Wars of King Solomon: Summaries and Studies: www.warsofisrael.com {{Watawala wa Israeli ya Kale}} {{mbegu-mtu-Biblia}} [[Jamii:Wafalme wa Israeli]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Biblia]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Kurani]] [[Jamii:Manabii katika Uislamu]] j7ap5u2cpuoybholg3oq5wh9di5776m 0 31671 1580000 1120066 2026-07-17T19:39:34Z Texas Online warrior range1848 91009 ai translate 1580000 wikitext text/x-wiki {{delete|reason for deletion}}[[Picha:Historic_Downtown_McKinney.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Mji wa McKinney]] {{Infobox Settlement |jina_rasmi = McKinney |picha_ya_satelite = |maelezo_ya_picha = |pushpin_map = Marekani |pushpin_map_caption = Mahali pa mji wa McKinney katika Marekani |settlement_type = Mji |subdivision_type = [[Madola|Nchi]] |subdivision_name = [[Marekani]] |subdivision_type1 = [[Orodha ya majimbo ya Marekani|Jimbo]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Texas]] |subdivision_type2 = [[:en:List of counties in Texas|Wilaya]] |subdivision_name2 = [[:en:Collin County, Texas|Collin]] |wakazi_kwa_ujumla = 121211 |latd=33 |latm=11 |lats=50 |latNS=N |longd=96 |longm=38 |longs=23 |longEW=W |website = [http://www3.mckinneytexas.org/ www3.McKinneyTexas.org] }} '''McKinney''' ni mji wa [[Marekani]] katika [[jimbo]] la [[Texas]]. Kwa mujibu wa sensa iliyofanyika mnamo mwaka wa 2008, mji una wakazi wapatao 121,000 wanaoishi katika mji huu. Mji upo m 192 kutoka [[juu ya usawa wa bahari]]. {{mbegu-jio-USA}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Texas]] [[Jamii:Dallas, Texas]] hdpscxv96f0p3r67m51dw1ttpljm8j2 1580004 1580000 2026-07-17T19:59:30Z A09 55163 Masahihisho aliyefanya [[Special:Contributions/Texas Online warrior range1848|Texas Online warrior range1848]] ([[User talk:Texas Online warrior range1848|Majadiliano]]) yalirejeshwa hadi sahihisho la mwisho na [[User:Godson18|Godson18]] 1120066 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Historic_Downtown_McKinney.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Mji wa McKinney]] {{Infobox Settlement |jina_rasmi = McKinney |picha_ya_satelite = |maelezo_ya_picha = |pushpin_map = Marekani |pushpin_map_caption = Mahali pa mji wa McKinney katika Marekani |settlement_type = Mji |subdivision_type = [[Madola|Nchi]] |subdivision_name = [[Marekani]] |subdivision_type1 = [[Orodha ya majimbo ya Marekani|Jimbo]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Texas]] |subdivision_type2 = [[:en:List of counties in Texas|Wilaya]] |subdivision_name2 = [[:en:Collin County, Texas|Collin]] |wakazi_kwa_ujumla = 121211 |latd=33 |latm=11 |lats=50 |latNS=N |longd=96 |longm=38 |longs=23 |longEW=W |website = [http://www3.mckinneytexas.org/ www3.McKinneyTexas.org] }} '''McKinney''' ni mji wa [[Marekani]] katika [[jimbo]] la [[Texas]]. Kwa mujibu wa sensa iliyofanyika mnamo mwaka wa 2008, mji una wakazi wapatao 121,000 wanaoishi katika mji huu. Mji upo m 192 kutoka [[juu ya usawa wa bahari]]. {{mbegu-jio-USA}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Texas]] [[Jamii:Dallas, Texas]] h6skxkt55r75m8zl4u10uvzjl1bjvu8 0 31805 1580138 1575717 2026-07-18T00:30:12Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580138 wikitext text/x-wiki [[file:Zanzibar, 12 Jan. 2004, celebration of 40 years' Revolution.JPG|thumb|350px|Maandamano ya JWTZ wakati wa sikukuu ya Mapinduzi ya Zanzibar, 2000.]] [[Picha:KAR Kenya.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Askari wa King's African Rifles mnamo 1944.]] '''''Jeshi la Ulinzi la Wananchi wa Tanzania (JWTZ)''''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] '''Tanzania People's Defense Force TPDF''') ni [[jeshi]] lililoanzishwa mnamo [[Mwezi (wakati)|mwezi]] [[Septemba]] katika [[mwaka]] wa [[1964]]. Ilichukua nafasi ya jeshi la [[Tanganyika Rifles]] lililorithiwa na [[ukoloni]] wa [[Waingereza]]. ==Historia ya awali<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://tpdf.mil.tz/index.php?id=4 |title=Linganisha "Historia ya JWTZ" kwenye tovuti rasmi (yenye makosa madogo, kama kuchanganya Vita Kuu ya kwanza na ya pili) |accessdate=2015-06-17 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626072742/http://tpdf.mil.tz/index.php?id=4 |archivedate=2015-06-26 }}</ref>== ===Kabla ya ukoloni=== [[Picha:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1984-067-35, Deutsch-Ostafrika, Hilfstruppen.jpg|thumb|Kikosi cha Warugaruga waliosaidia Schutztruppe ya Kijerumani wakati wa Vita Kuu ya Kwanza]] Kabla ya ukoloni jumuiya za watu katika eneo la Tanzania walikuwa na jeshi lililojumuisha wanaume wote hasa vijana. Lakini baada ya vita kila mtu alirudi kwa kazi yake ya kawaida hapakuwa na askari wa kudumu. Katika karne ya 19 mfumo mpya wa vita ulienea baada ya kufika kwa [[Wangoni]] waliopanga askari kufuatana na umri kwa vikosi ("[[impi]]") na vikosi hivi vilikutana kwa mazoezi hata nje ya vita yenyewe. Tangu kuenea kwa silaha za moto viongozi kadhaa kama [[Mirambo]] waliunda vikosi vya [[rugaruga]] waliokusanya vijana kutoka [[Kabila|makabila]] mbalimbali kwa ajili ya vita. [[Sultani wa Zanzibar]] alikuwa na wanajeshi wa kudumu. Mwanzoni alitumia [[mamluki]] walioajiriwa kutoka [[Uarabuni]] na [[Uajemi]], hasa [[Baluchistan]], pamoja na [[watumwa]]<ref>Richard F. Burton: Zanzibar; City, Island, and Coast, vol I, London 1872, uk. 266., [https://burtoniana.org/books/1872-Zanzibar/zanzibarcityisla01burt.pdf online hapa] </ref>. Kuanzia mwaka 1877 alianzisha kikosi kipya cha askari mia kadhaa chini ya afisa Mwingereza [[Lloyd Mathews]] waliofundishwa kufuatana na utaratibu wa Kizungu; askari hao waliteuliwa chini ya Waafrika wa Unguja.<ref>Robert Nunez Lyne, Zanzibar in Contemporary Times, 1905 Hurst And Blackett, London, uk. 100, [https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.53767/2015.53767.Zanzibar-In-Contemporary-Times-Short-History-Of-The-Southern-East-In-The-Ninetenth-Century_text.pdf online hapa] </ref> [[Picha:Askari DOA cropped.png|thumb|Askari wa Schutzruppe akishika Bendera ya Ujerumani]] ===Schutztruppe ya Kijerumani=== {{main|Schutztruppe}} Koloni la [[Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kijerumani]] ilianzishwa kwa njia ya vita kadhaa ambako jeshi la Kijerumani lilishinda upinzani wa wenyeji. Wajerumani walitumia askari kutoka kwao pamoja na askari waliokodiwa kutoka [[Sudani]] na [[Wazulu]] kutoka [[Afrika Kusini]]. Waliendelea kuajiri Waafrika wazalendo na kujenga jeshi la [[Schutztruppe]] (tamka ''shuts-tru-pe'') lililokuwa hasa na askari Waafrika waliohudumia chini ya maafisa Wajerumani. Jeshi hilo liliimarisha utawala wa kikoloni. Wakati wa [[Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia]], liliweza kuzuia mashambulizi ya Waingereza hadi mwaka 1916 likaendelea kujitetea hadi mwisho wa vita 1918. Jeshi hili lilivunjwa baada ya Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia. ===King's African Rifles ya Kiingereza=== {{main|King's African Rifles}} Mwaka 1919 Uingereza ilikabidhiwa utawala juu ya [[Tanganyika]] na [[Shirikisho la Mataifa]]. Waingereza waliwahi kuanzisha mfumo wa [[King's African Rifles]] kabla ya vita katika [[Afrika ya Mashariki ya Kiingereza|koloni yao ya Kenya]]. Askari wa kawaida walikuwa Waafrika waliosimamiwa na maafisa Waingereza. Baada ya kutwaa utawala juu ya Tanganyika walieneza mfumo huo pia huko. Jeshi la Kings African Rifles lilikuwa na vikosi (battalions) 6 ambazo viwili vilikuwepo Kenya, vitatu Tanganyika na kimoja huko Uganda. Katika kikosi cha sita cha King's African Rifles kilichoanzishwa mwaka 1917 kwa kuajiri askari kutoka Tanganyika walikuwepo pia askari wa awali wa jeshi la Kijerumani la [[Schutztruppe]] waliowahi kukamatwa kama wafungwa na kukubali kuendelea upande wa Waingereza. ===Tanganyika Rifles baada ya uhuru=== {{main|Tangayika Rifles}} Baada ya uhuru mwaka 1961 vikosi vya Kings African Rifles katika Tanganyika vilibadilishwa jina na kuwa [[Tangayika Rifles]] (TR). Pamoja na kubadilika jina Tanganyika Rifles ilikuwa na muundo sawa na Kings African Rifles (KAR). Maafisa wenye mamlaka bado walikuwa Waingereza, pamoja na Waafrika watano waliopandishwa cheo wakati wa uhuru na kupokea mafunzo katika vyuo vya kijeshi vya Kiingereza. Jeshi jipya lilipangwa katika vikosi viwili vyenye makao makuu huko [[Dar es Salaam]] na [[Tabora]]. Afisa mkuu alikuwa Brigedia Jenerali Patrick Sholto Douglas. ==Mgomo na uasi wa Tanganyika Rifles== Kwa jumla kulikuwa na hali ya kutoridhika kati ya askari wa TR. Sababu yake ilikuwa matumaini ya kwamba uhuru ungeleta mabadiliko makubwa zaidi na nafasi za kupanda cheo baada ya kuondoka kwa maafisa wazungu. Lakini maafisa Waingereza waliendelea kuajiriwa na serikali ya Nyerere na tofauti kubwa katika mapato na hali ya makazi ya Wazungu na Waafrika ziliendelea. Hata kinyume askari waliowahi kuwa na mshahara wa juu kulingana na watumishi Waafrika wengine ya serikali waliona ya kwamba mapato yao hayakupanda ilhali mishahara kwa jumla iliongezeka zaidi. Zaidi ya hapo, serikali ya [[TANU]] ilituma vijana kutoka Umoja wa Vijana wa TANU kwa mafunzo ya kijeshi huko [[Israeli]] na baada ya kurudi walipewa ajira jeshini na wengine wao kupandishwa vyeo kupitia askari waliowahi kuhudumia miaka mingi. Katika Januari 1964 matokeo mawili yalijadiliwa sana kati ya askari moja ilikuwa tangazo la Nyerere alikotamka mwisho wa siasa ya "Africanization" katika utumishi wa serikali<ref>Nyerere alitangaza ya kwamba wananchi wote wangetumiwa kulingana na elimu na uwezo wao kama ni Waafrika wazalendo au Wazungu au Wahindi waliochagua uraia wa Tanganyika, bila kujali rangi ya ngozi. Linganisha [https://books.google.com/books?id=dZo2AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA86&dq=Tanganyika+rifles+mutiny&hl=de&sa=X&ei=87GBVdD8BqTXyQPhgYOAAQ&ved=0CGAQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=Tanganyika%20rifles%20mutiny&f=false Race, Nation, and Citizenship in Post-Colonial Africa: The Case of Tanzania, by Ronald Aminzade, uk. 86 (google books, tazamiwa Juni 2015]</ref>. Tangazo hili lilisababisha viongozi wa umoja wa wafanyakazi kulalamika. Tukio lingine likawa habari za [[mapinduzi ya Zanzibar]] yaliyoanza tarehe 12 Januari 1964. Tarehe 20 Januari 1964, bado wakati wa usiku, kikosi cha kwanza cha TR kwenye kambi la Colito Barracks<ref>Jina la "Colito" lilitunza kumbukumbu ya ushindi wa kikosi kutoka Tanganyika juu ya [[Italia|Waitalia]] katika mapigano ya [[Alaba Kulito]] pale Ethiopia tarehe 19 Mei 1941. (tazama pia [http://ww2today.com/19th-may-1941-sergeant-leakey-wins-the-victoria-cross Taarifa juu ya mapigano ya Kulito/Colito] {{Wayback|url=http://ww2today.com/19th-may-1941-sergeant-leakey-wins-the-victoria-cross |date=20180706143111 }})</ref> mjini Dar es Salaam kiliasi na kujipatia silaha kutoka ghala. Maafisa Waingereza walikamatwa na kufungwa lakini mkuu Douglas aliweza kujificha. Waasi walivamia kituo cha redio, uwanja wa ndege, ikulu na ofisi ya posta na simu. Maafisa Waingereza na Waafrika wasioshiriki na waasi walisafirishwa Kenya. [[Rais]] Nyerere alipelekwa na walinzi wake kwa siri Kigamboni katika jitihada ya siri iliyojulikana baadaye kwa jina la [[operesheni Magogoni]]. Alifichwa mwanzoni katika nyumba ya raia binafsi, baadaye katika [[Kanisa Katoliki]]. Akamwachia waziri [[Oskar Kambona]]<ref>Kambona alishika ofisi mbili za mambo ya nje na ulinzi wa taifa</ref> kazi ya kuwasiliana na wanajeshi. Madai ya wanajeshi yalikuwa kuachishwa kwa maafisa Waingereza na kupandishwa kwa mishahara. Siku za kwanza ya mgomo wa jeshi ilifuatwa na vipindi vya fujo mjini vilivyobadilika na vipindi vya kimya, mashambulizi dhidi ya maduka ya Wahindi na kukamatwa kwa Wazungu wachache. Hata balozi wa Uingereza alikamatwa kwa kipindi kifupi. Waziri Kambona alianza kujadiliana na wanajeshi na kuwaahidi ongezeko la mapato na kutoa vyeo vya juu kwa Waafrika kadhaa. Nyerere alirekodi hotuba iliyotangazwa redioni alipokosoa wanajeshi na kudai utulivu. Askari walirudi kwenye kambi lakini wakarudi mjini siku iliyofuata. Pia huko Nairobi na Kampala ulitokea uasi wa wanajeshi - wote askari wa KAR wa awali. Marais Milton Obote na Jomo Kenyatta hawakusita kuomba vikosi vya jeshi la Uingereza vilivyokuwa bado na vituo kwa kuzima ghasia. Hatimaye Nyerere alianza mawasiliano na Uingereza iliyotuma manowari na wanajeshi kutoka Aden kuelekea Dar es Salaam.<ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1129&dat=19640121&id=bw5ZAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jGwDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7266,2626560&hl=de Tanganyika Mutini stirs British action; Pittsburgh Post-Gazette - 21. Jan. 1964]</ref> Polisi ya siri ya Tanzania ilianza kupata habari ya kwamba pia kati ya askari ya Field Force unit majadiliano yalikuwa yameanza kuunga mkono na juhudi za wanajeshi, pia harakati kati ya wafanyakazi bandarini na hofu ilikuwa ya kwamba sehemu ya viongozi wa umoja wa wafanyakazi walikuwa na mipango ya kujiunga nao. Tarehe 24 Januari serikali ya Tanzania iliomba rasmi Uingereza kuingia kati na kuzimisha uasi. Asubuhi ya 25 Januari kikosi kidogo cha wanajeshi wa Kiingereza waliondoka kwa njia ya helikopta kwenye meli iliyokaa baharini karibu na Dar es Salaam wakavamia kambi la Colito Barracks. Jenerali Douglas alihutubia askari kwa kipazia sauti akadai wanajeshi wajisalimishe. Mwanzoni walikataa lakini baada ya mashambulio mafupi ya Wingereza walio wengi walijisalimisha wengine wakakimbia na viongozi walikamatwa. Vilevile askari wa Dodoma na Nachingwea waliowahi kujiunga na uasi walijisalimisha bila upinzani baada ya kufika kwa askari Waingereza wachache. Wakazi wengine wa Dar es Salaam walikuwa na hofu ya kwamba Uingereza ulikuwa umerudi ili kurudisha ukoloni lakini baada ya kusita masaa machache Nyerere alieleza kwa njia ya redio ya kwamba kuingilia kwa Uingereza ulifuata ombi la serikali yake. Watu wengi walikamatwa baada ya matukio haya na kufanyiwa utafiti kama walikuwa na uhusiano na uasi.<ref>[ https://books.google.com/books?id=b-wWAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68&lpg=PA68&dq=tanganyika+mutiny&source=bl&ots=Z1izRjQYtE&sig=TdFOGyNb_gPUg4nfNQgBDxmEFqg&hl=de&sa=X&ei=f62BVYuNCcWesgG_obqYBg&ved=0CBwQ6AEwADgU#v=onepage&q=tanganyika%20mutiny&f=false The Military Intervenes: Case Studies in Political Development ed. Henry Bienen, uk. 68, footnote 43 (google book search, ilitazamiwa Juni 2015)]</ref> Askari Waingereza waliondoka kwenye Aprili 1964 na nafasi yao ilichukuliwa na kikosi kutoka [[Nigeria]] iliyofika kwa niaba ya [[Umoja wa Afrika]] kufuatana na ombi la serikali ya Tanganyika. <ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNMWIHUgfhwC&pg=PA82&dq=Tanganyika+rifles+mutiny&hl=de&sa=X&ei=87GBVdD8BqTXyQPhgYOAAQ&ved=0CGgQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Tanganyika%20rifles%20mutiny&f=false Life in Tanganyika in the Fifties , by Godfrey Mwakikagile; uk. 83 (google books, ilitazamiwa Juni 2015)]</ref> ==Kuanzisha jeshi jipya la wananchi== Baada ya uasi, jeshi la TR lilivunjwa. Askari wote waliachishwa kazi. Sehemu ya askari wa Dodoma waliajiriwa tena katika jeshi jipya lakini hao wa Dar es Salaam hawakurudishwa. Maafisa Waafrika ambao kwa jumla walisimama upande wa serikali na kutoshiriki katika uasi waliajiriwa tena. ===Jeshi la kisiasa chini ya TANU/CCM=== Jeshi jipya lilijengwa kwa kuajiri hasa wanachama wa umoja wa vijana wa [[TANU]] likapewa jina la Jeshi la Ulinzi la Wananchi wa Tanzania ("Tanzania People’s Defence Force" - TPDF).<ref>Nestor Luanda, A changing conception of defence:A historical perspective of the military in Tanzania; mlango wa 11 katika Martin Rupiya, Evolutions and revolutions: a contemporary history of militaries in Southern Africa Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria 2005, [https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/EVOLUTCHAP11.PDF online hapa]</ref> Jeshi hili jipya liliwekwa chini ya usimamizi ya chama cha TANU (baadaye CCM) kwa kufuata mtindo wa nchi kama Urusi na China. Kamanda wa kwanza alikuwa [[Mrisho Sarakikya]] aliyewahi kusimama upande wa serikali wakati wa uasi akapandishwa cheo kutoka luteni hadi kanali, baadaye kuwa jenerali. Nyerere alitaka jeshi lenye tabia ya kisiasa. Kila askari alitazamiwa kuwa kada wa TANU, na TPDF ilihesabiwa ndani ya "Mkoa wa Majeshi" wa TANU pamoja na polisi na magereza. Mkoa wa Majeshi ulihesabiwa sawa na mikoa mingine ya kijiografia na kiutawala wa nchi. [[Picha:FIB-training-22 (9311333487).jpg|300px|thumbnail|Askari wa JWTZ wakivaa kofia za UM]] ===JWTZ katika mfumo wa vyama vingi === Mwaka 1991 Tume ya Nyalali ilipendekeza kubadilisha utaratibu wa kisiasa wa Tanzania na kuhamia [[mfumo wa vyama vingi]]; mwaka 1992 pendekezo hilo lilipokewa, hivyo katiba ya nchi ilibadilishwa ipasavyo. Ibara 147 ya katiba inakataza wanajeshi wote kuwa mwanachama wa chama cha kisiasa. <ref>Article 147 (3): "It is hereby prohibited for any member of the defence and security forces to join any political party, save only that he shall have the right to vote which right is specified under Article 5 of this Constitution", Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania 1977, as amended to 2005, iliangaliwa Mei 2020</ref> ===Kupanuliwa kwa JWTZ=== Mwanzoni JWTZ ilikuwa jeshi dogo lenye askari wachache kuliko TR lakini hadi 1967 lilipanuliwa kuwa na vikosi 4. Mnamo 1972 JWTZ lilikadiriwa kuwa na askari 10,000 katika vikosi vinne pamoja na vifaa vya [[Kifaru (jeshi)|vifaru]] 20 aina ya Kifaru T-59, 14 Kifaru T-62, [[mizinga]] ya Kirusi na Kichina. Vipuli vilikuwa haba na sehemu ya vifaa haikuweza kutengenezwa. <ref>International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1972-73, p. 40</ref> ==Vita za JWTZ== Jeshi la Ulinzi la Wananchi Tanzania lilipiga vita mara mbili. ===Uganda=== Vita kubwa inayojulikana zaidi ilikuwa [[Vita ya Uganda na Tanzania]] kwenye miaka ya 1978–1979. Ilianza wakati wa utawala wa dikteta [[Idi Amin]] na uvamizi wa jeshi la Uganda katika Mkoa wa Kagera wa Tanzania tarehe 25 Oktoba 1978. Katika muda wa wiki chache Tanzania ilipanua idadi ya jeshi hadi kufikia 100,000 kwa kuingiza askari polisi, wa huduma ya magereza, kutoka [[Jeshi la Kujenga Taifa]] na wanamgambo, likisaidiwa na vikundi vya wapinzani wa Idi Amin. Katika Novemba jeshi la Tanzania lilianza kushambulia Wauganda. Hadi mwanzo wa Disemba 1978 Mkoa wa Kagera ulikuwa tena mkononi mwa Tanzania. Tarehe 21 Januari 1979 askari wa Tanzania walivuka mpaka wa Uganda, na tarehe 11 Aprili 1979 walivamia [[Kampala]]. Idi Amin alikimbia Libya na JWTZ ilibaki Uganda kwa muda hadi serikali mpya ya Uganda iliimarika. ===Msumbiji=== Vita isiyojulikana sana wakati wake ilikuwa kuingilia kwa JWTZ katika nchi jirani ya [[Msumbiji]] kwa shabaha ya kusaidia serikali ya chama cha [[Frelimo]]. Kulikuwa na vipindi viwili vya usaidizi huu. Kipindi cha kwanza kilikuwa 1977-78 wakati jeshi la [[Rhodesia]] iliingia ndani ya Msumbiji. Rhodesia (leo:[[Zimbabwe]]) ilitawaliwa wakati ule na serikali ya walowezi Wazungu chini ya [[Ian Smith]]. Warhodesia walijaribu kuangamiza vikundi vya wapinzani kutoka kwao waliotafuta kupindua serikali ya walowezi wakijificha katika Msumbiji na kushambulia kutoka huku. Hapo vikosi vya Rhodesia viliingia mara kadhaa ndani ya Msumbiji halafu Rhodesia ilianzisha harakati ya [[Renamo]] kwa kukusanya wapinzani dhidi ya Frelimo na kuwapa silaha. Baada ya kuenea kwa vita ndani ya Rhodesia jeshi lake lilishambulia kambi kubwa ya wapinzani chini ya [[Robert Mugabe]] katika [[Mkoa wa Manica]] wa Msumbiji. Hapo Tanzania ilituma wanajeshi wake kwa shabaha ya kuimarisha utawala wa Frelimo wakarudi kwao mwaka ufuatao 1978.<ref>[http://www.panapress.com/Mozambique-to-return-bodies-of-Tanzanian-soldiers--13-553185-18-lang1-index.html Mozambique to return bodies of Tanzanian soldiers] {{Wayback|url=http://www.panapress.com/Mozambique-to-return-bodies-of-Tanzanian-soldiers--13-553185-18-lang1-index.html |date=20190722080240 }}, tovuti ya UPI News 22 Februari 1987, iliangaliwa Januari 2017</ref> Baada ya [[Mapatano ya Lancaster House]] ya mwaka 1979 vita ya Rhodesia - Zimbabwe ilikwisha. Sasa ilikuwa serikali ya [[apartheid]] ya [[Afrika Kusini]] iliyochukua nafasi ya mdhamini wa Renamo. Miaka iliyofuata iliona vita ya wenyewe kwa wenyewe ya Msumbiji kati ya Frelimo iliyosaidiwa na [[Urusi]] ikifaulu kutetea miji na Renamo iliyosaidiwa na Afrika Kusini ikifaulu kutawala sehemu kubwa ya mashambani na vijiji vingi. Mwaka 1982 maraisi Machel wa Msumbiji na Nyerere walipatana kutumwa kwa kikosi kidogo cha askari 200 wa JWTZ kwa kazi ya washauri kwenda Msumbiji.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/1982/02/23/world/tanzanian-military-advisers-will-be-sent-to-mozambique.html TANZANIAN MILITARY ADVISERS WILL BE SENT TO MOZAMBIQUE] By ALAN COWELL, New York Times, 23 Februari 1982</ref> Mwaka 1987 Tanzania iliamua tena kutuma askari wengi wa JWTZ hasa kwa kusudi la kutetea [[Mkoa wa Zambezia]] dhidi ya Renamo. Waliondoka tena mwaka 1988.<ref>[http://www.upi.com/Archives/1987/02/22/Tanzanian-troops-aiding-Mozambican-army/9721540968400/ Tanzanian troops aiding Mozambican army], Pana Press 14 Agosti 2004, iliangaliwa Januari 2017</ref> ==Mpangilio wa JWTZ wa kisasa== Jeshi la Ulinzi la Wananchi wa Tanzania limegagiwa kwa matawi matatu: *Kamandi ya Nchi Kavu *Kamandi ya Jeshi la Majini *Kamandi ya Jeshi la Anga. ===Nchi Kavu=== Mnamo mwaka 2012 Jeshi la Nchi Kavu la JWTZ lina vikosi vifuatavyo: * 5 × brigedi za askari wa miguu * 1 × brigedi ya vifaru * 3 × batalioni ya mizinga * 2 × batalioni za mizinga ya ulinzi wa hewani * 1 × batalioni ya mizinga ya mortar * 2 × batalioni za kupambana na vifaru * 1x rejimenti ya uhandisi * 1 × kundi la logistic na akiba ==Vyeo katika JWTZ== [[Amiri jeshi mkuu]] wa JWTZ ni [[rais wa Tanzania]]. ===Maafisa=== (Cheo cha Kitanzania - ''(Cheo cha Kiingereza)'' {| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px; width: 100%" ====Vyeo vya chini==== |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan=6| [[File:06-Tanzania Army-WO1.svg|70px]] | colspan=2| [[File:05-Tanzania Army-WO2.svg|70px]] | colspan=2| [[File:04-Tanzania Army-SSG.svg|70px]] | colspan=6| [[File:03-Tanzania Army-SGT.svg|70px]] | colspan=4| [[File:02-Tanzania Army-CPL.svg|70px]] | colspan=2| [[File:01-Tanzania Army-LCPL.svg|70px]] |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan=6| [[Afisa Mteule Daraja la Kwanza]]<br>''(Warrant Officer Class 1)'' | colspan=2| [[Afisa Mteule Daraja la Pili]]<br>''(Warrant Officer Class 2)'' | colspan=2| [[Sajinitaji]]<br>''(Staff Sergeant)'' | colspan=6| [[Sajini]]<br> ''Sergeant)'' | colspan=4| [[Koplo]]<br>''(Corporal)'' | colspan=2| [[Koplo Usu]]<br> ''(Lance Corporal)'' |} ====Maofisa wenye kamisheni ==== (Cheo cha Kitanzania - ''(Cheo cha Kiingereza)'' {| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;" |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan=2| [[File:17-Tanzania Army-GEN.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:16-Tanzania Army-LG.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:15-Tanzania Army-MG.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:14-Tanzania Army-BG.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:13-Tanzania Army-COL.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:12-Tanzania Army-LTC.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:11-Tanzania Army-MAJ.svg|50px]] | colspan=2| [[File:10-Tanzania Army-CPT.svg|50px]] | colspan=3| [[File:09-Tanzania Army-1LT.svg|50px]] | colspan=3| [[File:08-Tanzania Army-2LT.svg|50px]] | colspan=12| [[File:07-Tanzania Army-OC.svg|50px]] |- style="text-align:center;" | colspan=2| <br>[[Jenerali]]<br>''(General)'' | colspan=2| <br>[[Luteni Jenerali]]<br>''(Lieutenant General)'' | colspan=2| <br>[[Meja Jenerali]]<br>''(Major General)'' | colspan=2| <br>[[Brigedia Jenerali]]<br>''(Brigadier General)'' | colspan=2| <br>[[Kanali]]<br>''(Colonel)'' | colspan=2| <br>[[Luteni Kanali]]<br>''(Lieutenant Colonel)'' | colspan=2| <br>[[Meja]]<br>''(Major)'' | colspan=2| <br>[[Kapteni]]<br>''(Captain)'' | colspan=3| <br>[[Luteni]]<br>''(Lieutenant)'' | colspan=3| <br>[[Luteni usu]]<br>''(Second lieutenant)'' | colspan=12| [[Ofisa Mteule]]<br> ''Officer candidate)'' |} ==Wajibu wa JWTZ== Wajibu wa JWTZ ni rasmi<ref>[http://tpdf.mil.tz/ Tovuti la Jeshi la Ulinzi la Wananchi wa Tanzania]</ref>: * Kulinda Katiba na Uhuru wa Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania. * Ulinzi wa mipaka ya Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania. * Kufanya mafunzo na mazoezi ili kujiweka tayari kivita wakati wote. * Kufundisha umma shughuli za ulinzi wa Taifa. * Kushirikiana na mamlaka za kiraia katika kutoa misaada ya kibinadamu na uokoaji wakati wa maafa * Kutoa huduma mbalimbali za kijamii. * Kukuza elimu ya kujitegemea na uzalishaji mali kupitia Jeshi la Kujenga Taifa. * Kushiriki ulinzi wa amani kimataifa. ==Tanbihi== <references/> ==Marejeo== * [http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/SADR3/Baynham.html Civil-Military Relations in Post-Independent Africa]{{Wayback|url=http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/SADR3/Baynham.html |date=20120716222410 }} * [http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Newsletters/tno9.html Tanzania Refutes Cross Border Shelling] * {{cite book |editor=Murdo Morrison) |title=Flight International |edition=Number 5063|year=2006|publisher=Flight Global|location=London |isbn=9-770015-371174-47 |chapter=World Air Forces |page=82}} * {{cite book |author=Brian S. MacDonald |title=Military spending in developing countries |url=https://archive.org/details/militaryspending0000macd |edition=Number 5063|year=1990|location=London |isbn=9-780886-2931-47 |chapter=Africa armed forces}} ====Historia ya JUWTz==== *[https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/EVOLUTCHAP11.PDF Nestor Luanda: A changing conception of defence: A historical perspective of the military in Tanzania], in: Evolutions & revolutions: a contemporary history of militaries in Southern Africa, ed. Martin R. Rupiya, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria 2005 ====Vyanzo kuhusu uasi wa 1964==== *[http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1964/3/10/tanganyika-embarrassed-by-need-for-british/?page=single Tanganyika Embarrassed By Need for British Assistance; Calls For Pan-African Force To Aid In Future Crises, by John D. Gerhart; The Harvard Crimson, March 10, 1964 ] *[http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1964/01/26/page/4/article/british-troops-quell-mutiny-in-tanganyika British Troops quell Mutiny in Tanganyika; The Chicago Tribune 26 Januari 1964] {{Wayback|url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1964/01/26/page/4/article/british-troops-quell-mutiny-in-tanganyika |date=20170429030503 }} *[https://books.google.com/books?id=KoLbjlIYLzwC&pg=PA143&lpg=PA143&dq=tanganyika+mutiny&source=bl&ots=kr5ze1pwJH&sig=lJI-i3Jetf3tSZ9fS77iMo8q3Mo&hl=de&sa=X&ei=G6mBVbLJF4qmsgHdmaPYAQ&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=tanganyika%20mutiny&f=false Timothy Parsons, The 1964 Army Mutinies and the Making of Modern East Africa, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, iliangaliwa Juni 2015] *[https://books.google.com/books?id=mODYnBnf0NIC&pg=PA238&lpg=PA238&dq=tanganyika+mutiny&source=bl&ots=NUDHvwiIYW&sig=-pAkhLTmIyS0i3i_bXXrrpVv4RI&hl=de&sa=X&ei=G6mBVbLJF4qmsgHdmaPYAQ&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=tanganyika%20mutiny&f=false Tony Laurence, The Dar Mutiny of 1964, AuthorHouse, 2010, iliangaliwa Juni 2015] ==Viungo vya nje== *[http://tpdf.mil.tz/ Tovuti ya Jeshi la Ulinzi la Wananachi wa Tanzania] *[http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/10No1/Lupogo.html Tanzania Civil-military Relations and Political Stability] {{Wayback|url=http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/10No1/Lupogo.html |date=20060709035408 }} *[https://www.africanaerospace.aero/the-rise-and-rise-of-tanzania-s-air-force.html Makala kuhusu historia ya Jeshi la Anga Tanzania] [[Jamii:Jeshi la Tanzania]] [[Jamii:Tanzania]] phhvyq0kqwvtu5otoh4ykh9hnxzr7mz 0 32162 1580035 1254387 2026-07-17T23:18:45Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580035 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox musical artist | Jina = The Firm | Img = The Firm promo.jpg | Img_capt = Promo shot of The Firm in 1997, left to right: Nas, Foxy Brown and AZ | Img_size = | Background = group_or_band | Asili yake = [[New York]], [[Marekani]] | Aina = [[Hip hop]] | Miaka ya kazi = 1996–1998 | Studio = [[Aftermath Entertainment|Aftermath]], [[Interscope Records|Interscope]] |Ameshirikiana na = [[Canibus]], [[Dr. Dre]], [[Half-A-Mill]], [[L.E.S.]], [[N.O.R.E.|Noreaga]], [[Dawn Robinson]], [[Trackmasters]] |Wanachama wa zamani = [[Cormega]]<br />[[Nas]]<br />[[Foxy Brown]]<br />[[AZ]]<br />[[Nature]] }} '''The Firm''' lilikuwa kundi bab-kubwa la [[muziki wa hip hop]] ambalo limeanzishwa mjini [[New York City]], [[Marekani]] mnamo [[1996]]. Lilianzishwa na rapa [[Nas]], meneja wake [[Steve Stoute]], mtayarishaji [[Dr. Dre]] na kikosi kizima cha watayarishaji [[Trackmasters]]. Kundi linaunganisha na marapa wenye-chimbuko la marapa wa [[East Coast hip hop|East Coast]]- Nas, [[Foxy Brown]], [[AZ]] na [[Nature]], ambaye amechukua nafasi ya [[Cormega]] baada ya kutolewa katika kundi. Japokuwa kundi lilipokea matarajio mwanana ya mafanikio kutoka kwa washabiki wakati wa kusaini katika studio ya Dr. Dre, [[Aftermath Entertainment|Aftermath]], albamu ya kwanza ya The Firm, ''[[The Album]] '' (1997), imetengeneza mauzo ya kuvunja moyo na imepokea tathmini mbovu kabisa. Albamu yao ya kwanza ndiyo albamu pekee na baadaye kuvunjika mnamo mwaka wa 1998 ambamo kila mwanachama ameendelea kufanya shughuli za kujitegemea. == Historia == ==Diskografia== === Studio albamu === {| class ="wikitable" border="1" |- !rowspan="2"|Mwaka !rowspan="2" width="185"|Maelezo ya albamu !colspan="2"|Nafasi ya chati<ref name="charts">[http://www.allmusic.com/album/the-album-r317870 The Album: Charts]. Allmusic. Retrieved on 2009-02-22.</ref> !rowspan="2"|[[Music recording sales certification|Certifications]]<br /> |- !width:40| ^{[[Billboard 200|US]]} !width:40| ^{[[Canadian Albums Chart|CAN]]} |- | 1997 | align="left"| '''''[[The Album]]''''' * Imetolewa: 21 Oktoba 1997 * Studio: [[Aftermath Entertainment|Aftermath]]/[[Interscope Records|Interscope]] * Muundo: [[Compact disc|CD]], [[Vinyl record|LP]] |align="center"| 1 |align="center"| 8 | {{nowrap|[[Canadian Recording Industry Association|CAN]]: Gold<ref>[http://www.cria.ca/cert_db_search.php CRIA Searchable Database] {{Wayback|url=http://www.cria.ca/cert_db_search.php |date=20160111074458 }}. [[CRIA]]. Retrieved on 2009-02-22.</ref>}} |} == Tanbihi == {{Marejeo}} == Marejeo == * {{cite book | author = John Borgmeyer, Holly Lang | title = Dr. Dre: A Biography | url = https://archive.org/details/drdrebiography0000borg | others = Edition: illustrated | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | date = 2006 | location = | isbn = 0-313-33826-4}} * {{cite book | author = Jake Brown | title = Dr. Dre in the Studio | url = https://archive.org/details/drdreinstudiofro0000brow | others = Edition: illustrated | publisher = Amber Books Publishing | date = 2006 | location = | isbn = 0-976-77355-4}} * {{cite book | author = Sacha Jenkins, Elliott Wilson, Gabe Alvarez, Brent Rollins | title = Ego Trip's Book of Rap Lists: Book of Rap Lists | url = https://archive.org/details/egotripsbookofra00jenk | others = Edition: illustrated | publisher = Macmillan | date = 1999 | location = | isbn = 0-312-24298-0}} * {{cite book | author = Mickey Hess | title = Icons of Hip Hop: An Encyclopedia of the Movement, Music, and Culture | url = https://archive.org/details/iconsofhiphopenc0000unse | others = Edition: illustrated | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | date = 2007 | location = | isbn = 0-313-33904-X}} * {{cite book | author = Todd Boyd | title = The New H.N.I.C.: The Death of Civil Rights and the Reign of Hip Hop | others = | publisher = NYU Press | date = 2004 | location = | isbn = 0-814-79896-9}} ==Viungo vya nje== * {{allmusicguide|11:abfwxqthldse|The Firm}} * [http://www.discogs.com/artist/Firm%2C+The+(6) The Firm] at [[Discogs]] {{Nas}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Firm}} {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki-USA}} [[Jamii:Makundi ya hip hop ya Marekani]] [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Interscope Records]] jfi617hu2ujmyfgfoyr5d6hlu6979qn 0 32575 1580081 1574227 2026-07-17T23:53:34Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 4 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580081 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Bermuda Triangle.png|thumb|300px| ]] '''Pembetatu ya Bermuda''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''Bermuda Triangle'') ni eneo la [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] pande zote mbili za [[ikweta]] mbele ya [[pwani]] ya [[Amerika Kaskazini]], baina ya [[Florida]], [[Puerto Rico]] na [[visiwa]] vya [[Bermuda]]. Pembe ya kaskazini inaingia katika [[Bahari ya Sargasso]]. Tangu mwaka 1964 jina la "Pembetatu ya Bermuda" lilibuniwa na kusambazwa na [[waandishi wa habari]] wakijaribu kueleza kupotea kwa [[boti]], [[meli]] na [[Ndege (uanahewa)|ndege]] katika eneo hili<ref>Gaddis, Vincent (1964), "The Deadly Bermuda Triangle", Argosy</ref>. [[Kitabu]] cha [[Charles Berlitz]] cha mwaka 1974 "The Bermuda Triangle ("<ref>Berlitz, Charles (1974). The Bermuda Triangle (1st ed.). Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-04114-4.</ref> kiliuzwa mara [[milioni]] na kusambaza habari za eneo lililoaminiwa kuwa na hatari za pekee. Inadaiwa kutoweka kwa ndege na meli katika hali isiyojulikana ambayo haiwezi kuelezewa kama [[makosa ya binadamu]], [[uharamia]], hitilafu ya vifaa, au [[maafa ya asilia]]. [[Tamaduni]] maarufu zinahusisha kutoweka huku na jambo lisilo la kawaida ambalo haliwezi kuelezewa kwa njia za kisayansi, kutanguliwa kwa [[sheria]] za [[fizikia]], au shughuli za [[viumbe visivyo vya kawaida]]. <ref name="Cochran,2003">{{cite journal | last = Cochran-Smith | first = Marilyn | year = 2003 | title = Bermuda Triangle: dichotomy, mythology, and amnesia | journal = Journal of Teacher Education | volume = 54 | doi = 10.1177/0022487103256793 | page = 275 }}</ref> Nyaraka nyingi hufunua, hata hivyo, kwamba sehemu kubwa ya madai ya matukio haya ya kidude hayajaripotiwa kwa makini au baadaye yalirembeshwa na waandishi, na mashirika rasmi mbalimbali yamesema kwamba [[idadi]] na aina za kutoweka katika eneo hili ni sawa na eneo lolote la [[bahari]]. <ref name="Bermuda Triangle =Introduction">{{cite web | url = http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/introduction.html | title = Introduction | publisher = [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org Bermuda Triangle] }}</ref> <ref name="Bermuda Triangle Aircraft Losses">{{cite web | url = http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/aircraft_losses.html | title = Aircraft Losses | publisher = [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org Bermuda Triangle] }}</ref> <ref name="Bermuda Triangle Missing Vessels">{{cite web | url = http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/missing_vessels.html | title = Missing Vessels | publisher = [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org Bermuda Triangle] | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archive-date = 2016-03-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160314034145/http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/missing_vessels.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> == Eneo la Pembetatu == Mipaka ya Pembetatu imetanda hadi kwenye [[Straits ya Florida]], [[Bahamas]] na eneo zima la kisiwa cha Karibiani na mashariki ya Atlantika hadi [[Azori]]; wengine huiongeza hadi kwenye [[Ghuba ya Meksiko]]. Mipaka inayojulikana sana ya pembe tatu katika kazi za uandishi ina ncha zake mahali fulani kwenye pwani ya Atlantiki [[Miami]], [[San Juan]], [[Puerto Rico]], na Atlantiki ya katikati ya kisiwa cha [[Bermuda]], huku ajali nyingi zikitokea kando ya mpaka wa kusini karibu na Bahamas Straits ya Florida. Eneo hili ni mojawapo ya njia zinazotumiwa sana na meli ulimwenguni, huku meli zikivuka eneo hili kila siku ili kwenda bandari katika Amerika, [[Ulaya]], na Visiwa vya Karibiani. Meli za vinjari pia ni nyingi,na dau za raha mara kwa mara hupitia hapa kwenda kati ya Florida na visiwa. Pia ni njia inayopitiwa sana na ndege za kibiashara na kibinafsi zikielekea Florida, Karibiani, na [[Amerika ya Kusini]] kutoka kwa pointi zilizoko kaskazini. == Historia == === Chimbuko === Madai ya awali kabisa kuhusu kutoweka kusio kwa kawaida katika eneo la Bermuda yatokea katika makala ya 16 Septemba 1950 [[Associated Press]] yaliyoandikwa na EVW Jones. <ref name="Jones,1950">{{cite newspaper | title = ''unknown title'', newspaper articles | agency = Associated Press | author = E.V.W. Jones | date = 16 Septemba 1950 }}</ref> Miaka miwili baadaye, jalida la ''[[fate]]'' lilichapisha "Sea Mystery At Our Back Door ", <ref name="Sand,1952">{{cite journal | title = Sea Mystery At Our Back Door | author = George X. Sand | journal = [[Fate (magazine)|Fate]] | month = Oktoba| year=1952}}</ref> makala fupi yaliyoandikwa na George X.Sand yaliyohusu kutoweka kwa ndege na meli kadhaa, zikiwemo kupotewa kwa [[Flight 19]], ya kundi la tano la [[la mabaharia wa US TBM Avenge]] wakurusha mabomu waliokuwa katika misheni ya mafunzo Makala ya Sand yalikuwa ya kwanza kuweka vilivyo eneo linalojulikana sasa la pembe tatu ambapo kutoweka huku kulitokea. Flight 19 peke yake ilishughulukiwa katika toleo la Aprili 1962 la jalida la ''American Legion ''. <ref name="Eckert,1962">{{cite journal | title = The Lost Patrol | journal = American Legion | author = Allen W. Eckert | month = Aprili| year=1962}}</ref> Ilidaiwa kuwa kiongozi wa ndege alisikia akisema "Tunaingia njia ya maji meupe, hakuna kitu kinachonekana kuwa sahihi. Hatujui tuko wapi sisi, maji ni ya kijani kibichi, si meupe." Pia alidai kuwa maafisa katika bodi ya uchunguzi wa mabaharia walisema kuwa ndege "ilienda kwa Mirihi." Makala ya Sand yalikuwa ya kwanza kupendekeza jambo la kimiujiza kwa tukio la Flight 19. Februari 1964 katika toleo la [[Argosy, makala ya Vincent Gaddis]] "The Deadly Bermuda Triangle" alisema kuwa Flight 19 na kutoweka kwingine kulikuwa sehemu ya mtindo wa matukio ya ajabu katika eneo hili. <ref name="Gaddis,1964"/> Mwaka ujao, Gaddis aliezea na kupanua makala haya katika kitabu, ''Invisible Horizons.'' <ref name="Gaddis,1965">{{cite book | title = Invisible Horizons | url = https://archive.org/details/invisiblehorizon0000vinc | author = Vincent Gaddis | year = 1965 }}</ref> Wengine wangefuata na kazi zao, wakitilia nguvu wazo la Gaddis: John Wallace Spencer ''(Limbo wa Lost,'' 1969, repr. 1973); <ref name="Spencer,1969"/> [[Charles Berlitz]] ''(The Bermuda Triangle'', 1974); <ref name="Berlitz,1974"/> [[Richard Winer]] ''(The Devil's Triangle,'' 1974), <ref name="Winer,1974"/> na wengine wengi, wote wakitilia maanani baadhi ya vipengele vya kimiujiza sawa na ilivyoainishwa na Eckert. <ref name="Eckert, 2004">{{cite journal | url = http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-12789881_ITM | title = Strange fish: the scientifiction of Charles F. Berlitz, 1913–2003 | journal = Skeptic | location = Altadena, CA | date = Machi 2004 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070930180553/http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-12789881_ITM | archivedate = 2007-09-30 | access-date = 2009-12-01 | dead-url = no }}</ref> === Larry Kusche === [[Lawrence David Kusche]], mtafiti wa maktaba kutoka [[chuo kikuu cha Arizona State]] na mwandishi wa ''The Bermuda Triangle mystery: Solved'' (1975) <ref name="Kusche,1975"/> alisema kuwa madai mengi ya mwaandishi Gaddis na ya waandishi wa baadaye mara nyingi yalikuwa yakitiwa chumvi, ya uwongo au yasiyoweza kuthibitishwa. Utafiti Kusche's yalifunua mambo kadhaa yasiyo sahihi na yasiyofuatana na maelezo ya Berlitz na kauli kutoka kwa mashahidi wenye kuyaona, washiriki, na wengine waliohusika katika matukio ya awali. Kusche alibainisha matukio ambapo habari muhimu zilizowekwa kisiri hazikuripotiwa, kama kupotea kwa mwanadau aliyekuwa akizunguka ulimwengu [[Donald Crowhurst]], ambao Berlitz alikuwa ameiwasilisha kama kilinge, licha ya ushahidi wa wazi uliokuwa kinyume na hayo. Mfano mwingine alikuwa meli ya kubeba madini ambayo Berlitz alielezea kwa iliopotea kama siku tatu bila ya alama kutoka kwa bandari ya ''Atlantiki'' wakati ilikuwa imepotea siku tatu kutoka kwa bandari kwa jina lilo hilo katika Bahari ya ''Pasifiki.'' Kusche pia alisema kuwa asilimia kubwa ya matukio ambayo yalisababisha kuangazwa sana kwa vilinge vya Pembetatu yalitokea nje yake. Utafiti wake mara nyingi alikuwa wa njia rahisi: yeye angepitia magazeti ya wakati wa kuripotiwa kwa matukio na kupata taarifa juu ya uwezekano wa matukio husika kama hali ya hewa isiyo ya kawaida, ambayo hayakuwa kamwe yametajwa kwenye hadithi za upotevu . Kusche alihitimisha kuwa: * Idadi ya meli na ndege zilizoripotiwa kupotea katika eneo hili hazikuwa nyingi zaidi kuliko, ya kiwango kilichoripotiwa, katika sehemu nyingine yoyote ya bahari. * Katika eneo linakuwa mara kwa mara na [[dhoruba]] za [[kitropiki]], idadi matukio ya kupotea iliyoteke ilikuwa, kwa sehemu kubwa, isiyo ya kiwango kisicho cha kawaida wala, isiyowezekana, wala ya kilinge; Aidha, Berlitz na waandishi wengine wangekosa mara nyingi kutaja dhoruba kama hizi. * Idadi yenyewe imekuwa imetiwa chumvi na utafiti dhaifu. Mashua iliyotajwa kama imepotea ingeripotiwa, lakini mwishowe (kama imechelewa) kurudi kwake bandari kulikuwa hakuliripotiwi. * Baadhi ya kupotea kulikuwa kwa kweli, kamwe hakujatokea. Mojawapo wa kuanguka kwa ndege kulisemekana kutokea mwaka wa 1937 kando ya [[ufua wa Daytona , Florida]], mbele ya mamia ya mashahidi; lakini uchunguzi wa majarida ya huko hakuonyesha chochote. * Hadithi ya Pembetatu ya Bermuda ni kilinge cha kuundwa, kilichoanzishwa na kuenezwa na waandishi ambao kwa makusudi kwa kutojua walitumia kauli sizosahihi, hoja zisizokamili, na sizo na zilizotakiwa kutoa mwasho mkubwa. <ref name="Kusche,1975" (277)=""/> === Majibu zaidi === Wakati kipindi cha televisheni ya Channel 4 ya Uingereza cha "The Bermuda Triangle" (c. 1992) kilikuwa kiinatayarishwa na John Simmons kwa vipindi vya Equinox Geofilms , mwanabaharia wa bima [[Lloyd wa London]] aliulizwa ikiwa idadi kubwa isiyo ya kawaida ya meli ilikuwa imezama katika eneo la Pembetatu ya Bermuda. Lloyd wa London alionyesha kuwa idadi kubwa ya meli haikuwa imezama huko. <ref name="WoodsHole Bermuda"/> Rekodi ya [[Coast Guard katika pwani ya Marekani]] ilithibitisha hitimisho lao. Kwa kweli, idadi ya kupotea kunakodhania ni ya kiwango kisicho na umuhimu wowote ikizingatiwa idadi ya meli na ndege ambazo hupitia hapa kila mara. <ref name="Kusche,1975"/> Coast Guard ya pwani pia wanashuku kuwepo kwa Pembetatu, akibainishwa kwamba wao hukusanya na kuchapisha, kupitia maoni yao, kiasi kikubwa cha nyaraka ambazo haziambatani na mengi ya matukio yaliyoandikwa na waandishi juu ya Pembetatu. Katika tukio moja kama hilo l 1972 lilishirikisha mlipuko na kuzama kwa tanka ya [[SS]] ''[[V.A .Fogg]]'' katika Ghuba ya Mexico, Coast Guard ilipiga picha mabaki na kupata miili kadhaa, <ref name="USCG Fogg">{{cite web | url = http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/moa/boards/vafog.pdf | title = V A Fogg | format = PDF | publisher = USCG }}</ref>tofauti na mwandishi mmoja wa Pembetatu aliyedai kuwa miili yote ilikuwa imetoweka, isipokuwa wa nahodha, ambaye alikutwa ameketi katika dawati la chumba chake, akishikilia kikombe cha kahawa. <ref name="Spencer,1969"/> Tukio la [[Nova]] / [[Horizon]]''The Case of the Bermuda Triangle'' (1976-06-27) ilikosolewa sana, na kusemekana kuwa "Wakati tumeenda nyuma kwa chanzo cha asili au watu wanaohusika, kilinge huvukiza. Sayansi haina haja ya kujibu maswali kuhusu Pembetatu sababu si halali kwanza. ... Meli na ndege kwenye Pembetatu huwa katika hali sawa na mahali pengine ulimwenguni. <ref name="NOVA,1976">{{cite episode | series = [[NOVA (TV series)|NOVA]] / [[Horizon (BBC TV series)|Horizon]] | title = The Case of the Bermuda Triangle | airdate = 1976-06-27 | network = PBS }}</ref> Watafiti wenye shaka, kama vile Ernest Taves <ref name="Taves,1978">{{cite journal | last = Taves|first=Ernest | title = | journal = [[The Skeptical Inquirer]] | year = 1978 | volume = 111 | issue = 1 | pages = p.75–76 }}</ref> na Barry Singer, <ref name="Singer,1979">{{cite journal | last = Singer|first=Barry | title = | journal = The Humanist | volume = XXXIX | issue = 3 | year = 1979 | pages = p.44–45 }}</ref> walibainisha jinsi vilenge na mambo haya yasiyo ya kawainda ni maarufu sana na yenye faida. Hii imepelekea kuundwa kwa kiasi kikubwa cha nyenzo juu ya mada kama vile Pembetatu ya Bermuda. Waliweza pia kuonyesha kuwa baadhi ya maudhui yanayoenda kinyume na mambo haya yasiyoweza kuelezewa kisayansi mara nyingi ni ya kupotosha au yasiyo na usahihi, lakini wazalishaji wake huendelea kuyauza. Vile vile, wao wamedai kwamba, soko lina upendeleo kwa vitabu, vipindi vya TV , nk ambazo zinaunga mkono kilinge cha Pembetatu, dhidi ya nyenzo zilizofanyiwa utafiti vizuri kama vinaonyesha kushuku maoni haya. Hatimaye, kama Pembetatu inadhaniwa kuvuka ardhi, kama sehemu za Puerto Rico, [[Bahamas]], au Bermuda yenyewe, hakuna ushahidi kwa kutokea kwa magari au watu waliokwenye nchi kavu. {{Fact|date=Machi 2009}} Mji wa [[Freeport]], ulio ndani ya Pembetatu, huwa na eneo kubwa la meli uwanja wa ndege ambao kila mwaka hushughulikia safari za ndege 50000, na hutembelea na watalii zaidi ya milioni moja kila mwaka. == Maelezo ya maajabu == Waandishi wa Pembetatu umetumia idadi kadhaa za dhana ya miujiza kuelezea matukio. Moja ya maelezo hushikilia lawama juu teknolojia iliyobaki kutoka hadithi za bara la [[Atlantis]] iliyopotea. Wakati mwingine iliyounganishwa na hadithi ya Atlantis ni mwamba ulizoma ilipokuwa ukiundwa unayjulikana kama [[Bimini Road]] kando ya kisiwa cha [[Bimini]] katika Bahamas, ambayo ipo katika Pembetatu kulingana na baadhi ya ufafanuzi. Wafuasi wa mtabiri [[Edgar Cayce]] wameuchukulia utabiri wake kuwa ushahidi wa Atlantis ungepatikana mwaka wa 1968 kama anaomaanisha ugunduzi wa Bimini Road. Waumini huelezea uundaji kama barabara, ukuta, au muundo mwingine, ingawa wanajiolojia huichukulia kuwa ni wa asili ya kiasili. Waandishi wengine wanahusisha matukio na [[UFO]]. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://ufos.about.com/od/classicufocases/a/bermudatriangle.htm |title=UFO over Bermuda Triangle |publisher=Ufos.about.com |date=2008-06-29 |accessdate=2009-06-01 |archivedate=2017-01-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170108094343/http://ufos.about.com/od/classicufocases/a/bermudatriangle.htm }}</ref> Wazo hili lilitumiwa na [[Steven Spielberg]] kwa filamu yake ya chuku ya [[kisayansi]] [[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]], ambayo huangazia kupotea kwa Flight 19 kama utekajinyara na viumbe vya mbali. [[Charles Berlitz]], mjukuu wa mwanalugha maarufu na mwandishi wa vitabu mbalimbali vya ziada juu ya jambo hili lisilo la kawaida, anashikilia sambamba maelezo yake ya ajabu , na amehusisha kotoweka katika Pembetatu na nguvu zisizo za kawaida. <ref name="Berlitz,1974"/> == Maelezo ya asili == === Tofauti kwenye dira === Matatizo ya [[dira]] ni mojawapo ya misemo iliyotajwa sana katika matukio mengi ya Pembetatu. Wakati baadhi ya watu wanaamini kwamba mambo yasiyo ya kawaida kwenye usumaku wa kawaida yanaweza kuwepo katika eneo hilo, <ref name="USNAVY">{{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-1.htm|title=Bermuda Triangle|publisher=US Navy|accessdate=2009-05-26|archivedate=2002-08-02|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020802035846/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-1.htm}}</ref> laikini mambo haya yasiyo ya kawaida hayajaonyeshwa kuwepo. Dira zina [[usumaku]] wa kiasili [[tofauti]] na [[ncha za usumaku]]. Kwa mfano, katika [[Marekani]] mahali pekee ambapo [[usumaku (dira) wa kaskazini]] na [[kaskazini]] ya [[kijiografia (kweli)]] zipo sawa katika mstari unatoka kutoka [[Wisconsin]]hadi [[Ghuba ya Meksiko.]] Wanabaharia wamefahamu hili kwa karne nyingi. Lakini umma waweza usiwe na ujuzi huu, na hudhani kuna kitu cha ajabu kuhusu dira "kubadilika" katika eneo kubwa kama Pembetatu, ambalo kwa kawaida hutokea. <ref name="Kusche,1975"/> === Uharibifu wa makusudi === Matendo ya makusudi ya uharibifu yanaweza kuwa katika makundi mawili: matendo yatakanayo na vita, na vitendo vya uharamia. Rekodi katika faili za adui zimeangaliwa dhidi ya kutoweka kwingi; wakati kuzama kwingi kumekuwa kukihusishwa na washabulizi wa baharini au monawari za kivita wakati wa [[Vita]] vya [[Dunia]] na kumbukumbu yake kuwekwa katika logi ya vitabu vya amri mbalimbali , kuzama kwingine kwingi ambako kumetuhumiwa kuwa katika kitengo hiki hakujathibitishwa Inatuhumiwa kuwa kutoweka kwa USS ''Cyclops'' katika 1918, vile vile meli za aina moja nayo ''Proteus'' na ''Nerea'' wakati wa [[Vita vya Pili vya Dunia]], kulihusishwa na monawari za kivita, lakini hakuna kiungo kama hicho kilichopatikana kwenye rekodi ya Kijerumani. [[Uharamia]], kama inavyofafanuliwa ni kuteka meli au mashua ndogo hadi kwenye maji makuu, ni tendo ambalo linaendelea hadi wa leo. Wakati uharamia wa meli za shehena wizi unatendeka zaidi katika Pasifiki ya magharibi na bahari ya Hindi, walanguzi wa dawa za kulevya huiba boti za radhi kwa kwa ajili ya kufanya magendo, na huenda wanahusika katika kutoweka kwa mabaharia na mashua katika Karibiani. [[Uharamia kwenye Karibiani]]ulikuwa jambo la kawaida kutoka 1560 hadi 1760, na maharamia maarufu walikuwa ni pamoja na Edward Teach [[(Blackbeard)]] na [[Jean Lafitte.]] {{Fact|date=Mei 2009}} [[Picha:Gulfstream1.jpg|thumb|upright|Sanamu yenye rangi za uongo ya kijito cha ghumba kinach opitia kaskazini hadi magharibi mwa Atlantiki. (NASA)]] === Fumbu la Ghuba === [[Fumbu la Ghuba]] ni maburuzo ya bahari yanayoanzia katika [[Ghuba ya Meksiko]] na kisha kupitia [[Strait]] ya [[Florida]] katika Atlantiki ya Kaskazini. Kwa kiini, ni mto ndani ya bahari, na, kama mto, linaweza na kubeba vitu vinavyoelea. Ina kasi ya baharini ya hadi {{convert|2.5|m/s|mph}} <ref>{{cite web|last=Phillips|first=Pamela|title=The Gulf Stream|url=http://fermi.jhuapl.edu/student/phillips/|publisher=USNA/Johns Hopkins|accessdate=2007-08-02}}</ref> Ndege ndogo inayopaaa majini au mashua iliyo na injini yeneye taabu inaweza kubebwa na kupelekwa mbali na mahali inaporipotiwa kuwa kwa sasa. === Makosa ya binadamu === Moja ya maelezo mengi yaliyotolewa kwenye maoni rasmi dhidi ya kutoweka kwa ndege au chombo ni makosa ya binadamu. <ref name="NATGEO">{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/1205_021205_bermudatriangle.html|title=Bermuda Triangle: Behind the Intrigue|publisher=National Geographic|accessdate=2009-05-26}}</ref> Iwe kwa makusudi au ajali, binadamu wamekuwa wakijulikana kwa kufanya makosa yanayosababisha janga, na hasara ndani ya Pembetatu ya Bermuda na hili si jambo lenye utata. Kwa mfano, Coast Guard ilitaja ukosefu wa mafunzo ya kutosha kwa ajili ya kusafisha mabaki ya tete ya [[benzene]] kama sababu ya kupotea kwa meli ya SS ''VA Fogg'' mwaka wa 1972 {{Fact|date=Mei 2009}} Ukaidi wa binadamu waweza kuwa ulisababishwa mfanyabiashara Harvey Conover kupoteza mashua yake, ya ''Revonoc,'' alipokuwa akishira ndani ya meno ya dhoruba iliyokuwa kusini mwa Florida manamo 1 Januari 1958. <ref name="CaptainScott">{{cite book|last=Scott|first=Captain Thomas A. |title=Histories & Mysteries: The Shipwrecks of Key Largo|year=1994|url=https://archive.org/details/historiesmysteri0000scot}}</ref> Kutoweka kwingi kumekosa hitimisho kutokana na ukosefu wa mabaki ambayo yangeweza kuangaliwa kwa makini, jambo ambalo limetajwa katika taarifa nyingi rasmi . === Vimbunga === [[Vimbunga]] ni dhoruba zenye nguvu ambazo hutokea kwenye maji ya kitropiki , na kihistoria zimekuwa zikisababisha kupotea kwa maelfu ya maisha mabilioni ya dola katika uharibifu. Kuzama kwa [[Francisco de Bobadilla]] meli ya Kihispania mwaka 1502 kulikuwa mfano wa kwanza iliyoandikwa wa uharibifu wa kimbunga. Dhoruba hizi zimekuwa kwa kipindi kirefu zikisababisha idadi kubwa ya matukio yanayohusiana na Pembetatu. === Msombo maji maji wa Methane === [[Picha:Worldwide_distribution_of_gas_hydrates_1996.jpg|thumb|Usambazaji ulimwenguni uliothibitisha au kudhaniwa wa gesi yenye msombo majimaji kando ya ufuo, 1996.Nyenzo: USGS]] Maelezo ya baadhi ya kutoweka ina lenga kuwepo kwa maeneo makubwa ya [[msombo maji maji wa methane]] (aina ya gesi ya kiasili) katika [[bara rafu.]] <ref name="Energy Citations Database (ECD) - Document #616279">{{cite web | url = http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=616279 | title = Office of Scientific & Technical Information, OSTI, U.S. Department of Energy, DOE | publisher = OTSI }}</ref> Majaribioya maabara yalifanyika Australia yana thibitisha kuwa povu zaweza , kuzamisha meli dogo kwa kupunguza wiani wa maji; <ref name="Monash,2003">{{cite web | url = http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3226787/ | title = Could methane bubbles sink ships? | publisher = Monash Univ. | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archivedate = 2012-06-24 | archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/68f6HUxuD?url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3226787/ }}</ref> mabaki yoyote yapoelea hivyo basi yanaweza kubebwa kwa haraka nakutawanywa na [[fumbu la Ghuba .]] Imekuwa ikifikiriwa kwamba [[mripuko]] wa methane (wakati mwingine huitwa [[" vulukano za matope "]]) zinaweza kutengeneza maeneo ya maji ambayo yana upovu ambao hauna tena uwezo wa kutoa [[uwezo wa kuelea]] wa kutosha kwa meli. Kama hili lingetokea, eneo kama hili linapojitengeneza na kuzungukia meli inaweza kuifanya izame kwa haraka sana na bila onyo. Machapisho mengi ya [[USGS]] yanaelezea kuwepo kwa hifadhi kubwa ya masombo majimaji yaliyo chini ya bahari duniani kote, ikiwa ni pamoja na eneo la [[Ridge Blake]]], lilio kando ya kusini mashariki mwa pwani ya [[Marekani]]. <ref name="WoodsHole papers">{{cite web | url = http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/usgspubs.html | title = Appearance and distribution of the gas hydrate reflection in the Blake Ridge region, offshore southeastern United States | id = MF-1252. | author = Paull, C.K. and W.P., D., 1981, | work = Gas Hydrates at the USGS | publisher = Woods Hole | year = 1981 | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archive-date = 2012-02-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120218231421/http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/usgspubs.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> Hata hivyo, kulingana baadhi ya majarida yao mengine , hakuna mfumuo mkubwa wa gesi ya msombo majimaji unaoaaminika kuwa ulitokea katika Pembetatu ya Bermuda kwa kipindi cha miaka 15,000. <ref name="WoodsHole Bermuda">{{cite web | url = http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/bermuda.html | title = Bermuda Triangle | work = Gas Hydrates at the USGS | publisher = Woods Hole | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archive-date = 2012-10-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121023070855/http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/bermuda.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> Ni lazima pia ibainishwe kuwa maeneo mengine ya msombo maji maji wa chini ya bahari hajaripotiwa kusababisha matukio yanayofanana na ya Pembetatu ya Bermuda, pia kwamba povu za chini ya bahari hazingeweza kusababisha kutoweka kwa ndege. === Mawimbi yenye Utwana === Katika bahari mbalimbali duniani kote, [[mawimbi yenye utwana]] yamesababisha meli kuzama <ref> http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/11/science/11wave.html?8dpc</ref> na meli za mafuta kupinduka. Mawimbi haya yamekuwa yakichukuliwa kuwa fumbo na hadi hivi karibuni yalikuwa yanaaminika kuwa hadithi tu. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMOKQL26WD_index_0.html |title=ESA Portal - Ship-sinking monster waves revealed by ESA satellites |publisher=Esa.int |date=1995-01-01 |accessdate=2009-06-01}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/strangenews/080804-rogue-waves.html |title=Secret to Towering Rogue Waves Revealed |publisher=LiveScience |date=2008-08-04 |accessdate=2009-06-01}}</ref> Hata hivyo, mawimbi yenye utwana hayawezi kusababisha kutoweka kwa ndege. == Matukio yanayojulikana sana == === Flight 19 === [[Picha:TBF (Avengers) flying in formation.jpg|upright|thumb|Ndege ya US Navy TBF Grumman Avenger, sawa na Flight 19. Hii picha imekuwa ikitumiwa na waandishi wengi wa Pembetatu ili kuonyesha Flight 19 yenyewe. (Mabaharia wa US)]] [[Flight 19]] ilikuwa ni ndege ya mafunzo ya warusha bomu wa [[TBM Avenger]] iliyotoweka mnamo 5 Desemba 1945 ikiwa juu ya Atlantiki. Njia ya kijeshi ya ndege hii ilikuwa imepangwa kuwachukua hadi mashariki kwa maili 120, kaskazini kwa maili 73, na kisha nyuma juu ya maili 120 za mwisho ya mrengo ambao ungewarudisha hadi kwa kituo chao cha kivita, lakini kamwe hawakurudi. Hisia zinapatianwa kwamba safari hii ya ndege ilikumbana na jambo lisilo la kawaida la usomi wa dira omen na masomo, na kwamba ndege ulifanyika siku ya utulivu chini ya usimamizi wa mtaalamu wa majaribio, Luteni Carroll Charles Taylor. Nyongeza kwa intrigue ni kwamba ripoti ya ajali ya navy ilikuwa ascribed na "sababu au sababu haijulikani." Inaaminika kwamba mama Taylor alitaka kuokoa mwanawe sifa, hivyo yeye tukawafanya wao kuandika "sababu haijulikani" wakati hasa Taylor NW kilomita 50 kutoka na alikodhani alikuwa. <ref name="the_disappearance_of_flight_19">{{cite web | url = http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/the_disappearance_of_flight_19.html | title = The Disappearance of Flight 19 | publisher = [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org Bermuda Triangle] }}</ref> Nyongeza kwa siri, na kutafuta na kuokoa [[Mariner ndege]] na 13-mtu crew mara dispatched na misaada ya missing Squadron, lakini kamwe Mariner yenyewe mara alisikia kutoka tena. Baadaye, kulikuwa na taarifa kutoka Tanker Cruising off pwani ya Florida wa kinachoonekana mlipuko saa kuhusu wakati Mariner ingekuwa juu ya doria. Wakati ukweli wa msingi wa toleo la kimsingi la hadithi hii inauwezekano wa kuwa sahihi, baadhi ya maelezo muhimu yanakosa. Hali ya hewa ilikuwa yenye dhoruba mwishoni mwa tukio, na taarifa ya mabaharia na rekodi zilizondikwa za mazungumzo kati ya Taylor na marubani wengine wa Flight 19 hayakuonyesha matatizo yoyote ya usumaku. [77] <ref name="the_disappearance_of_flight_19"/> === ''Mary Celeste'' === Kuachwa kwa njia ya kiajabu kwa [[brigantine Maria Celeste]] ya tani 282 1872 mara nyingi lakini kwa njia inayokosa usahihi imehusishwa na Pembetatu, baada ya meli hii kuachwa kando ya pwani ya [[Ureno.]] Kuna uwezekano wa tukio hili kuchanganywa na kupotewa kwa meli inayofanana kwa jina na hii, ''Mari Celeste,'' ya tani 207 [[iliypkuwa ikienda kwa kutumia mvuke]] ambayo iligonga[[tendeguu]] kuzama kwa haraka katika pwani ya Bermuda tarehe 13 Septemba 1864. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shipwreckexpo.com/bermudashipwrecksmariceleste.htm |title=Mari Celeste Wreck |publisher=Shipwreckexpo.com |accessdate=2009-06-01 |archivedate=2009-02-15 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215121203/http://www.shipwreckexpo.com/bermudashipwrecksmariceleste.htm }}</ref> <ref name="Berg,2000"/> Kusche alibainisha kuwa masuala mengi ya "ukweli" kuhusu tukio hilo yalikuwa hasa kuhusu ''Marie Celeste,'' meli ya tamthiliya kutoka hadithi fupi ya [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] [[" Wazo la J. Habakuk Jephson's "]] (yenye misingi halisi ya tukio la ''Maria Celeste'', lakini iliyotamithiliwa). === ''Ellen Austin'' === ''Ellen Austin'' ainadhaniwa ilipata na meli, iliyokuwa imewekwa kwenye ubao wa tuzo wa mabaharia, na akajaribu kuenda nayo New York mwaka 1881. Kulingana na hadithi, meli hii ilitoweka; wengine wanafanunua kuwa meli ilitokea tena bila ya mabaharia, kisha kupotea tena na mabaharia wengine juu ya ubao. Ilipotazamwa kwenye rekodi za [[Lloyd ya London]] alithibitika kuwepo kwa ''Meta,'' iliyojengwa katika mwaka wa 1854 na kwamba mnamo 1880 ''Meta'' ilibadilishwa jina na kuitwa ''Ellen Austin.'' Hakuna majeruhi yanaorodheshwa ya chombo hiki, au chombo chochote wakati ule, ambayo ingeonyesha idadi kubwa ya watu waliokosekana ambao waliwekwa ndani ya meli ambayo ilitoweka baadaye. <ref name="Bermuda Triangle, Ellen Austin">{{cite web | url = http://bermuda-triangle.org/html/ellen_austin.html | title = Ellen Austin | publisher = [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org Bermuda Triangle] | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archive-date = 2016-04-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160407001129/http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/ellen_austin.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> === USS ''Cyclops'' === Tukio hili lilosababisha mojawapo ya kupotewa kukubwa kwa maisha katika historia ya manajeshi wa majini wa US isiyohusiana na kupambana katika vita ilitokea wakati [[USS Cyclops,|USS ''Cyclops,'']] chini ya uongoxi wa [[Lt Cdr GW Worley]], ilitoweka bila ya ishara ikiwa na mabaharia 309 wakati karibu na baada ya 4 Machi 1918, baada ya kutoka kwa kisiwa cha [[Barbados.]] Ingawa hakuna ushahidi wenye nguvu kwa nadharia yoyote,nyingi ya nadharia zinazojitegemea zipo, baadhi zikizilaumu dhoruba, baadhi kuzama, na baadhi kupendekeza kuwa [[anafaa kulaumiwa kwa kutoweka kwa meli hii. |anafaa kulaumiwa kwa kutoweka kwa meli hii. <ref name="DMerrill">{{cite web | url = http://website.lineone.net/~dmerrill/html/bermuda_triangle.html | title = Bermuda triangle | publisher = D Merrill | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20021124223248/http://website.lineone.net/~dmerrill/html/bermuda_triangle.html | archivedate = 2002-11-24 | accessdate = 2009-12-01 }}</ref> <ref name="Bermuda Cruises">{{cite web | url = http://www.bermudacruises.net/bermuda-information/myths_folklore.htm | title = Myths and Folklore of Bermuda | publisher = Bermuda Cruises | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archiveurl = https://archive.today/20090610083610/http://www.bermudacruises.net/bermuda-information/myths_folklore.htm | archivedate = 2009-06-10 }}</ref>]] === Theodosia Burr Alston === [[Theodosia Burr Alston]] alikuwa binti wa Makamu wa Rais wa zamani wa Marekani [[Haruni Burr.]] Kutoweka kwake kumekuwa kukitajwa angalau kwa mara moja kama kunakohusiano na Pembetatu. <ref name="Jeffrey,1975"/> Yeye alikuwa abiria kwenye ''Patriot'', ambayo walipanda kutoka [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], South Carolinakuenda [[New York]] tarehe 30 Desemba 1812, na hawajahi kusikia tena. Njia iliyopangwa iko kando kanisa ya mfumo yote hata iliyopanuliwa ya Bermuda. Uharamia na [[Vita ya 1812]] zimetolewa kama maelezo, vilevile kama nadharia inamweka katika Texas, kando kabisa ya Pembetatu. === ''Spray'' === [[S.V. Spray|'''S.V. ''Spray'' ''']] ilikuwa mashua ya uvuvi iliyoachwa iliyoundwa tena kama meli ya baharini na [[Joshua Slocum]] na akaitumia kukamilisha mzunguko wa kwanza wa ulimwengu na mtu mmoja, kati ya 1895 na 1898. Mwaka 1909, Slocum aling'oa nanga kutoka Vineyard Haven kwenda hadi Venezuela. Yeye wala ''Spray'' hajawahi kuonekana tena. Hakuna ushahidi kuwa walikuwa katika Pembetatu ya Bermuda walipotoweka, wala hakuna ushahidi wowote wa shughuli zisizokuwa za kawaida. Mashua alidhaniwa kuwa katika hali duni na mashua ngumu kuendesha ambayo ustadi wa Slocum's ungedhibiti. <ref name="Kusche,1975"/> [[Picha:deering2.jpg|left|thumb|Schooner Carroll A. Deering, kama inavyonekana kutoka taa za kuangalia meli za Cape tarehe 29 Januari 1921, siku mbili kabla ya ilipoonekana imeachwa katika Carolina ya Kaskazini. (US Coast Guard)]] === ''Carroll A. Deering'' === Meli kubwa ya milingoti mitano iliyojengwa katika 1919, ''[[Carroll A. Deering]]'' ilipatikana imeachwa kwenye ukingo mngumu wa bahari katika Diamond Shoals, karibu na [[Cape Hatteras, Carolina ya Kaskazini]] tarehe 31 Januari 1921. Fununu na zaidi za wakati huo zilionyesha ''Deering'' ilikuwa mwathiriwa wa uharamia, ulio na uwezekano wa kuhusiana na biashara haramu wakati wa [[Vikwazo]], na uwezekano wa kushirikisha meli nyingine, SS ''Hewitt,'' ambayo ilitoweka wakati sawa na huo. Masaa machache tu baadaye, meli inayotumia mvuke isiyojulikana ilipita karibu na mwangaza wa meli kando ya njia ya ''Deering,'' na kupuuza ishara zote kutoka kwa mwangaza huu wa meli. Inakusudiwa kuwa huenda ''Hewitt'' ndiyo ilikuwa meli hii ya kilinge, na kuna uwezekano ilihusika katika kutoweka kwa mabaharia wa ''Deering''. <ref name="Deering">{{cite web | url = http://www.graveyardoftheatlantic.com/Deering/CADeeringHome.html | title = Carroll A Deering | publisher = Graveyard of the Atlantic | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20050828190605/http://graveyardoftheatlantic.com/Deering/CADeeringHome.html | archivedate = 2005-08-28 }}</ref> === Douglas DC-3 === Tarehe 28 Desemba 1948, ndege ya [[Douglas DC-3]] , nambari [[NC16002]], ilipotea wakati ikiwa kwenye safari ya kutoka San Juan, Puerto Rico, kwenda Miami. Hakuna ishara ya ndege au watu 32 waliokuwa kwa ndege hii waliowahi kupatikana. Nyaraka zilizoandikwa na Bodi ya wahandisi wa mambo ya ndege kutokana na uchunguzi wake, sababu ya karibu iliyosababisha kutoweka kwa ndege hii ulipatikana, lakini haikugusia kamwe na waandishi Pembetatu: ndege za ndege zilikaguliwa na kupatikana kuwa na nduvu ya chini, lakini zikamrishwa kurundishwa ndani ya ndege bila kutiwa nguvu tena na rubani walipokuwa San Juan. Iwe au siyo hili amabalo lilisababisha kupotea kabisa kwa umeme kamwe hakutawahi kujulikana. Hata hivyo, kwa vile ndege za injini za pistoni hutegemea [[usumaku]] kutoa cheche kwa mitungi yao bali ya mfumo wa kuwasha unaoutumia betri inayopatiwa nguvu na [[nyonga]], hii si nadharia ya kushawishi sana. <ref name="Aviation Safety DC3">{{cite web | url = http://www.avsaf.org/reports/US/1948.12.28_AirborneTransport_DouglasDC-3.pdf#search=%22Airborne%20Transport%2C%20December%2028%2C%201948%2C%20Miami%2C%20Florida%22 | title = Airborne Transport, Miami, December 1948 | publisher = Aviation Safety | format = PDF | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070103193538/http://www.avsaf.org/reports/US/1948.12.28_AirborneTransport_DouglasDC-3.pdf#search=%22Airborne%20Transport%2C%20December%2028%2C%201948%2C%20Miami%2C%20Florida%22 | archivedate = 2007-01-03 }}</ref> === ''Star Tiger'' na ''Star Ariel'' === [[G-AHNP Star Tiger|G-AHNP ''Star Tiger'']] ilitoweka tarehe 30 Januari 1948 ikiwa safarini kutoka Azori kwenda Bermuda; [[G-AGRE Star Ariel|G-AGRE ''Star Ariel'']] ilitoweka tarehe 17 Januari 1949, ikiwa safarini kutoka Bermuda kuelekea [[Kingston, Jamaika.]] Zote zilikuwa ndege za abiria za ina ya [[Avrò Tudor IV]] zilizoendeshwa na [[British Airways ya Amerika ya Kusini.]] <ref name="Bermuda Triangle, Tudors">{{cite web | url = http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/the_tudors.html | title = The Tudors | publisher = [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org Bermuda Triangle] }}</ref> Ndege zote zilikuwa zikiendeshwa katika anuwai za mipaka yao na makosa madogo au hitilafu ya vifaa ingezifanya kukosa kufikia kisiwa hicho kidogo. Ndege moja haikusikika kwa muda mrefu kabla ya kuingia Pembetatu. <ref name="Kusche,1975"/> === KC-135 Stratotankers === Tarehe 28 Agosti 1963 jozi ya ndege za [[US Air Force KC-135 Stratotanker]] zigongana na kuanguka kwenye Atlantiki. Mfumo wa hadithi ya Pembetatu (Winer, Berlitz, Gaddis <ref name="Gaddis,1964"/> <ref name="Berlitz,1974"/> <ref name="Winer,1974"/> unaelezea ya kwamba ndege hizi hazikugongana na kuanguka, lakini kulikuwa maeneo mawili tofauti ya ajali, yaliyotengwa kwa {{convert|160|mi|km}} wa maji. Hata hivyo,utafiti wa Kusche <ref name="Kusche,1975"/> ulionyesha kwamba toleo ya ripoti ambayo haijaorodheshwa ya uchunguzi wa Air Force ilisema kuwa eneo la mabaki ya eneo la pili la "ajali" ilichunguzwa na meli ya uokozi na utafiti, na kukuta kuwa yalikuwa [[kwekwe za baharini]]na [[ubao]] zilizofunganishwa pamoja katika [[kitu kama mpira kilichokuwa kinaelea]] . === ''SS Marine Sulphur Queen'' === ''[[SS Marine Sulphur Queen]],'' [[meli ya tanki ya T2]]iliyobandilishwa kutoka kwa meli ya kubeba mafuta hadi kuwa ya kubeba [[sulfuri]] ,iliyosikika mara ya mwisho kutoka tarehe 4 Februari 1963 ikiwa na mabaharia 39 karibu na Florida. ''Marine Sulphur Queen'' kilikuwa chombo cha kwanza kilichotajwa katika jalida la Vincent Gaddi '1964 kwenye makala ya ''Argosy'' , <ref name="Gaddis,1964">{{cite journal | title = The Deadly Bermuda Triangle | url = http://www.physics.smu.edu/~pseudo/BermudaTriangle/vincentgaddis.txt | month = Februari| year=1964 | journal = [[Argosy (magazine)|Argosy]] | author = Vincent Gaddis | pages = 28–29, 116–118. }}</ref> lakini alihitimisha kuwa "ilienda mahali pasipojulikana", licha ya ripoti ya Coast Guard ambayo licha ya kutoa kumbukumbu ya historia ya kudumishwa kubaya kwa meli, lakini pia ilitangaza kwamba kilikuwa ni chombo kisichofaa kutumika kamwe baharini na kuwa kamwe hangestahili kwenda baharini. <ref name="USCG Sulphur Queen">{{cite web | url = http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/moa/boards/marsulqueen.pdf | title = Marine Sulphur Queen | publisher = USCG | format = PDF }}</ref> <ref name="Time Sulphur Queen">{{cite news | url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,896573,00.html | title = The Queen with the Weak Back | publisher = TIME | archiveurl = https://archive.today/20120912115201/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/printout/0,8816,896573,00.html | archivedate = 2012-09-12 | accessdate = 2009-12-01 }}</ref> === ''Raifuku Maru'' === Moja ya matukio maarufu zaidi katika Pembetatu ilifanyika mwaka 1921 (wengine wanasema miaka michache baadaye), wakati chombo cha Kijapani ''[[Raifuku Maru]]'' (wakati mwingine kitambuliwa kimakosa kama ''Raikuke Maru)'' kilizama na mikono yote baada ya kutuma ishara za usaidizi ambazo zinadaiwa zilisema "Hatari kama kisu sasa. Njoo haraka! ", Au" Ni kama kisu, njoo haraka! " Hili limesababisha waandishi kubashiri "kisu" kilikuwa nini, na uwezekano mkubwa ukiwa ni [[mpukurutiko wa maji]] (Winer). Katika hali halisi meli haikuwa mahali pa karibu na Pembetatu, wala neno "kisu" sehemu ya ishara za usaidizi za meli ( "Sasa hatari sana. Njoo haraka. "); Akiwa imetoka Boston kuenda Hamburg, Ujerumani, tarehe 21 Aprili 1925, ilijipata katika dhoruba kali na kuzama katika Atlantiki ya Kaskazini wakati mwingine meli nyingine, [[RMS Homeric,|RMS ''Homeric,'']] ilijaribu kuwaokoa bila ya kufaulu. <ref name="Nova,1976">{{cite episode | series = [[NOVA (TV series)|NOVA]] / [[Horizon (BBC TV series)|Horizon]] | title = ''The Case of the Bermuda Triangle'' | airdate = 1976-06-27|network=PBS }}</ref> === ''Connemara IV'' === Meli ya radhi ilipatikana kando katika Atlantiki kusini ya Bermuda tarehe 26 Septemba 1955, na kwa kawaida inaelezewa kuwa katika hadithi za (Berlitz, Winer <ref name="Berlitz,1974"/> <ref name="Winer,1974"/> kwamba mahabaria walitoweka ilihali meli ilinusurika ikiwa baharini wakati wa tufani tatu. [[msimu wa tufani la Atlantiki mwaka wa 1955]]unaorodhesha moja tu ya [[dhoruba]] iliyokuja karibu na Bermuda kuelekea mwisho wa Agosti, tufani kwa jina "Edith"; wa wengine, "Flora" ilikuwa pia mbali upande wa mashariki, na "Katie" ilifika baada ya meli kupatikana. Ilithibitisha kwamba ''Connemara IV'' ilikuwa tupu na katika bandari wakati "Edith" iliposababisha meli kufunguka na kuingia baharini. <ref name="Kusche,1975"/> === Carolyn Cascio === Cessna iliyoendeshwa na [[Carolyn Cascio]], tarehe 7 Juni 1964, ambayo abiria mmoja, alijaribu kusafiri kutoka Nassau, Bahamas hadi Cocburn, kisiwa cha Grand Turk. Ndege ilishuhudiwa na wathibiti wa trafiki wa hewani kwenye uwanja wa ndege wa Cockburn kuwa ilizunguka kisiwani kwa dakika 30, na baadaye inakusudiwa ilienda kwa kisiwa kingine. Majaribio yote kutoka ardhini kuwasiliana na Cascio kwenye redio yalishindwa. == Waandishi wa Pembetatu == Matukio marufu ya Pembetatu yaliyotajwa hapo juu, mbali na nyaraka rasmi, yametokana na kazi zifuatazo. Baadhi ya matukio yaliyotajwa kama yaliyotokea ndani ya Pembetatu hupatikana ''tu'' katika vyanzo hivi: * {{cite book | title = Into the Bermuda Triangle: Pursuing the Truth Behind the World's Greatest Mystery | author = Gian J. Quasar | publisher = International Marine / Ragged Mountain Press | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-07-142640-X | edition = (Reprinted in paperback (2005) ISBN 0-07-145217-6) | ref = Quasar,2003 }} * <ref name="Berlitz,1974">{{cite book | title = The Bermuda Triangle | url = https://archive.org/details/bermudatriangle00berl | author = Charles Berlitz | isbn = 0-385-04114-4 | publisher = Doubleday | year = 1974 | edition = 1st }}</ref> {{cite book | title = The Bermuda Triangle | url = https://archive.org/details/bermudatriangle00berl | author = Charles Berlitz | isbn = 0-385-04114-4 | publisher = Doubleday | year = 1974 | edition = 1st | ref = Berlitz,1974 }} * <ref name="Kusche,1975">{{cite book | title = The Bermuda Triangle Mystery Solved | url = https://archive.org/details/bermudatrianglem0000kusc | year = 1975 | author = Lawrence David Kusche | isbn = 0-87975-971-2 | publisher = Prometheus Books | location = Buffalo }}</ref> {{cite book | title = The Bermuda Triangle Mystery Solved | url = https://archive.org/details/bermudatrianglem0000kusc | year = 1975 | author = Lawrence David Kusche | isbn = 0-87975-971-2 | ref = Kusche,1975 | publisher = Prometheus Books | location = Buffalo }} * <ref name="Spencer,1969">{{cite book | title = Limbo Of The Lost | url = https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ABF-425 | author = John Wallace Spencer | isbn = 0-686-10658-X | year = 1969 }}</ref> {{cite book | title = Limbo Of The Lost | url = https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ABF-425 | author = John Wallace Spencer | isbn = 0-686-10658-X | year = 1969 | ref = Spencer,1969 }} * {{cite book | title = The Evidence for the Bermuda Triangle | url = https://archive.org/details/evidenceforbermu0000grou | year = 1984 | author = David Group | isbn = 0-85030-413-X | ref = Group,1984 | publisher = Aquarian Press | location = Wellingborough, Northamptonshire }} * <ref name="Berg,2000">{{cite book | title = Bermuda Shipwrecks | url = https://archive.org/details/bermudashipwreck0000berg | year = 2000 | author = Daniel Berg | isbn = 0-9616167-4-1 | publisher = Aqua Explorers | location = East Rockaway, N.Y. }}</ref> {{cite book | title = Bermuda Shipwrecks | url = https://archive.org/details/bermudashipwreck0000berg | year = 2000 | author = Daniel Berg | isbn = 0-9616167-4-1 | ref = Berg,2000 | publisher = Aqua Explorers | location = East Rockaway, N.Y. }} * <ref name="Winer,1974">{{cite book | title = The Devil's Triangle | url = https://archive.org/details/devilstriangle00wine | year = 1974 | author = [[Richard Winer]] | isbn = 0553106880 }}</ref> {{cite book | title = The Devil's Triangle | url = https://archive.org/details/devilstriangle00wine | year = 1974 | author = [[Richard Winer]] | isbn = 0553106880 | ref = Winer,1974 }} * {{cite book | title = The Devil's Triangle | url = https://archive.org/details/devilstriangle0002rich | year = 1975 | author = Richard Winer | isbn = 0553024647 | ref = Winer,1975 }} * <ref name="Jeffrey,1975">{{cite book | title = The Bermuda Triangle | url = https://archive.org/details/bermudatriangle00jeff | year = 1975 | author = Adi-Kent Thomas Jeffrey | isbn = 0446599611 | ref = Jeffrey,1975 }}</ref> {{cite book | title = The Bermuda Triangle | url = https://archive.org/details/bermudatriangle00jeff | year = 1975 | author = Adi-Kent Thomas Jeffrey | isbn = 0446599611 | ref = Jeffrey,1975 }} == Marejeo == {{Marejeo|2}} == Vyanzo vingine == <div class="references-small"> === Makala ya Gazeti === ProQuest [http://proquest.umi.com ] ina nyenzo za gazeti za chanzo ya matukio mengi, yaliyohifadhiwa katika. mtindo wa Pdf. Magazeti haya ni pamoja na New York Times, Washington Post, na Katiba ya Atlanta. Kupata tovuti hii, usajili inahitajika, kwa kawaida kupitia maktaba iliyounganishwa na chuo au chuo kikuu. </div> ==== [[Flight 19]] ==== * "Great Hunt On For 27 Navy Fliers Missing In Five Planes Off Florida," New York Times, 7 Desemba 1945. * "Wide Hunt Kwa Wanaume 27 Planes Katika Navy sita," Washington Post, 7 Desemba 1945. * "Fire Signals Seen In Area Of Lost Men," Washington Post, 9 Desemba 1945. ==== ''[[Raifuku Maru]]'' ==== * "Japanese Ships Sinks With A Crew Of 38; Liners Unable To Aid," New York Times, 22 Aprili 1925. * "Passengers Differ On Homeric Effort To Save Sinking Ship," New York Times, 23 Aprili 1925. * "Kapteni Homeric fann By Skippers," New York Times, 24 Aprili 1925. * "Liner Je drabbat Katika jaribio Rescue," New York Times, 25 Aprili 1925. ==== SS ''Cotopaxi'' ==== * "Lloyd's posts Cotopaxi As "Missing," New York Times, 7 Januari 1926. * "Efforts To Locate Missing Ship Fail," Washington Post, 6 Desemba 1925. * "Lighthouse Keepers Seek Missing Ship," Washington Post, 7 Desemba 1925. * "53 On Missing Craft Are Reported Saved," Washington Post, 13 Desemba 1925. ==== ''[[USS Cyclops (AC-4)]]'' ==== * "Cold High Winds Do $25,000 Damage," Washington Post, 11 Machi 1918. * "Collier Overdue A Month," New York Times, 15 Aprili 1918. * "More Ships Hunt For Missing Cyclops," New York Times, 16 Aprili 1918. * "Haven't Given Up Hope For Cyclops," New York Times, 17 Aprili 1918. * "Collier Cyclops Is Lost; 293 Persons On Board; Enemy Blow Suspected," Washington Post, 15 Aprili 1918. * "U.S. Consul Gottschalk Coming To Enter The War," Washington Post, 15 Aprili 1918. * "Cyclops Skipper Teuton, 'Tis Said," Washington Post, 16 Aprili 1918. * "Fate Of Ship Baffles," Washington Post, 16 Aprili 1918. * "Steamer Met Gale On Cyclops' Course," Washington Post, 19 Aprili 1918. ==== ''[[Carroll A. Deering]]'' ==== * "Piracy Suspected In Disappearance Of 3 American Ships," New York Times, 21 Juni 1921. * "Bath Owners Skeptical," New York Times, 22 Juni 1921. Piera Antonella * "Deering Skipper's Wife Caused Investigation," New York Times, 22 Juni 1921. * "More Ships Added To Mystery List," New York Times, 22 Juni 1921. * "Hunt On For Pirates," Washington Post, 21 Juni 1921 * "Comb Seas For Ships," Washington Post, 22 Juni 1921. * "Port Of Missing Ships Claims 3000 Yearly," Washington Post, 10 Julai 1921. ==== Mabaki ==== * "'Wreckreation' Was The Name Of The Game That Flourished 100 Years Ago," New York Times, 30 Machi 1969. ==== SS ''Suduffco'' ==== * "To Search For Missing Freighter," New York Times, 11 Aprili 1926. * "Abandon Hope For Ship," New York Times, 28 Aprili 1926. ==== ''Star Tiger'' na ''Star Ariel'' ==== * "Hope Wanes in Sea Search For 28 Aboard Lost Airliner," New York Times, 31 Januari 1948. * "72 Planes Search Sea For Airliner,"New York Times, 19 Januari 1949. ==== Kutoweka kwa DC-3 Airliner [[NC16002]] ==== * "30-Passenger Airliner Disappears In Flight From San Juan To Miami," New York Times, 29 Desemba 1948. * "Check Cuba Report Of Missing Airliner,"New York Times, 30 Desemba 1948. * "Airliner Hunt Extended," New York Times, 31 Desemba 1948. ==== Harvey Conover na ''Revonoc'' ==== * "Search Continuing For Conover Yawl," New York Times, 8 Januari 1958. * Yacht Search Goes On," New York Times, 9 Januari 1958. * "Yacht Search Pressed," New York Times, 10 Januari 1958. * "Yacht Search Pressed," New York Times, 15 Januari 1958. ==== KC-135 Stratotankers ==== * "Second Area Of Debris Found In Hunt For Jets," New York Times, 31 Agosti 1963. * "Hunt For Tanker Jets Halted," New York Times, 3 Septemba 1963. * "Planes Debris Found In Jet Tanker Hunt,"Washington Post, 30 Agosti 1963. ==== B-52 Bomber ''(Pogo 22)'' ==== * "U.S.-Canada Test Of Air Defence A Success," New York Times, 16 Oktoba 1961. * "Hunt For Lost B-52 Bomber Pushed In New Area," New York Times, 17 Oktoba 1961. * "Bomber Hunt Pressed," New York Times, 18 Oktoba 1961. * "Bomber Search Continuing," New York Times, 19 Oktoba 1961. * "Hunt For Bomber Ends," New York Times, 20 Oktoba 1961. ==== Mkataba chombo ''Sno'Boy'' ==== * "Plane Hunting Boat Sights Body In Sea," New York Times, 7 Julai 1963. * "Search Abandoned For 40 On Vessel Lost In Caribbean," New York Times, 11 Julai 1963. * "Search Continues For Vessel With 55 Aboard In Caribbean," Washington Post, 6 Julai 1963. * "Body Found In Search For Fishing Boat," Washington Post, 7 Julai 1963. ==== [[SS Marine Sulphur Queen]] ==== * "Tanker Lost In Atlantic; 39 Aboard," Washington Post, 9 Februari 1963. * "Debris Sighted In Plane Search For Tanker Missing Off Florida," New York Times, 11 Februari 1963. * "2.5 Million Is Asked In Sea Disaster," Washington Post, 19 Februari 1963. * "Vanishing Of Ship Ruled A Mystery," New York Times, 14 Aprili 1964. * "Families Of 39 Lost At Sea Begin $20-Million Suit Here," New York Times, 4 Juni 1969. * "10-Year Rift Over Lost Ship Near End," New York Times, 4 Februari 1973. ==== SS ''Sylvia Yale Ossa'' ==== * "Ship And 37 Vanish In Bermuda Triangle On Voyage To U.S.," New York Times, 18 Oktoba 1976. * "Ship Missing In Bermuda Triangle Now Presumed To Be Lost At Sea," New York Times, 19 Oktoba 1976. * "Distress Signal Heard From American Sailor Missing For 17 Days," New York Times, 31 Oktoba 1976. === Wavuti === Wavuti zifuatazo aidha zina nyenzo za tovuti ambazo zinatilia nguvu mifumo marufu ya Pembetatu ya Bermuda, au nyaraka rasmi zilizochapishwa kutoka kwa sehemu ya kesi au uchunguzi, kama ule uliofanywa na jeshi la baharini la Marekani au United States Coast Guard. Nakala ya baadhi ya maoni hayako kwenye mtandao na huenda hayakuagizwa; kwa mfano, kutoeka kwa Flight 19 au USS Cyclops zinaweza kuagizwa moja kwa moja kutoka kituo cha Historia cha Marekani. * [http://www.physics.smu.edu/~pseudo/BermudaTriangle/vincentgaddis.txt Nakala ya Februari, 1964 jalida la Argosy makala ya Vincent Gaddis] * [http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/moa/reportindexcas.htm Kumbukumbu ya data ya United States Coast Guard ya ripoti tofauti zilizochaguliwa na maoni tofauti] * [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org Tovuti ya mwanahistoria na mtafiti wa Bermuda Triangle Gian Quasar] * [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-1.htm Kituo cha historia cha wanajeshi wa baharini wa Marekani Bermuda Triangle FAQ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-1.htm |date=20020802035846 }} * [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-2.htm historia ya Wanabaharia wa US / ''The Bermuda Triangle: Startling New Secrets'' ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-2.htm |date=20060709202845 }}[[filamu ya Sci Fi Channel]] (Novemba 2005) * [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq15-1.htm Kituo cha histoia cha wanabaharia: kutoweka kwa Flight 19] {{Wayback|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq15-1.htm |date=20090413074152 }} * [http://www.docksideconsultants.com/wavessup.html juu ya upotevu mzito wa meli katika bahari] {{Wayback|url=http://www.docksideconsultants.com/wavessup.html |date=20090227044434 }} * [http://www.aquaexplorers.com/Bermuda_shipwrecks.htm Mabaki ya meli ya Bermuda ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.aquaexplorers.com/Bermuda_shipwrecks.htm |date=20090212131417 }} * [http://uwex.us/wreckinfo.html Ukurasa unaoorodhesha mabaki ya meli wa Muungano wa Wapelelezi wa chini ya bahari] {{Wayback|url=http://uwex.us/wreckinfo.html |date=20090213174934 }} * [http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/ Kamusi ya Meli za kivita za mabaharia wa Marekani] {{Wayback|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/ |date=20060130095752 }} * [http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/aircraft_losses.html Orodha ya ndege zilizotoweka] === Vitabu === Nyingi ya kazi zilizotajwa hapa hazijachapishwa. Nakala zinaweza kupatikana katika maktaba ya mtaa wako, au kununuliwa katika masoko ya vitabu, au kupitia E-Bay au Amazon.com. Ikumbukwe kwamba vitabu hivi mara nyingi ndivyo chanzo ''pekee'' cha nyenzo ya baadhi ya matukio ambayo yamefanyika ndani ya Pembetatu. * ''Into the Bermuda Triangle: Pursuing the Truth Behind the World's Greatest Mystery '' na [[Gian J. Quasar]], International Marine / Ragged Mountain Press (2003) ISBN 0-07-142640-X; ina orodha ya meli zilitoweka kama zilivyofanyiwa utafiti katika kumbukumbu rasmi. (Ilichapishwa tena katika Paperback (2005) ISBN 0-07-145217-6). * ''The Bermuda Triangle'' Charles Berlitz (ISBN 0-385-04114-4): sasa hakuna iliyochapishwa, hata hivyo, kuna vitabu vingine vingi vinavyopatikana kuhusu nyenzo hii, mara nyingi hadithi ni ile ile. * ''Mystery of Bermuda Triangle Solved'' (1975). Lawrence Daudi Kusche (ISBN 0-87975-971-2) * ''Limbo Of The Lost,'' John Wallace Spencer (ISBN 0-686-10658-X) * ''The Evidence for the Bermuda Triangle'' (1984), Daudi Group (ISBN 0-85030-413-X) * ''The Final Flight,'' (2006), Tony Blackman (ISBN 0-9553856-0-1) Ikumbukwe kwamba kitabu hiki ni kazi ya tamthilia. * ''Bermuda Shipwrecks,'' (2000), Daniel Berg (ISBN 0-9616167-4-1) * ''The Devil's Triangle'' (1974), [[Richard Winer]] (ISBN 0-553-10688-0); hiki kitabu kiliuza vizuri zaidi ya nakala milioni moja mwishoni mwa mwaka wake wa kwanza; hadi sasa kumekuwa na chapisho angalau 17. * ''The Devil's Triangle'' (1975), Richard Winer (ISBN 0-553-02464-7) * ''From the Devil's Triangle to the Devil's Jaw'' (1977), Richard Winer (ISBN 0-553-10860-3) * ''Ghost Ships: True Stories of Nautical Nightmares, Hauntings, and disasters'' (2000), Richard Winer (ISBN 0-425-17548-0) * ''The Bermuda Triangle'' (1975) na Adi-Kent Thomas Jeffrey (ISBN 0-446-59961-1) == Viungo vya nje == * {{cite web | url = http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/moa/reportindexcas.htm | publisher = United States Coast Guard | title = Kumbukumbu ya repoti na maoni yaliyochaguliwa }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.bermuda-triangle.org | publisher = Gian Quasar, author of ''Into the Bermuda Triangle: Pursuing the Truth Behind the World's Greatest Mystery'' | title = Kilinge kikumbwa cha Pembetatu ya Bermuda }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-1.htm | publisher = US Navy Historical Center | title = Bermuda Triangle FAQ | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archivedate = 2002-08-02 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20020802035846/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-1.htm }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-2.htm | publisher = US Navy Historical Center | title = Ordha ya vitabu iliyochaguliwa | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archivedate = 2006-07-09 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060709202845/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-2.htm }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq15-1.htm | publisher = US Navy Historical Center | title = Kutoweka kwa Flight 19 | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archivedate = 2009-04-13 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090413074152/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq15-1.htm }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.docksideconsultants.com/wavessup.html | title = Juu ya kutoweka kwa meli nzito baharini | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archivedate = 2009-02-27 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090227044434/http://docksideconsultants.com/wavessup.html }} * {{cite web | url = http://www.aquaexplorers.com/Bermuda_shipwrecks.htm | title = Mabaki ya meli ya Bermuda | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archivedate = 2009-02-12 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090212131417/http://aquaexplorers.com/Bermuda_shipwrecks.htm }} * {{cite web | url = http://uwex.us/wreckinfo.html | author = [[Michael C. Barnette|Barnette, Michael C.]] | publisher = Association of Underwater Explorers | title = Ukurusa wenye orodha ya mabaki ya meli | accessdate = 2009-12-01 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090213174934/http://uwex.us/wreckinfo.html | archivedate = 2009-02-13 }} {{coord|25|N|71|W|scale:10000000_type:waterbody|display=title}} [[Jamii:Hadithi]] lkud1eexn1nlked0m5tmwpf0pokjl0y 0 33561 1580024 1570726 2026-07-17T23:11:01Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580024 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Water-conservation-stamp-1960.jpg|thumb|275px|Stempu ya 1960 ya posta ya asilimia nne ya USA: Uhifadhi wa Maji.]] '''Uhifadhi wa maji''' unahusu kupunguza matumizi ya maji na kuchakata maji taka kwa malengo tofauti kama kusafisha, viwanda, kilimo nk ==Maskani== Teknolojia ya kuokoa maji ya nyumbani ni pamoja na: * Vichwa vya mifereji ya kuoga vyenye viwango vya chini vya mtiririko(Low-flow shower heads) (wakati mwingine huitwa vichwa vyenye ufanisi wa kinishati kwani pia zinatumia nishati kidogo, kutokana na kiasi kidogo cha maji kuchemshwa). {{Citation needed|date=Februari 2007}} * Vyoo visivyohitaji nguvu nyingi kusafisha (Low-flush toilets) na vyoo vya kuhifadhi(composting toilets). Hivi vina makubwa katika ulimwengu uliyoendelea, kwani kwa kawaida [[vyoo]] vya Magharibi hutumia maji kwa wingi. * Maji chumvi (maji ya bahari) au maji ya mvua yanaweza kutumika kwa kusafisha vyoo. * Vipulizi vya faucet, ambayo huvunja mtiririko wa maji kuwa matone faini ili kudumisha "ufanisi wa unyevu" wakati huo ukitumia kiasi kidogo cha maji. Faida ya nyongeza ni kwamba zinapunguza kuruka kwa maji wakati wa kuosha mikono na kuosha sahani. * Marudio ya matumizi ya maji taka (reuse)) au mifumo ya kuchakata, huruhusu: ** Marudio ya matumizi ya [[maji]] kwa kusafisha vyoo au bustani, na ** Usafishaji wa maji taka kupitia [[utakaso]] katika kituo cha kutibu maji. ''Angalia pia marudio ya matumizi ya maji taka'' * Kuchota maji ya mvua * Mashine za kusafisha nguo zenye ufanisi wa hali ya juu * Vifaa vinavyosimamia unyunyi * Midomo ya mifereji inayojifunga wakati haitumiwa, badala ya kuruhusu a hose kukimbia. Maji pia inaweza kuhifadhiwa kwa kupanda mimea asili na kwa kubadilisha tabia, kama kufupisha muda bafuni na kutoachilia maji yakitiririka wakati unasafisha meno. ==Kibiashara== Vifaa vingi vya kuokoa maji (kama vyoo vya kusafishwa na maji kidogo) ambayo ni muhimu katika makaazi pia inaweza kufaa katika kuokoa maji katika biashara. Teknolojia zingine za kuokoa maji kibiashara ni pamoja na: *Sehemu za mkojo zisizo na maji [[Picha:Waterless urinal in City University of Hong Kong.jpg|thumb|Sehemu za mkojo zisizo na maji katika Chuo Kikuu cha Hong Kong City]] * Usafishaji magari bila maji * Faucet za Infrared au zinazoendeshwa na mguu- , ambazo zinaweza kuokoa maji kwa kutumia mitiririko fupi ya maji katika kuosha jikoni au bafuni * Vifagiomaji vyenye presha, ambavyo vinaweza kutumika badala ya mifereji kusafisha mapito. * Mifumo wa kurudia mizunguko ya kutengeneza filamu za X-ray * Vifaa vya kusimamia uenezaji katika minara ya kupoesha * Vifaa vya kuokoa maji ya mvuke, kwa matumizi ya hospitali, nk ==Kilimo== [[File:PivotIrrigationOnCotton.jpg|thumb|216px|right|Unyunyizaji wa kutoka juu, muundo wa kuzunguka katikati]] Kwa unyunyizaji wa mazao ufanisi wa juu kwa maji unamaanisha upunguzaji wa hasara kutokana na uvukizi, mtiririko au kumwagika kwa maji chini ya ardhi. Sahani ya [[Uvukizi]] inaweza kutumiwa kubaini kiasi cha maji ya kinachohitajika kunyunyiza ardhi. Unyunyizaji wa gharika, iliyo kongwe na aina ya kawaida, kwa mara nyingi sana hukosa usawa katika usambazaji, kwani sehemu ya shamba hupokea kiasi kinachozidi cha maji ili kutoa wingi wa kutosha kwa maeneo mengine. Unyunyizaji wa kutoka juu, unaotumia mzunguko wa katikati au mifereji inayosonga-upande, inatoa ruwaza sawa zaidi na usambazaji unaweza kudhibitiwa. Unyunyizaji wa drip(tone) ni ghali sana na hautumiwi sana, lakini unatoa matokeo bora katika kufikisha maji kwa mizizi ikiwa na hasara ndogo. Kama vile kubadilisha mifumo ya unyunyizaji inaweza kuwa ghali kutekeleza, juhudi za uhifadhi mara nyingi hulenga kuongeza ufanisi wa mfumo uliopo. Hii ni pamoja na kutawanya ardhi iliyoshikamana, kujenga kingo za mitaro kuzuia mtiririko, na kutumia unyevu wa udongo na vifaa vya kuhisi mvua kuongezea ratiba ya unyunyizaji.<ref> US EPA, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20040916052609/http://www.epa.gov/ow/you/chap3.html Maji Safi Kupitia Uhifadhi]", Watumiaji wa Desturi za Kilimo</ref> * Mashimo, ambayo yanachota maji ya mvua inayotiririka na kuitumia kuongezea maji ya ardhini. Hii inasaidia katika malezi ya visima vya maji vya ardhini nk na hatimaye hupunguza mmomonyoko wa udongo unaosababishwa na maji inayotiririka. # Upunguzaji wenye manufaa yoyote katika upotezaji wa maji, matumizi, au taka; # Upunguzaji katika matumizi ya maji unawezekana kwa kutekeleza uhifadhi wa maji au hatua za kuongeza ufanisi wa maji; au, # Mazoea ya usimamizi wa maji ambayo yanapunguza au kuboresha matumizi ya manufaa ya maji. Hatua ya uhifadhi wa maji ni tendo, mabadiliko ya kitabia, kifaa, teknolojia, au kuboreshwa kwa muundo au mchakato unaotekelezwa ili kupunguza hasara, taka, au matumizi ya maji. Ufanisi wa maji ni chombo cha uhifadhi wa maji. Inayopelekea ufanisi zaidi katika matumizi ya maji na hivyo kupunguza mahitaji ya maji. Thamani na ufanisi wa gharama ya hatua ya ufanisi wa maji lazima utathminiwe katika uhusiano wake na madhara yake kwa matumizi na gharama ya maliasili nyingine (kama nishati au kemikali).<ref name="Vickers, Amy 2002"> {{cite book |title=Water Use and Conservation |last=Vickers |first=Amy |authorlink= |year=2002 |publisher= water plow Press |location=Amherst, MA |isbn=1-931579-07-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofwateru0000vick_t2i9/page/434 434] |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofwateru0000vick_t2i9|accessdate=}}</ref> ==Ufanisi wa maji== Ufanisi wa maji unaweza kuelezwa kama uhitimishaji wa kazi, mchakato, au matokeo na kiasi kidogo cha maji yakinifu, au kiashirio cha uhusiano kati ya kiasi cha maji kinachohitajika kwa kusudi maalumu na kiasi cha maji kinachotumika, kinachochukuliwa au kinachofikishwa.<ref name="Vickers, Amy 2002" /> ==Lengo na Muundo wa Mtandao wa Chini Kabisa wa Maji== Ufanisi kigharama wa mtandao wa maji ya chini ni mwongozo wa kiujumla kwa ajili ya kuhifadhi maji ambayo husaidia katika kuamua kiasi cha chini cha maji safi na shabaha ya maji taka katika mfumo wa viwanda au mijini kwa kuzingatia [[mpangilio]] wa usimamiaji wa maji yaani inaangazia mbinu zote za kuokoa maji. Mbinu hii inahakikisha kwamba taka kipindi cha kurudisha malipo kilichotamaniwa na aliyeunda kimeridhishwa kwa kutumia mbinu ya Systematic Hierarchial Approach for Resilient Process Screening (SHARPS). Mbinu nyingine iliyoanzishwa kwa upeo wa kuokoa maji ni mbinu ya uchambuzi wa maji wa pinch. Hata hivyo, mbinu hii inalenga tu kuongeza maji safi na kupunguza maji taka kupitia marudio ya matumizi na uzalishaji upya. ==Angalia Pia== * [[Harakati za uhifadhi]] ==Marejeo== {{Marejeo}} ==Chanzo kikuu== * [http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/2 Helmle, Samuel F., "Water Conservation Planning: Developing a Strategic Plan for Socially Acceptable Demand Cont Programs" (2005). ] {{Wayback|url=http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/2 |date=20100420055801 }}[http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/2 Applied Research Projects.] {{Wayback|url=http://ecommons.txstate.edu/arp/2 |date=20100420055801 }} Chuo Kikuu cha Jimbo la Texas Karatasi ya 2. ==Viungo vya nje== {{Div col|cols=2}} * [http://www.waterefficiency.net Nakala ya Ufanisi wa Maji,] Nakala ya Wataalam wa Uhifadhi wa Maji * [http://eartheasy.com/live_water_saving.htm Njia Rahisi za kuhifadhi maji Nyumbani] {{Wayback|url=http://eartheasy.com/live_water_saving.htm |date=20120512071801 }} * [http://www.thisland.uiuc.edu/57ways/57ways_57.html Kuhifadhi Maji ndani na Nje ya Nyumba] {{Wayback|url=http://www.thisland.uiuc.edu/57ways/57ways_57.html |date=20090506013226 }} * [http://www.redcross.org.uk/standard.asp?id=73304 Ukame na Njia za Kuokoa maji] {{Wayback|url=http://www.redcross.org.uk/standard.asp?id=73304 |date=20081202005434 }} kutoka Shirika la Msalaba Mwekundu la Uingereza * [http://www.nal.usda.gov/wqic/cons.shtml Uhifadhi wa Maji ( eneo la mada ya WQIC)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nal.usda.gov/wqic/cons.shtml |date=20091023222920 }} * [http://www.allianceforwaterefficiency.org Muungano kwa Ufanisi wa Maji (AWE)] * [http://www.h2oconserve.org H2O Conserve] {{Wayback|url=http://www.h2oconserve.org/ |date=20190808052914 }} Kihasibu cha Maji * [http://www.waterconserve.info/ Water Conserve: Tovuti ya Uhifadhi wa Maji ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.waterconserve.info/ |date=20091211110238 }} * [http://www.deweybrowse.org/drought.html maji] {{Wayback|url=http://www.deweybrowse.org/drought.html |date=20081231215526 }} "Ukame" * [http://www.bluegold-worldwaterwars.com/ ''Blue Gold'' na Maude Barlow] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bluegold-worldwaterwars.com/ |date=20091218174541 }} * [http://www.wateruseitwisely.com/index.php Maji-itumie vyema] {{Wayback|url=http://www.wateruseitwisely.com/index.php |date=20100110220050 }} {{Div col end}} [[Jamii:Ekolojia]] [[Jamii:AWC 2026]] ozz2kdfv70l0i3d81a9aouswelp7pkq 0 33719 1580229 1578163 2026-07-18T01:34:31Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580229 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Tuberculosis-x-ray-1.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|mapafu yanayoonyesha maambukizi ya Kifua kikuu]] {{Infobox disease |Name = Kifua Kikuu |Image = Tuberculosis-x-ray-1.jpg |Caption = kifua [[X-ray]] cha mtu mwenye kifua kikuu cha hatari. Mishale meupe inaonyesha maambukizi ya mapafu yote mawili. Mishale meusi inaonyesha matundu yaliyojitokeza. |DiseasesDB = 8515 |ICD10 = {{ICD10|A|15||a|15}}–{{ICD10|A|19||a|15}} |ICD9 = {{ICD9|010}}–{{ICD9|018}} |ICDO = |OMIM = 607948 |MedlinePlus = 000077 |MedlinePlus_mult = {{MedlinePlus2|000624}} |eMedicineSubj = med |eMedicineTopic = 2324 |eMedicine_mult = |MeshID = D014376 }} '''Kifua kikuu''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''tuberculosis'', kifupi '''TB''') ni [[ugonjwa wa kuambukizwa]] ulio hatari. [[Ugonjwa]] huu husababishwa na aina mbalimbali za [[bakteria]] ambazo hujulikana kama ''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]''.<ref name=Robbins>{{cite book |author=Kumar V, Abbas AK, Fausto N, Mitchell RN |year=2007 |title=Robbins Basic Pathology |url=https://archive.org/details/robbinsbasicpath0000unse_q0t1 |edition=8th |publisher=Saunders Elsevier |pages=[https://archive.org/details/robbinsbasicpath0000unse_q0t1/page/516 516]–522 |isbn=978-1-4160-2973-1}}</ref> Kifua kikuu kwa kawaida kinaathiri [[mapafu]], lakini pia kinaweza kuathiri sehemu nyingine za [[mwili]]. Kifua kikuu husambazwa kutoka kwa [[mtu]] mmoja hadi mwingine kwa kupitia [[hewa]] wakati anapokohoa, kupiga chafya, au [[mate]] yake yakiwa hewani<ref name="AP">{{cite journal|author=Konstantinos A |year=2010|title=Testing for tuberculosis |journal=Australian Prescriber |volume= 33 |issue=1|pages=12–18 |url= http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/33/1/12/18/}}</ref> Maambukizi mengi hayana [[dalili]] wala hayaleti madhara. Lakini [[moja]] kati ya maambukizo kumi yasiyoleta madhara hatimaye huendelea na kuwa ugonjwa kamili. Kama kifua kikuu kisipotibiwa, kinaua zaidi ya 50[[%]] ya watu walioambukizwa. Dalili za kawaida za maambukizi ya kifua kikuu kinacholeta madhara ni [[kikohozi|kikohozi sugu]] na [[Hemoptysis|kukohoa damu]], [[Kohozi]], [[homa]], [[kutokwa na jasho usiku]], na [[kukonda]]. Maambukizi ya viungo vingine husababisha dalili mbalimbali. Njia ya kitaalamu ya utambuzi wa kifua kikuu kwa kutumia [[eksirei]] ya kuchunguza ugonjwa hujulikana kama eksirei ya kifua na pia wanatumia [[hadubini]] na kufanya uchunguzi wa [[vimelea maradhi]] vya [[majimaji]] ya mwilini. Uchunguzi wa kifua kikuu kisicholeta madhara hutumia kipimo kiitwacho [[Mantoux test|kipimo cha ngozi]] (TST) na vipimo vya damu. [[Matibabu ya kifua kikuu|tiba]] si rahisi na inabidi kupewa dawa nyingi za kinga mwili kwa kipindi kirefu. Mawasiliano ya kijamii pia yanapimwa na kutibiwa kama inavyotakiwa. [[Dawa zinazoshindwa kutibu magonjwa]] ni tatizo kubwa la maambukizi sugu mengi ya kifua kikuu]] (MDR-TB). Ili kuzuia kifua kikuu, ni lazima watu wapimwe ugonjwa na wapate [[chanjo]] ya [[Bacillus Calmette-Guérin|bacillus Calmette - Guérin]]. [[Wataalamu]] wanaamini kwamba [[theluthi]] moja ya [[idadi]] ya watu [[duniani]] waliambukizwa kifua kikuu,<ref name=WHO2012data>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/index.html|title=Tuberculosis Fact sheet N°104|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|date=November 2010|accessdate=26 July 2011}}</ref> na kila [[sekunde]] kuna mtu ambaye anaambukizwa <ref name= WHO2012data />. Mwaka [[2007]], kadri ya watu 13,700,000 duniani waliambukizwa kifua kikuu kinacholeta madhara sugu. Mwaka [[2010]], kadri ya milioni 8.8 ya watu waliambukizwa na milioni 1.5 ya watu walifariki baada ya kuambukizwa na kifua kikuu, na wagonjwa wengi wanapatikana katika [[nchi zinazoendelea]].<ref name=WHO2011>{{cite web|title=The sixteenth global report on tuberculosis|author=World Health Organization|url=http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2011/gtbr11_executive_summary.pdf|year=2011}}</ref> Idadi halisi ya wagonjwa wa kifua kikuu imekuwa ikipungua tangu mwaka [[2006]], na kesi mpya zimeshuka tangu mwaka [[2002]].<ref name=WHO2011/> Kifua kikuu si ugonjwa unaosambazwa sawasawa duniani kote. Kadri ya 80% ya watu katika nchi nyingi za [[Asia]] na [[Afrika]] waliofanyiwa kipimo cha ngozi walionekana wameambukizwa, lakini ni asilimia 5-10% tu ya wananchi wa [[Marekani]] ambao walionekana na ugonjwa huo.<ref name= Robbins/> Watu wengi waliopo katika [[nchi zilizoendelea]] wanaambukizwa kifua kikuu kwa sababu ya kutokuwa na kinga. Kwa kawaida, hawa watu wanaambukizwa kifua kikuu baada ya kuambukizwa na [[VVU]] na hatimaye wanapatwa na [[UKIMWI]].<ref name=Lancet11/> == Dalili na ishara == [[Picha:Tuberculosis symptoms.svg|thumb|Dalili kuu na ishara tofauti pamoja na hatua za kifua kikuu zinajulikana <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emedicinehealth.com/tuberculosis/page3_em.htm|title=Tuberculosis Symptoms|publisher=[[eMedicine]]Health|author=Schiffman G|date=15 January 2009}}</ref> Dalili nyingi huchanganyika na ishara zingine, ingawa kuna dalili zingine ambazo (ingawa sio lazima) ni za aina fulani ya kifua kikuu. Aina mbalimbali za kifua kikuu zinaweza kuwepo kwa pamoja.]] Kuna kadri ya 5-10% ya watu ambao hawana VVU ingawa wameambukizwa kifua kikuu na wanapatwa na madhara katika maisha yao.<ref name=Pet2005>{{Rejea kitabu|author=edited by Peter G. Gibson ; section editors, Michael Abramson ... ''et al.''|title=Evidence-based respiratory medicine|year=2005|publisher=Blackwell|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-7279-1605-1|pages=321|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=sDIKJ1s9wEQC&pg=PA321|edition=1. publ.}}</ref> Kwa upande mwingine, 30% ya watu ambao wameambukizwa VVU pamoja na kifua kikuu, huwa wanapatwa na madhara ya ugonjwa huo<ref name= Pet2005 /> Kifua kikuu kinaweza kuambukiza sehemu yoyote ya mwili, lakini kwa kawaida hutokea katika mapafu (na inajulikana kama kifua kikuu cha mapafu).<ref. name= ID10 /> TB Extrapulmonary ni kifua kikuu kinachotokea sehemu yoyote ya mwili yaani nje ya mapafu. Hicho kinaweza pia kuwepo pamoja na kifua kikuu cha mapafu <ref. Name= ID10 /> Ishara na dalili ni pamoja na [[homa]], [[baridi]], [[kutokwa na jasho usiku]], [[kupoteza hamu ya kula]], [[kukonda]], na [[uchovu (matibabu)|uchovu]].<ref Name= ID10 /> Kuna uwezekano mkubwa wa [[kujikunja kwa kucha pembeni]].<ref. Name= Pet2005 /> === Mapafu === Kifua kikuu kikiambukiza kinaathiri mapafu kwa 90% ya wagonjwa <ref name= Lancet11/> <ref>{{cite book|last=Behera|first=D.|title=Textbook of pulmonary medicine|year=2010|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Pub.|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-8448-749-7|pages=457|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=0TbJjd9eTp0C&pg=PA457|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Dalili zake huweza kuwa [[maumivu ya kifua]] na kikohozi cha muda mrefu chenye makohozi.<ref Name=Lancet11/> Kadri ya 25% ya watu hawana dalili yoyote (yaani, wao hawaonyeshi "dalili") <ref name= Lancet11/> Wakati mwingine, wagonjwa. [[Hemoptysis|wanakohoa damu]] kwa kiasi kidogo. Wakati mwingine, ugonjwa unaweza kusababisha [[mshipa wa mapafu]] imomonyoke, na kusababisha damu nyingi kuvuja hali hii inaitwa [[Rasmussen's aneurysm]].<ref name=ID10/> Kifua kikuu kinaweza kusababishwa na vimelea sugu na kusababisha makovu katika masikio ya juu ya mapafu.<ref Name=ID10/>. Mara nyingi ni mapafu ya juu yanayoathirika <ref name=ID10/> Sababu haijulikani vizuri <ref name=" Robbins "/> Labda mapafu ya juu yanaathirika zaidi kwa sababu yanapata hewa kwa njia bora <ref name=" Robbins "/> au kwa sababu ya ukaushaji mbaya wa [[limfu]].<ref Name= ID10 /> === Kifua kikuu katika sehemu nyingine ya mwili === Kadri ya 15-20% ya madhara yanayoletwa na ugonjwa yanaletwa na maambukizi yanayoenea nje ya viungo vya kupumua, na husababisha aina nyingine ya kifua kikuu.<ref>{{cite book|author=editor-in-chief SK Jindal|title=Textbook of pulmonary and critical care medicine|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-93-5025-073-0|pages=549|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EvGTw3wn-zEC&pg=PA549}}</ref> Kifua kikuu kinachotokea nje ya viungo vya kupumua kinaitwa "extrapulmonary tuberculosis".<ref name=Extra2005>{{cite journal|pmid=16300038|year=2005|author=Golden MP, Vikram HR|title=Extrapulmonary tuberculosis: an overview|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2005-11-01_72_9/page/n136|volume=72|issue=9|pages=1761–8|journal=American family physician}}</ref> Extrapulmonary TB hutokea zaidi kwa [[wagonjwa]] wenye upungufu wa kingamwili na watoto wadogo. ExtrapulmonaryTB hutokea kwa zaidi ya 50% ya wagonjwa wenye VVU <ref name=Extra2005/> Sehemu zinazoathiriwa na extrapulmonary TB ni pamoja na sehemu za nje ya mapafu [[pleura]] (au pleurisy tuberculous), [[mfumo wa neva]] (au kifua kikuu cha [[uti wa mgongo]]), na [[mfumo wa limfu]] (katika [[scrofula]] ya shingo).Extrapulmonary TB pia hutokea katika [mfumo wa [mkojo na sehemu za siri]] (au [[kifua kikuu cha sehemu za siri]]) katika mifupa na viungo (au [[Pott's disease]] wa mgongo), na maeneo mengine. Inapoenea katika mifupa, inajulikana kama "kifua kikuu cha mifupa",<ref>{{Rejea kitabu|author=[edited by] Vimlesh Seth, S.K. Kabra|title=Essentials of tuberculosis in children|year=2006|publisher=Jaypee Bros. Medical Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-8061-709-6|pages=249|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=HkH0YbyBHDQC&pg=PA249|edition=3rd ed.}}</ref> ambayo ni aina ya [[maambukizi ya mifupa au osteomyelitis]] <ref name="Robbins"/> Aina hatari zaidi ya Extrapulmonary TB inaitwa TB ya "kueneza", inajulikana kama [[kifua kikuu]] inayoenea mwilini <ref name=ID10/> Asilimia 10% ya kifua kikuu kinachotokea nje ya viungo vya kupumua, husababisha kifua kikuu inayosamba mwilini. <ref name=Gho2008/> == Visababishi == === Mycobacteria === [[Picha: Mycobacterium tuberculosis.jpg|thumb|''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'']] Kisababishi kikubwa cha kifua kikuu ni '' [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'', ni kiumbe kidogo kinachohitaji [[oksijeni]] na kisichotembea [[bacillus]]<ref name=ID10>{{cite book|author=[edited by] Gerald L. Mandell, John E. Bennett, Raphael Dolin|title=Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases|year=2010|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0-443-06839-3|pages=Chapter 250|edition=7th}}</ref> Sifa nyingi za pekee za kiumbe hiki zinaletwa na ongezeko kubwa la [[mafuta]] <ref>{{cite book |author=Southwick F |title=Infectious Diseases: A Clinical Short Course, 2nd ed. |publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division |date=10 December 2007 |pages=313–4 |chapter=Chapter 4: Pulmonary Infections |page=104 |url=http://pharma-books.blogspot.com/2009/01/infectious-disease-clinical-short.html |isbn=0-07-147722-5 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120713125232/http://pharma-books.blogspot.de/2009/01/infectious-disease-clinical-short.html |archivedate=2012-07-13 |access-date=2013-03-06 |dead-url=no }}</ref> Ina [[seli]] inayojigawa kila baada ya saa 16 hadi 20. Kiwango hiki si kikubwa ukilinganishwa na bakteria nyingine, ambazo kwa kawaida vinajigawa kwa muda usiopungua saa mmoja <ref>{{cite book|last=Jindal|first=editor-in-chief SK|title=Textbook of pulmonary and critical care medicine|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-93-5025-073-0|pages=525|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=rAT1bdnDakAC&pg=PA525}}</ref> Mycobacteria wana [[muundo wa seli ya bakteria|utando wa nje]] utando wa mafuta <ref name=Niederweis2010>{{cite journal |author=Niederweis M, Danilchanka O, Huff J, Hoffmann C, Engelhardt H |title=Mycobacterial outer membranes: in search of proteins |journal=Trends in Microbiology |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=109–16 |year=2010 |month=March |pmid=20060722 |pmc=2931330|doi=10.1016/j.tim.2009.12.005}}</ref> Kama jaribio la [[Gramu stain]] likifanywa, MTB haikolei sana rangi yaani "Gram-positive" haipatikani na rangi haionekani kwa sababu utando wake una mafuta mengi [[mafuta]] pamoja na asidi [[Mycolic acid]].<ref name=Madison_2001>{{cite journal |author=Madison B |title=Application of stains in clinical microbiology |journal=Biotech Histochem |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=119–25 |year=2001 |pmid=11475314 |doi=10.1080/714028138}}</ref> MTB inaweza kuhimili kemikali [[dhaifu]] na hivi vimelea vinaweza kuishi katika [[kijimbegu au|sehemu kavu]] kwa wiki moja. Kwa kawaida, bakteria zinaweza kukua na kuishi tu ndani ya seli ya [[kiumbe (biolojia)|kiumbe]] viumbe, lakini'' M. tuberculosis' inaweza kukuzwa [[ndani in vitro|ya maabara]].<ref name=Parish_1999>{{cite journal |author=Parish T, Stoker N |title=Mycobacteria: bugs and bugbears (two steps forward and one step back) |journal=Molecular Biotechnology |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=191–200 |year=1999| pmid=10934532 |doi = 10.1385/MB:13:3:191}}</ref> Kwa kutumia vipimo vya kimaabara vya kansa [[Histology|histological]] kwa kuweka madoa juu ya sampuli ya [[mate]] yaliyotoka kwenye [[makohozi]], wanasayansi wanaweza kutambua MTB chini ya makroskopi (nyepesi) ya kawaida. (Phlegm pia inaitwa "kohozi.") MTB huacha madoa hata baada ya kuchanganywa na asidi, na hivyo hujulikana kama [[Acid-fast bacillus]] (AFB)<ref name= Robbins/><ref name="Madison_2001"/> acid-fast bacillus. Kuna njia mbili zinazotumia vipimo vya asidi:. Kipimo kinachojulikana kama [[Ziehl - Neelsen stain]], kinageuza rangi ya vimelea AFB na kuwa vyekundu na vinaonekana wazi wazi dhidi ya sehemu ya bluu,<ref name=Stain2000>{{cite book |author= |title=Medical Laboratory Science: Theory and Practice|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill |location=New Delhi |year=2000 |pages=473 |isbn=0-07-463223-X|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=lciNs3VQPLoC&pg=PA473}}</ref> na [[auramine-rhodamine stain]] ambayo hufuatiwa na makroskopi yenye kuakisi mwanga.<ref>{{cite book|last=Piot|first=editors, Richard D. Semba, Martin W. Bloem; foreword by Peter|title=Nutrition and health in developing countries|year=2008|publisher=Humana Press|location=Totowa, NJ|isbn=978-1-934115-24-4|pages=291|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=RhH6uSQy7a4C&pg=PA291|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Mchangamano wa “M. tuberculosis'' (MTBC) ni pamoja na bakteria nyingine nne zinazosababisha kifua kikuu {[[mycobacterium|mycobacteria]]: “[[Mycobacterium bovis|M. bovis]],” “[[Mycobacterium africanum|M. africanum]],” “[[Mycobacterium canetti|M. canetti]],” pamoja na “[[Mycobacterium microti|M. microti]].”<ref>{{cite journal|author=van Soolingen D |title=A novel pathogenic taxon of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, Canetti: characterization of an exceptional isolate from Africa |journal=International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=1236–45 |year=1997 |pmid=9336935|doi=10.1099/00207713-47-4-1236 |author-separator=, |display-authors=1 |last2=Hoogenboezem |first2=T. |last3=De Haas|first3=P. E. W. |last4=Hermans |first4=P. W. M. |last5=Koedam |first5=M. A. |last6=Teppema |first6=K. S. |last7=Brennan|first7=P. J. |last8=Besra |first8=G. S. |last9=Portaels |first9=F.}}</ref> “M. africanum” haijasambaa sana, lakini ndio kisababishi kikubwa cha kifua kikuu katika maeneo ya Afrika <ref>{{cite journal |author=Niemann S |title=Mycobacterium africanum Subtype II Is Associated with Two Distinct Genotypes and Is a Major Cause of Human Tuberculosis in Kampala, Uganda|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-microbiology_2002-09_40_9/page/3398 |journal=J. Clin. Microbiol. |volume=40 |issue=9 |pages=3398–405 |year=2002 |pmid=12202584 |pmc=130701|doi=10.1128/JCM.40.9.3398-3405.2002 |author-separator=, |display-authors=1 |last2=Rusch-Gerdes |first2=S. |last3=Joloba|first3=M. L. |last4=Whalen |first4=C. C. |last5=Guwatudde |first5=D. |last6=Ellner |first6=J. J. |last7=Eisenach|first7=K. |last8=Fumokong |first8=N. |last9=Johnson |first9=J. L.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Niobe-Eyangoh SN|title=Genetic Biodiversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex Strains from Patients with Pulmonary Tuberculosis in Cameroon |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-microbiology_2003-06_41_6/page/2547|journal=J. Clin. Microbiol. |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=2547–53 |year=2003 |pmid=12791879 |pmc=156567|doi=10.1128/JCM.41.6.2547-2553.2003 |author-separator=, |display-authors=1 |last2=Kuaban |first2=C. |last3=Sorlin|first3=P. |last4=Cunin |first4=P. |last5=Thonnon |first5=J. |last6=Sola |first6=C. |last7=Rastogi |first7=N.|last8=Vincent |first8=V. |last9=Gutierrez |first9=M. C.}}</ref> “M. bovis” ndio ilikuwa ni kisababishi kikubwa cha kifua kikuu, lakini baada ya kuanza kutumia [[pasteurisation|maziwa yanayopashwa moto]] vimelea vya mycobacterium vimeweza kuondolewa na kupuguza matatizo ya kiafya katika nchi zinazoendelea.<ref name=Robbins/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Thoen C, Lobue P, de Kantor I |title=The importance of''Mycobacterium bovis'' as a zoonosis |journal=Vet. Microbiol.</ref> "M. Canetti " ni adimu sana na huonekana zaidi [[Eneo la Pembezoni mwa Afrika]], ingawa kuna wagonjwa wachache kati ya wahamiaji wanaotoka Afrika. <ref>{{cite book|last=Acton|first=Q. Ashton|title=Mycobacterium Infections: New Insights for the Healthcare Professional|year=2011|publisher=ScholarlyEditions|isbn=978-1-4649-0122-5|pages=1968|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=g2iFfV6uEuAC&pg=PA1968}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Pfyffer|first=GE|coauthors=Auckenthaler, R, van Embden, JD, van Soolingen, D|title=Mycobacterium canettii, the smooth variant of M. tuberculosis, isolated from a Swiss patient exposed in Africa.|journal=Emerging infectious diseases|date=1998 Oct-Dec|volume=4|issue=4|pages=631-4|pmid=9866740}}</ref> "M. microti" pia ni adimu na inawaathiri zaidi watu wenye upungufu wa kingamwili, ingawa ugonjwa huu unaweza kuwa umeenea zaidi kuliko inavyofikiriwa<ref>{{cite journal|last=Panteix|first=G|coauthors=Gutierrez, MC, Boschiroli, ML, Rouviere, M, Plaidy, A, Pressac, D, Porcheret, H, Chyderiotis, G, Ponsada, M, Van Oortegem, K, Salloum, S, Cabuzel, S, Bañuls, AL, Van de Perre, P, Godreuil, S|title=Pulmonary tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium microti: a study of six recent cases in France.|journal=Journal of medical microbiology|date=2010 Aug|volume=59|issue=Pt 8|pages=984-9|pmid=20488936}}</ref> Mycobacteria zingine zinazojulikana ni pamoja na "[[Mycobacterium leprae|M. leprae]]," "[[Mycobacterium avium complex|M. avium]]," na "[[Mycobacterium kansasii|M. kansasii]]". Hizi aina mbili za mwisho zinajulikana kama "[[nontuberculous mycobacteria]] "(NTM). NTM hazisababishi kifua kikuu au [[ukoma]], lakini husababisha magonjwa ya mapafu yanayofanana na kifua kikuu <ref name=ALA_1997>{{cite journal |title=Diagnosis and treatment of disease caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria. This official statement of the American Thoracic Society was approved by the Board of Directors, March 1997. Medical Section of the American Lung Association |journal=Am J Respir Crit Care Med |volume=156 |issue=2 Pt 2 |pages=S1–25 |year=1997 |pmid = 9279284 |author=American Thoracic Society }}</ref> == Sababu za hatari == Idadi ya sababu za kufanya watu wahusike zaidi na maambukizi ya TB. Muhimu zaidi ni hatari ya kimataifa [[Virusi ya Ukimwi]] ; 13% ya kesi zote TB wameambukizwa na virusi.<ref name=WHO2011/> Hili ni tatizo hasa katika [[Afrika kusini mwa Sahara]] , ambapo viwango vya HIV ni kubwa.<ref>{{cite web author=WorldHealthOrganization|url=http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en/index.html|title=Global tuberculosis control–surveillance, planning, financing WHO Report 2006|accessdate=13 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Chaisson|first=RE|coauthors=Martinson, NA|title=Tuberculosis in Africa--combating an HIV-driven crisis|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=13 March 2008|volume=358|issue=11|pages=1089 92|pmid=18337598|doi=10.1056/NEJMp0800809}}</ref> Kifua Kikuu ni uhusiano wa karibu na wote msongamano na utapiamlo, na kuifanya moja ya magonjwa makuu ya [[umaskini]]. Wale walio katika hatari ya juu hivyo ni pamoja [[ugonjwa ya umaskini]].<ref name=Lancet11/> watu ambao hujidunga dawa za kulevya, wenyeji na wafanyakazi wa majengo ambapo watu wanaoishi katika mazingira magumu kukusanya (k.m. [[gereza|magereza]] na malazi makazi), jamii wasiojiweza kimatibabu na wasio na mtaji, ya hatari kwa makabila madogo, watoto katika mawasiliano ya karibu na hatari ya hali ya juu kwa jamii ya wagonjwa na watoa huduma ya afya ya kuwahudumia wateja.<ref name=Griffith_1996>{{citejournal |author=Griffith D, Kerr C|title=Tuberculosis: disease of the past, disease of the present |journal=J Perianesth Nurs |volume=11 |issue=4|pages=240–5 |year=1996|pmid = 8964016|doi = 10.1016/S1089-9472(96)80023-2}}</ref> uvimbe sugu ni sababu nyingine hatari ya ugonjwa. Kwa [[Silicosis]] kuongeza hatari kuhusu mara 30. <ref name=table3>{{cite journal |title=Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. American Thoracic Society |journal=MMWR Recomm Rep |volume=49 |issue=RR6|pages=151|year=200|month=June|pmid=10881762|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr4906a1.htm#tab3|author1=ATS/CDC Statement Committee on Latent Tuberculosis Infection}}</ref> Wale ambao moshi [[sigara]]s kuwa karibu mara mbili ya hatari ya TB ya wasiovuta sigara.<ref>{{cite journal|last=van Zyl Smit|first=RN|coauthors=Pai, M, Yew, WW, Leung, CC, Zumla, A, Bateman, ED, Dheda, K|title=Global lung health: the colliding epidemics of tuberculosis, tobacco smoking, HIV and COPD.|journal=The European respiratory journal : official journal of the European Society for Clinical Respiratory Physiology|date=2010 Jan|volume=35|issue=1|pages=27-33|pmid=20044459|quote=These analyses indicate that smokers are almost twice as likely to be infected with TB and to progress to active disease (RR of ∼1.5 for latent TB infection (LTBI) and RR of ∼2.0 for TB disease). Smokers are also twice as likely to die from TB (RR of ∼2.0 for TB mortality), but data are difficult to interpret because of heterogeneity in the results across studies.}}</ref> Baadhi ya dawa hasa yanaweza pia kuongeza hatari ya kifua kikuu katika mataifa yaliyostawi, [[ulevi]] <ref name=Lancet11/> na [[Ugonjwa wa kisukari]] (kuongezeka maratatu ).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Restrepo|first=BI|title=Convergence of the tuberculosis and diabetes epidemics: renewal of old acquaintances journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=15 August 2007|volume=45|issue=4|pages=436–8|pmid=17638190|doi=10.1086/519939|pmc=2900315}}</ref> Baadhi ya dawa, kama vile [[corticosteroids]] na [[infliximab]] (an anti-αTNF monoclonal antibody) kuwa inazidi muhimu hatari, hasa katika [[nchi zilizoendelea]].<ref name=Lancet11/> Kuna pia, [[upungufu maumbile]] <ref>{{cite journal|last=Möller|first=M|coauthors=Hoal, EG|title=Current findings, challenges and novel approaches in human genetic susceptibility to tuberculosis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_tuberculosis_2010-03_90_2/page/71|journal=Tuberculosis (Edinburgh, Scotland)|date=2010 Mar|volume=90|issue=2|pages=71–83|pmid=20206579|doi=10.1016/j.tube.2010.02.002}}</ref> kwa umuhimu ambayo kwa ujumla ni bado siowekwa wazi .<ref name=Lancet11/> == Mkakati == [[Picha:TB poster.jpg|thumb|Public health campaigns in the 1920s tried to halt the spread of TB.]] === Uenezi === Wakati watu walio na TB hukohoa mapafu, hupiga chafya, kuzungumza, kuimba, au kutema mate, wao hutoa viambukizi [[pekee|erosoli]] matone 0.5 na 5 [[µm]] katika [[kipenyo]]. kuchafya moja inaweza kutoa juu ya matone 40,000.<ref name=Cole_1998>{{cite journal author=Cole E, Cook C |title= Characterization of infectious aerosols in health care facilities: an aid to effective engineering controls and preventive strategies |journal=Am J Infect Control |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=453–64 |year=1998|pmid=9721404|doi = 10.1016/S0196-6553(98)70046-X}}</ref> Kila moja ya matone haya wanaweza kuambukiza ugonjwa huo, tangu dozi ya kuambukiza ugonjwa wa kifua kikuu ni ya chini sana.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nicas M, Nazaroff WW, Hubbard A |title=Toward understanding the risk of secondary airborne infection: emission of respirable pathogens |journal=J Occup Environ Hyg |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=143–54 |year=2005|pmid=15764538|doi = 10.1080/15459620590918466}}</ref> Watu wenye TB kwa muda mrefu akiwa, mara kwa mara, au karibu na watu na TB ni hatari hasa juu ya kuambukizwa, na kiwango cha wastani 22% ya kuambukiza.<ref name=Ahmed_2011>{{cite journal |author=Ahmed N, Hasnain S |title=Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis in India: Moving forward with a systems biology approach |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_tuberculosis_2011-09_91_5/page/407 |journal=Tuberculosis |volume=91|issue=5 |pages=407–3 |year=2011|pmid = 21514230|doi = 10.1016/j.tube.2011.03.006}}</ref> Mtu aliye na kifua kikuu hai, lakini hajatibiwa anaweza kuambukiza 10-15 (au zaidi) watu wengine kwa mwaka.<ref name="WHO2012data"/> Maambukizi lazima huwepo tu kutoka kwa watu wenye TB hai. Wale wenye maambukizi ya fiche hawadhaniwi kuambukiza. <ref name=Robbins/> uwezekano wa maambukizi kutoka kwa mtu mmoja hadi mwingine inategemea sababu kadhaa, ikiwa ni pamoja na idadi ya matone ya kuambukiza kufukuzwa na mwenezaji, ufanisi wa uingizaji hewa, muda wa mfiduo, [[ukali]] wa ''M. kifua kikuu'', kiwango cha kinga katika mtu ambaye hajaambukizwa na wengine.<ref name=CDCcourse>{{cite web|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC), Division of Tuberculosis Elimination|url=http://www.cdc.gov/tb/education/corecurr/pdf/corecurr_all.pdf|title=Core Curriculum on Tuberculosis: What the Clinician Should Know|pg=24|edition=5th|year=2011}}</ref> ili kupunguza maenezi ya mtu-kwa-mtu tenga watu wenye TB hai ("ya wazi") na kuweka kwenye regimenti dawa za kupambana na TB. Baada ya wiki mbili ya matibabu ya ufanisi, masomo na maambukizi [[kiuavijasumu cha upinzani|kutokana-upinzani]] maambukizi kwa ujumla hayazidi kuenea kwa wengine.<ref name="Ahmed_2011"/ mtu akiambukizwa yeye huchukua wiki 3 – 4 kabla ya kuanza kuambukiza wengine .<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/tuberculosis/DS00372/DSECTION=3|title=Causes of Tuberculosis|accessdate=19 October 2007|date=21 December 2006|publisher=[[Mayo Clinic]]}}</ref> === Pathojenesisi === Takribani 90% ya watu walioambukizwa ‘‘M. kifua kikuu'' na [[Dalili]], maambukizi ya TB (wakati mwingine huitwa LTBI). <ref name=Book90>{{cite book|last=Skolnik|first=Richard|title=Global health 101|year=2011|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning location=Burlington, MA|isbn=978-0-7637-9751-5|pages=253|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=sBQRpj4uWmYC&pg=PA253|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> na tu 10% maisha nafasi ya kuwa maambukizi fiche itakuwa maendeleo ya ugonjwa ya wazi, kazi ya kifua kikuu. <ref name=Arch2009> {{cite book|last=editors|first=Arch G. Mainous III, Claire Pomeroy,|title=Management of antimicrobials in infectious diseases : impact of antibiotic resistance. year=2009|publisher=Humana location=Totowa, N.J.|isbn=978-1-60327-238-4|pages=74|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=hwVFAPLYznsC&pg=PA74|edition=2nd rev. ed.}}</ref> Katika wale wanaoishi na H.I.V, hatari ya kupatwa na TB hai inaongezeka hadi 10% karibu mwaka. <ref name=Arch2009/> Kama matibabu ya ufanisi hawakujaliwa, kiwango cha kifo kwa kesi kazi TB ni hadi 66%. <ref name=WHO2012data/> TB maambukizi huanza wakati mycobacteria [[Pulmonary alveolus pulmonary alveoli]], ambapo wao kuvamia na kuiga ndani [[endosomes]] ya alveolar [[macrophages]] tundu la mapafu.<ref name=Robbins/><ref name=Houben>{{cite journal |author=Houben E, Nguyen L, Pieters J | title=Interaction of pathogenic mycobacteria with the host immune system |journal=Curr Opin Microbiol | volume=9 | issue=1 | pages=76–85 | year=2006 | pmid=16406837 | doi=10.1016/j.mib.2005.12.014}}</ref> tovuti ya msingi ya maambukizi katika mapafu, unaojulikana kama "[[Lengo Ghon focus]]", ni kwa ujumla iko katika sehemu ama juu ya tundu ya chini, au sehemu ya chini ya [[pafu|tundu juu]].<ref name=Robbins/> Kifua kikuu cha mapafu pia huweza kutokea kupitia maambukizi kutoka mkondo wa damu, Hii inajulikana kama [[lengo Simon]]. A Simon focus na ni kawaida kupatikana katika kilele cha mapafu.<ref>{{cite book|last=Khan|title=Essence Of Paediatrics|year=2011|publisher=Elsevier India|isbn=978813122803|pages=401|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=gERCc6KTxwoC&pg=PA401}}</ref> maambukizi haya ya hematogenous yanaweza pia kusambaza maambukizi kwa maeneo ya mbali zaidi, kama vile nodiya limfu ya pembeni, mafigo, ubongo na mifupa.<ref name=Robbins/><ref name=Herrmann_2005>{{cite journal |author=Herrmann J, Lagrange P |title=Dendritic cells and ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'': which is the Trojan horse? |journal=Pathol Biol (Paris) |volume=53 |issue=1|pages=35–40 |year=2005|pmid = 15620608 |doi=10.1016/j.patbio.2004.01.004}}</ref> Maeneo yote ya mwili yanaweza kuathirika kwa ugonjwa huo, ingawa kwa sababu isiyojulikana ni mara chache tu huathiri [[moyo]], [[skeletal misuli]]s, [[kongosho]] , au [[tezi]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Agarwal R, Malhotra P, Awasthi A, Kakkar N, Gupta D |pmc=1090580 |title=Tuberculous dilated cardiomyopathy: an under-recognized entity? |journal=BMCInfectDis |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=29 |year=2005|pmid=15857515 |doi=10.1186/1471-2334-5-29}}</ref> Kifua Kikuu huainishwa kama moja ya magonjwa [[granuloma]] ya inflamesheni tatizi. [[Macrophage]]s, [[T cell|T lymphocytes]], [[B cell|B lymphocytes]], na [[fibroblast]]s ni miongoni mwa seli zinazoungana kuunda limfu [[granuloma]]s. [[Lymphocytes]] na lymphocytes jirani macrophages kwa walioambukizwa. Granuloma huzuia usambazaji wa mycobacteria na hutoa mazingira ya mahali hapo kwa ajili ya mwingiliano wa seli ya mfumo wa kinga. Bakteria ndani ya granuloma inawezalala, kusababisha maambukizi ya fiche. Kipengele kingine cha granulomas ni maendeleo ya kifo isiyo ya kawaida katikati ([[necrosis]]) katika kituo cha [[Tubercle (anatomia)|tubercles]]. Kwa jicho uchi, hii ina umbo la jibini laini, nyeupe na inaitwa [[caseous]] [[necrosis]]. <ref name=Grosset> {{cite journal |author=Grosset J |title=Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the Extracellular Compartment: an Underestimated Adversary |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_antimicrobial-agents-and-chemotherapy_2003-03_47_3/page/833 |journal=Antimicrob Agents Chemother |volume=47|issue=3 |pages=833–6 |year=2003|pmid = 12604509|doi = 10.1128/AAC.47.3.833-836.2003 |pmc=149338}} </ref> Bakteria ya TB inaweza kuingia kwenye mfumo wa damu kutokana na eneo la tishu kuharibiwa. Zinaweza kuenea kwa mwili na kuanzisha maenezi ya ukimwi, tubercles zote huonekana vidogo, nyeupe katika tishu. <ref>{{cite book|last=Crowley|first=Leonard V.|title=An introduction to human disease : pathology and pathophysiology correlations|year=2010|publisher=Jones and Bartlett|location=Sudbury, Mass.|isbn=978-0-7637-6591-0|pages=374|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=TEiuWP4z_QIC&pg=PA374|edition=8th ed.}}</ref>Aian hii kali ya ugonjwa wa TB hupatika kawaida zaidi kwa watoto wachanga na wale wanaoishi na VVU, inaitwa [[kifua kikuu military]] .<ref>{{cite book|last=Anthony|first=Harries|title=TB/HIV a Clinical Manual.|year=2005|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=978-924154638|pages=75|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=8dfhwKaCSxkC&pg=PA75|edition=2nd }}</ref> Watu wenye TB hii huwa na kiwango cha juu cha vifo hata kwa matibabu (takriban 30%).<ref name=Gho2008>{{cite book|last=Ghosh|first=editors-in-chief, Thomas M. Habermann, Amit K.|title=Mayo Clinic internal medicine : concise textbook|year=2008|publisher=Mayo Clinic Scientific Press|location=Rochester,MN|isbn=9781420067491|pages=789|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=YJtodBwNxokC&pg=PA789}}</ref><ref>{{citejournal|last=Jacob|first=JT|coauthors=Mehta, AK, Leonard, MK|title=Acute forms of tuberculosis in adults.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-medicine_2009-01_122_1/page/12|journal=The American journal of medicine|date=2009 Jan|volume=122|issue=1|pages=12-7|pmid=19114163}}</ref> Kwa watu wengi, maambukizi ya nta na hafifu. Uharibifu wa tishu na nekrisisi mara nyingi husawazishwa na [[adilifu]]. <ref name=Grosset/> Tishu zilizoathirika hubadilishwa kuwa kovu na matundu huujazwa kwa kisiesheni ya nekritiki. Wakati wa kuugua, baadhi ya mashimo hayo huungana na mapito ya hewa [[bronchi]] na nyenzo hii inaweza kutoka kwa kikohozi. Ni aina ya bakteria hai, na hivyo inaweza kueneza maambukizi. Tiba sahihi [[kiviujasumu]] inaua bakteria na inaruhusu uponyaji. Juu ya tiba, maeneo yaliyoathirika hatimaye kubadilishwa na tishu kovu. <ref name=Grosset/> == Uaguzi == [[Picha:TB in sputum.png|thumb|'' [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' ([[Ziehl-Neelsen stain|stained red]]) in [[sputum]]]] === Kifua Kikuu hai === Ni vigumu kuagua kifua kikuu kwa misingi ya ishara na dalili tu<ref name=DiagP2011>{{cite journal|last=Bento|first=J|coauthors=Silva, AS, Rodrigues, F, Duarte, R|title=[Diagnostic tools in tuberculosis].|journal=Acta medica portuguesa|date=2011 Jan-Feb|volume=24|issue=1|pages=145–54|pmid=21672452}}</ref>Ni vigumu pai kuagua ugonjwa huo kwa watu wenye shida ya kinga.<ref name=Clinic2009>{{cite journal|last=Escalante first=P|title=In the clinic. Tuberculosis. journal=Annals of internal medicine|date=2009 Jun 2|volume=150|issue=11|pages=ITC61-614; quiz ITV616|pmid=19487708}}</ref> hata hivyo watu wenye dalili za magonjwa ya mapafu [[walio na dalili]] au dalili za kudumu muda mrefu zaidi ya wiki mbili wanaweza kuwa na TB.<ref name=Clinic2009/> [[kifua X-ray]] na nyingi [[sputum utamadumi]] kwa [[bacilli asidi haraka]] ni kawaida sehemu ya tathmini ya awali.<ref name=Clinic2009/> Interferon-γ kutolewa assays na vipimo vya tuberculin ya ngozi hazisaidii katika nchi zinazoendelea.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Metcalfe first=JZ|coauthors=Everett, CK, Steinhart, KR, Cattamanchi, A, Huang, L, Hopewell, PC, Pai, M|title=Interferon-γ release assays for active pulmonary tuberculosis diagnosis in adults in low- and middle-income countries: systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=The Journal of infectious diseases|date=2011 Nov 15|volume=204 Suppl4|pages=S11209|pmid=21996694}}</ref><ref>{{citejournal|last=Sester|first=M|coauthors=Sotgiu, G, Lange, C, Giehl, C, Girardi, E, Migliori, GB, Bossink, A, Dheda, K, Diel, R, Dominguez, J, Lipman, M, Nemeth, J, Ravn, P, Winkler, S, Huitric, E, Sandgren, A, Manissero, D|title=Interferon-γ release assays for the diagnosis of active tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=The European respiratory journal : official journal of the European Society for Clinical Respiratory Physiology|date=2011 Jan|volume=37|issue=1|pages=100-11|pmid=20847080}}</ref>IGRAs mapungufu sawa katika wale wanaoishi na VVU.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chen|first=J|coauthors=Zhang, R, Wang, J, Liu, L, Zheng, Y, Shen, Y, Qi, T, Lu, H|title=Interferon-gamma release assays for the diagnosis of active tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=PloS one|date=2011|volume=6|issue=11|pages=e26827|pmid=22069472}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sester|first=M|coauthors=Sotgiu, G, Lange, C, Giehl, C, Girardi, E, Migliori, GB, Bossink, A, Dheda, K, Diel, R, Dominguez, J, Lipman, M, Nemeth, J, Ravn, P, Winkler, S, Huitric, E, Sandgren, A, Manissero, D|title=Interferon-γ release assays for the diagnosis of active tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=The European respiratory journal : official journal of the European Society for Clinical Respiratory Physiology|date=2011 Jan|volume=37|issue=1|pages=100-11|pmid=20847080}}</ref> Utambuzi yakinifu wa TB ni yaliyotolewa na kutambua “M. kifua KiKuu” katika sampuli ya kliniki (kwa mfano [[makohozi]], [[pus]], au [[tishu]] [[biopsy]]). Hata hivyo, ni vigumu kwa utamaduni mchakato huu viumbe polepole-kukua wanaweza kuchukua 2-6 wiki kwa ajili ya damu au utamaduni makohozi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Diseases|first=Special Programme for Research & Training in Tropical|title=Diagnostics for tuberculosis : global demand and market potential.|year=2006|publisher=World Health Organization on behalf of the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases|location=Geneva|isbn=978-9241563307|pages=36|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=CFPpcCef4yQC&pg=PA36}}</ref> Hivyo, matibabu ni mara nyingi imeanza kabla ya tamaduni ni alithibitisha.<ref name=NICE2011/> [[Nucleic asidi amplification mithani]] na kupita [[Triphosphate deaminase]] huweza kuruhusu uchunguzi wa haraka wa TB.<ref name=DiagP2011/> Vipimo hivi, hata hivyo, si mara kwa mara ilipendekeza, kama wao mara chache kubadilisha jinsi mtu ni kutibiwa.<ref name=NICE2011/> Vipimo vya damu ili kuchunguza kingamwili si maalum au nyeti, hivyo haipendekezwi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Steingart|first=KR|coauthors=Flores, LL, Dendukuri, N, Schiller, I, Laal, S, Ramsay, A, Hopewell, PC, Pai, M|title=Commercial serological tests for the diagnosis of active pulmonary and extrapulmonary tuberculosis: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=PLoS medicine|date=2011 Aug|volume=8|issue=8|pages=e1001062|pmid=21857806|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001062|pmc=3153457}}</ref> == Kifua kikuu kisichoonekana == [[Mantoux mithani |Mantoux tuberculin ngozi mithani mara nyingi hutumika kwa watu screen katika hatari kubwa ya TB.<ref name=Clinic2009/> Wale ambao wamekuwa awali chanjo wanaweza kuwa na uongo chanya mtihani matokeo.<ref name=Rothel_2005>{{cite journal author=Rothel J, Andersen P |title=Diagnosis of latent ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' infection: is the demise of the Mantoux test imminent?|journal=Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=981–93 |year=2005|pmid = 16307510|doi = 10.1586/14787210.3.6.981}}</ref>mtihani inaweza kuwa uongo hasi katika wale walio na [[sarcoidosis]], [[Hodgkin's lymphoma]], na [[utapiamlo]]. au wengi hasa, katika wale ambao kweli kufanya wana kifua kikuu hai.<ref name=Robbins/> [[Interferon assays katika vivuli mbalimbali ya njano lioenea, kuashiria juu ya watu 300 kwa kila 100,000, na kwa Marekani, Canada, Australia, na Ulaya ya kaskazini katika vivuli ya bluu kirefu, kuashiria kiwango cha maambukizi karibu 10 kwa kila watu 100,000. Asia ni njano lakini si hivyo kabisa mkali, kuashiria kiwango cha maambukizi ya kuzunguka 200 per mbalimbali 100,000. Amerika ya Kusini ni ya njano nyeusi. Mwaka 2007, kiwango cha maambukizi ya TB kwa watu 100,000 ilikuwa ya juu katika Afrika Kusini mwa Sahara, na pia alikuwa kiasi katika Asia.<ref>{{cite book|title=Global tuberculosis control: epidemiology, strategy, financing|author=World Health Organization|year=2009|isbn=978-92-4-156380-2|chapter=The Stop TB Strategy, case reports, treatment outcomes and estimates of TB burden|chapterurl=http://who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2009/annex_3/en/index.html|accessdate=14 November 2009|pages=187–300|archive-date=2009-11-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091119022738/http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2009/annex_3/en/index.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> [[kutolewa gamma]] (IGRAs) juu ya sampuli ya damu, ni ilipendekeza kwa wale ambao ni chanya kwa mtihani Mantoux.<refname=NICE2011>{{NICE|117|Tuberculosis|2011}}</ref> IGRAs Haya si walioathirika na chanjo au zaidi [[mazingira mycobacteria]], hivyo wao kuzalisha wachache [[matokeo ya uongo]] na HIV. <ref>{{cite journal|author=Pai M, Zwerling A, Menzies D|title=Systematic Review: T-Cell–based Assays for the Diagnosis of Latent Tuberculosis Infection: An Update |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=149 |issue=3 |pages=1–9 |year=2008 |pmid=18593687 |pmc=2951987}} </ref> hivyo wao kuzalisha wachache matokeo ya uongo na HIV. Hata hivyo wao walioathirika na M. szulgai, M. marinum na M. kansasii.”<ref>{{cite book|last=Jindal|first=editor-in-chief SK|title=Textbook of pulmonary and critical care medicine|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-93-5025-073-0|pages=544|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=rAT1bdnDakAC&pg=PA544}}</ref> IGRAs inaweza kuongeza usikivu wakati kutumika kwa kuongeza mtihani ngozi lakini inaweza kuwa chini zaidi kuliko mtihani nyeti ngozi wakati kutumika peke yake.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Amicosante|first=M|coauthors=Ciccozzi, M, Markova, R|title=Rational use of immunodiagnostic tools for tuberculosis infection: guidelines and cost effectiveness studies.|journal=The new microbiologica|date=2010Apr|volume=33|issue=2|pages=93107|pmid=205181}}</ref>. === Kuzuia === Kuzuia Kifua kikuu na kudhibiti juhudi kimsingi kunategemea chanjo ya watoto wachanga na kugundua matibabu sahihi ya matukio hai. <ref name=Lancet11/> [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] (WHO) imepata baadhi ya mafanikio mazoezi kuboresha tiba, na kupungua kwa idadi ndogo ya kesi. <ref name=Lancet11/> == Chanjo == [[Chanjo]] tu sasa inapatikana kama ya 2011 ni [[bacillus Calmette-Guérin|bacillus Calmette&ndash; Guérin]] (BCG). Ambayo, wakati ni ufanisi dhidi ya ugonjwa kusambazwa katika utoto, unampa ulinzi dhidi ya kuambukizwa TB haiendani mapafu. <ref>{{cite journal|last=McShane|first=H|title=Tuberculosis vaccines: beyond bacille Calmette–Guérin|journal=Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences|date=12 October 2011|volume=366|issue=1579|pages=27829|pmid=21893541|doi=10.1098/rstb.2011.0097|pmc=3146779}}</ref> Hata hivyo, ni wengi sana kutumika chanjo duniani kote, na zaidi ya 90% ya watoto wote kuwa [[chanjo]]. <ref name=Lancet11/>Hata hivyo, kinga ni kuvuta itapungua baada ya miaka kumi.<ref name=Lancet11/> Kama kifua kikuu ni kawaida katika zaidi ya Canada, Uingereza, na Marekani, BCG ni tu unasimamiwa na watu katika hatari ya juu. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/tb/topic/vaccines/|title=Vaccine and Immunizations: TB Vaccine (BCG)|publisher =Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|year=2011|accessdate=26 July 2011}}</ref><ref name=UK06>{{cite journal|last=Teo|first=SS|coauthors=Shingadia, DV|title=Does BCG have a role in tuberculosis control and prevention in the United Kingdom?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-disease-in-childhood_2006-06_91_6/page/529|journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood|date=2006 Jun|volume=91|issue=6|pages=529–31|pmid=16714729|pmc= 2082765|doi=10.1136/adc.2005.085043 }}</ref> Sehemu ya hoja akisema dhidi ya matumizi ya chanjo ni kwamba inafanya [[ngozi tuberculin mtihani]] uongo chanya, na kwa hiyo, hakuna wa matumizi katika uchunguzi.<ref name=UK06/> idadi ya chanjo mpya ni sasa katika maendeleo<ref name=Lancet11/> === Afya ya Jamii === Shirika la Afya Duniani alitangaza TB "ya afya ya kimataifa dharura" katika 1993. <ref name=Lancet11/> na katika 2006, TB Stop Ushirikiano maendeleo [[Mpango wa Kimataifa Stop kifua kikuu]] kwamba lengo la kuokoa maisha ya milioni 14 kati ya uzinduzi wake na 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stoptb.org/global/plan/|title=The Global Plan to Stop TB|publisher=[[World Health Organization]]|year=2011|accessdate=13 June 2011|archive-date=2011-06-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612030924/http://www.stoptb.org/global/plan/|url-status=dead}}</ref> idadi ya malengo ya wana kuweka si uwezekano wa kupatikana kwa 2015, hasa kutokana na ongezeko katika kifua kikuu HIV-kuhusishwa na kuibuka wa kifua kikuu sugu nyingi (MDR-TB).<ref name=Lancet11/> [[mfumo wa kifua kikuu] uainishaji maendeleo na [[Jamii ya Marekani Thoracic]] hutumiwa hasa katika mipango ya afya ya umma. .<ref>{{cite book|last=Warrell|first=ed. by D. J. Weatherall ... [4. + 5. ed.] ed. by David A.|title=Sections 1 - 10.|year=2005|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|location=Oxford[u.a.]|isbn=9780198570141|pages=560|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EhjX517cGVsC&pg=PA560|edition=4.ed.,paperback.}}</ref> == Menejimenti == Tiba ya TB anatumia [[kiuvijasumu]] na kuua vimelea. Ufanisi kutibu TB ni vigumu, kutokana na muundo wa kawaida na cha kemikali katika ukuta mycobacterial kiini, ambayo inazuia kuingia ya madawa ya kulevya na hufanya kiuvijasumu wengi ufanisi. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Brennan PJ, Nikaido H |title=The envelope of mycobacteria|journal=Annu.Rev. Biochem. |volume=64 |pages=2963 |year=1995 |pmid=7574484|doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.64.070195.000333}}</ref> kiuvijasumu mbili ya kawaida kutumika ni [[isoniazid]] na [[rifampicin]], na matibabu yanaweza ziongezwe, kuchukua miezi kadhaa. <ref name=CDCcourse/> kutibu ya sioonekana TB kawaida inaajiri antibiotic moja, <ref name=Latent2011/> wakati kazi ugonjwa wa Kifua Kikuu ni bora kutibiwa na mchanganyiko wa kiuvijasumu kadhaa ili kupunguza hatari ya bakteria kuendeleza [[upinzani antibiotiki]]. <ref name=Lancet11/>. Watu wenye maambukizi ya latent pia kutibiwa kuwazuia inaendelea kwa ugonjwa kazi TB baadaye katika maisha.<ref name=Latent2011>{{cite journal|last=Menzies|first=D|coauthors=Al Jahdali, H, Al Otaibi, B|title=Recent developments in treatment of latent tuberculosis infection.|journal=The Indian journal of medical research|date=2011 Mar|volume=133|pages=257-66|pmid=21441678}}</ref> [[Moja kwa moja aliona tiba]], yaani kuwa na huduma ya afya mtoa kuangalia mtu kuchukua dawa zao, ni ilipendekeza na WHO katika jitihada za kupunguza idadi ya watu si ipasavyo kuchukua antibiotiki.<ref>{{cite book |author=Arch G., III Mainous |title=Management of Antimicrobials in Infectious Diseases: Impact of AntibioticResistance |publisher=HumanaPr |location= |year=2010 |pages=69 |isbn=1603272380 |oclc=|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=hwVFAPLYznsC&pg=PA69}}</ref> ushahidi wa kuunga mkono kitendo hiki juu ya watu tu kutumia dawa zao kwa kujitegemea ni maskini. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Volmink J, Garner P |title=Directly observed therapy for treating tuberculosis |journal=CochraneDatabaseSystRev |volume= |issue=4 |pages=CD003343 |year=2007|pmid=17943789 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003343.pub3 |url=}}</ref> Mbinu ya kuwakumbusha watu kuhusu umuhimu wa tiba wala hata hivyo kuonekana ufanisi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Liu|first=Q|coauthors=Abba, K; Alejandria, MM; Balanag, VM; Berba, RP; Lansang, MA|title=Reminder systems and late patient tracers in the diagnosis and management of tuberculosis.|journal=Cochrane database of systematicreviews(Online)|date=2008Oct8|issue=4|pages=CD006594|pmid=18843723}}</ref> === Mwanzo mpya === Matibabu ya kifua kikuu ilipendekeza mpya-mwanzo ya mapafu, kama wa 2010, ni miezi sita ya macho ya antibiotiki zenye rifampicin, isoniazidi, pyrazinamide na ethambutol kwa miezi miwili ya kwanza, na tu rifampicin na isoniazidi [[pyrazinamide]], na [[ethambutol]]. kwa miezi minne iliyopita. <ref name=Lancet11/> Ambapo upinzani isoniazidi ni ya juu, ethambutol inaweza kuongezwa kwa miezi minne iliyopita kama mbadala.<ref name=Lancet11/> === Matumizi ya kawaida ugonjwa === Kama kifua kikuu kurudia, kupima na kuamua ambayo antibiotiki ni nyeti ni muhimu kabla ya kuamua matibabu. <ref name=Lancet11/> Kama [[nyingi TB sugu]] (MDR-TB) ni wanaona, matibabu na antibiotiki angalau nne madhubuti kwa ajili ya miezi 18 hadi 24 ni ilipendekeza. <ref name=Lancet11/> === Upinzani na dawa === Upinzani Kanuni hutokea wakati mtu huwa wameambukizwa mnachuja sugu wa TB. Mtu aliye na TB kikamilifu wanahusika inaweza kuendeleza sekondari (alipewa) upinzani wakati wa tiba kwa sababu ya tiba za kutosha, si kuchukua regimen eda ipasavyo (ukosefu wa kufuata), au kwa kutumia chini quality dawa.<ref name=OBrien>{{cite journal |author=O'Brien R |title=Drug-resistant tuberculosis: etiology, management and prevention |journal=SeminRespir Infect |volume=9 |issue=2|pages=10412 |year=1994|pmid=7973169}}</ref> Sugu TB ni mbaya ya afya ya umma suala katika nchi nyingi zinazoendelea, kama tiba yake ni tena na inahitaji dawa ghali zaidi. MDR-TB hufafanuliwa kama upinzani kwa mbili ya ufanisi zaidi madawa ya TB ya mstari wa kwanza: rifampicin na isoniazidi. . [[Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis|Sana sugu TB]] pia ni sugu kwa tatu au zaidi ya madarasa sita ya madawa ya mstari wa pili. .<ref name="MMWR2006">{{cite journal |title=Emergence of ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' with extensive resistance to second-line drugs—worldwide, 2000–2004 |journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep |volume=55 |issue=11 |pages=301–5 |year=2006|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5511a2.htm|pmid = 16557213 |author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}</ref> [[Totally drug-resistant tuberculosis|Kabisa sugu TB]], ambayo kwa mara ya kwanza aliona katika 2003 nchini Italia, lakini si sana taarifa mpaka 2012, ni sugu kwa madawa yote kwa sasa kutumika. <ref> {{cite web|title=Totally Resistant TB: Earliest Cases in Italy |url=http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/01/tdrfirstitaly/|author=Maryn McKenna date=12 January 2012|accessdate=12 January 2012|publisher=[[Wired(magazine)|Wired]]}}</ref> == Ubashiri == Mwendelezo na maambukizi ya TB na ugonjwa wazi ya TB hutokea wakati bacilli kushinda ulinzi mfumo wa kinga na kuanza kuzidisha. Katika ugonjwa wa TB ya msingi (baadhi 1-5% ya kesi), hii hutokea mara baada ya maambukizi ya awali. [219] Hata hivyo, katika matukio mengi ya, [[Latent tuberculosis|maambukizi sioonekana]] hutokea na hakuna dalili za wazi. <ref name=Robbins/> Hizi bacilli kulala kuzalisha kifua kikuu kazi katika% 5-10 ya kesi hizi sioonekana, mara nyingi miaka mingi baada ya kuambukizwa. <ref name=Pet2005/> hatari ya kuongezeka kwa muathiriko immunosuppression, kama vile kuwa husababishwa na maambukizi ya VVU. Katika watu kuambukiza pamoja na M. kifua kikuu na VVU, hatari ya muathiriko inaongezeka hadi 10% kwa mwaka. <ref name=Robbins/> Mafunzo kutumia DNA ya alama ya kidole ya M. kifua kikuu Matatizo umeonyesha kuambukiza tena inachangia zaidi kikubwa kwa TB ya kawaida zaidi kuliko ilivyodhaniwa hapo awali,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00607-8 |title=Recurrence in tuberculosis: relapse or reinfection? |year=2003 |author=Lambert M |journal=Lancet Infect Dis |volume=3 |page=282 |pmid=12726976 |issue=5|authorseparator=, |displayauthors=1 |last2=Hasker |first2=Epco |last3=Deun |first3=ArmandVan |last4=Roberfroid|first4=Dominique |last5=Boelaert |first5=Marleen |last6=Van Der Stuyft |first6=Patrick |pages=282–7}}</ref>na makadirio ili akaunti kwa zaidi ya 50% ya kesi ku hai tena katika maeneo ambapo TB ni ya kawaida.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wang|first=JY|coauthors=Lee, LN, Lai, HC, Hsu, HL, Liaw, YS, Hsueh, PR, Yang, PC|title=Prediction of the tuberculosis reinfection proportion from the local incidence|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_2007-07-15_196_2/page/281|journal=The Journal of infectious diseases|date=15 July 2007|volume=196|issue=2|pages=281–8|pmid=17570116|doi=10.1086/518898}}</ref> nafasi ya kifo kutokana na kesi ya kifua kikuu ni kuhusu 4% kama ya 2008, kutoka 8% mwaka 1995.<ref name=Lancet11/>. == Epidemolojia == [[Picha:Tuberculosis world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|[[Age adjustment|Age-standardized]] death from tuberculosis per 100,000&nbsp;inhabitants in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html |title=WHO Disease and injury country estimates |year=2004 |work=World Health Organization |accessdate=11 November 2009}}</ref> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<small>≤10</small>}} {{legend|#fff200|<small>≥10–25</small>}} {{legend|#ffdc00|<small>≥25–50</small>}} {{legend|#ffc600|<small>≥50–75</small>}} {{legend|#ffb000|<small>≥75–100</small>}} {{legend|#ff9a00|<small>≥100–250</small>}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|<small>≥250–500</small>}} {{legend|#ff6e00|<small>≥500–750</small>}} {{legend|#ff5800|<small>≥750–1000</small>}} {{legend|#ff4200|<small>≥1000–2000</small>}} {{legend|#ff2c00|<small>≥2000–3000</small>}} {{legend|#cb0000|<small>≥ 3000</small>}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Takribani theluthi moja ya idadi ya watu duniani imekuwa kuambukizwa na M. kifua kikuu, na maambukizi mapya ya kutokea kwa kiwango cha moja kwa pili kwa kiwango cha kimataifa. <ref name=WHO2012data/>Hata hivyo, wengi maambukizi na M. kifua kikuu wala kusababisha ugonjwa wa Kifua Kikuu, <ref name=CDC> {{cite web publisher= [[Centers for Disease Control]]|url=http://www.cdc.gov/tb/publications/factsheets/general/LTBIandActiveTB.htm|title=Fact Sheets: The Difference Between Latent TB Infection and Active TB Disease date=20 June 2011|accessdate=26 July 2011}}</ref> na 90-95% ya maambukizi ya kubaki bila dalili. <ref name=Book90/> Mwaka 2007, kulikuwa na wastani wa milioni 13.7 sugu kazi kesi. <ref name=WHO2009-Epidemiology/> Mwaka 2010, kulikuwa na milioni 8.8 mpya kesi ya TB kukutwa na vifo 1,450,000, zaidi ya haya yanayojitokeza katika [[Developing nation|nchi zinazoendelea]].<ref name=WHO2011/> Vifo hivi 1,450,000, kuhusu 0,350,000 kutokea katika wale wana ambukizwa pamoja na HIV. <ref name=WHO2011Control>{{cite web|title=GlobalTuberculosisControl2011|url=http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2011/gtbr11_full.pdf|work=WorldHealthOrganization|accessdate=15 April 2012|archivedate=2012-06-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617064025/http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2011/gtbr11_full.pdf}}</ref> Kifua Kikuu ni ya pili zaidi ya vifo kutokana na ugonjwa kuambukiza (baada ya wale kutokana na HIV / UKIMWI).<ref name=ID10/>idadi kamili ya kesi kifua kikuu ("maambukizi") imekuwa ikipungua tangu 2005, wakati mpya kesi ("[[Incidence (epidemiolojia )|matukio]]") zimeshuka tangu 2002.<ref name=WHO2011/>China imepata maendeleo makubwa hasa, pamoja na kupunguza takriban 80% katika kiwango cha TB wake vifo kati ya 1990 na 2010.<ref name=WHO2011Control/> Kifua Kikuu ni ya kawaida zaidi katika nchi zinazoendelea; kuhusu 80% ya idadi ya watu katika nchi nyingi za Asia na Afrika mtihani chanya katika vipimo tuberculin, wakati tu 5-10% ya mtihani Marekani idadi chanya.<ref name=Robbins/> Matumaini ya kudhibiti ugonjwa huo kabisa wamekuwa kasi unyevunyevu kwa sababu ya mambo kadhaa, ikiwa ni pamoja na ugumu wa kuendeleza chanjo ufanisi, ghali na muda mwingi uchunguzi wa mchakato, umuhimu wa miezi mingi ya matibabu, ongezeko la maambukizi ya virusi-kuhusishwa kifua kikuu , na kuibuka wa kesi sugu katika miaka ya 1980.<ref name=Lancet11/>[[Picha:TB incidence.png|thumb|left|Annual number of new reported TB cases. Data from [[World Health Organization|WHO]]. <ref> {{cite web|author=WorldHealthOrganization|url=http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2008/annex_3/en/index.html|title=WHO report 2008: Global tuberculosis control|accessdate=13 April 2009}}</ref>]] Katika 2007, nchi yenye kiwango cha juu zaidi ya makadirio ya matukio ya TB ilikuwa [[Swaziland]], na kesi 1,200 kwa kila watu 100,000. India ilikuwa kubwa jumla ya matukio, na wastani wa kesi 2.0 milioni mpya. <ref name=WHO2009-Epidemiology/> Katika nchi zilizoendelea, kifua kikuu ni. <ref name=WHO2009-Epidemiology/>chini ya kawaida na ni kupatikana hasa katika maeneo ya mijini. Viwango kila watu 100,000 katika maeneo mbalimbali ya dunia ambapo: Kimataifa 178, 332 Kusini, Amerika 36, Bahari ya Mashariki 173, Ulaya 63, Asia ya Kusini 278, na 139 Pacific Magharibi katika 2010 <ref name=WHO2011Control/> Nchini Canada na Australia, kifua kikuu ni mara nyingi zaidi ya kawaida kati ya [[Aboriginal peoples|Watu wa asili]],hasa katika maeneo ya kijijini.<ref>{{cite journal|last=FitzGerald|first=JM|coauthors=Wang,L,Elwood,RK|title=Tuberculosis: 13.Control of the disease among aboriginal people inCanada.|journal=CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne|date=2000 Feb 8|volume=162|issue=3|pages=351-5|pmid=10693593}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Quah, Stella R.; Carrin, Guy; Buse, Kent; Kristian Heggenhougen |title=Health Systems Policy, Finance, andOrganization |publisher=AcademicPress |location=Boston |year=2009 |pages=424 |isbn=0123750873 |oclc= |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=IEXUrc0tr1wC&pg=PA424}}</ref>Katika Marekani watu wa asili kuwa vifo vya mara tano zaidi kutoka TB.<ref>{{cite book |author= Anne-Emanuelle Birn |title= Textbook of International Health: Global Health in a Dynamic World |year=2009|pages=261 |isbn=9780199885213 |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=2XBB4-eYGZIC&pg=PT261 |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> matukio ya TB inatofautiana na umri Katika Afrika, kimsingi unaathiri vijana na watu wazima vijana. <ref>{{cite web|author=World Health Organization|url=http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2006/pdf/full_report_correctedversion.pdf|title=Global Tuberculosis Control Report, 2006 – Annex 1 Profiles of high-burden countries format=PDF accessdate=13 October 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060716135331/http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2006/pdf/full_report_correctedversion.pdf|archivedate=2006-07-16|accessdate=2013-03-06}}</ref>Hata hivyo, katika nchi ambapo matukio viwango zimepungua kasi ( kama vile Marekani), TB ni ugonjwa wa watu hasa wakubwa na kinga iliyoathirika. <ref name=Robbins/><ref>{{cite web|author=CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention|url=http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/tb/pubs/slidesets/surv/surv2005/default.htm|title=2005SurveillanceSlideSet|date=12September2006|accessdate=13October2006}}</ref>. == Historia == [[Picha:Mummy at British Museum.jpg|thumb|[[Maiti]] ya Misri katika [[Makumbusho ya Uingereza]] - kuoza kulikoathiriwa na kifua kikuu kumepatikana katika mifupa yake.]] Kifua kikuu kimekuwepo kwa [[binadamu]] tangu zamani sana.<ref name=Lancet11>{{cite journal|last=Lawn first=SD|coauthors=Zumla, AI|title=Tuberculosis journal=Lancet|date=2 July 2011|volume=378|issue=9785|pages=57–72|pmid=21420161|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62173-3}}</ref> Mwanzo zisizo na utata kutambua ya M. kifua kikuu inahusisha ushahidi wa ugonjwa huo katika mabaki ya bison tarehe na takriban 17,000 miaka iliyopita.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rothschild BM |title=Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex DNA from an extinct bison dated 17,000 years before the present |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=305–11 |year=2001 |month=August |pmid=11438894 |doi=10.1086/321886 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?CID001531 |author-separator=, |author2=Martin LD |author3=Lev G |display-authors=3 |last4=Bercovier |first4=Helen |last5=Bar‐Gal |first5=Gila Kahila |last6=Greenblatt |first6=Charles |last7=Donoghue |first7=Helen |last8=Spigelman |first8=Mark |last9=Brittain |first9=David |archive-date=2019-03-25 |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325085112/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?CID001531 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Hivyo, kama kifua kikuu asili katika mangombe, kisha kuhamishiwa kwa binadamu, au kama ni kuachana kutoka babu ya kawaida, sasa ni wazi. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Pearce-Duvet J |title=The origin of human pathogens: evaluating the role of agriculture and domestic animals in the evolution of human disease|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-reviews_2006-08_81_3/page/369 |journal=Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=369–82 |year=2006|pmid = 16672105|doi=10.1017/S1464793106007020}}</ref> kulinganisha [[gene]]s ya M. kifua kikuu tata (MTBC) kwa binadamu kwa MTBC katika wanyama unaonyesha binadamu hakuwa kupata MTBC kutoka kwa wanyama wakati wa kufuga wanyama kama ilivyoaminika hapo nyuma. Wote Matatizo ya bakteria kifua kikuu kushiriki babu ya kawaida, ambayo ingeweza kuambukizwa binadamu kama mapema kama [[Mapinduzi Neolithiki]]. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Comas first=I coauthors=Gagneux, S|title=The past and future of tuberculosis research.|journal=PLoS pathogens date=2009 Oct|volume=5|issue=10|pages=e1000600|pmid=19855821}}</ref> Mabaki ya kiunzi kuonyesha prehistoric binadamu (4000 KK) [[Common Era|BC]] ) alikuwa TB. Na watafiti wamegundua kuoza enye umbo katika miiba ya [[Misri ya Egypt]] [[maiti|mummies]] kutoka BC 3000-2400.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zink A, Sola C, Reischl U, Grabner W, Rastogi N, Wolf H, Nerlich A |title=Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex DNAs from Egyptian Mummies by Spoligotyping |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-microbiology_2003-01_41_1/page/359 |journal=J Clin Microbiol |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=359–67 |year=2003 |pmid=12517873|doi=10.1128/JCM.41.1.359-367.2003 |pmc=149558}}</ref> Phthisis ni neno la Kigiriki kwa ajili ya matumizi, mrefu zamani kwa ajili ya kifua kikuu cha mapafu; <ref>{{cite book|title=The Chambers Dictionary.|year=1998|publisher=Allied Chambers India Ltd.|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-86062-25-8|pages=352|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=pz2ORay2HWoC&pg=RA1-PA352}}</ref> ] karibu 460 BC, [[Hippocrates]] kutambuliwa phthisis kama ugonjwa kuenea zaidi ya nyakati. Ilikuwa alisema kuhusisha homa na kukohoa ya damu, ambayo ilikuwa karibu daima mbaya. <ref>Hippocrates.[https://web.archive.org/web/20050211173218/http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/aphorisms.mb.txt Aphorisms.] Accessed 7 October 2006.</ref> Masomo ya maumbile zinaonyesha TB alikuwepo katika [[Amerika]] kutoka BK mwaka 100. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Konomi N, Lebwohl E, Mowbray K, Tattersall I, Zhang D |title=Detection of Mycobacterial DNA in Andean Mummies |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-microbiology_2002-12_40_12/page/4738 |journal=J Clin Microbiol |volume=40 |issue=12 |pages=4738–40 |year=2002 |pmid=12454182|doi=10.1128/JCM.40.12.4738-4740.2002 |pmc=154635}}</ref> Kabla ya [[Mapinduzi ya Viwanda]], ngano nyingi zinazohusiana na kifua kikuu [[vampire]]s. Wakati mmoja wa familia walikufa kutokana na hilo, wanachama wengine walioambukizwa bila kupoteza afya yao polepole. Watu waliamini hii kulitokana na mtu awali na TB kuondoa maji maisha kutoka kwa wanachama wengine wa familia.<ref name=sledzik>{{cite journal |last=Sledzik |first=Paul S. |coauthors=Nicholas Bellantoni |month=June |year=1994 |title=Bioarcheological and biocultural evidence for the New England vampire folk belief |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=269–274|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330940210 |url=http://www.ceev.net/biocultural.pdf |format=PDF|pmid=8085617 |issn=0002-9483}}</ref> Ingawa aina ya mapafu kuhusishwa na [[tubercle (anatomia )|tubercles]] ilianzishwa kama patholojia na Dr Richard Morton katika 1689.<ref name="WhoNamedIt-Calmette">{{WhoNamedIt|doctor|2413|Léon Charles Albert Calmette}}</ref><ref name="MedHist1970-Trail">{{cite journal |author=Trail RR |title=Richard Morton (1637-1698) |journal=Med Hist |volume=14|issue=2 |pages=166–74 |year=1970 |month=April |pmid=4914685 |pmc=1034037 }}</ref> kutokana na aina ya dalili yake, TB ilikuwa si kutambuliwa kama ugonjwa mmoja hadi miaka ya 1820, na haikuitwa kifua kikuu mpaka 1839 na [[Johann Lukas Schönlein|J. L. Schönlein]].<ref>Zur Pathogenie der Impetigines. Auszug aus einer brieflichen Mitteilung an den Herausgeber. [Müller’s] ''Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin''. 1839, page 82.</ref> Katika miaka 1838-1845, Dk John Croghan, mmiliki wa of [[Pango Mammoth]] , kuletwa idadi ya watu wenye kifua kikuu katika pango kwa matumaini ya kutibu ugonjwa na joto mara kwa mara na usafi wa hewa pango; walikufa ndani ya mwaka. <ref>[http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TRAVEL/DESTINATIONS/02/26/mammoth.cave.ap/index.html Kentucky: Mammoth Cave long on history.] {{Wayback|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TRAVEL/DESTINATIONS/02/26/mammoth.cave.ap/index.html |date=20060813140746 }} ''[[CNN]]''. 27 February 2004. Accessed 8 October 2006.</ref> Hermann Brehmer kufunguliwa kwanza TB [[sanatorium]] katika 1859 katika [[Sokołowsko|Sokołowsko, Poland]].<ref name =sanatoria>{{cite journal |author=McCarthy OR |title=The key to the sanatoria |journal=J R Soc Med |volume=94 |issue=8 |pages=413–7 |year=2001 |month=August |pmid=11461990 |pmc=1281640 |url=http://www.jrsm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11461990 |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2012-08-03 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120803180504/http://www.jrsm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11461990 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Picha: RobertKoch.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Dr. Robert Koch aligundua tuberculosis bacilli.]] Kifua kikuu na kusababisha bacillus, ‘’Mycobacterium kifua kikuu ‘’, ilikuwa kutambuliwa na ilivyoelezwa kwenye Machi 24, 1882 na [[Robert Koch]]. Alipokea [[Tuzo ya Nobel katika in Fizilojia au dawa]] katika 1905 kwa ugunduzi huu. <ref>[[NobelFoundation]]. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1905/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905.]Accessed 7 October 2006. </ref> Koch hawakuamini bovin (ng'ombe) na kifua kikuu na magonjwa ya binadamu walikuwa sawa. Ambayo kuchelewa utambuzi wa maziwa aliyeambukizwa kama chanzo cha maambukizi. Baadaye, hatari ya maambukizi kutoka chanzo hili kasi kupunguzwa kwa uvumbuzi wa mchakato [[pasteurishaji]]. Koch alitangaza dondoo [[glycerine]] ya bacilli kinundu kama "dawa" ya kifua kikuu katika 1890, na kuiita 'tuberculin'. Wakati ilikuwa si ufanisi, baadaye mafanikio ilichukuliwa kama mtihani uchunguzi kwa ajili ya uwepo wa kifua kikuu mbele ya dalili. <ref>{{cite journal|author=Waddington K |title=To stamp out "So Terrible a Malady": bovine tuberculosis and tuberculin testing in Britain, 1890–1939 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-history_2004-01_48_1/page/29 |journal=Med Hist |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=29–48 |year=2004 |month=January |pmid=14968644 |pmc=546294 }}</ref> [[Albert Calmette]] na [[Camille Guérin]] mafanikio ya kwanza ya kweli mafanikio katika utoaji wa chanjo dhidi ya kifua kikuu katika 1906. kwa kutumia mnachuja ya ngombe kufikika kifua kikuu. Ilikuwa inaitwa ([[Bacillus Calmette-Guérin|bacillus of Calmette and Guérin]]) (BCG). Chanjo ya BCG mara ya kwanza kutumika juu ya binadamu katika 1921 nchini [[Ufalansa]].<ref name=Bonah>{{cite journal |author=Bonah C|title=The 'experimental stable' of the BCG vaccine: safety, efficacy, proof, and standards, 1921–1933 |journal=Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=696–721 |year=2005 |pmid=16337557|doi=10.1016/j.shpsc.2005.09.003}}</ref> Lakini tu kupokea kukubalika kuenea katika [[United States|Marekani]], [[Uingereza]], and [[Ujerumani]] na baada ya Vita Kuu ya II. <ref name=Comstock>{{cite journal |author=Comstock G |title=The International Tuberculosis Campaign: a pioneering venture in mass vaccination and research |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_1994-09_19_3/page/528 |journal=Clin Infect Dis |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=528–40 |year=1994|pmid=7811874|doi=10.1093/clinids/19.3.528}}</ref> Kifua Kikuu unasababishwa zaidi kuenea umma wasiwasi katika karne ya 19 na 20 mapema kama ugonjwa wa [[endemic (epidemiolojia )|ndwele]] maskini wa mijini. Katika 1815, moja katika vifo nne nchini Uingereza ni kutokana na "matumizi". By 1918, moja katika vifo sita katika Ufaransa alikuwa bado unasababishwa na TB. Baada ya kuamua ugonjwa huo kuenea katika miaka ya 1880, TB ilikuwa kuweka [[Katika orodha ya ugonjwa|liolazimu kujulishwa Ugonjwa]] katika Uingereza, kampeni walikuwa wameanza kuacha watu kutoka kutema katika maeneo ya umma, na maskini walioambukizwa walikuwa "moyo" kuingia [[sanatorium sanatoria]] ambayo inafanana magereza (sanatoria kwa ajili ya madarasa kati na juu inayotolewa huduma bora na matibabu ya mara kwa mara). <ref name =sanatoria/> Chochote faida ( kwa kusudi ) ya "hewa safi" na ajira katika sanatoria, hata chini ya hali bora, 50% ya wale waliokuwa wakiingia alikufa ndani ya miaka mitano (circa 1916).<ref name =sanatoria/> Katika Ulaya, viwango vya ugonjwa wa kifua kikuu ulianza kupanda katika miaka ya 1600 mapema kwa ngazi kilele katika miaka ya 1800, wakati unasababishwa karibu 25% ya vifo vyote.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bloom|first=editor, Barry R.|title=Tuberculosis : pathogenesis, protection, and control|url=https://archive.org/details/tuberculosispath0000unse|year=1994|publisher=ASM Press|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-1-55581-072-6}}</ref> Vifo vya kisha ilipungua karibu 90% kwa miaka ya 1950.<ref>{{cite book|last=Persson|first=Sheryl|title=Smallpox, Syphilis and Salvation: Medical Breakthroughs That Changed the World|year=2010|publisher=ReadHowYouWant.com|isbn=978-1-4587-6712-7|pages=141|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=-W7ch1d6JOoC&pg=PA141}}</ref> Maboresho katika afya ya umma alianza kwa kiasi kikubwa kupunguza viwango vya ugonjwa wa kifua kikuu hata kabla ya kuwasili kwa [[streptomycin] na kiviujasumu nyingine. Ingawa ugonjwa alibakia tishio kubwa kwa afya ya umma ambao vile. Wakati [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Council Utafiti]] iliundwa katika Uingereza katika 1913, lengo yake ya awali ilikuwa kifua kikuu utafiti. <ref>{{cite book|last=editor|first=Caroline Hannaway,|title=Biomedicine in the twentieth century: practices, policies, and politics|year=2008|publisher=IOS Press|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-1-58603-832-8|pages=233|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=o5HBxyg5APIC&pg=PA233}}</ref> Katika mwaka 1946, maendeleo ya[[streptomycin]] Kiviujasumu alifanya matibabu ya ufanisi na tiba ya TB ukweli. Kabla ya kuanzishwa kwa dawa hii, matibabu tu (isipokuwa sanatoria) alikuwa upasuaji kuingilia, ikiwa ni pamoja na "[[“mbinu pneumothorax”]], ambayo wanaohusika kuanguka uvimbe walioambukizwa na "kupumzika" ni na kuruhusu vidonda tuberculous kuponya. <ref>{{cite book|last=Shields|first=Thomas|title=General thoracic surgery|year=2009|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-7982-1|pages=792|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=bVEEHmpU-1wC&pg=PA792|edition=7th ed.}}</ref> kuibuka wa MDR-TB ina tena ilianzisha upasuaji kama chaguo ndani ya kiwango kukubalika kwa ujumla wa huduma katika kutibu magonjwa ya TB. Hali kwa sasa hatua za upasuaji kuhusisha kuondolewa makijishimo ya patholojia ya kifua ("bullae") katika mapafu ya kupunguza idadi ya bakteria na kuongeza mfiduo wa bakteria iliyobaki kwa madawa katika mfumo wa damu, na hivyo ukipungua jumla bakteria mzigo na kuongeza ufanisi wa utaratibu ya tiba ya Kivuijasumu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lalloo UG, Naidoo R, Ambaram A |title=Recent advances in the medical and surgical treatment of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis |journal=Curr Opin Pulm Med |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=179–85 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16582672 |doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000219266.27439.52 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1070-5287&volume=12&issue=3&spage=179 |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2013-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510095840/http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1070-5287&volume=12&issue=3&spage=179 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Matumaini ya TB kabisa kuondoa (''cf.'' [[smallpox]]), walikuwa kwa kimbilio baada ya kupanda ya Matatizo sugu katika miaka ya 1980. Liofufuka baadae ya kifua kikuu ilisababisha tamko la dharura ya afya ya kimataifa na Shirika la Afya Duniani mwaka 1993. <ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently asked questions about TB and HIV|url=http://www.who.int/tb/hiv/faq/en/index.html|work=World Health Organization|accessdate=15 April 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041225163604/http://www.who.int/tb/hiv/faq/en/index.html|archivedate=2004-12-25}}</ref> == Jamii na Ustaarabu == [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] na [[Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation]] ni kutoa ruzuku mpya haraka-kaimu uchunguzi mtihani kwa ajili ya matumizi katika nchi chini na kipato cha kati.<ref name=Xpert2011>{{cite journal last=Lawn|first=SD|coauthors=Nicol, MP|title=Xpert® MTB/RIF assay: development, evaluation and implementation of a new rapid molecular diagnostic for tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance.|journal=Future microbiology|date=2011 Sep|volume=6|issue=9|pages=1067-82|pmid=21958145}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6B71RF20101208 |title=WHO says Cepheid rapid test will transform TB care|work= Reuters | date=8 December 2010}}</ref> Wengi raslimali maeneo kama ya 2011 bado tu kupata hadubini makohozi.<ref>{{cite journal last=Lienhardt|first=C|coauthors=Espinal, M, Pai, M, Maher, D, Raviglione, MC|title=What research is needed to stop TB? Introducing the TB Research Movement.|journal=PLoS medicine|date=2011 Nov|volume=8|issue=11|pages=e1001135|pmid=22140369|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1001135|pmc=3226454}}</ref> India ilikuwa ya juu jumla ya idadi ya wagonjwa wa TB duniani kote katika 2010, kwa sehemu kutokana na usimamizi mbovu ugonjwa ndani ya sekta binafsi ya afya. Mipango kama vile [[Programu ya Taifa ya Kifua Kikuu]] karatasi ya kufikiria tena ni kusaidia kupunguza viwango vya TB miongoni mwa watu wanaopata huduma ya afya ya umma.<ref name="Bhargava">{{cite journal |author=Anurag Bhargava, Lancelot Pinto, Madhukar Pai |title=Mismanagement of tuberculosis in India: Causes, consequences, and the way forward |journal=Hypothesis |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=e7 |year=2011 |url=http://www.hypothesisjournal.com/?p=989 |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2020-01-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200112192507/http://www.hypothesisjournal.com/?p=989 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal last=Amdekar|first=Y|title=Changes in the management of tuberculosis.|journal=Indian journal of pediatrics|date=2009 Jul|volume=76|issue=7|pages=739-42|pmid=19693453}}</ref> == Utafiti == Chanjo ya BCG ina mapungufu, na utafiti wa kuendeleza chanjo ya TB mpya ni unaoendelea.<ref name=VacRes2011>{{cite journal last=Martín Montañés|first=C|coauthors=Gicquel, B|title=New tuberculosis vaccines. journal=Enfermedades infecciosas y microbiologia clinica|date=2011 Mar|volume=29 Suppl 1|pages=57–62|pmid=21420568|doi=10.1016/S0213-005X(11)70019-2}}</ref> idadi ya wagombea uwezekano ni sasa katika majaribio [[clinical trial|ya awamu ya I na II kliniki]] .<ref name=VacRes2011/> Mbili mbinu kuu ni kuwa kutumika kujaribu kuboresha ufanisi wa chanjo zinapatikana. Moja inahusisha mbinu kuongeza chanjo subunit kwa BCG, wakati mkakati mwingine ni kujaribu kujenga mpya na bora chanjo hai. <ref name=VacRes2011/> [[MVA85A]], mfano wa chanjo subunit, sasa katika majaribio nchini Afrika Kusini, ni msingi juu ya virusi vya vinasaba kufura ngozi.<ref name=Ibanga_2006>{{cite journal |author=Ibanga H, Brookes R, Hill P, Owiafe P, Fletcher H, Lienhardt C, Hill A, Adegbola R, McShane H |title=Early clinical trials with a new tuberculosis vaccine, MVA85A, in tuberculosis-endemic countries: issues in study design |journal=Lancet Infect Dis |volume=6 |issue=8|pages=522–8 |year=2006 |doi= 10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70552-7| pmid = 16870530}}</ref> Chanjo ni unaotarajiwa kuwa na jukumu muhimu katika matibabu ya wote fiche na ugonjwa hai.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kaufmann SH|title=Future vaccination strategies against tuberculosis: Thinking outside the box|journal=Immunity|year=2010|volume=33|pages=567–77|pmid = 21029966|doi=10.1016/j.immuni.2010.09.015|issue=4}}</ref> Kuhamasisha ugunduzi zaidi, watafiti na watunga sera ni kukuza mpya mifano ya kiuchumi ya maendeleo ya chanjo, ikiwa ni pamoja na zawadi, motisha ya kodi, na [[ahadi mapema Soko]] .<ref>{{cite journal|author=Webber D, Kremer M|url=http://www.who.int/bulletin/archives/79(8)735.pdf |title=Stimulating Industrial R&D for Neglected Infectious Diseases: Economic Perspectives |journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|volume=79|issue=8|year=2001|pages=693–801}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Barder O, Kremer M, Williams H|url=http://www.bepress.com/ev/vol3/iss3/art1|title=Advance Market Commitments: A Policy to Stimulate Investment in Vaccines for Neglected Diseases|journal=The Economists' Voice|volume=3|year=2006|issue=3|doi=10.2202/1553-3832.1144|access-date=2013-03-06|archive-date=2006-11-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061105083659/http://www.bepress.com/ev/vol3/iss3/art1|dead-url=yes|=https://web.archive.org/web/20061105083659/http://www.bepress.com/ev/vol3/iss3/art1}}</ref> Idadi ya makundi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[Ushirikiano Stop TB]] ,<ref>{{cite book|last=Economic|first=Department of|title=Achieving the global public health agenda : dialogues at the Economic and Social Council|year=2009|publisher=United Nations|location=New York|isbn=978-92-1-104596-3|pages=103|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=VeF9dv74C4MC&pg=PA103|coauthors=Affairs, Social}}</ref> ] Afrika Kifua Initiative Chanjo, na the [[Aeras TB Duniani Foundation Chanjo]] , wanahusika na utafiti.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jong|first=[edited by] Jane N. Zuckerman, Elaine C.|title=Travelers' vaccines|year=2010|publisher=People's Medical Pub. House|location=Shelton, CT|isbn=978-1-60795-045-5|pages=319|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=BKRpWFEy66wC&pg=PA319|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Kati ya hayo, Aeras TB Duniani Chanjo Foundation alipokea zawadi ya zaidi ya $ 280,000,000 (Marekani) kutoka kwa [[Bill na Melinda Gates Foundation]] kuendeleza na leseni ya chanjo dhidi ya kifua kikuu bora kwa ajili ya matumizi katika nchi mzigo mkubwa. == Katika wanyama == Mycobacteria kuambukiza wanyama mbalimbali, ikiwa ni pamoja na ndege, panya na wanyama watambaao. subspecies Mycobacterium kifua kikuu, ingawa, ni mara chache sasa katika wanyama wa porini. <ref>{{cite book|last=Wobeser|first=Gary A.|title=Essentials of disease in wild animals|year=2006|publisher=Blackwell Publ.|location=Ames, Iowa [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-8138-0589-4|pages=170|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=JgyS6fxVasYC&pg=PA170|edition=1st ed.}}</ref> jitihada za kutokomeza kifua kikuu ng’ombe unasababishwa na “[[Bovis Mycobacterium]]” kutoka kwa ng'ombe na mifugo kulungu wa [[New Zealand]] imekuwa na mafanikio. Jitihada katika Uingereza wamekuwa chini ya mafanikio. == Tanbihi == {{marejeo}} [[Jamii:Maradhi ya kuambukiza]] cx0xxo9hy74mqnzr88rggc33qgf2hq4 0 33946 1580053 1339046 2026-07-17T23:30:47Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580053 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Intaneti''' (kutoka [[Kiingereza]] "Internet") ni mfumo mkubwa ambao mamilioni ya [[kompyuta]] na mifumo na uendeshaji wa mfumo wa aina zote yanaweza kuwaunganisha. Hii ina maana ya mahusiano ya dunia yote pamoja. [[Historia]] yake inaweza kuanza na uzinduzi wa [[Sputnik]] na [[USSR]] uliochochea Marekani kuanzisha shirika la utafiti wa juu wa miradi, iliyojulikana kama ARPA, katika mwezi Februari [[1958]] ili kuongoza kiteknolojia.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.darpa.mil/body/arpa_darpa.html | title=ARPA/DARPA | accessdate=2007-05-21 | publisher=Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407064829/http://www.darpa.mil/body/arpa_darpa.html | archivedate=2007-04-07 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.darpa.mil/body/overtheyears.html | title=DARPA Over the Years | accessdate=2007-05-21 | publisher=Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070407182222/http://www.darpa.mil/body/overtheyears.html | archivedate=2007-04-07 }}</ref> ARPA ilitengeneza ofisi ya teknolojia za kuchambua habari (IPTO) ili kuendeleza utafiti wa programu inayojitekeleza ya mazingira ya chini (Sage), ambayo iliunganisha mifumo ya [[rada]] za nchi nzima kwa mara ya kwanza. [[J. C. R Licklider]] alichaguliwa kuwa kiongozi wa IPTO. Licklider alihama kutoka [[maabara]] ya masomo yanayochunguza jinsi [[ubongo]] wa binadamu unavyofasiri [[sauti]] katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Harvard MIT]] mwaka [[1950]], baada ya kuvutiwa na [[teknolojia ya habari]]. Akiwa MIT, alikuwa kwenye [[kamati]] iliyoanzisha [[Maabara ya Lincoln]] na kufanya kazi ya mradi wa Sage. Mwaka wa [[1957]] akawa makamu wa rais katika [[BBN]], ambapo alinunua kompyuta ya kwanza ya [[PDP-1]] na kuongoza maonyesho ya kwanza ya [[ugawanaji muda]]. Akiwa IPTO, Licklider alimleta [[Lawrence Roberts]] ili aanzishe mradi wa kutengeneza mtandao, na Roberts alikita msingi wa teknolojia katika kazi ya [[Paulo Baran]], <ref>{{cite book|last=Baran|first=Paul|title=On Distributed Communications|date=1964|url=http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/RM3767}}</ref> ambaye alikuwa ameandika masomo kamili kwa [[Wanajeshi wa waangani wa Marekani]] akipendekeza [[ubadilishaji pakiti]] (badala ya [[ubadilishaji mzunguko)]] ili kupata mtandao bora unaobadilika na unaoweza KUstahimili janga. [[Profesa]] wa UCLA [[Leonard Kleinrock]] alikuwa ametoa msingi wa [[nadharia]] ya [[pakiti]] za mitandao mwaka 1962, na baadaye, katika mwaka 1970, wa [[upitishaji wa kiviwango]], dhana ambazo zimekuwa msingi wa maendeleo ya intaneti ya leo. Baada ya kazi nyingi, sehemu mbili za kwanza ambazo zingekuwa [[ARPANET]] ziliunganishwa kati ya [[Shule ya Uhandisi na Sayansi Tumikizi]] ya UCLA na [[Taasisi ya Kimataifa ya Utafiti ya Stanford]] (SRI) katika [[bustani ya Menlo]], [[California]], tarehe [[29 Oktoba]] [[1969]]. ARPANET ilikuwa moja ya mitandao tangulizi ya mtandao wa intaneti ya leo. Kufuatia maonyesho kuwa ubadilishaji pakiti ulifanya kazi kwa ARPANET, kituo cha posta cha [[Uingereza]], [[Telenet]], TRANSPAC na [[DATAPAC]] zilishirikiana kuunda mtandao wa kwanza wa huduma ya ubadilishaji pakiti. Nchini Uingereza, hii ilikuwa inajulikana kama [[huduma ya kimataifa ya ubadilishaji pakiti]] (IPSS), mwaka [[1978]]. Mkusanyiko wa mitandao yenye msingi wa [[X.25]] ilikua kutoka [[Ulaya]] na Marekani na kutanda [[Kanada]], [[Hong Kong]] na [[Australia]] kufikia mwaka [[1981]]. Sheria ya ubadilishaji pakiti ya X.25 ilitengenezwa katika CCITT (sasa inaitwa [[ITU-T)]] mwaka [[1976]]. X.25 ilikuwa huru kutoka itifaki ya TCP/IP ambayo iliinuka kutokana na kuwa kazi ya majaribio ya [[DARPA]] kwenye ARPANET, mtandao wa Pakiti za Redio na Mtandao wa Pakiti ya Setilaiti wakati mmoja. [[Vinton Cerf]] na [[Robert Kahn]] walitengeneza maelezo ya kwanza ya itifaki ya TCP mwaka 1973 na kuchapisha karatasi kuhusu mada hii katika mwezi Mei 1974. Matumizi ya neno "Internet" kuelezea mtandao mmoja wa kiulimwengu wa TCP/IP yalianza katika mwezi Desemba 1974 na uchapishaji wa RFC 675, yakiwa maelezo kamili ya kwanza ya TCP iliyoandikwa na Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal na Carl Sunshine, waliokuwa katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Stanford]]. Katika miaka tisa iliyofuata, kazi iliendelea kurekebisha itifaki hizo na kuzitekeleza katika mifumo ya oparesheni ya aina mbalimbali. Mtandao wa Kwanza wenye upana mkubwa wa msingi wa [[TCP / IP]] ulikuwa ukifanya kazi kufikia tarehe 1 Januari 1983 wakati ambapo viwekaji vyote vya ARPANET vilibadilishwa kutoka itifaki za hapo awali za NCP. Mwaka 1985, [[Wakfu wa Sayansi wa kitaifa Marekani]] (NSF) uliamuru ujenzi wa [[NSFNET]], [[uti wa mgongo]] wa mtandao wa [[chuo kikuu]] wenye [[kasi]] ya [[kilobaiti]] 56 kwa [[sekunde]] kwa kutumia kompyuta zilizoitwa "[[fuzzballs]]" na [[mvumbuzi]] wake, [[David L. Mills]]. Mwaka uliofuata, NSF ilifadhili ubadilishaji hadi mtandao wenye kasi ya juu zaidi ya [[megabaiti]] 1.5 kwa sekunde. Maamuzi muhimu kutumia itifaki za [[DARPA TCP/IP]] ulifanywa na [[Dennis Jennings]], aliyekuwa msimamizi wa programu ya kompyuta zenye nguvu huko NSF. Ufunguzi wa mtandao huo kwa maslahi ya kibiashara ulianza mwaka wa 1988. Baraza ya Mitandao ya Kimajimbo Marekani ilikubali ushikanishaji wa NSFNET na mfumo wa [[barua wa MCI]] katika mwaka huo, kiungo kilifanywa katika msimu wa joto wa mwaka wa 1989. Huduma zingine za kielektroniki za kibiashara zilishikanishwa zikiwemo: OnTyme, Telemail na Compuserve. Katika mwaka huo, watoaji wa huduma ya Intanet watatu waliundwa: [[UUNET, PSINet]] na CERFNET. Muhimu, mitandao tofauti iliyotoa viingilio, na baadaye kuungana na Intanet ilikuwa [[BITNET na Usenet]]. Mitandao mingine ya kibiashara na elimu kama [[Telenet]], [[Tymnet]], [[Compuserve]] na [[JANET]] iliunganishwa na Intanet iliyokuwa ikikua. [[Telenet]] (iliyoitwa Sprintnet baadaye ) ulikuwa mtandao mkubwa wa kompyuta wa kitaifa uliofadhiliwa kibinafsi, wenye [[upigaji simu ya intaneti bure]]katika miji, kote Marekani na uliyokuwa ukifanya kazi tangu mwongo wa 1970. Hatimaye, mtandao huu uliunganishwa na mingine katika mwongo wa 1980 wakati ambapo itifaki ya TCP / IP iliendelea kuwa maarufu zaidi. Uwezo wa TCP/IP kufanya kazi kwa karibu mtandao wowote wa mawasiliano uliruhusu ukuaji rahisi, ingawa ukuaji wa haraka wa Intanet ulikuwa juu ya upatikanaji rahisi wa safu ya vielekezi vya kibiashara kutoka makampuni mengi, upatikanaji wa vifaa vya kibiashara vya [[Ethanet]] ya mitandao ya mitaa, na kuenea kwa utekelezaji na uwekaji sheria mkali wa TCP / IP katika [[UNIX]] na karibu kila mfumo mwingine wa oparesheni. Ingawa vifaa msingi na miongozo vinavyofanya uwezekanaji wa intanet vimekuwepo kwa karibu miongo miwili, mtandao huo haukupata kuona nyuso za umma mpaka mwongo wa 1990. Tarehe 6 Agosti 1991, [[CERN]], shirika ya Ulaya ya utafiti wa chembe, ulieleza umma kuhusu mradi mpya wa [[matandao wa dunia nzima]]. Mtandao ulizuliwa na mwanasayansi wa[[Kiingereza Tim Berners-Lee]] mwaka wa 1989. [[Kivinjari cha mtandao]] kilichokuwa cha kwanza na chenye umaarufu sana kilikuwa [[ViolaWWW]], iliyofuata mtindo wa [[HyperCard]] na kujengwa kwa kutumia [[mfumo wa X Window]]. Hatimaye ilichujwa na umaarufu wa [[tovuti ya Mosaic]]. Mwaka wa 1993, [[Kikao kikuu cha zana za kompyuta zenye nguvu]] katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Illinois]] ilitoa aina ya kwanza 1.0 ya Mosaic, na mwisho wa mwaka wa 1994 hamu ya umma iliongezeka Intanet ambayo hapo awali ilikua ya taaluma na ufundi. Kufikia mwaka 1996 matumizi ya neno ''Intaneti'' yalikuwa kawaida, na kwa hiyo, hata matumizi yake kama [[kisawe]] cha mtandao wa ulimwengu mzima. Muongo huo ulipoendelea, intaneti ilifanikiwa kushughulikia mitandao mingi binafsi wa awali (ingawa baadhi ya mitandao, kama [[FidoNet]], vimebaki tofauti). Katika [[miaka ya 1990]], ilikuwa inakadiriwa kwamba intaneti ilikua kwa [[asilimia]] 100 kila mwaka, na kipindi kifupi cha mwaka wa 1996 na 1997 ukuaji wake ulilipuka. <ref>{{cite paper | url=http://www.dtc.umn.edu/~odlyzko/doc/internet.size.pdf |format=PDF| title=The size and growth rate of the Internet | accessdate=2007-05-21 | author=Coffman, K. G; [[Odlyzko]], A. M. | publisher=AT&T Labs | date=1998-10-02}}</ref> Ukuaji huo ulitokana na ukosefu wa utawala mkuu, ambao unaruhusu ukuaji wa kikaboni wa mtandao, na pia ukosaji ubinafsi na huru katika itifaki za intaneti, ambao unahamasisha ubadilishaji wauzaji na kuzuia [[kampuni]] yoyote kuwa na udhibiti mkubwa wa mtandao. <ref>{{cite book | last = Comer | first = Douglas | title = The Internet book | url = https://archive.org/details/internetbookever00come_0 | publisher = Prentice Hall | page = [https://archive.org/details/internetbookever00come_0/page/65 64] | isbn = 0132335530 | year = 2006}}</ref> Makadirio ya idadi ya [[watumiaji wa internet]] ni bilioni 1.67 kufikai 30 Juni 2009. <ref name="stats1">{{cite web |url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm |title=World Internet Users and Population Stats |work=Internet World Stats |publisher=Miniwatts Marketing Group |date=2009-06-30 |accessdate=2009-11-06 |archive-date=2011-06-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623200007/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Intaneti]] [[Jamii:Historia]] 6tw6r2agz46xvfaieg5hw0uhvoi5uic 0 34137 1580083 1528039 2026-07-17T23:54:41Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580083 wikitext text/x-wiki '''[[Utalii]] nchini [[Morisi]]''' huelekea kuwa juu, na lengo katika hoteli za pwani kupiga mbizi [[mbizi.]] '''Utalii nchini Mauritius''' ni sehemu muhimu ya uchumi wa [[Mauritius]] na vile vile chanzo kikubwa cha mapato yake ya fedha za kigeni. Sekta ya utalii pia ni nguzo kuu ya kiuchumi katika kisiwa cha Rodrigues; hata hivyo, utalii haujaendelezwa katika Visiwa vya [[Agalega|Agaléga]]. Mauritius inathaminiwa zaidi na watalii kwa mazingira yake ya asili na vivutio vilivyoundwa na mwanadamu, anuwai ya makabila na kitamaduni ya idadi ya watu, hali ya hewa ya kitropiki, ufuo na michezo ya majini.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Tourism overview|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/f83739f1-en|work=dx.doi.org|date=2019-03-12|accessdate=2022-06-11}}</ref> ==Historia== Katika miaka thelathini iliyopita, Mauritius imeendelea kutoka uchumi wa kipato cha chini kulingana na kilimo hadi uchumi wa mseto wa kipato cha kati. Sehemu kubwa ya ukuaji huu wa uchumi umetokana na kupanuka kwa sekta ya utalii wa anasa. Mauritius ilitegemea zaidi viwanda vya sukari na nguo; huku bei ya sukari duniani ikishuka na uzalishaji wa nguo kudorora kiuchumi, serikali iliamua kupanua sekta ya utalii. Kwa miaka mingi, wageni wengi wanaotembelea Mauritius wametoka nchi za Ulaya. Kutokana na mdororo wa kiuchumi barani Ulaya mwaka 2011, serikali iliamua kubadilisha soko lake kwa kutoa safari za ndege za moja kwa moja kwenda nchi za Asia na Afrika ambazo zilikuwa zikishuhudia ukuaji wa juu katika suala la kuwasili kwao. Sekta ya utalii inasimamiwa na Wizara ya Utalii na [[Burudani]]. Mamlaka ya Kukuza Utalii ya Mauritius (MTPA) inaitangaza Mauritius kwa kufanya kampeni za utangazaji, kushiriki katika maonyesho ya utalii na kuandaa, kwa ushirikiano na sekta ya utalii wa ndani, kampeni ya utangazaji na shughuli nchini Mauritius na nje ya nchi. Mamlaka ya Utalii (TA) ina jukumu la kutoa leseni, kudhibiti na kusimamia shughuli za biashara za kitalii, sanaa za starehe, manahodha na wasafiri. Pia huchangia katika kuinuliwa kwa marudio na hutoa usaidizi wa kiufundi kwa kisiwa cha Rodrigues. Association des Hôteliers et Restaurateurs de l'île Maurice (AHRIM) ni shirika lisilo la faida lililoanzishwa mwaka wa 1973 ili kuwakilisha na kukuza maslahi ya hoteli na mikahawa nchini Mauritius. Vikundi vikuu vya hoteli za Mauritius ni pamoja na LUX* Resorts & Hotels, Beachcomber Resorts & Hotels, Hoteli za Sun Resort, Constance, Resorts za Long Beach, Attitude na VLH/Heritage. Mauritius kwa sasa ina Maeneo mawili ya Urithi wa Dunia wa [[UNESCO]], ambayo ni Aapravasi Ghat na Le Morne Cultural Landscape. Zaidi ya hayo, Mbuga ya Kitaifa ya Black River Gorges kwa sasa iko kwenye orodha ya majaribio ya [[UNESCO]]. <ref>{{Citation|title=1. Mauritius und das Kreolische auf Mauritius|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3726/978-3-653-04123-1/10|work=Grammatik des Kreolischen von Mauritius|publisher=Peter Lang|access-date=2022-06-11}}</ref> ==Takwimu== Kulingana na Takwimu za [[Mauritius]], jumla ya abiria waliofika Mauritius mwaka wa 2011 walikuwa 1,294,387 na waliofika watalii kwa mwaka huo walifikia 964,642. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Mauritius - Census, Standards &amp; Statistics|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2213-2996_flg_com_129161|work=Foreign Law Guide|accessdate=2022-06-11}}</ref> Mwaka 2012, masoko mawili yanayoibukia, Shirikisho la [[Urusi]] na Jamhuri ya Watu wa [[China]], yalisajili ukuaji chanya wa 58.9% na 38.0%, mtawalia. Kulingana na Benki ya Mauritius, mapato ya jumla ya watalii yalikuwa bilioni 44 mwaka wa 2012. Idadi ya makadirio ya watalii waliofika mwaka wa 2013 ilikuwa milioni 1.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Mauritius - Census, Standards &amp; Statistics|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2213-2996_flg_com_129161|work=Foreign Law Guide|accessdate=2022-06-11}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida|date=1976-07|title=Tourism International Research: Pacific. Tourism International Press, 154 Cromwell Road, London SW7, England. 1st quarter 1976. 16p. $25 per year|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0047287576015001118|journal=Journal of Travel Research|volume=15|issue=1|pages=34–34|doi=10.1177/0047287576015001118|issn=0047-2875}}</ref> Takwimu kutoka Statsmauritius.govmu.org kuhusu waliofika watalii kwa mwaka 2018 zinaonyesha kuwa "1.Idadi ya watalii waliofika mwaka 2018 iliongezeka kwa 4.3% hadi kufikia 1,399,408 ikilinganishwa na 1,341,860 kwa mwaka 2017 2. Idadi ya watalii waliofika kwa ndege kwa 3%. kutoka 1,312,295 mwaka 2017 hadi 1,359,688 mwaka wa 2018 huku waliofika kwa njia ya baharini wakiongezeka kwa 34.3% kutoka 29,565 hadi 39,720.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Table 1.1. International tourist arrivals in OECD and partner countries, 2014-18|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888934076210|work=dx.doi.org|accessdate=2022-06-11}}</ref> [[Picha:Mauritius 23.08.2009 09-41-05.jpg|thumb|Hoteli Mövenpick]] Katika kipindi cha miaka thelathini, [[Mauritius]] ina maendeleo kutoka uchumi kipato cha chini ambao msingi wake ulikuwa [[kilimo]] hadi uchumi wa mapato ya kati. Uchumi huu umejuzwa na matokeo ya upanuzi wa sekta ya utalii. <ref name="Las"></ref> Mauritius ni moja ya nchi tajiri katika Afrika, na uchumi wake hutegemea hasa [[sukari, nguo]] , viwanda vya utalii. Kwa kuwa zimeshuka bei za sukari dunia imeshuka na utengenezaji wa nguo haujasimama wima kiuchumi, sekta ya utalii imetiliwa bidii. <ref name="Garrod"></ref> Sera nchini Mauritius za Watalii zinapendekeza utaalamu na kukuza utalii kwa sababu ya ugumu wa nafasi ya utalii na haja ya kutupata mapato na vile vile kupunguza athari ya mazingira. Bajeti ya chini ya utalii katika si kusaidiwa. <ref name="Mountain28"></ref> Wakipendelea utalii wa hali ya juu, serikali ya Mauritius inakuza mahoteli ya ya hali ya juu, Mikahawa ya pwani ya kiwangocha nyota 4 na 5, kozi za gofu, na maeneo maridadi. <ref name="Eur">{{cite web |url=http://www.euromonitor.com/Travel_And_Tourism_in_Mauritius |title=Travel and tourism in Mauritius |accessdate=2008-06-17 |work=Euromonitor |date=Septemba 2007 |archivedate=2008-06-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616160408/http://www.euromonitor.com/Travel_And_Tourism_in_Mauritius }}</ref> Utalii ni ilivyoagizwa hasa katika soko la Ulaya linalotuimia pesa kwa wingi. <ref name="Sac">{{cite book |title=Mauritius: Challenges of Sustained Growth |last=Sacerdoti |first=Emilio |coauthors=Gamal Zaki El-Masry, Padamja Khandelwal |year=2005 |publisher=International Monetary Fund |isbn=158906416X |pages=35–36 }}</ref> Mauritius ilikuwa na wageni takriban 18,000 mwaka wa 1970. <ref name="Mountain28">{{cite book |title=This is Mauritius |last=Mountain |first=Alan |coauthors=Alain Proust |year=2000 |publisher=Struik |isbn=1843303019 |pages=27 }}</ref> Kati ya mwaka wa 1985 na 2000 ukubwa wa sekta ya utalii wake, uliopimwa na ongezeko katika watalii waliofika, uliongezeka na asilimia takriban 340%. <ref name="Sac"></ref> Idadi ya watalii waliofika mwaka wa 2004 ilikuwa karibu 720.000. Utalii ulisababisha kazi 30000 za muda kamili mwaka kama ilivyokuwa mwaka wa 2000. <ref name="Garrod"></ref> Watalii hutoka Ulaya, hasa Wafaransa na Waingereza. <ref name="Las"></ref> Mauritius huelekezwa kama kiyuo cha Utalii cha gharama ya juu. <ref name="Garrod"></ref> Usafiri wa ndege na malazi huwa ghali. Watalii wengi huwa katika likizo zilizopangwa ; ni idadi ndogo sana ya watalii waliosafiri bila mpango rasmi au [[kujitegemea.]] <ref name="Las"></ref> Kukuza soko ya utalii, usafiri wa ndege waaina ya charter umepigwa marufuku, hoteli za mapumziko zimejengwaa kwa viwango vya juu na kuna high viwango vya juu vya vyakula na huduma. Kuna huduma za ndege ya moja kwa moja kutoka Uingereza na Afrika ya Kusini. <ref name="Boniface">{{cite book |title=Worldwide Destinations: The Geography of Travel and Tourism |url=https://archive.org/details/worldwidedestina0000boni_03ed |last=Boniface |first=Brain G. |coauthors=Christopher P. Cooper |year=2001 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=0750642319 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldwidedestina0000boni_03ed/page/252 252] }}</ref> Idadi ya mikahawa ya kujiburudisha katika maeneo ya pwani inaongezeka, licha ya wasiwasi kuhusu uchafuzi na uharibifu wa [[miamba ya coral.]] Sera ya nchi kwa ujumla imekuwa ikipunguza uwasiliano kati ya jamii ya Mauritiusna watalii kwa sababu ya wasiwasi juu ya matatizo ya kijamii na kiutamaduni. <ref name="Las">{{cite book |title=Architecture and Tourism: Perception, Performance and Place |url=https://archive.org/details/architecturetour00lasa |last=Lasansky |first=D. Medina |coauthors=Brian McLaren |year=2004 |publisher=Berg Publishers |isbn=1859737099 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/architecturetour00lasa/page/189 189]–190 }}</ref> == Vivutio vya watalii == Vivutio vyake ni mazingira yake, pamoja na fukwe nyeupe, bahari, na hali ya hewa ya joto; urafiki wananchi ya Mauritius, na utulivu wa kisiasa na kijamii . <ref name="Mountain28"></ref> Mauritius imezungukwa na kilomita 33 za pwani. <ref name="Garrod"></ref> Ina fukwe bora, hali ya hewa, na maisha ya marina . <ref name="Las"></ref> Kuna vyombo vya maji vya watalii na kutembea chini ya bahari. <ref name="Garrod"></ref> Ni kituo cha daraja ya dunia cha kupiga mbizi. Imezungukwa na 150 km za miamba, na pengo mbili katika magharibi na kusini. Rasi kati ya pwani na miamba ina kiwango kati ya 0.2 na 7 km. kina cha Rasi hii ni kati ya mita 1 na 6 Kuna takriban spishi 340 za samaki, wengi wao ni endemic. Karibu aina 160 ya miaba ya [[Scleractinian]] yametambuliwa nchini kote. Utalii umeharibu miamba hii. Upigaji wa mbizini ni bora katika majira ya joto, kwanzia Desemba hadi Machi. Kipindi hiki kina joto, maji, na baridi, na kuna upepo mkali. Joto Wastani ni 30 ° C. <ref name="Garrod">{{cite book |title=New Frontiers in Marine Tourism: Diving Experiences, Sustainability, Management |url=https://archive.org/details/newfrontiersinma0000unse_r4r0 |last=Garrod |first=Brian |coauthors=Stefan Gossling |year=2007 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=0080453570 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newfrontiersinma0000unse_r4r0/page/18 18], 72-73 }}</ref> Kuna maeneo mbalimbali ya kupida mbizi kwa watu wote wote walio na uwezo tofauti nchini Mauritius. DiVituo vikuu vya kupiga mbizi viko karibu na [[Grand BAIE, Flic sw Flac, Blue Bay]], na [[Belle Mare.]] <ref name="Dodd">{{cite book |title=Mauritius, Réunion & Seychelles |url=https://archive.org/details/mauritiusreunion0000dodd |last=Dodd |first=Jan |coauthors=Madeleine Philippe |year=2004 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=1740593014 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mauritiusreunion0000dodd/page/131 131]–132 }}</ref> Kutembea chini ya bahari ni shughuli za utalii zisizo za kawaida ambapo washiriki chapeo na mshipi wa uzito ili waweze kutembea kando ya bahari na kulisha samaki. Oksijeni hubombwa kutoka ardhini hadi kwa washiriki. Maeneo kuu ya shughuli hii ni Grand BAIE na Belle Mare. <ref name="Dodd"></ref> == Marejeo == {{Marejeo}} {{Africa topic|Utalii nchini}} [[Jamii:Africa Wiki Challenge Arusha 2022]] [[Jamii:Utalii wa Afrika]] [[jamii:Morisi]] pxoi5r6m58bk4wblnsz5lub67j2vmji 0 34248 1580239 1296153 2026-07-18T01:41:04Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580239 wikitext text/x-wiki {{about|the song|the similarly named film|Uptown Girls}} {{Infobox single | Jina = Uptown Girl | Cover = 200px-Uptown Girl joel.jpg | Msanii = [[Billy Joel]] | Kutoka = Uptown Girl joel.jpg | albamu = [[An Innocent Man]] | Kutoka = Septemba 1983 | Muundo = [[Vinyl|Vinyl 7"]] <ref name=ramone/> | Kurekodiwa = 1983 | Aina = [[Pop rock]] | Urefu = 3:12 <ref name=ramone/> | Mtunzi = [[Billy Joel]] | Label = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]] | Mtongenezaji = [[Phil Ramone]] <ref name=ramone>{{cite web|title=Billy Joel - ''Uptown Girl'' |url=http://www.discogs.com/Billy-Joel-Uptown-Girl/release/860596}}</ref> | Certification = Gold <small>([[Recording Industry Association of America|RIAA]])</small> | Single iliyopita = "[[Tell Her About It]]"<br/>(1983) | Single ya sasa = "'''Uptown Girl'''"<br/>(1983) | Sinlge ya baadae = "[[An Innocent Man (song)|An Innocent Man]]"<br/>(1983) }} "'''Uptown Girl'''" ni wimbo uliondikwa na kuchezwa na mwanamuziki aitwaye [[Billy Joel]], na ulitoka kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka 1983, katika albamu yake ya ''[[An Innocent Man]]''. Mashairi katika wimbo huu yanaelezea maisha ya mtoto anaishi katika maeneo ya mitaani mwenye matarajio ya kumpata msichana wa mjini. Single hii ilifanikiwa kushika nafasi ya tatu katika chati ya [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]] ya nchini [[Marekani]], [[United States|US]],<ref name=Dean>{{cite book |title= Rock N' Roll Gold Rush |last= Dean |first= Maury |authorlink= Maury Dean |coauthors= |year= 2003 |publisher= Algora |location= |isbn= 0-87586-207-1 |pages= [https://archive.org/details/rocknrollgoldrus0000dean/page/137 137]–138 |url=https://archive.org/details/rocknrollgoldrus0000dean}}</ref> na kushika nafasi ya kwanza katika chati ya muziki ya nchini Uingereza na kushikilia nafasi hiyo kwa takribani kipindi cha wiki tano mfulilizo.Wimbo huu ndio ulishika nafasi ya pili kwa mauzo kwa mwaka 1983, nchini Uingereza na kufuatiwa na kundi pekee la utamaduni la Karma Chameleon,ambalo Mwanamuziki Joel aliweza kulitoa kutoka nafasi ya kwanza tarehe 1/11/1983. mwaka 1988, Rolling Stone uliupeleka wimbo wa "Uptown Girl" katika nafasi ya 99. katika listi ya nyimbo 100 bora za kipindi cha kuanzia mwaka 1963 hadi mwaka 1983. Wimbo huu ndio ulikuwa wimbo bora katika mauzo kwa mwaka 1983, nchini Uingereza Aina ya muziki huu, ikiwa ni pamoja na aina ijulikanayo kwa midundo ya [[doo-wop]] ilipendwa sana na mwanamuzi Joel aliyekuwa akiimba kwa kutumia staili ya [[falsetto]]na pia ni staili iliyotumika na [[Frankie Valli]] na kundi la [[The four Seasons Group]]. Wimbo huu pia umekuwa ukionekana kubalisha noti zake za muziki mara mbili tangu wimbo wake halisi ulipotoka ==Hamasa== Kwa mujibu wa Joel katika mahojiano ya kipindi cha [[Five_(channel)|Channel Five]] anasema wimbo huu aliundika kuhusu uhusiano wake na rafiki yake wa kike ambaye ni mwanamitindo [[Elle Macpherson]], ambaye baadae alikija kuwa mke wa mtoto wake [[Christie Brinkley]].<ref>Channel Five Interview. "[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0KzbWdxgaMI]".</ref> Joel also has said that the song was inspired by the [[Motown]] sound of the early 60s.<ref>Channel Five Interview. "[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0KzbWdxgaMI]".</ref> ==Musiki wa Video== [[Image:Christie Brinkley by David Shankbone (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Christie Brinkley]],mwaka 2007.]] Moja kati ya wahusika katika video hii ya muziki ni [[Christie Brinkley]]. Joel na Brinkley walifunga ndoa mwaka 1985, lakini walipeana talaka mwaka 1994. Wimbo huu haukuwepo katika nyimbo mbalimbali katika tamasha lake lililoitwa "River of Dreams". ==Nafasi katika Chati== {|class="wikitable sortable" !Chart (1983) !Ilipata<br>nafasi |- |Australian [[Kent Music Report]] |align="center"|1 |- |Austrian Singles Chart |align="center"|18 |- |[[Dutch Top 40]] |align="center"|8<ref>[http://members.chello.nl/m.jans1/1983.html Dutch Top 40 1983] {{Wayback|url=http://members.chello.nl/m.jans1/1983.html |date=20090220200639 }}. Retrieved 2009-01-08.</ref> |- |German [[Media Control Charts]] |align="center"|18 |- |Japan [[Oricon|Oricon Singles Chart]] |align="center"|64 |- |Norway Singles Chart |align="center"|3 |- |[[UK Singles Chart]] |align="center"|1 |- |U.S. [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] |align="center"|3 |- |U.S. ''Billboard'' [[Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks]] |align="center"|2 |- |U.S. ''Billboard'' [[Mainstream Rock Tracks]] |align="center"|22 |- |} ==Toleo la Westlife== {{Infobox single | Jina = Uptown Girl | Cover = 200px-9UptownGirl1.jpg | Msanii = [[Westlife]] | Kutoka albamu = [[Coast to Coast (album)|Coast to Coast]] | Tarehe ya kutoka = 5 Machi 2001 | Muundo = [[CD single]] | Aina = [[Pop music|Pop]] | Urefu = 3:06 | Certification = Platinum <small>([[UK]])</small><br/>Gold <small>([[Sweden|SWE]])</small> | Single iliyopita = "[[I Lay My Love on You]]"<br/>(2001) | Single ya sasa = "'''Uptown Girl'''"<br/>(2001) | Single ya baadae = "[[When You're Looking Like That]]"<br/>(2001) }} "Uptown Girl" Uliimbwa kwa mara pili na kundi la Muziki katoka nchini Ireland la [[Westlife]] katika albamu yao ya pili, ya ''[[Coast to Coast (album)|Coast to Coast]]''. Pia wimbo huu ulitolewa na tena kwa mara nyingine kama wimbo wa kufurahisha yaani [[Comic Relief (charity)|Comic Relief]] single ya msaada. Wimbo huu ulikuwa wimbo wa nane kutoka kwa Westlife kufika katika nafasi ya kwanza katika chati ya muziki ya Uingereza na kushika nafasi hiyo kwa kipindi cha wiki moja. Kwa kulinganisha na toleo la Joel ambapo wimbo wake ulifanikiwa kushikilia nafasi ya kwanza kwa takribani kipindi cha wiki tano. Wimbo huu, ulishika nafasi ya 14, katika nyimbo zilizoongoza kwa mauzo kwa katika karne ya 21, nchi Uingereza kwa kuuza nakala 756,215. Ni wimbo wao uliowahi kuuza zaidi nchini Uingereza, na pia uliweza kuuza nakala 292,318, katika wiki ya kwanza. Wimbo huu pia ulishika nafasi ya sita, katika nyimbo zilizoongoza kwa mauzo nchini Uingereza kwa mwaka 2001. Halikadhalika wimbo huu umepata nishani ya Platinum kwa upande wa mauzo nchini Uingereza kwa kufanikiwa kuuza kiasi cha nakala 600,000. ===Mtiririko wa Nyimbo=== ====CD ya nchini Uingereza==== # "Uptown Girl" <small>(Radio Edit)</small> - 3:06 # "Angels Wings" <small>(2001 Remix)</small> - 4:14 # "Enhanced CD-Rom" <small>(With "Uptown Girl" Video)</small> ====CD ya 2==== # "Uptown Girl" <small>(Radio Edit)</small> - 3:06 # "Uptown Girl" <small>(Extended Version)</small> - 5:02 # "Enhanced CD-Rom" ====CD ya Barani Ulaya==== # "Uptown Girl" <small>(Radio Edit)</small> - 3:06 # "Uptown Girl" <small>(Extended Version)</small> - 5:02 # "Angels Wings" - 4:02 # "Close Your Eyes" - 4:32 # "Enhanced CD-Rom" <small>(With "Uptown Girl" Video)</small> ====Nyimbo za Video==== The video for this song was shot in a Cafe setting with [[Claudia Schiffer]] as the title character while [[Robert Bathurst]], [[James Wilby]], [[Ioan Gruffudd]], [[Crispin Bonham-Carter]] and [[Tim McInnerny]] were featured as high class customers. ===Mtiririko wa Matamasha=== {|class="wikitable sortable" !Chati (2001) !Ulipata<br>nafasi |- |Australian [[ARIA Charts|ARIA Singles Chart]] |align="center"|6 |- |Austrian Singles Chart |align="center"|12 |- |- |Belgian Singles Chart |align="center"|5 |- |Denmark Singles Chart |align="center"|2 |- |[[SNEP|French Singles Chart]] |align="center"|8 |- |German [[Media Control Charts]] |align="center"|8 |- |[[Irish Singles Chart]] |align="center"|1 |- |[[Italy|Italian]] Singles Chart |align="center"|10 |- |Japanese [[Oricon|Oricon Singles Chart]] |align="center"|64 |- |Netherlands Singles Chart |align="center"|2 |- |New Zealand [[RIANZ|RIANZ Singles Chart]] |align="center"|4 |- |Norway Singles Chart |align="center"|3 |- |Swedish Singles Chart |align="center"|2 |- |Swiss Singles Chart |align="center"|13 |- |[[UK Singles Chart]] |align="center"|1 |- |align="left"|UK Radio Airplay Chart |align="center"|9 |- |} ====Albamu ya Video==== {{Infobox album | Jina = Uptown Girl | Aina = video | Msanii = [[Westlife]] | Cover = 200px-9UptownGirl1.jpg | Cover size = | Kutoka = 12 Machi 2001 | Kurekodiwa = | Aina = [[Pop music|Pop]] | Urefu = | Lebo = [[Sony BMG]] | Mwongozaji = | Mtengenezaji = | Reviews = | Chronology = | Albamu iliyopita = ''[[Coast to Coast (album)#Video Album|Coast to Coast - Up Close and Personal]]''<br/>(2000) | Albamu ya sasa = '''''Uptown Girl'''''<br/>(2001) | Albamu ya baadae = ''[[Where The Dreams Come True Tour#Live Concert DVD|Where Dreams Come True]]''<br/>(2001) | Misc = }} Albamu ya video ya wimbo huu,ulitoka tarehe 12 march 2001 ambapo uliweza kufika moja kwa moja katika nafasi ya kwanza. ==Waimbaji wengine waliouimba== * Wimbo huu ulishaimbwa na [[The Chipmunks|Alvin and the Chipmunks]] katika mfululizo za nyimbo zao za mwaka 1980. * Wimbp ulioimbwa kwa mara ya pili ulirekodiwa na [[Aaron Carter]] kama mtoto na kaka yake mkubwa aliyeitwa [[Nick Carter (musician)|Nick Carter]] wa kundi la [[Backstreet Boys]] . * Kundi la [[Me First and the Gimme Gimmes]] liliurudia wimbo huo katika albamu yao ya mwaka 197 iliyoitwa ''[[Have a Ball]]''. Toleo lao hukosewa na kufananishwa na wimbo wa [[Weezer]] faili lake katika mtandao. * Mwimbaji wa nchini Ujerumani [[Max Raabe]] na Palast Orchester waliurudia wimbo huo mwaka katika [[cabaret]]/[[big band]] katika albamu yao ya mwaka 2002 2''.<ref>http://www.palastorchester.de/index.php?id=13</ref> * Kundi la [[Tinchy Stryder]] pia waliimba wimbo huo na kushirikiana na [[Wiley_(rapper)|Wiley]]. ==Marejeo== {{Marejeo}} [[Jamii:Nyimbo za Westlife]] [[Jamii:Nyimbo za 1983]] 6xjcufu4lpwafjecsuqf8nwqkwxxgfz 0 34935 1580263 1336618 2026-07-18T02:01:31Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580263 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Geobox | Mto <!-- *** Name section *** --> | name = River Exe | native_name = | other_name = | other_name1 = <!-- *** Image *** ---> | image = Exe estuary from balloon.jpg | image_size = | image_caption = The Exe Estuary from a balloon over Exeter. The M5 motorway is in the foreground, [[Topsham, Devon|Topsham]] on the left bank just beyond, and [[Exmouth, Devon|Exmouth]] at the river mouth. <!-- *** Country etc. *** --> | country = England | state = Devon | state1 = Somerset | state_type = Counties | city = Exeter <!-- *** Geography *** --> | length = | watershed = | discharge_location = Thorverton | discharge_average = 15.89 | discharge_max = 492.6 | discharge_max_note = 4&nbsp;Desemba&nbsp;1960 | discharge_min = 0.44 | discharge_min_note = 27&nbsp;Agosti&nbsp;1976 | discharge1_location = Stoodleigh | discharge1_average = 12.41 | discharge2_location = Pixton | discharge2_average = 4.47 <!-- *** Source *** --> | source_name = Exe Head | source_location = near [[Simonsbath]] | source_district = | source_region = Somerset | source_state = | source_country = England | source_lat_d = 51 | source_lat_m = 09 | source_lat_s = 33 | source_lat_NS = N | source_long_d = 3 | source_long_m = 47 | source_long_s = 12 | source_long_EW = W | source_elevation = 440 | source_length = <!-- *** Mouth *** --> | mouth_name = Lyme Bay | mouth_location = English Channel | mouth_district = | mouth_region = | mouth_state = | mouth_country = | mouth_lat_d = 50 | mouth_lat_m = 36 | mouth_lat_s = 53 | mouth_lat_NS = N | mouth_long_d = 3 | mouth_long_m = 25 | mouth_long_s = 30 | mouth_long_EW = W | mouth_elevation = 0 <!-- *** Tributaries *** --> | tributary_left = River Haddeo | tributary_left1 = River Culm | tributary_left2 = River Clyst | tributary_right = River Barle | tributary_right1 = River Creedy | tributary_right2 = <!-- *** Free fields *** --> | free_name = | free_value = <!-- *** Map section *** --> | map = | map_size = | map_caption = }} [[Picha:ExeEstuaryAtPowderham.jpg|thumb|right|The exe Estuary na Powderham Castle katika background.]] '''Mto Exe''' katika [[Uingereza]] huanza katika [[kijiji]] cha [[Simonsbath]], juu ya [[Exmoor]] katika [[Somerset]], karibu na pwani ya [[mtaro wa Bristol]], lakini lakimi hutiririka kuelekea kusini, hivyo urefu wake huwa katika [[Devon.]] Hufika kwenye bahari kupitia mdomo wa [[exe ]], juu ya kusin ya [[(mtaro wa Uingereza)]] pwani ya Devon. Kihistoria, eneo la chini kabisa la mgawanyiko wake ni [[Exeter]], ingawa sasa kuna kuna njia ya magari ya [[M5 motorway]] 3 [[km]] kusini mwa katikati mwa mji huo. ==Sura== Jina la mto limetokana na neneo la [[Celtic]] ''Isca'' linalomaanisha, ''maji.'' <ref>{{cite book |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-names |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseoxforddic0000ekwa |author=Eilert Ekwall |publisher=OUP |location=Oxford [Eng.] |year=1981 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/conciseoxforddic0000ekwa/page/171 171] |isbn=0 19 869103 3}}</ref> Jina la mto huu limechukuliwa na mji wa Exeter na makazi mengine mengi katika mkondo wake, pamoja na [[Exford, Up exe, Nether exe, Exwick, Exton, Exminster]], na [[Exebridge]], ambapo inajiunga na [[mto Barle.]] Mji ulio pande ya bahari ya [[Exmouth]] uko katika upande wa mashariki ya kinywa cha mto huu, na [[Dawlish Warren]] iko magharibi, pamoja na eneo la mchanga linalopitia juu ya kinywa. Mto huu ulikimbiza ukuaji wa Exeter, na eneo la kwanza la viwanda katika mji huu lilijengwa kwenye [[kisiwa cha exe ]], katika magharibi ya mji. Kisiwa hiki kilikuwa makao ya viwanda vya karatasi na nguo; pia iliunda ardhi yenye thamani kwa njia ya kukausha maeneo ardhi iliyokuwa na maji.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.exetermemories.co.uk/EM/exeter_leats.html |title=Exeter Memories - the Leats of Exeter |publisher=www.exetermemories.co.uk |accessdate=2008-03-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327142444/http://www.exetermemories.co.uk/em/exeter_leats.html |archivedate=2008-03-27 }}</ref> Mawimbi kwenye mto huu huwa machahe katika Countess Wear, eneo la[[weir]] liliteuliwa na [[Countess ya Devon]] katika karne ya 13.<ref name="emcw">{{cite web |url=http://www.exetermemories.co.uk/EM/_areas/countesswear.php |title=Exeter Memories - Countess Wear |publisher=www.exetermemories.co.uk |accessdate=2008-03-12 |archivedate=2008-02-07 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080207000222/http://www.exetermemories.co.uk/EM/_areas/countesswear.php }}</ref> Mataro wa [[Exeter]] hupitia eneo la weir ili kuwawezesha meli kufikia Exeter [[Quay]]. Wakati wa mawimbi, kinywa hiki huwa na maji mengi saba na kutumika kwa michezo inyohusiana na maji. Reli huwa pande zote mbili za kinywa hiki. [[Laini ya Avocet]] kutoka Exeter katika upande wa mashariki wa Exmouth , na [[laini kuu ya Devon Kusini]] magharibi. laini hii huwa katika , [[Ukuta wa Devon Kusini]] kutoka [[Reli ya bahari Powderham]] katika Dawlish Warren. Feri ya Exmouth hadi [[Starcross]] hubeba abiria juu ya kinywa hiki wakati wa miezi ya jua, kuunganisha bandari katika Exmouth na gati katika [[reli ya Starcross]] karibu na [[kituo]] cha laini kuu Devon Kusini . ==Viumbe vya mwituni== Wakati wa mawimbi madogo, [[gorofa]] za [[matope]] huwa kwa wingi, na hizi ni chanzo muhimu cha chakula cha ndege. Pamoja na mitaro mingine [[Uingereza]], Kusini Magharibi na Exe ni muhimu maeneo muhimu ya ndege wa misimu ya baridi. Dawlish Warren ni eneo muhimu la kuwatazama ndege. Mto huu una maji yenye asidi na tauti wa [[kahawia]] mwitu [[trout]] kiwango cha wastani kwa kawaida huwa 8-10 oz. Tofauti na mito ya nchi za Magharibi mito mingi haina trauti wa bahari, samaki. Mita 150 tu chini ya muungano wa Mto Barle ni mojawapo ya eneo bora la samaki bora, na katika mto: Black Pool. ==Oparesheni ya 2008 == Mwaka wa 2008 [[Shirika la Mazingira]] lilianza mradi wa kusafisha mto kutokana na mimea iliyokuwa ikikuwa. Ili kufanya hivyo ngazi ya maji ilipungua hadi ngazi ya chini - maji kidogo yalibaki kuliko ukame uliokuwa katika mji huo. ==Angalia pia== * [[Mito ya Uingereza]] ==Tanbihi== {{Marejeo}} ==Marejeo== * Lawrence, Fimbo: ''The Exe: A River for Wildlife'' Bradford-on-Avon 1999 ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.exetercd.freeservers.com/ExeEstuary.html Picha kutoka exe Estuary, Topsham & Powderham] * [http://www.dawlishwarren.co.uk/ Uhifadhi wa Warren Dawlish ] {{DEFAULTSORT:Exe, mto}} [[Jamii:Mito ya Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Mito ya Somerset]] [[Jamii:Mito ya Devon]] 5gsuicw8cf04frrbhe3ru7dxi3d64z9 0 35059 1580131 1574249 2026-07-18T00:26:57Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 8 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580131 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Gauguin - Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? (1897-98).jpg|thumb|right|355px|''Tumetoka Wapi? Sisi ni Nani? Tunakwenda Wapi?''<br />Mmojawapo kati ya michoro maarufu ya msanii [[Paul Gauguin]] wa kipindi cha baada ya [[uimpreshonisti]].]] '''Maana ya maisha''' ni mojawapo kati ya ma[[suala]] makuu kuhusu [[thamani]], [[madhumuni]] na umuhimu wa [[binadamu]] kuwepo [[duniani]] na wa [[maisha]] kwa jumla. Suala hilo linaweza kujitokeza katika ma[[swali]] mengi tofauti yanayohusiana, kama vile ''Mbona tumekuwepo?'', ''Maisha yanahusu nini?'' na ''Ni nini maana ya haya yote?'' Binadamu anajiuliza maswali kama hayo hasa anapokabiliana na [[kifo]], kwa mfano [[msiba]] wa [[ndugu]] au [[rafiki]]. Limekuwa suala kuu la [[udadisi]] wa [[sayansi]], [[falsafa]] na [[teolojia]] tangu zamani. Kumekuwa na [[idadi]] kubwa ya majibu kwa maswali hayo kutoka asili mbalimbali ki[[itikadi]] na ki[[utamaduni]]. Maana ya maisha imechanganyikana kwa undani na [[dhana]] za falsafa na [[imani]] za [[dini]] na hugusia masuala mengine mengi, kama vile [[ontolojia]], [[tunu]], [[kusudi]], [[maadili]], [[hiari]], uwepo wa [[Mungu]], [[roho]], na kinachoendelea baada ya maisha haya kwisha. Michango ya sayansi kawaida ni ya moja kwa moja na inaeleza [[uhalisia]] kutokana na mambo yanayopimika kuhusu [[ulimwengu]]; sayansi inatoa [[muktadha]] na mipaka kwa mazungumzo kuhusu [[mada]] zinazohusika. Mbadala ni mtazamo wa kifalsafa unaokabili swali: "Ni nini maana ya maisha 'yangu'?" Thamani ya swali linalohusu kusudi la maisha huweza kuwiana na kuupata [[ukweli]] wa mwisho, au [[hisia]] za [[umoja]] na [[utakatifu]]. ==Maswali na marejeo yake== [[File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 038-crop.jpg|thumb|150px|right|''Mwanafalsafa akitafakari'' alivyochorwa na [[msanii]] [[Rembrandt]].]] Maswali kuhusu maana ya maisha yameulizwa kwa njia mbalimbali zenye upana, yakiwemo yafuatayo: *Maana ya maisha ni nini? Nini maana ya haya yote? Sisi ni nani? <ref name="Westphal">{{cite book |author=Jonathan Westphal |title=Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicalpro0000west |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=0415170532}}</ref><ref name="Nozick">{{cite book |author=[[Robert Nozick]] |title=[[Philosophical Explanations]] |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1981 |isbn=0674664795}}</ref><ref name="Jewell">{{cite book |author=Albert Jewell |title=Ageing, Spirituality and Well-Being |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |year=2003 |isbn=184310167X}}</ref><ref name="WITMOL">{{cite web |title=Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning Of Life? |work=[[Philosophy Now]] |publisher=Issue 59 |url=http://www.philosophynow.org/issue59/59question.htm |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref name="Yeffeth">{{cite book |author=Glenn Yeffeth |title=The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy |url=https://archive.org/details/anthologyatendof0000unse |publisher=BenBella Books, Inc |year=2005 |isbn=1932100563}}</ref><ref name="Seaman">{{cite book |author=David Seaman |title=The Real Meaning of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/realmeaningoflif0000unse |publisher=New World Library |year=2005 |isbn=1577315146}}</ref><ref name="Baggini">{{cite book |author=[[Julian Baggini]] |title=What's It All About? Philosophy and the Meaning of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/whatsitallaboutp0000bagg |publisher=Granta Books |month=Septemba | year=2004 |location=USA |isbn=1862076618}} </ref> *Kwa nini tumekuwepo? Sababu ya sisi kuwa hapa ni nini? <ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Thiemann & Placher">{{cite book |author=[[Ronald F. Thiemann]]; William Carl Placher |title=Why Are We Here?: Everyday Questions and the Christian Life |url=https://archive.org/details/whyarewehereever0000unse |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=1998 |isbn=1563382369}}</ref><ref name="Marcellino">{{cite book |author=Dennis Marcellino |title=Why Are We Here?: The Scientific Answer to this Age-old Question (that you don't need to be a scientist to understand) |url=https://archive.org/details/whyareweherescie0000marc |publisher=Lighthouse Pub |year=1996 |isbn=0945272103}}</ref><ref name="Curtiss">{{cite book |author=F. Homer Curtiss |title=Why Are We Here |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=0766138992}}</ref><ref name="Badke">{{cite book |author= William B. Badke |title=The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Meaning of Everything |url= https://archive.org/details/hitchhikersguide00badk |publisher=Kregel Publications |year=2005 |isbn=0825420695}}</ref><ref name="Hua">{{cite book |author=Hsuan Hua |title=Words of Wisdom: Beginning Buddhism |publisher=Dharma Realm Buddhist Association |year=2003 |isbn=0881393029}}</ref> *Asili ya [[uhai]] ni nini? <ref name="Davies">{{cite book |author=[[Paul Davies]] |title=The Fifth Miracle: The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life |publisher=Simon & Schuster |date=Machi 2000 |url=http://www.simonsays.com/content/book.cfm?tab=1&pid=410133 |accessdate=2007-07-26 |isbn=0-684-86309-X}}</ref><ref name="Fadul">{{cite book |author=[[Jose Fadul]] |title=Lessons in Chess, Lessons in Life: Application of the Psychology of the Game in Real Life |publisher=Lulu Press |date= 2008 |isbn=978-0-557-02158-1}}</ref> *Hali ya maisha ni nini? Ukweli ni nini? <ref name="Davies" /><ref name="Christiansen & Baum & Bass-Haugen">{{cite book |author=Charles Christiansen; Carolyn Manville Baum; Julie Bass-Haugen |title=Occupational Therapy: Performance, Participation, and Well-Being |url=https://archive.org/details/occupationalther0000unse_n5j8 |publisher=SLACK Incorporated |year=2005 |isbn=1556425309}}</ref><ref name="Walker">{{cite book |author=[[Evan Harris Walker]] |title=The Physics of Consciousness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life |url=https://archive.org/details/physicsofconscio0000walk |publisher=Perseus Books |year=2000 |isbn=0738204366}}</ref> * Madhumuni ya maisha ya mtu ni nini? <ref name="WITMOL" /><ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Christiansen & Baum & Bass-Haugen" /><ref name="warren">{{cite book |author=[[Rick Warren]] |title=[[The Purpose Driven Life|The Purpose Driven Life: What on Earth Am I Here For?]] |publisher=Zondervan |year=2002 |isbn=0310255252}}</ref><ref name="Krishnamurti">{{cite book |author=[[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] |title=What Are You Doing With Your Life? |url=https://archive.org/details/whatareyoudoingw0000kris |publisher=Krishnamurti Foundation of America |year=2001 |isbn=188800424X}}</ref> *Maana ya maisha ni nini? <ref name="Krishnamurti" /> *Cha maana na cha thamani maishani ni nini? <ref name="Fadul" /><ref name="UIUC">{{cite web |last=Puolimatka |first=Tapio |coauthors=Airaksinen, Timo |title=Education and the Meaning of Life |work=Philosophy of Education |publisher=[[University of Helsinki]] |date=2002 |url=http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-26 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926154148/http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-Yearbook/2001/tapio%2001.pdf |archivedate=2007-09-26 }}</ref> *Thamani ya maisha ni nini? <ref name="Fadul" /><ref name="Van Hooft">{{cite book |author=Stan Van Hooft |title=Life, Death, and Subjectivity: Moral Sources in Bioethics |url=https://archive.org/details/lifedeathsubject0000hoof |publisher=Rodopi |year=2004 |isbn=9042019123}}</ref> *Sababu ya kuishi ni nini? Kwa nini tunaishi? <ref name="Hua" /><ref name="Fadul" /><ref name="Shafer-Landau & Cuneo">{{cite book |author=Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo |title=Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781405129510 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2007 |isbn=1405129514}}</ref> ==Uchunguzi wa kisayansi== [[File:DNA Overview.png|thumb|left|140px|[[DNA]] ambayo ina maelekezo ya ki[[jenitikia]] kwa ajili ya [[maendeleo]] na [[utendaji]] wa [[uhai|viumbe hai vyote]].]] Kwamba [[sayansi]] inaweza kutusaidia kuelewa zaidi masuala ya msingi (kama vile maana ya maisha) inazua mabishano mengi katika jamii za sayansi na [[falsafa ya sayansi]]. Hata hivyo, sayansi inaweza kutupa muktadha fulani na huyaweka mipaka kadhaa mazungumzo kuhusu mada kama hizo. ===Umuhimu wa kisaikolojia na thamani katika maisha=== Sayansi huenda ikashindwa kutuambia nini ni cha thamani maishani, lakini baadhi ya [[fani]] zake hugusia maswali yanayohusiana: watafiti katika [[saikolojia chanya]] hutafuta sababu zinazoleta hali ya ndani ya 'kuridhika na maisha',<ref>E. Diener, J.J. Sapyta, E. Suh (1998). "Subjective Well-Being Is Essential to Well-Being." ''Psychological Inquiry'', Lawrence Earlbaum</ref> kujihusisha kikamilifu katika shughuli,<ref>Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). ''Flow: The Balls of Optimal Experience''. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-092043-2.</ref> kutoa mchango mkubwa zaidi kwa kutumia [[vipawa]] vya binafsi,<ref>Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin (2004). ''Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516701-5.</ref><ref>Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). ''Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment.'' New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-2297-0 (Paperback edition, 2004, Free Press, ISBN 0-7432-2298-9)</ref>n.k. Aina moja ya mfumo wa thamani iliyopendekezwa na [[wataalamu]] wa [[elimunafsia ya jamii]], iitwayo kwa upana "Nadharia ya Kupambana na Mambo ya Kutisha", inasema kwamba maana yote ya binadamu inatokana na [[hofu]] ya msingi ya [[kifo]], ambapo maadili yanachaguliwa yanapotusaidia kuepukana na kumbukumbu ya kifo. [[Sayansi]] ya [[nyurolojia]] imetunga [[nadharia]] ya [[malipo]], [[raha]] na [[msukumo]] katika masuala ya ki[[mwili]] kama shughuli za kupitisha [[ujumbe za kinyuro]]. Ikiwa mtu anaamini kwamba maana ya maisha ni kufanya raha ziwe nyingi iwezekanavyo, basi nadharia zinatoa [[utabiri]] unaozidi kuongezeka, kuhusu jinsi ya kufanya ili kufanikisha hilo. [[Somo la kijamii]] linapima thamani katika ngazi ya kijamii kwa kubuni nadharia kama vile nadharia ya thamani kanuni n.k. ===Asili na hali ya maisha kibiolojia=== Nadharia ya [[mageuko ya spishi]] haijaribu kuelezea asili ya [[uhai]], bali [[mchakato]] ambao viumbe tofauti vimepitia katika kipindi chote cha [[historia]] ya [[dunia]] kupitia [[mabadiliko ya ghafla ya kijenetikia]] na [[uteuzi wa kiasili]]<ref>[[Charles Darwin]] (1859). ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.</ref> Mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 20]], kwa kuzingatia ufahamu wa mabadiliko ya [[viumbehai]] unaotegemea [[jeni]] hasa, [[wanabiolojia]] [[George C. Williams]], [[Richard Dawkins]], [[David Haig]] na wengineo, walihitimisha kwamba ikiwa kuna kazi msingi ya maisha, ni kujinakilisha kwa [[DNA]] na kuendelea kuwa hai kwa jeni za mtu.<ref name="Dawkins selfish gene">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[The Selfish Gene]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |isbn=019857519X}}</ref><ref name="Dawkins river">{{cite book |author=[[Richard Dawkins]] |title=[[River out of Eden]] |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |year=1995 |isbn=0-465-06990-8}}</ref> Ingawa [[wanasayansi]] wameyachunguza maisha yalivyo [[duniani]], kuyafafanua bayana bado ni changamoto.<ref>[http://www.astrobio.net/news/article226 Astrobiology Magazine: Defining Life]</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html |title=Defining Life, Explaining Emergence<!-- Bot generated title --> |accessdate=2010-01-15 |archivedate=2012-03-14 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314095044/http://www.nbi.dk/~emmeche/cePubl/97e.defLife.v3f.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Schrödinger | first = Erwin | title = What is Life? | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1944 | isbn = 0-521-42708-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Margulis | first = Lynn | coauthors = Sagan, Dorion | title = What is Life? | url = https://archive.org/details/whatislife0000marg | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-520-22021-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Lovelock | first = James | title = Gaia – a New Look at Life on Earth | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-19-286218-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Avery | first = John | title = Information Theory and Evolution | url = https://archive.org/details/informationtheor0000aver | publisher = World Scientific | year = 2003 | isbn = 9812383999}}</ref> [[Wanabiolojia]] kwa jumla wanakubaliana kwamba viumbe mbalimbali ni mifumo inayojipanga inayosimamia mazingira ya ndani ili kudumisha hali hii ya mpango, shughuli za kimetaboli hutumika kutoa nishati, na [[uzazi]] unaruhusu uhai kuendelea kwa vizazi vingi. Kwa kawaida, [[umbile]] huwa sikivu kwa [[uchochezi]] na habari za kijenetikia, hivyo huelekea kubadilika kutoka [[kizazi]] hadi kizazi ili kuruhusu marekebisho kupitia mabadiliko ya mwili. Sifa hizo huongeza nafasi ya kuishi ya kiumbe binafsi na wazao wake kwa mtiririko huo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm |title=How to Define Life |accessdate=2008-10-17 |last=Davison |first=Paul G. |publisher=The University of North Alabama |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101024755/http://www2.una.edu/pdavis/BI%20101/Overview%20Fall%202004.htm |archivedate=2008-11-01 }}</ref><ref>Witzany, G. (2007). The Logos of the Bios 2. Bio-Communication. Helsinki, Umweb.</ref> Viwakala visivyokuwa vya [[seli]] vinavyozaana, hasa [[virusi]], kwa jumla havitazamwi kama viumbehai kwa sababu haviwezi kuzaana kwa "kujitegemea" au kuendesha shughuli za kimetaboliki. [[Pambano]] hilo ni tatizo, ingawa baadhi ya [[vimelea]] na visimbayonti vya ndani ya mwili pia vinaweza kuishi kwa kujitegemea. [[Astrobiolojia]] inajihusisha na uwezekano wa kuwa na aina tofauti ya [[viumbe hai]] katika [[ulimwengu]] mwingine, kama vile miundo ya kujinakilisha kutoka vifaa vingine visivyo DNA. ===Asili na hatima ya ulimwengu=== [[File:CMB Timeline300 no WMAP.jpg|right|268px|thumb|[[Upanuzi wa kimetriki wa nafasi]]. Enzi ya kupanda ni kupanuka kwa kivuto cha kimetriki kilichoko upande wa kushoto.]] Ingawa dhana ya [[Mlipuko mkuu]] ilipotolewa mara ya kwanza ilipambana na [[shaka]] kwa wingi, pia kutokana na uhusiano na imani ya dini ya [[uumbaji]], baadaye imekuja kuungwa mkono na [[uchunguzi]] kadhaa wa kujitegemea.<ref>{{cite book | author = Helge Kragh | title = Cosmology and Controversy | url = https://archive.org/details/cosmologycontrov00helg | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1996 | isbn=069100546X}}</ref> Hata hivyo, [[fizikia]] ya sasa inaweza kuelezea tu ulimwengu ulivyokuwa mapema, [[sekunde]] 10 baada ya kutokea. [[Wanafizikia]] wengi wamedadisi nini inaweza kuwa imetangulia, na jinsi ulimwengu ulivyoanza.<ref name="Prantzos & Lyle">{{cite book |author=Nikos Prantzos; Stephen Lyle |title=Our Cosmic Future: Humanity's Fate in the Universe |url=https://archive.org/details/ourcosmicfutureh0000pran |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=052177098X}}</ref> Baadhi ya wanafizikia hudhani kuwa Mlipuko mkuu ulitokea kwa [[bahati]] tu, pamoja na uwepo wa ulimwengu maridhawa.<ref name="Edwards">{{cite book |author=Rem B. Edwards |title=What Caused the Big Bang? |url=https://archive.org/details/whatcausedbigban0000edwa |publisher=Rodopi |year=2001 |isbn=9042014075}}</ref> Hata hivyo, haijalishi jinsi ulimwengu ulivyokuja kuwepo, hatima ya binadamu katika ulimwengu huu ni [[maangamizi]] kwani - hata kama ubinadamu utaishi muda mrefu - uhai wa kibiolojia hatimaye yatashindwa kujiendeleza.<ref name="Prantzos & Lyle" /> ===Maswali ya sayansi kuhusu akili=== Hali ya kweli na asili ya [[fahamu]] na [[akili]] yenyewe pia vinajadiliwa sana katika sayansi. Suala la [[hiari]] pia linaonekana kuwa na umuhimu wa msingi. Masuala hayo hupatikana zaidi katika nyanja za [[sayansi koginitivu]], [[nyurolojia]] na [[falsafa ya akili]], ingawa baadhi ya wanabiolojia wa [[maendeleo ya uhai]] na [[wanafizikia wa kinadharia]] pia wameliashiria sana suala hilo.<ref name="Whitehouse">{{cite book |author=Harvey Whitehouse |title=The Debated Mind: Evolutionary Psychology Versus Ethnography |url=https://archive.org/details/debatedmindevolu0000unse |publisher=Berg Publishers |year=2001 |isbn=1859734278}}</ref><ref name="Gray">{{cite book |author=[[Jeffrey Alan Gray]] |title=Consciousness: Creeping Up on the Hard Problem |url=https://archive.org/details/conciousnesscree0000jeff |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0198520905}}</ref><ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper">{{cite book |author=[[John D. Barrow]]; [[Paul Davies|Paul C. W. Davies]]; Charles L. Harper |title=Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology and Complexity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=052183113X}}</ref><ref name="Barrow, Davies, Harper" /> mara nyingi zikijumuisha idadi kubwa ya mitazamo ya ziada.<ref name="Millay, Heinze">{{cite book |author=Jean Millay; Ruth-Inge Heinze |title=Multidimensional Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace |url=https://archive.org/details/multidimensional0000mill |publisher=North Atlantic Books |year=1999 |isbn=1556433069}}</ref> [[File:Ascent of the Blessed.jpg|125px|right|thumb|''Kuinuka kwa Watakatifu'' ni [[picha]] iliyochorwa na [[msanii]] [[Hieronymus Bosch]]. Inaonyesha sehemu inayofanana na [[pango]] lenye [[mwanga]] na watu wa kiroho, mara nyingi hutajwa katika ripoti za waliokikaribia kifo.]] Mbinu nyingine, kwa vile Mfano wa Rasimu Nyingi, hudai kwamba fahamu inaweza kuelezwa kikamilifu na nyurolojia, kupitia utendaji kazi wa [[ubongo]] na [[nyuroni]] zake.<ref name="Gray" /><ref name="Churchland">{{cite book |author=[[Paul Churchland|Paul M. Churchland]] |title=A Neurocomputational Perspective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science |url=https://archive.org/details/neurocomputation0000paul |publisher= MIT Press |year=1989 |isbn=0262531062}}</ref><ref name="Dennett">{{cite book |author=[[Daniel Dennett|Daniel Clement Dennett]] |title=[[Consciousness Explained]] |publisher=Little, Brown and Co. |year=1991 |isbn=0316180661}}</ref> Nadharia za [[sumakuumeme]] za fahamu zinasema eneo la sumakuumeme linalotokana na [[ubongo]] ndilo hasa linalobeba [[fahamu zoefu]]. Hata hivyo kuna kutokubaliana kuhusu kutekelezwa kwa nadharia kama hiyo inayohusu utendaji kazi kwingine kwa akili.<ref>J. McFadden (2002) "[http://www.mindcontrolforums.com/news/electromagnetic-field-theory-of-consciousness.htm Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mindcontrolforums.com/news/electromagnetic-field-theory-of-consciousness.htm |date=20051218171922 }}". ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'' '''9''' (4) pp. 23-50.</ref><ref name="Buccheri & Di Gesù & Saniga">{{cite book |author=R. Buccheri; V. Di Gesù; Metod Saniga |title=Studies on the Structure of Time: From Physics to Psycho(patho)logy |publisher=Springer |year=2000 |isbn=030646439X}}</ref> Nadharia za akili za ki[[kwontamu]] hutumia [[nadharia ya kwontamu]] kuelezea baadhi ya sifa za akili. <ref name="Bohm & Hiley">{{cite book |author=[[David Bohm]]; Basil J. Hiley |title=The Undivided Universe: An Ontological Interpretation of Quantum Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1993 |isbn=0415065887}}</ref><ref name="Bruce">{{cite book |author=Alexandra Bruce |title=Beyond the Bleep: The Definitive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know!? |url=https://archive.org/details/beyondbleep00alex |publisher=The Disinformation Company |year=2005 |isbn=1932857222}}</ref><ref name="Bohm & Hiley" /><ref name="Libet, Freeman, Sutherland">{{cite book |author=Benjamin Libet; Anthony Freeman; Keith Sutherland |title=The Volitional Brain: Towards a Neuroscience of Free Will |url=https://archive.org/details/volitionalbraint0000unse |publisher=Imprint Academic |year=1999 |isbn=0907845118}}</ref> Ikitegemea hoja ya maelezo ya akili yasiyoweza kugusika, baadhi ya watu wamependekeza uwepo wa [[fahamu ya kikosmiki]], wakidai kwamba fahamu kwa kweli ndiyo "msingi wa yote kuwepo".<ref name="Walker"/><ref name="Bruce" /><ref name="Ho">{{cite book |author=[[Mae-Wan Ho]] |title=The Rainbow and the Worm: The Physics of Organisms |url=https://archive.org/details/rainbowwormphysi0000maew |publisher=World Scientific |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/rainbowwormphysi0000maew/page/218 218]–231 |isbn=9810234279}}</ref> Wanaounga mkono mtazamo huo wanaelezea matukio yasiyo ya kawaida, hasa uwezo wa kuhisi usio wa kawaida na uwezo wa kuyasoma mawazo, kama [[ushahidi]] wa uwepo wa fahamu ya juu isiyoeleweka. Ili kuthibitisha uwepo wa mambo hayo yasiyo ya kawaida, wana[[elimunafsia]] wa mambo yasiyo ya kawaida wamefanya ma[[jaribio]] mbalimbali. Uchambuzi unaoangalia mambo yote yaliyopo unaonyesha kuwa [[asilimia]] ya wenye nguvu zisizo za kawaida (ingawa ndogo sana) imebaki thabiti.<ref name=Radnin97>{{cite book |last=Radin |first=Dean |authorlink = |title=The Conscious Universe: The Scientific Truth of Psychic Phenomena |url=https://archive.org/details/consciousunivers00radi_0 |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1997 |isbn=0062515020}}</ref> Ingawa baadhi ya [[wachambuzi wakosoaji]] wanahisi somo la [[elimunafsia isiyo ya kawaida]] kuwa sayansi, hawaridhishwi na matokeo ya majaribio yake.<ref name=Alcock03>{{cite journal |last=Alcock |first=James E. |authorlink= |coauthors=Jahn, Robert G. |title=Give the Null Hypothesis a Chance |journal=Journal of Consciousness Studies |volume=10 |issue=6-7 |pages=29–50 |year=2003 |url=http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Alcock-editorial.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30 |archive-date=2007-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810173433/http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Alcock-editorial.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name=Hyman>{{cite journal |last=Hyman |first=Ray |title=Evaluation of the program on anomalous mental phenomena |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |volume=59 |issue=1 |year=1995 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600 |accessdate=2007-07-30 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120709142606/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600/ |archivedate=2012-07-09 |=https://archive.today/20120709142606/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n4_v59/ai_18445600/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Wanaochunguza mambo haya upya, wanabaki na [[wasiwasi]] kwamba matokeo yanayoonekana kuwa na mafanikio huenda yakawa yanatokana na [[utaratibu]] mbaya, na watafiti wasiokuwa na mafunzo ya kutosha, au mbinu hafifu.<ref name=Akers>{{cite paper |author=Akers, C. |title=Methodological Criticisms of Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |year=1986 |url=http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances4/7_Methodological_Criticisms.html |accessdate=2007-07-30 |journal= |archive-date=2007-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223348/http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances4/7_Methodological_Criticisms.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite paper |author=Child, I.L. |title=Criticism in Experimental Parapsychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 5 |publisher=PesquisaPSI |year=1987 |url=http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html |accessdate=2007-07-30 |journal= |archive-date=2007-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223410/http://www.pesquisapsi.com/books/advances5/6_Criticism_in_Experimental.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Wiseman |first=Richard |authorlink= |coauthors=Smith, Matthew, et al. |title=Exploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments - Psychophysical Research Laboratories |journal=The Journal of Parapsychology |year=1996 |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809 |accessdate=2007-07-30 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120709230555/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2320/is_n2_v60/ai_18960809/ |archivedate=2012-07-09 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lobach |first=E. |coauthors=Bierman, D. |title=The Invisible Gaze: Three Attempts to Replicate Sheldrake's Staring Effects |work=Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention |url=http://www.parapsych.org/papers/07.pdf |year=2004 |pages=77–90 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-30 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810173433/https://www.parapsych.org/papers/07.pdf |archivedate=2007-08-10 }}</ref> ==Mitazamo ya kifalsafa== Mitazamo ya falsafa kuhusu maana ya maisha ni [[itikadi]] ambazo huelezea maisha kupitia suala la maadili au dhana zinazofafanuliwa na binadamu. ===Falsafa za Kale za Ugiriki=== [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|160px|right|Plato na Aristotle katika ''[[Shule ya Athene]]'', [[mchoro wa ukutani]] wa [[msanii]] [[Raffaello]].]] ====Uplato==== [[Plato]] alikuwa mmoja wa [[wanafalsafa]] wa mwanzo, na mwenye ushawishi mwingi hadi leo, hasa kwa uhalisia kuhusu uwepo wa malimwengu. Katika [[Nadharia ya Maumbo]], malimwengu hayapo kimwili, lakini yapo katika maumbo ya ki[[mbingu]]. Katika ''[[Jamhuri ya Plato|Jamhuri]]'' mazungumzo ya [[mhusika]] wa [[mwalimu]] wake [[Sokrates]] yanaelezea Umbo la Zuri, jambo la kimaadili, hali kamili ya [[uzuri]], hivyo basi kipimo cha ujumla cha [[haki]]. Katika falsafa ya Plato, maana ya maisha ni kufikia umbo la juu zaidi la [[elimu]], ambalo ni Umbo la Zuri, ambapo mambo yote mema na ya haki yanatoa umuhimu na thamani. Binadamu wana [[wajibu]] wa kuyatekeleza mazuri, lakini hakuna yeyote anayeweza kufanikiwa katika [[harakati]] hiyo bila fikira za kifalsafa, ambazo zinaruhusu elimu ya kweli. ====Uaristoteli==== [[Aristotle]], [[mwanafunzi]] wa [[Plato]], alikuwa mwanafalsafa mwingine wa mapema, mwenye ushawishi mkubwa, ambaye alisema kuwa maarifa ya maadili si ya ''hakika'' kama [[metafizikia]] na [[somo la maarifa]], lakini ni ''maarifa ya kijumla''. Kwa sababu si [[fani]] ya kinadharia, inambidi mtu asome na afanye mazoezi ili awe 'mzuri', kwa hiyo mtu angekuwa [[mwema]], hangeweza kusoma tu [[fadhila]] ni nini, ingembidi awe na fadhila, kupitia juhudi za kiadili. Kufanya hili, Aristotle alifafanua kitendo kilicho cha fadhila: "Kila tajriba na kila swali, na vilevile kila tendo na chaguo la tendo, linadhaniwa kuwa na uzuri fulani kama lengo lake. Ndiyo sababu lile zuri limefafanuliwa ifaavyo kama lengo la bidii yote [...]<br>Kila kitu hufanywa na lengo, na lengo hilo ni "zuri". ([[Maadili ya Kinikomakea]] 1.1). Hata hivyo, ikiwa kitendo A kinafanyika ili kufikia lengo B, kisha lengo B pia litakuwa na lengo (lengo C), na lengo C pia litakuwa na lengo, hivyo muundo huo utaendelea mpaka kitu kiusimamishe. [[Suluhisho]] la Aristotle ni ''[[Wema mkuu]]'', ambao ni wa kuwaniwa kwa ajili yake pekee, ni lengo lake lenyewe. Wema mkuu hauwaniwi kwa ajili ya kufikia mema mengine, na mema yote yanawaniwa kwa ajili yake. Hili linahusisha kufikia "[[eudemonia]]", ambayo kwa kawaida hutafsiriwa kama "furaha", "ustawi", "kutokosa chochote muhimu", na "ubora". ====Falsafa ya Shaka==== Katika [[Ugiriki ya Kale]] [[wanafalsafa wa shaka]] walisema kuwa lengo la maisha ni kuishi kwa fadhila yanayowiana na [[viumbe]] wengine. Furaha inatokana na kujitegemea na kuusimamia mtazamo wa kiakili; mateso yanatokana na maamuzi ya [[uongo]] kuhusu thamani, ambayo husababisha hisia mbaya na tabia ya [[uhasama]]. Maisha ya shaka yanakataa tamaa za kawaida za [[mali]], [[nguvu]], [[afya]], na [[umaarufu]], kwa kuwa huru kutoka vitu vinavyopatikana katika kuyatafuta ya kawaida.<ref>Kidd, I., "''Cynicism''," in ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy.'' (ed. [[J. O. Urmson]] and [[Jonathan Rée]]), Routledge. (2005)</ref><ref>Long, A. A., "''The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics,''" in ''The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy.'' (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).</ref> Kama viumbe wenye [[uwezo wa kufikiria]], watu wanaweza kufanikisha furaha kupitia mafunzo kabambe, kwa kuishi katika njia iliyo ya kiasili kwao. [[Dunia]] ni ya kila mtu kwa kiwango sawa, hivyo [[mateso]] yanasababishwa na uamuzi wa uongo kuhusu kile ambacho ni cha thamani na kile ambacho hakina maana kulingana na [[tamaduni]] na itikadi za [[jamii]]. ====Ukurene==== Falsafa ya [[Ukurene]], iliyoanzishwa na [[Aristipo wa Kurene]], ilikuwa [[shule]] ya zamani ya [[sokrates|Kisokrate]] iliyotia maanani upande mmoja tu wa mafundisho ya Sokrates - kwamba furaha ni tokeo la mwisho la hatua za kimaadili na kwamba radhi ni zuri kuu; hivyo basi mtazamo wa dunia wa kuipenda raha pekee ambapo kutimiza tamaa za mwili ni za faida kuliko radhi ya akili. Wakurene walipendelea kutimiza tamaa haraka kuliko faida inayopatikana baada ya kusubiri kipindi kirefu; kunyimwa ni huzuni mbaya.<ref>"Cyrenaics." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The University of Tennessee At Martin. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/>.</ref><ref>"The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism." Hedonism.org. BLTC. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.hedonism.org {{Wayback|url=http://www.hedonism.org/ |date=20200522152806 }}>.</ref> ====Uepikuro==== [[File:Epicurus Louvre.jpg|left|thumb|132px|Mchongo wa [[Epikuro]] akimuegemea [[mwanafunzi]] wake Metrodorus katika [[makavazi]] ya [[Louvre]].]] Kwa [[Epikuro]], jambo zuri kuliko yote ni kutafuta raha za wastani, kupata [[utulivu]] na kuwa huru kutoka hofu (“ataraxia”) kupitia maarifa, [[urafiki]] na [[wema]], kuishi kwa kujichunga; maumivu ya kimwili (“aponia”) hayapo kupitia maarifa ya mtu kuhusu hali ya dunia na mipaka ya matamanio ya mtu. Vikiwa pamoja, uhuru kutoka maumivu na uhuru kutoka hofu ndiyo furaha kuu. Kukusifu kwake kufurahia [[anasa]] ambazo hazijapita kiasi kunakaribia dhana ya "kujiepusha" na raha zote kama vile [[ngono]] na anasa: <blockquote>Tunaposema... kuwa radhi ndio mwisho na lengo, hatumaanishi raha za upotevu au raha za kimwili, jinsi tunavyoeleweka na wachache kwa ujinga, ubaguzi au udanganyifu wa makusudi. Tukisema radhi tunamaanisha kutokuwepo kwa maumivu mwilini na taabu katika nafsi. Si kwa mfululizo wa [[ulevi]] na kuponda raha, si kwa tamaa ya ngono, wala kufurahia utamu wa [[samaki]], na vyakula vingine vitamu kutoka [[meza]] iliyojaa vinono, ambavyo huzalisha maisha mazuri; ni fikira za kimakini, kutafuta nje ya misingi ya kila uchaguzi na kuepuka, na kuikataa mitazamo ambayo hufanya shida kubwa kuichukua nafsi.<ref>Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, ''Lives of Eminent Philosophers'', Book X</ref></blockquote> Maana ya Kiepikuro ya maisha inakanusha kutokufa na dhana ya maisha mengine mbali na haya ya duniani; kuna nafsi, lakini inaweza kufa kama mwili. Hakuna maisha baada ya kifo, ingawa mtu hatakiwi kuogopa kifo, kwa sababu "Kifo si chochote kwetu, kwani yale ambao hunywea, ni bila hisia, na kile ambacho hakina hisia si chochote kwetu."<ref name="Russel">[[Bertrand Russell]] (1946). ''[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|A History of Western Philosophy]]'', New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George Allen and Unwin</ref> ====Falsafa ya uvumilivu==== [[Falsafa ya uvumilivu]] hufunza kwamba kuishi kulingana na fikira njema ni kuwa katika uwiano na mpango wa ulimwengu wa Kimungu, unaotokana na mtu kufahamu ''[[logos]]'', ''fikira'' ya ulimwengu wote, thamani muhimu inayopatikana kwa wote. Maana ya maisha ni ''uhuru kutoka mateso'' (kwa [[Kigiriki]]: απαθεια, ''apatheia ''). Mashauri ya moja kwa moja ya falsafa ya uvumilivu ni fadhila, fikira na [[sheria ya kimaumbile]], zinazojumuisha kuendeleza kujidhibiti kibinafsi na [[ujasiri]] wa kiakili kama njia za kuzishinda [[hisia haribifu]]. Mwenye kuifuata falsafa ya uvumilivu hanuii kuzizima hisia, bali kuepuka shida za kihisia, kwa kuendeleza uamuzi wazi na utulivu wa ndani kupitia uzoefu makini wa kimantiki, kutafakari, na kuziweka fikira pamoja. Msingi wa kimaadili wa falsafa ya uvumilivu ni kuwa "zuri liko katika hali ya nafsi", yenyewe inaonyeshwa katika [[hekima]] na kujidhibiti, hivyo kuboresha ustawi wa kiroho: "Fadhila" inatokana na "nia" ambayo inawiana na maumbile."<ref name="Russel" /> Kanuni inatumika katika uhusiano wa kibinafsi, yaani: "kuwa huru kutokana na hasira na wivu".<ref name="Russel" /> ===Falsafa ya Mwangaza=== [[Falsafa ya Mwangaza|Enzi ya Kutaalamika]] na ile ya [[ukoloni]] zote [[mbili]] zilibadilisha hali ya falsafa ya [[Ulaya]] na kuieneza [[dunia]]ni kote. [[Ibada]] na kumnyenyekea [[Mungu]] viligeuka kuwa dhana za [[haki za binadamu]] zisizoweza kunyimwa na dhana ya uwezo wake mkuu wa kifikira. Maadili ya ulimwengu mzima ya [[upendo]] na [[huruma]] yaligeuka dhana za kiraia za [[uhuru]], [[usawa]], na [[uraia]]. Maana ya maisha pia yalibadilika, ikiacha kidogo kuhimiza uhusiano na Mungu na kusisitiza uhusiano kati ya watu binafsi na jamii yao. Kipindi hicho kilijaa nadharia zinazolinganisha kuwepo kwa maana na utaratibu wa kijamii. ====Uhuru kutoka mipango ya kiuchumi ya jamii==== Uhuru kutoka mipango ya kiuchumi ya kijamii ni seti ya mawazo yaliyoibuka katika [[karne za 17]] na [[karne ya 18|18]], kwa sababu ya migogoro iliyochukua nafasi kubwa barani Ulaya kati ya waliozidi kuwa ma[[tajiri]], pamoja na utaratibu wa viongozi matajiri, na watu wa dini. Uhuru kutoka mipango ya kiuchumi ya kijamii ulionyesha binadamu kama viumbe wenye [[haki]] walizozaliwa nazo na wasizowezwa kunyimwa (pamoja na haki ya mtu kubaki na [[mali]] inayotokana na kazi yake binafsi), na ulitafuta mbinu za kupima haki kuwa sawa katika jamii yote. Kijumla, [[uhuru binafsi]] ulitazamwa kuwa lengo kuu,<ref>A: "'Liberalism' is defined as a social ethic that advocates liberty, and equality in general." – [[C. A. J. (Tony) Coady]] ''Distributive Justice'', A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.440. B: "Liberty is not a means to a higher political end. It is itself the highest political end." – [[John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton|Lord Acton]]</ref> kwa sababu ya kudhani kwamba kupitia hakikisho la uhuru tu haki nyingine zilizojikita kwa ndani zitakapolindwa. Kuna aina nyingi za dhana ya uhuru kutoka mipango ya kiuchumi ya kijamii, lakini dhana zao kuu kuhusu maana ya maisha zinaambatana na dhana tatu za msingi. Wanafalsafa wa awali kama vile [[John Locke]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] na [[Adam Smith]] waliona binadamu akianza katika hali ya kimaumbile, kisha akitafuta maana kupitia [[ajira]] na mali, na kutumia [[mkataba wa kijamii|mikataba ya kijamii]] ili kujenga mazingira ambayo yanasaidia juhudi hizo. ====Ukanti==== [[File:Immanuel Kant (portrait).jpg|right|125px|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]] anafahamika kama mmoja wa wanafalsafa wenye ushawishi mwingi zaidi katika kipindi cha mwisho cha [[Enzi ya Kutaalamika|Kutaalamika]].]] [[Ukanti]] ni falsafa iliyo na msingi katika [[maandishi]] ya kimaadili, ya [[somo la maarifa]] na ya ki[[metafizikia]] ya [[Immanuel Kant]]. Kant anajulikana kwa [[nadharia ya uwajibikaji]] ambayo msingi ni wajibu mmoja wa kimaadili, "dhana ya lazima bila kujalisha", inayotokana na dhana ya [[uwajibikaji]]. Wakanti wanaamini kuwa vitendo vyote vinafanywa kulingana na lengo au kanuni fulani isiyobainika wazi, na kuwa ili vitendo viwe adili, ni lazima viambatane na dhana ya lazima bila kujalisha. Kifupi, [[mtihani]] ni kwamba lazima mmoja afanye lengo litumike ulimwenguni kote, kisha angalia kama bado itawezekana kulitekeleza duniani. Katika [[kitabu]] chake, ''Kazi ya msingi'', Kant anatoa mfano wa mtu ambaye anataka kukopa [[pesa]] bila nia ya kuzirudisha. Huu ni utata kwa sababu kama ingalikuwa hatua ya wote ulimwenguni, hakuna mtu ambaye angemkopesha mwingine, tena kwani yeye angejua kwamba hangerudishiwa pesa hizo. Lengo la hatua hii, anasema Kant, linaleta matokeo ya mkanganyiko katika matazamio (na hivyo linapingana na wajibu kamili). Kant pia alikanusha kwamba matokeo ya tendo huchangia kwa njia yoyote thamani ya kimaadili ya tendo, hoja yake ikiwa kwamba ulimwengu wa kimwili upo nje ya udhibiti kamili wa mtu na hivyo mtu hawezi kuwajibika kwa matukio yanayofanyika hapo. ===Falsafa za [[karne ya 19]]=== ====Falsafa ya faida==== [[File:Jeremy Bentham by Henry William Pickersgill detail.jpg|right|thumb|120px|Jeremy Bentham]] Asili ya [[falsafa ya faida]] inaweza kurudi nyuma sana hadi [[Epikuro]], lakini, kama shule ya mawazo, inahusishwa na [[Jeremy Bentham]],<ref>Rosen, Frederick (2003). ''Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill''. Routledge, pg. 28. ISBN 0415220947 "It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice."</ref> ambaye aligundua kuwa ''asili imemweka mtu chini ya utawala wa mabwana wawili wa kujitegemea, maumivu na raha''. Basi, kutokana na busara hiyo ya kimaadili, na kuiunda ''Sheria ya Utumizi'', ''kwamba wema ni chochote ambacho huleta furaha nyingi zaidi kwa idadi kubwa zaidi ya watu''. Alifafanua maana ya maisha kama "kanuni ya furaha nyingi zaidi". [[Jeremy Bentham]] aliungwa mkono sana na [[James Mill]], mwanafalsafa muhimu katika siku zake, na baba yake [[John Stuart Mill]]. Mill mdogo alifunzwa kulingana na kanuni za Bentham, pamoja na kunakili na kufupisha maandishi mengi ya baba yake.<ref name="Mill">Mill, John Stuart. 'On Liberty', ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, Ed.'s introduction, p.11.</ref> ====Umaksi==== Kulingana na [[Umaksi]] na [[Ukomunisti]], maana ya maisha ni kutumikiana katika [[amani]] na kwa [[uadilifu]] kama wanadamu walio sawa na wenye haki. ====Ubatilivyote==== [[Ubatilivyote]] ni falsafa inayokataa madai kuwa yeyote ana [[maarifa]] na ukweli, na hivyo inapeleleza umuhimu wa kuishi bila ukweli unaoweza kujulikana. Badala ya kusisitiza kwamba maadili yanabadilika kulingana na mtu, na huenda yasipewe sababu, [[mbatilivyote]] anasema: "Hakuna kitu chenye thamani", maadili hayana thamani, hutumika tu kama maadili bandii ya jamii. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] aliutambulisha ubatilivyote kama kuifanya dunia kuwa tupu, hasa kuhusu uwepo wa binadamu, wa maana, wa kusudi, wa ukweli wa kueleweka, na wa thamani muhimu; kwa ufupi, ubatili wa vyote ni mchakato wa "kuyafanya maadili makuu yasiwe na thamani".<ref name="Bindé">{{cite book|author=Jérôme Bindé|title=The Future Of Values: 21st-Century Talks|url=https://archive.org/details/futureofvalues210000unse|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2004|isbn=1571814426}}</ref> Ubatilivyote ni kama matokeo ya wazo kwamba [[kifo cha Mungu|Mungu amekufa]], na kusisitiza kwamba hicho ni kitu kilichokuwa kinafaa kushindwa.<ref name="Reginster">{{cite book |author=Bernard Reginster |title=The Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0674021991}}</ref> Kwa [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], maisha ni ya thamani tu ikiwa kuna malengo yanayomshawishi mtu kuishi. Hivyo, aliona falsafa ya ubatilivyote ("yote ambayo hufanyika ni ubatili") kama bila malengo. Alikana kujiepusha na anasa, kwa sababu kufanya hivyo kunakanusha kuishi katika ulimwengu; alikanusha kuwa maadili ni malengo ya ukweli, ambayo kifikira ni ahadi za lazima zinazotumika ulimwenguni kote: tathmini zetu ni tafsiri, na si tafakari za dunia, kama ilivyo kwa kweli, na basi, dhana zote hufanyika kupitia mtazamo fulani.<ref name="Reginster" /> [[File:MARTIN John Great Day of His Wrath.jpg|thumb|left|''Mwisho wa Dunia'', picha iliyochorwa na msanii [[John Martin]].]] [[Martin Heidegger]], kama Nietzsche, aliona "kifo cha Mungu" kuwa chanzo cha ubatilivyote kuibuka: <blockquote>Kama Mungu, ambaye ndiye lengo na msingi unaozidi yale yanayoweza kuhisika, na wa ukweli wote, amekufa; kama ulimwengu unaozidi yanayoweza kuhisika wa mawazo umeumizwa kwa kupoteza nguvu zake za lazima za kujijenga juu, na juu ya hayo, za kuipa nguvu zaidi, basi hakuna chochote kinachobaki ambacho mtu anaweza kushikilia, na ambacho anaweza tumia kuitafuta njia.<ref>Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche," 61.</ref></blockquote><ref name="Bindé" /> Heidegger, ===Falsafa za [[karne ya 20]]=== Kipindi cha sasa kimeyaona mabadiliko makuu katika dhana ya hali ya binadamu. Sayansi ya kisasa imefanikiwa kuandika upya uhusiano kati ya wanadamu na ulimwengu halisia, [[maendeleo]] katika [[matibabu]] na [[teknolojia]] yametufanya tuwe huru kutoka [[maradhi]] ya vipindi vya awali, na falsafa - hasa kufuatia mgeuko wa kilugha - ilibadilisha jinsi uhusiano kati ya watu unavyotazamwa. Maswali kuhusu maana ya maisha pia yamekabiliwa na mabadiliko makuu, kutoka majaribio ya kutazama upya kuwepo kwa binadamu kupitia biolojia na sayansi kwa jumla (kama katika [[#upragmatiki|upragmatiki]] na [[#uchanya wa kimantiki|uchanya wa kimantiki]]), hadi jitihada za kinadharia kuhusu kufanya maana kama shughuli ([[#udhanaishi|udhanaishi]], utu wa kidunia). ====Upragmatiki==== [[Upragmatiki]], ulianzishwa mwishoni mwa karne ya 19 nchini [[Marekani]] ukidokeza kwamba ukweli ''ni katika kukabiliana na mazingira tu'' na kwamba ''matokeo'' pia ni sehemu za ukweli. Isitoshe, upragmatiki unadokeza kwamba ''chochote'' muhimu na chenye vitendo si kweli daima, akisema kwamba kile ambacho huchangia zaidi mema ya binadamu wengi katika kipindi cha muda mrefu ndicho kweli. Katika mazoezi, madai ya kinadharia lazima ''yathibitishwe kwa vitendo'', yaani lazima mtu aweze kutabiri na kupima madai, na kwamba, mwishowe, mahitaji ya watu yanapaswa kuongoza uchunguzi wa kisomi wa binadamu. Wanafalsafa wa Kipragmatiki wanadokeza kwamba kuyaelewa maisha kupitia vitu vinavyotendwa ni muhimu kuliko kutafuta dhana ya kiakili ambayo ni vigumu kuwekwa katika vitendo kuhusu maisha. [[William James]] alisema ukweli unaweza kufanywa, lakini hauwezi kutafutwa.<ref name="James">{{cite book|author=[[William James]]|title=The Meaning of Truth|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=1909|isbn=1-57392-138-6}}</ref><ref name="Corti">{{cite book|author=Walter Robert Corti|title=The Philosophy of William James|publisher=Meiner Verlag|year=1976|isbn=3787303529}}</ref> Kwa Wapragmatiki, maana ya maisha yanajulikana tu kupitia uzoefu. ====Udhanaishi==== Kila [[mwanamume]] na kila [[mwanamke]] anaumba maana ya maisha yake; maisha hayadhamiriwi na Mungu mwenye nguvu kuliko binadamu au [[mamlaka]] ya kidunia, bali kila mtu yuko huru. Kwa hiyo, mambo muhimu yanayomuendesha mtu kimaadili ni ''vitendo'', ''uhuru'' na ''uamuzi''. Hivyo, [[udhanaishi]] unapinga ufikiriaji na uchanya. Katika kutafuta maana ya maisha, mdhanaishi anatazama mahali ambapo watu hupata maana ya maisha, ambapo katika kutumia fikira tu kama chanzo cha maana ni pungufu. Upungufu huibua hisia za wasiwasi na hofu, zinazohisika katika kukabiliana na [[uhuru]] mkuu, na kuambatana na mwamko kuhusu kifo. Kwa mdhanaishi, kuwepo kunatangulia kiini; kiini cha maisha ya mtu huja tu baada ya mtu kuwa. [[Søren Kierkegaard]] aliunda neno "mruko wa kiimani", akidokeza kuwa maisha yamejaa mkanganyiko, na mtu lazima aunde maadili yake katika ulimwengu usiojali. Mtu anaweza kuishi maisha yenye maana (yasiyo na kukata tamaa wala wasiwasi) kwa kufanya ahadi kwa vyovyote kuhusu kitu kilicho na mwisho, na kujitolea kwa maisha hayo ya kufanya ahadi, licha ya mazingira magumu yaliyojikita katika kufanya hivyo.<ref name="Hall">{{cite book|author=Amy Laura Hall|title=Kierkegaard and the Treachery of Love|url=https://archive.org/details/kierkegaardtreac0000hall|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|isbn=0521893119}}</ref> [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] alijibu: "Ni nini maana ya maisha?" kwa kubainisha kuwa maisha ya mtu yanaonyesha nia yake, na kwamba nia (maisha) kiendeshaji kisichokuwa na lengo, kisichofuata fikira na kinachokuwa chungu. [[Wokovu]], [[ukombozi]], na kuepuka mateso yamo katika kutafakari mambo mazuri, kuhurumia wengine, na kujieupusha na anasa.<ref name="Jacquette">{{cite book|author=Dale Jacquette|title=Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and the Arts|url=https://archive.org/details/schopenhauerphil0000unse_f1d6|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=0521473888}}</ref><ref name="Murray">{{cite book|author=Durno Murray|title=Nietzsche's Affirmative Morality|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1999|isbn=3110166011}}</ref> ====Ukanganyikaji==== [[Albert Camus]], mwanafalsafa wa [[Kifaransa]] toka [[Algeria]], ambaye mara nyingi anahusianishwa na [[udhanaishi]] lakini alilikataa neno hilo kabisa,<ref>{{cite book |last=Solomon |first=Robert C. |authorlink=Robert C. Solomon |title=From Rationalism to Existentialism: The Existentialists and Their Nineteenth Century Backgrounds |url=https://archive.org/details/fromrationalismt0000solo_j5e7 |publisher=[[Rowman and Littlefield]] |date=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fromrationalismt0000solo_j5e7/page/245 245] |isbn=074251241X}}</ref> ni maarufu kwa kudokeza nadharia yake ya mkanganyiko. Mkanganyo wa hali ya binadamu ni kwamba watu wanatafuta maadili ya nje na maana katika dunia ambayo haina maana yoyote, na ambayo haiwajali. Camus anaandika kuhusu wabatilivyote wa thamani kama Meusrault,<ref>Camus (1946) ''L'Etranger''</ref> na pia kuhusu maadili katika ulimwengu wa kuyabatili yote, kwamba watu wanaweza badala yake kujitahidi kuwa "wabatilivyote wa kishujaa", wanaoishi na hadhi wanapopambana na mkanganyiko, kuishi kwa "utakatifu wa kidunia", [[mshikamano wa kindugu]], na kuuasi na kupambana dhidi ya kutojali kwa dunia.<ref>Camus (1955) ''The Myth of Sisyphus''</ref> Kulingana na [[ukanganyikaji]], kuna ukosefu wa umoja wa kimsingi unaotokana na kuwepo kwa ushirikiano wa binadamu na ulimwengu. Mtu ana hamu ya mpango, maana, na kusudi katika maisha, lakini ulimwengu haujali na hauna maana; mkanganyo unatokana na mgogoro huu. Kama viumbe vinavyotafuta matumaini katika dunia isiyokuwa na maana, Camus anasema kuwa binadamu wana njia tatu za kuutatua mtanziko. *[[Kujiua]]: ufumbuzi wa kwanza wa mtanziko ni mtu kuyakomesha maisha yake. Camus anakataa chaguo hili kama la woga. * [[Imani]] ya dini katika Ulimwengu Upitao Fikira: imani ya namna hiyo huenda ikadokeza kuwepo kwa ulimwengu ambao umezidi huu wa kukanganya, na, kwa hivyo, una maana. Camus anauita ufumbuzi huo "kujiua kifalsafa" na anaukataa kwa sababu ni sawa na kuangamizwa kwa fikira, ambayo kwa maoni yake ni [[janga]] sawa na kujiua kimwili. *Kukubali mkanganyo: kwa Camus, huu tu ndio ufumbuzi wa kweli. Ni kukubali na hata kukumbatia mkanganyo wa maisha na kuendelea kuishi. Mkanganyo ni tabia muhimu ya hali ya kibinadamu, na njia pekee ya kweli ya kukabiliana na hili ni kulikubali kwa ujasiri. Kulingana na Camus, tunaweza "kuishi maisha bora zaidi ikiwa hayana maana."<ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/camus.htm#SSH5a.i Albert Camus at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] Accessed Mei 25th, 2009</ref> ====Utu wa Kidunia==== [[File:HumanismSymbol.PNG|120px|left|thumb| Picha ya "binadamu mwenye furaha" ishara ya Utu wa Kidunia.]] Kulingana na [[Utu wa Kidunia]], wanadamu walitokana na kuzaana katika maendeleo ya mabadiliko ambayo hayakuongozwa kama sehemu muhimu ya maumbile, ambayo huishi yenyewe.<ref name=humanifesto1>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto I]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto1.html |work=American Humanist Association |year=1933 |accessdate=2007-07-26}}</ref><ref name=humanifesto2>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto II]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html work=American Humanist Association |year=1973 |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html |accessdate=2007-08-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809102124/http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/manifesto2.html |archivedate=2007-08-09 }}</ref> Maarifa hayatoki katika vyanzo vyenye nguvu visivyo vya kawaida, lakini kutoka uchunguzi wa binadamu, majaribio, na uchambuzi wa kimantiki ([[mbinu ya kisayansi]]): asili ya [[ulimwengu]] ni kile ambacho watu huitambua kuwa hivyo.<ref name=humanifesto1 /> Aidha, [[maadili]] na ukweli vinalengwa kwa njia ya uchunguzi wa kiakili<ref name=humanifesto1 /> na yanatokana na mahitaji ya binadamu na hamu kama ilivyopimwa na uzoefu, yaani kupitia akili yenye uchambuzi.<ref name=humanifesto3>{{cite web |title=[[Humanist Manifesto III]]] [http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php work=American Humanist Association |year=2003 |url=http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php |accessdate=2007-08-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809103515/http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php |archivedate=2007-08-09 }}</ref><ref name=CDSH>{{cite web |title=[[A Secular Humanist Declaration]]] [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration work=Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism) |year=1980 |url=http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration |accessdate=2007-08-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080817084107/http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&page=declaration |archivedate=2008-08-17 }}</ref> "Kulingana na yale tunayojua, tabia za mtu kiujumla ni [chanzo] cha kiumbe cha kibiolojia kinachoendesha shughuli zake katika muktadha wa kijamii na wa kiutamaduni."<ref name=humanifesto2 /> Watu huamua kusudi la binadamu, bila ya ushawishi wa Kimungu; ni tabia ya binadamu, hisia ya kijumla, ambayo ni lengo la maisha ya binadamu. Utu wa Kidunia unataka kuendeleza na kutimiza ubinadamu:<ref name=humanifesto1 /> "Utu husisitiza [[uwezo]] wetu, na [[uwajibikaji]] wetu, kuishi maisha adili yenye [[utimilifu]] wa binafsi yanayolenga mema makuu ya ubinadamu".<ref name=humanifesto3 /> [[Wanautu]] huendeleza kufunguliwa kifikra ili kuyashughulikia [[maslahi]] ya binafsi na yenye manufaa kwa watu wote. Furaha ya mtu binafsi inahusishwa kwa njia isiyoweza kubadilishwa na ustawi wa binadamu wengine, kwa sababu sisi ni wanyama wanaolazimika kuishi katika jamii, ambayo hupata maana kutokana na uhusiano wa karibu, na kwa sababu maendeleo ya kiutamaduni humnufaisha kila mtu katika [[utamaduni]].<ref name=humanifesto2 /><ref name=humanifesto3 /> Falsafa ndogo za Utu wa Baadaye na Utu Unaopita Yote (ambazo wakati mwingine hutumiwa [[kimbadala]]) ni upanuzi wa [[maadili ya kiutu]]. Mtu anapaswa kutafuta maendeleo ya ubinadamu na ya maisha yote kwa kiasi kikubwa iwezekanavyo ili kupatanisha Utu wa Kirainasansi na utamaduni wa karne ya 20 wa sayasansi na teknolojia. Hivyo, kila kiumbe hai ana haki ya kuamua "maana ya maisha binafsi" kwa mtazamo wa kijamii na kibinafsi.<ref>{{cite web| author=[[Nick Bostrom]] |title=Transhumanist Values |work=[[Oxford University]] |year=2005 |url=http://www.nickbostrom.com/ethics/values.html |accessdate=2007-07-28}}</ref> Kutoka mtazamo wa kiutu na kielimunafsia ya kupunguza maumivu, suala la maana ya maisha pia linaweza kutafsiriwa tena kama "Ni nini maana ya maisha "yangu"?"<ref>Irvin Yalom, ''Existential Psychotherapy'', 1980</ref> Badala ya kujifunga na swali la kidini au la kikozmiki kuhusu madhumuni makuu, mbinu hii inapendekeza kwamba swali hili ni la binafsi sana. Kuna majibu mengi ya kimatibabu ya kupunguza maumivu kwa swali hili, kwa mfano [[Viktor Frankl]] anadokeza kuwa dhana ya "Kutowaza", ambayo kwa kiasi kikubwa hutafsiriwa kama kukoma kutafakari bila mwisho juu ya ubinafsi, badala ya kujishughulisha na maisha. Kwa ujumla, mwitikio wa matibabu ya kuyapunguza maumivu ni kwamba swali la maana ya maisha huvukiza ikiwa mtu anajishughulisha kikamilifu na maisha. Swali kisha linabadilika kuwa wasiwasi maalum zaidi kama vile "Ni upotovu upi unaonisumbua?", "Ni nini kinachozuia uwezo wangu kufurahia vitu?", "Mbona mimi huwasahau wapendwa wangu?". Angalia pia Matibabu ya Kupunguza Maumivu ya Kidhanaishi kadiri ya [[Irvin Yalom]]. ====Uchanya wa kimantiki==== Wachanya wa kimantiki huuliza: ''Ni nini maana ya maisha?'' na ''Ya nini kuuliza?''<ref>{{cite book |author=[[Richard Taylor (philosopher)|Richard Taylor]] |title=Good and Evil |url=https://archive.org/details/goodevilnewdirec0000tayl_m1p2 |pages="The Meaning of Life" (Chapter 5) |publisher=Macmillan Publishing Company |month=Januari | year=1970 |isbn=0026166909}}</ref><ref>Wohlgennant, Rudolph. (1981). "Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning?" (Chapter 4). In E. Morscher, ed., ''Philosophie als Wissenschaft''.</ref> ''Kama hakuna maadili yanayolengwa, basi, hiyo ni kusema maisha hayana maana?''<ref>{{cite book |last=McNaughton |first=David |month=Agosti | year=1988 |title=Moral Vision: An Introduction to Ethics |url=https://archive.org/details/moralvisionintro0000mcna |pages="Moral Freedom and the Meaning of Life" (Section 1.5) |publisher=Oxford: Blackwell Publishing |isbn=0631159452}}</ref> [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] na wachanya wa kimantiki walisema: "Linapoulizwa kilugha, swali ni batili"; kwa sababu, maishani taarifa ya "maana ya x", kawaida inaashiria madhara ya x, au umuhimu wa x, au kile ambacho ni dhahiri kuhusu x na kadhalika, kwa hivyo, wakati dhana ya maana ni sawa na "x", katika taarifa ya "maana ya x", taarifa inakuwa ya kujirudia, na kwa hiyo ya kipuuzi, au inaweza kutaja kama ukweli kwamba maisha ya kibiolojia ni muhimu ili kuwa na maana maishani. Mambo (watu, matukio) katika maisha ya mtu yanaweza kuwa na maana kama sehemu ya uzima, lakini maana isiyobainika ya maisha hayo, yenyewe, mbali na mambo hayo, haiwezi kubainika. Maisha ya mtu yana maana (kwake mwenyewe na kwa wengine) kama matukio ya maisha yanayotokana na mafanikio yake, urithi, familia, na kadhalika, lakini, kusema kwamba maisha yenyewe yana maana ni matumizi mabaya ya lugha, kwani yoyote yaliyo muhimu, au ya mwisho, ni muhimu tu "katika" maisha (kwa walio hai), hivyo basi kuifanya taarifa iwe ya kimakosa. [[Bertrand Russell]] aliandika kwamba ingawa alipata kwamba chuki yake ya mateso haikuwa kama chuki yake ya [[mboga]] ya [[brokoli]], hakupata utaratibu wowote wa kuridhisha, na wa kupimika wa kuthibitisha hili:<ref name="Russel"/> <blockquote> Tunapojaribu kuwa na uhakika, kuhusu kile tunachomaanisha tunaposema kuwa hiki au kile ni "tunu", tunajikuta katika matatizo makubwa sana. Tamko la Bentham, kwamba radhi ndiyo Zuri, lilizua upinzani mkali, na ilisemekana kuwa falsafa ya [[nguruwe]]. Yeye na wapinzani wake walishindwa kuibua hoja zozote. Katika swali la kisayansi, ushahidi unaweza kupatikana kutoka pande zote mbili, na mwishowe, upande mmoja unabainika kuwa na hoja bora au, kama hili halitokei, swali linabaki kama halijajibiwa. Lakini katika swali, kuhusu ikiwa hili, au hilo, ndilo mwisho Mzuri, hakuna ushahidi, kwa vyovyote vile; kila mtetezi anaweza kupendekeza tu hoja kulingana na hisia zake, na kutumia vifaa vya ushawishi ambavyo vitaibua hisia sawa katika wengine... Maswali kuhusu "maadili" - yaani, kuhusu kile ambacho chenyewe ni kizuri au kibaya, bila kutilia maanani madhara yake - yanapatikana nje ya uwanja wa sayansi, jinsi watetezi wa dini wanavyodai kwa msisitizo. Nadhani kwamba, katika hili, wako sawa, lakini mimi napata hitimisho zaidi, ambalo hao hawapati, kwamba maswali kuhusu "maadili" yanapatikana kabisa nje ya uwanja wa maarifa. Hiyo ni kusema, tunaposema kwamba hili au lile lina "thamani", sisi tunaeleza tu hisia zetu wenyewe, si ukweli, ambao bado ungalikuwa kweli ikiwa hisia zetu za binafsi zingalikuwa tofauti.<ref>[[Bertrand Russell]] (1961). [http://www.solstice.us/russell/science-ethics.html ''Science and Ethics''] {{Wayback|url=http://www.solstice.us/russell/science-ethics.html |date=20071114144956 }}</ref></blockquote> ====Baada ya Usasa==== Falsafa ya [[Baada ya Usasa]] - tukizungumza kwa upana- inaona hali ya binadamu ikiwa kama iliyojengwa na lugha, au na miundo na taasisi za jamii ya kibinadamu. Ikitofautiana na aina nyingine za falsafa, ni nadra kwa falsafa ya Baada ya [[Usasa]] kutafuta maana zinazopatikana kabla ya tendo au zilizojikita kwa undani katika uwepo wa binadamu. Badala yake inalenga kuchunguza au kukosoa maana zilizopewa ili kuzitafakari au kuzirekebisha upya. Chochote kinachofana na 'maana ya maisha', katika maana ya falsafa hiyo, kinaweza kueleweka tu ndani ya muundo wa kijamii na wa kilugha, na lazima ufuatwe kama kimbilio kutoka miundo ya nguvu ambayo tayari imejikita katika aina zote za hotuba na mwingiliano. Kama kanuni, wanafalsafa wa Baada ya Usasa wanatazama mwamko wa vikwazo vya lugha kama muhimu kuvikwepa vikwazo vivyo, lakini wananadharia tofauti wana maoni mbalimbali kuhusu asili ya mchakato huu: kutoka ujenzi wa [[dharura]] wa maana na watu binafsi (kama katika falsafa ya Kuharibu Yaliyojengwa) hadi kwa nadharia ambamo watu ni upanuzi wa kimsingi wa lugha na jamii, bila uhuru halisi (kama katika falsafa ya Baada ya Muundo). Kiujumla, falsafa ya Baada ya Usasa inatafuta maana kwa kuangalia miundo ya msingi ambayo inaunda au kulazimisha maana, kuliko yale yanayoonekana kiepifenomenali duniani. ====Dhana ya Uhisia==== Kulingana na dhana ya kihisia, maana kuu ya maisha ni kupata kutosheleza hisia za kibinadamu. Wafuasi wa falsafa hiyo wanaamini kuwa vitendo vyote maishani ni matokeo ya hisia na hasa haja ya kuzaa. Uwepo wa mtu binafsi huwa chanzo cha kuzaa na unamfanya binadamu kutafuta lengo la kuzaa maishani kwa kuufuata mzunguko. Haraka inasisitiza kuwa watu wanapofikiria kwa kina, watapata kuwa lengo kuu la matendo yote wafanyayo ni kuvutia watu wa [[jinsia]] nyingine. Dhana kuu ya uhisia inaweza kufuatwa hivi: <blockquote> Kama inayokubalika kuwa watu hufunzwa kujifunza shuleni. Kwa nini tusome kwa bidii? Ili tufuzu mitihani. Kwa nini tufuzu mitihani? Ili tuweze kuenda chuo kikuu? Kwa nini tuweze kuenda chuo kikuu? Ili tuweze kupata kazi nzuri? Kwa nini tupate kazi nzuri? Ili tuwe na mali. Kwa nini tuwe na mali? Ili tununue magari mazuri; ili tununue nyumba nzuri; ili tununue bidhaa nzuri. Kwa nini vitu vyote vizuri kumfanya mtu aonekana mzuri? Mwishowe kuvutia watu wa jinsia nyingine, kutosheleza haja ya msingi ya kuzaa na kuendeleza familia ya kibinadamu. </blockquote> Wanahisia hutumia mawazo hayo kuendeleza dhana kuwa matukio yote ya kibinadamu yanaweza kuelezwa kwa kutumia lengo letu la kuzaa: Kwa nini watu wanapinga sana ndoa baina ya watu wa jinsia moja? Kwa sababu watu katika jozi la namna hiyo hawawezi kuzaa Kwa nini watu hupendana? Kwa sababu upendo husababisha ngono, ambayo huchangia ustawi wa [[spishi]] ya binadamu Kwa nini akina mama hupenda watoto hata kama hawajazaliwa bado? Kwa sababu inachangia kutunza na kuongeza idadi ya binadamu Kwa nini watu wengi hupinga [[utoaji mimba]]? Kwa sababu inazuia uzazi Kwa nini ma[[daktari]] wengi sana na matibabu mengi? Ili kutunza idadi ya watu Kwa nini [[uuaji]] ni hatia kubwa sana? Kwa sababu kuua kunapunguza idadi ya watu ====Upanthei wa kiasilia==== Kulingana na [[upanthei]] wa kiasilia, maana ya maisha ni kutunza viumbe na mazingira. ==Mitazamo ya kidini== ===Dini za Asia ya Kusini=== ====Falsafa za Kihindu==== [[File:Golden Aum.png|left|thumb|110px|[[Aum]] ya [[dhahabu]] iliyoandikwa katika [[Devanagari]]. Aum ni takatifu katika [[dini]] za [[Uhindu]], [[Ujaini]] na [[Ubuddha]].]] [[Uhindu]] ni jamii ya kidini inayojumuisha itikadi na desturi nyingi. Kwa sababu Uhindu ulikuwa njia ya kuonyesha maisha yenye maana tangu jadi, wakati ambapo hapakuwa na haja ya kutaja Uhindi kama dini tofauti, mafundisho ya Uhindu ni nyongeza na yanayowiana kiasili, kiujumla yasiyo ya kipekee, yenye kudokeza tu na yenye maudhui ya kuvumiliana.<ref name=weightman>{{Harvard reference | author= Simon Weightman | year=1998 | title=The new Penguin handbook of living religions |editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.) | publisher= [[Penguin books]] |chapter= Hinduism | isbn=0-140-51480-5}}</ref> Wengi wanaamini kwamba ātman (roho, nafsi), nafsi ya kweli ya mtu, ni ya [[milele]].<ref name="monierwilliams">{{Harvard reference | author= [[Monier Monier-Williams]] | year=1974 | title=Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus | publisher= Adamant Media Corporation |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C&dq=isbn:1421265311 |accessdate=2007-07-08 |series=Elibron Classics | isbn=1421265311}}</ref>. Kwa sehemu, hili linatokana na imani ya Kihindu kwamba maendeleo ya kiroho hufanyika katika maisha mengi, na malengo yanafaa kuwiana na hali ya maendeleo ya mtu binafsi. Kuna malengo manne ya maisha ya binadamu, yanayojulikana kama purusharthas (yamepangwa kuanzia lile dogo zaidi hadi lile kuu): Kama (kazi, upendo na radhi ya kingono), Artha (mali), Dharma (haki, maadili), na Moksha (ukombozi kutoka mzunguko wa kuzaliwa upya).<ref>For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17.</ref><ref>For the ''Dharma Śāstras'' as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, {{IAST|kāma}}, and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78.</ref><ref>For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ ({{IAST|puruṣa-artha}}) as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. {{lang|sa|धर्म}}, {{lang|sa|अर्थ}}, {{lang|sa|काम}}, and {{lang|sa|मोक्ष}}" see: Apte, p. 626, middle column, compound #1.</ref> Katika shule zote za Uhindu, maana ya maisha imefungwa ndani ya dhana za karma (kitendo chenye matokeo), samsara (mzunguko wa kuzaliwa na kuzaliwa upya), na moksha (ukombozi). Kuwepo kunaaminika kuwa maendeleo ya atman kupitia vipindi vingi vya maisha, na maendeleo yake ya mwisho kuelekea ukombozi kutoka karma. Malengo hasa ya maisha kwa jumla husongeshwa chini ya (mazoea) pana ya yoga au dharma (kuishi kisahihi) ambayo yanakusudiwa kujenga kuzaliwa kupya kuzuri zaidi, ingawa hayo pia kwa ujumla ni matendo chanya katika maisha haya. Shule za jadi za Uhindu mara nyingi huabudu Madeva ambao ni dhihirisho ya Ishvara (Mungu wa kibinafsi au wa kuchaguliwa). =====Uhindu wa Advaita na Dvaita===== Shule za baadaye zilizitafsiri upya veda kuzingatia Brahman, "Yule Asiye na Wa Pili",<ref name=bhaskaranandaessential>{{Harvard reference | last=Bhaskarananda | first=Swami | year=1994 | title=The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion | place=Seattle, WA | publisher=Viveka Press | isbn=1-884852-02-5}}</ref> kama kielelezo muhimu kinachomfanana Mungu. Katika Advaita Vedanta ya kimoni, atman hatimaye haitofautishwi na brahman, na lengo la maisha ni kujua au kutambua kwamba (nafsi) ya mtu ya atman inafanana na Brahman.<ref>{{Harvard reference | last= Vivekananda | first=Swami | authorlink=Swami Vivekananda | year=1987 | title=Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda | place=Calcutta | publisher= Advaita Ashrama | isbn=81-85301-75-1}}</ref> Kwa Maupanishadi, yeyote anayefahamu kikamilifu atman, kama msingi wa ubinafsi, anajitambua na Brahman, na hivyo, anapata Mokasha (ukombozi, uhuru).<ref name="monierwilliams"/><ref name="werner">{{Harvard reference | last= Werner | first=Karel | year=1994 | title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism | place=Richmond, Surrey | editor = Hinnells, John (Ed.) | publisher= Curzon Press | chapter= Hinduism | isbn=0-7007-0279-2}}</ref><ref>See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] is [[Brahman]])</ref> Dvaita Vedanta yenye pande mbili na shule zingine za bhakti zina tafsiri yenye pande mbili. Brahaman anaonekana kama kiumbe kikuu chenye tabia na sifa wazi. Atman inategemea Brahman kwa kuwepo kwake; maana ya maisha ni kupata Moksha kupitia upendo wa Mungu na neema yake.<ref name="werner" /> =====Uvaishnavi===== Tawi lingine la Uhindu ni Uvaishnavi, ambapo Vishnu ndiye Mungu mkuu. Si shule zote za Uvaishnavi hufunza maana ya maisha, lakini Gaudiya Vaishnavism, kwa mfano, hufunza Achintya Bheda Abheda inayomaanisha Kumuabudu Mungu tofauti na Mungu pekee wa kweli na wakati huo huo ikitambua umoja muhimu wa nafsi zote, huku viumbe vyote hai ni sehemu za milele za Mungu mkuu aitwaye Krsna. Mtazamo wa kikatiba wa kiumbe hai ni kumtumikia Mungu na upendo na kujali. Huduma bila malipo isiyositishwa na isiyosukumwa na chochote kwa Krsna na wafuasi wake ndiyo maana ya maisha katika hali uhuru. Sisi tupo katika Dunia ya kinafsi tukimtumikia Krsna kwa furaha huku tukifahamu vyema kuwa sisi ni roho za kinafsi na tunayo maisha ya milele. Kwa sababu ya kumchukia Krsna na kwa sababu ya mapenzi yetu ya kutaka kuwa na anasa m,bali na Krsnatupo katika Dunia hii ambapo tunapitia mzunguko unaojirudiarudia wa kuzaliwa, magonjwa, uzee na kifo katika miili tuliyopata ya spishi 8.4 za kimaisha, tukihama kutoka mwili mmoja hadi mwingine kulingana na karma yetu na mapenzi yetu. Lengo la maisha ya binadamu haswa ni kufikiria zaidi ya njia ya kinyama ya kula, kulala, kufanya mapenzi na kulinda na kufuata akili ya juu zaidi ili kuanzisha upya uhusiano na Krsna, Baba yetu wa milele, ambaye kutoka kwake vyote vilitoka, ambaye ndiye mwezeshaji na mwenye kuangamiza. Maandiko yaliyoonyehswa kwetu kama vile Bhagavad-Gita na Srimad Bhagavatam yanafunza kuwa Sambandha (Mimi ni nani? Mungu ni nani? Uhusiano kati ya Mungu na mimi ni upi?) na Abhideya (mchakato wa kuanzisha uhusiano ulipotea na Mungu kupitia michakato 9 ya Bhakti - Huduma ya Maombi) na Prayojana - matokeo - kupata upendo wa Mungu. Mchakato rahisi zaidi ni kuimba maha Bhakti "Hare Krsna Hare Krsna KRsna Krsna Hare Hare - Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare" pamoja na wafuasi wa Mungu. Huku maana ya maisha yakiwa kuanzisha upya uhusiano ulioisha na Mungu anayewapenda watu wote, lengo la uumbaji ni kutumia rasilimali kurudi nyumbani kwa Mungu, Dunia ya milele ya kinafsi inayoitwa Goloka Vrindavana - milki ya Mungu. ====Ujaini==== [[Ujaini]] ni dini iliyoanza katika Uhindi ya kale, mfumo wake wa kimaadili unakuza nidhamu ya kibinafsi kushinda yote mengine. Kupitia kuyafuata mafundisho ya kujiepusha na anasa zote, ya ujaini, binadamu anapata kutaalamika (maarifa kamili). Ujaini unaugawanya ulimwengu katika viumbe vilivyohai na visivyohai. Wakati tu visivyohai vinavyoshikilia vyenye uhai ndipo mateso hutokea. Kwa hivyo, furaha ni matokeo ya utekaji-kibinafsi na uhuru kutoka kwa vitu vya nje. Maana ya maisha basi huweza kusemwa kuwa kutumia mwili unaoonekana kupata utambuzi wa kibinafsi na neema..<ref>Shah, Natubhai. ''Jainism: The World of Conquerors.'' Sussex Academic Press, 1998.</ref> Wajaini huamini kwamba kila binadamu anawajibika kwa matendo yake na viumbe wote hai wana roho ya milele, jīva. Wajaini wanaamini nafsi zote ni sawa kwa sababu zote zinamiliki uwezekano wa kufanywa ziwe huru na kufikia Moksha. Mtazamo wa Kijanini wa karma ni kwamba kila hatua, kila neno, kila wazo linazalisha, mbali na yanayoonekana, matokeo yasiyoonekana, na yanayopita fikira kwa nafsi. Ujaini unajumuisha kushikilia vikali ahimsa (au ''ahinsā''), mbinu ya aina ya Kusitisha Vurugu ambayo huzidi kwa mbali ulaji mboga. Wajaini wanakikataa chakula kilichopatikana kwa ukatili usiohitajika. Wengi wana mazoezi ya maisha sawa na ulaji mboga pekee kutokana na vurugu ya mashamba ya maziwa ya kisasa, na wengine huepukana na mboga za mizizi katika maakuli yao ili kulinda maisha ya mimea ambayo wao hula.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.retoday.org.uk/pdfs/dre/viren.pdf |title=Viren, Jain |accessdate=2007-06-14 |publisher=[http://www.retoday.org.uk/ RE Today] |format=PDF |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614110256/http://www.retoday.org.uk/pdfs/dre/viren.pdf |archivedate=2007-06-14 }}</ref> ====Ubudha==== =====Ubudha wa Mapema===== Ubudha ni mafundisho yasiyo na pande mbili, ambapo kichwa, chombo, na hatua yote ni huonekana yakiwa si ya kweli. Wabudha wanaamini kwamba maisha kwa undani yamejaa mateso au kuchanganyikiwa. Hilo si kumaanisha kwamba hakuna raha maishani, lakini kwamba raha hii haisababishi furaha ya milele. Mateso yanasababishwa na kuvishikilia vitu vinavyonekana na kuguzika au visivyoonekana na visivyokuguzika ambavyo mwishowe husababisha mtu kuzaliwa tena na tena katika mzunguko wa kuwepo. Sutra na tantra za Kibudha haziongei kuhusu "maana ya maisha" au "madhumuni ya maisha", bali huzungumzia kuhusu uwezo wa maisha ya binadamu wa kukomesha mateso kupitia kujiepusha na tamaa na kushikilia dhana fulani. Mateso yanaweza kushindwa kupitia shughuli za binadamu, tu kwa kuondoa sababu ya mateso. Kufikia na kutimiza kutopenda raha ni mchakato wa ngazi nyingi ambazo hatimaye matokeo yake ni hali ya Nirvana. Nirvana inamaanisha uhuru kutoka mateso na kuzaliwa upya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.html |title=The Four Noble Truths |publisher=Thebigview.com |date= |accessdate=2009-11-06}}</ref> [[File:Dharma Wheel.svg|thumb|120px|left|Gurudumu la dharmacakra lenye sehemu nane]] Ubudha wa Kitheravada kwa jumla unadhaniwa kuwa karibu na mazoezi ya mapema ya Wabudha. Unakuza dhana ya Vibhajjavada (Pali), maana ya moja kwa moja "Kufunzwa kwa Uchambuzi", ambao Unasema kwamba lazima ufahamu utokane na uzoefu wa anAyenuia kuupata, uchunguzi makini, na kufikiria badala ya kutumia imani ya kipofu. Hata hivyo, mapokeo ya Kitheravadin pia yanasisitiza kuutilia maanani ushauri wa wenye busara, hasa ikizingatiwa kuwa ushauri huo na tathmini ya uzoefu wa kibinafsi kuwa vipimo viwili ambavyo vinafaa kutumiwa kuyapima mazoea. Lengo la Kitheravadin ni ukombozi (au uhuru) kutoka mateso, kulingana na Kweli Nne Adimu. Hili linapatikana katika kuipata Nirvana,au kufunguliwa ambao pia husitisha 0}mzunguko unaorudiwa wa kuzaliwa, uzee, maradhi na kifo. =====Ubudha wa Kimahayana===== Shule za Ubudha wa Kimahayana zinasita kusisitiza mtazamo wa jadi (ambao bado unatekelezwa katika Kitheravada) wa kuachiliwa kutoka Mateso (Dukkha) ta kibinafsi na kufikia Mwamko (Nirvana). Katika Mahayana, Budha huonekana kama kiumbe wa milele, asiyebadilika, asiyeeleweka, na ambaye yupo kila mahali. Misingi mikuu ya mafundisho ya Kimahayana imejikita katika uwezekano wa ukombozi kutoka mateso wa viumbe vyote, na kuwepo kwa Budha-asili apitaye fikira , ambaye ni kiini cha Budha wa milele aliopo, lakini aliyejificha na asiyetambulika, katika viumbe wote. Shule za kifalsafa za Ubudha wa Kimahayana, kama vile Chan / Zen na shule za Utibeti wa vajrayana na Shingon, hufunza wazi kwamba boddhisattva lazima wajiepushe na ukombozi kamili, wajiruhusu wenyewe kuzaliwa tena ulimwenguni hadi viumbe wote wapate kutaalamika. Shule za kiibada kama vile Ubhuda wa Ardhi Takatifu hutafuta msaada wa mabudha wa mbinguni - watu binafsi ambao wametumia maisha yao wakikusanya karma chanya, na kuutumia mkusanyiko huo kuwasaidia wote. ====Kalasinga==== [[File:Khanda.svg|thumb|110px|left|Ishara ya kidini ya Khanda, ambayo ni ishara muhimu ya dini ya Kalasinga.]] Dini yenye Mungu mmoja ya [[Kalasinga]] ilianzishwa na [[Guru]] [[Nanak Dev]]. Neno "Kalasinga" linamaanisha mwanafunzi, kuashiria kwamba wafuasi wataishi maisha yao milele wakijifunza. Mfumo huu wa falsafa ya dini na kueleza imejulikana tangu jadi kama Gurmat (maana yake shauri la maguru) au Sikh Dharma. Wafuasi wa Kalasinga wametakaswa kuyafuata mafundisho ya maguru wa Sikh kumi, au viongozi wa kutaalamika, na pia maandiko matakatifu yaitwayo Gurū Granth Sāhib yanayojumuisha maandiko mbalimbali yaliyochaguliwa na wanafalsafa wengi kutoka mazingira mbalimbali ya kijamii, kiuchumi na kidini. Maguru wa Kikalasinga hutuambia kwamba wokovu unaweza kupatikana kwa kuzifuata njia mbalimbali za kiroho, kwa hivyo si Wakalasinga pekee wanaopata wokovu: "Bwana anakaa ndani ya kila moyo, na kila moyo una njia yake yenyewe ya kumfikia."<ref name="Singh">{{cite book |author=Daljeet Singh |title=Guru Tegh Bahadur |publisher=Language Dept., Punjab |year=1971}}</ref> Wakalasinga huamini kwamba watu wote ni muhimu mbele ya Mungu.<ref name="Mayled">{{cite book |author=Jon Mayled |title=Modern World Religions: Sikhism |publisher=Harcourt Heinemann |year=2002 |isbn=0435336266}}</ref> Wakalasinga hupima maadili yao ya kitabia na ya kiroho na kuyatafuta maarifa, na lengo la kukuza maisha ya amani na usawa, na pia yenye hatua chanya.<ref>[http://www.sikhcoalition.org The Sikh Coalition]</ref> Sifa muhimu na tofauti ya Kalasinga ni dhana ya Mungu isiyo ya kumtazama Mungu akiwa na umbo fulani, kiasi kwamba mtu anaweza kumtafsiri Mungu kama Ulimwengu wenyewe (upanthei). Kalasinga kwa hivyo inayaona maisha kama fursa ya kumuelewa huyu Mungu na pia kuugundua uungu ambao upo katika kila mmoja. Ingawa ufahamu kamili wa Mungu unazidi ubinadamu,<ref name="p252">{{cite book | last=Parrinder | first=Geoffrey | authorlink=Geoffrey Parrinder | year=1971 | title=World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present | publisher=Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited | location=United States | isbn = 0-87196-129-6}}</ref> Guru Nanak alielezea Mungu kama asiye eleweka kikamilifu, na kusisitiza kwamba Mungu lazima aonekana kutoka kwa "jicho la ndani", au "moyo", wa binadamu: wanaoamini lazima watafakari ili kuelekea kutaalamika. Nanak alihimiza ufunuo kupitia kutafakari, kwani kutumika kwake kila wakati kunaruhusu kuwepo kwa mawasiliano kati ya Mungu na binadamu.<ref name="p252"/> ===Dini za Mashariki ya mbali=== ====Ushinto==== [[File:Shinto_torii_vermillion.svg|thumb|right|100px|Shinto torii, mlango wa kitamaduni wa Kijapani]] [[Ushinto]] ni dini iliyoanzia [[Ujapani]]. Neno Shinto linamaananisha "njia ya kami", lakini kwa ufasaha zaidi, linaweza kumaanisha "sehemu yenye njia nyingi ambapo kami anachagua njia yake". Njia yenye sehemu nyingi ya 'kimungu' inaashiria kwamba ulimwengu wote ni roho ya kimungu. Msingi wa nia huru kuichagua njia ya mmoja, inamaanisha kwamba maisha ni mchakato wa ubunifu. Ushinto Unayataka maisha ya kuishi, siyo ya kufa. [[Ushinto]] unakitazama kifo kama uchafuzi na inatazama maisha kama eneo ambapo roho ya kimungu inanuia kujitakasa yenyewe kwa kujiendeleza inavyostahili. Ushinto unayataka maisha ya kibinafsi ya kibinadamu kuendelezwa milele duniani kama ushindi wa roho ya kimungu katika kuhifadhi tabia yake ya usawa kwa hali ya juu kabisa. Kuwepo kwa uovu duniani, kama inavyodokezwa na Ushinto, hakupingi hali ya kimungu kwa kuweka juu ya uungu jukumu la kuweza kuyapunguza mateso ya binadamu huku ikikataa kufanya hivyo. Mateso ya maisha ni mateso ya roho ya kimungu katika kuyatafuta mafanikio katika ulimwengu unaolenga usawa.<ref name="Mason">{{cite book |author=J. W. T. Mason |title=The Meaning of Shinto |publisher= Trafford Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1412245516}}</ref> ====Utao==== [[File:Yin yang.svg|right|thumb|100px|''Taijitu'' ni ishara ya umoja wa vinyume vya yin na yang.]] Kosmojenia ya Watao inasisitiza haja ya viumbe wote wenye fahamu na watu wote kurudi kwa mwanzo au kuungana na Umoja wa Ulimwengu kupitia njia ya kujikuza na kujitambua. Wahumini wote wanapaswa kuelewa na kuwiana na mwisho wa kikweli. Wanaamini yote awali yalikuwa kutoka Taiji na Tao, na maana maishani kwa wahumini ni wao kugundua hali ya muda mfupi ya kuwepo. "Kujiangalia tu kindani ndio kunaoweza basi kutusaidia kupata sababu zetu za undani kabisa za kuishi...jibu rahisi limo humu ndani yetu."<ref name="Ming-Dao">{{cite book |author=Ming-Dao Deng |title=Scholar Warrior: An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life |url=https://archive.org/details/scholarwarriorin0000deng |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1990}}</ref> ====Ukonfusio==== [[Ukonfusio]] unatambua hali ya binadamu kulingana na mahitaji ya nidhamu na [[elimu]]. Kwa sababu binadamu anaendeshewa na ushawishi mzuri na mbaya, Wakonfiuso huona lengo katika kupata tabia nzuri kupitia uhusiano wa nguvu na kufikiria na pia kukanusha nishati hasi. Msisitizo huu wa maisha ya kawaida unaonekana katika msemo wa mwanachuoni wa Kikonfiuso Tu Wei-Ming, "tunaweza kutambua maana kuu ya maisha katika kuwepo kwa kawaida kwa binadamu."<ref>Tu, Wei-Ming. ''Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation.'' Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.</ref> ====Dini mpya==== Kuna harakati nyingi mpya za kidini katika Asia ya Mashariki, baadhi yao zikiwa na mamilioni ya wafuasi: Chondogyo, Tenrikyo, Cao Đài, na Seicho-No-ie. Dini mpya kawaida zina maelezo ya kipekee kuhusu maana ya maisha. Kwa mfano, katika Tenrikyo, mtu anatarajiwa kuishi Maisha ya Furaha kwa kushiriki katika mazoea yanayokuza furaha yake binafsi na pia ya watu wengine. ===Dini za Magharibi na Mashariki ya Kati=== ====Uzoroastro==== [[Uzoroastro]] ni dini na falsafa inayopata jina lake kutoka kwa [[nabii]] wake [[Zoroaster]], ambayo labda iliathiri imani za [[Uyahudi]] na dini zilitokana na Uyahudi. Wazoroastro wanaamini ulimwengu na Mungu apitaye fikra, [[Ahura Mazda]], ambaye [[ibada]] yote inaelekezwa kwake. Kiumbe cha Azhura Mazda ni asha, ukweli na mpango ambao unazozana na kinyume chake, druj, uwongo na machafuko. Kwa sababu binadamu wana hiari, ni lazima wawe na uwajibikaji kwa maadili wanayoyachagua. Kwa kutumia hiari, watu lazima wawe na jukumu tendaji katika mgogoro wa dunia nzima, wawe na mawazo mema, maneno mema na matendo mema ili kuhakikisha furaha na kuepuka machafuko. ====Uyahudi==== Kipengele muhimu zaidi cha Uyahudi ni ibada ya [[Mungu]] mmoja anayejua yote, mwenye nguvu kuliko wote, ambaye ni [[mkarimu]] kila wakati, anayepita fikra zote, na ambaye [[uumbaji|aliumba]] ulimwengu na anautawala. Kulingana na Uyahudi wa awali, Mungu alifanya [[agano]] na [[Waisraeli]] katika [[mlima Sinai]], alipowapa sheria na amri zake zinazopatikana katika [[Torati]]. Katika Uyahudi wa Kirabi, Torati inajumuisha maandishi ya [[Torati]] na sheria ya [[mapokeo ya mdomo]] (iliyoandikwa baadaye kama maandiko matakatifu). Katika mtazamo wa ulimwengu wa Kiyahudi, maana ya maisha ni kumtumikia Mungu pekee wa kweli na kujiandaa kwa [[ulimwengu ujao]].<ref name="Cohn-Sherbok">{{cite book |author=Dan Cohn-Sherbok |title=Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice |url=https://archive.org/details/judaismhistorybe0000cohn |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0415236614}}</ref><ref name="Heschel">{{cite book |author=Abraham Joshua Heschel |title=Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations |url=https://archive.org/details/heavenlytorahasr0000hesc |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2005 |isbn=0826408028}}</ref> Fikira za "Olam Haba"<ref name="Shuchat">{{cite book |author=Wilfred Shuchat |title=The Garden of Eden & the Struggle to Be Human: According to the Midrash Rabbah |publisher=Devora Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=1932687319}}</ref> Inahusu kujiinua kiroho, ni mtu kutumia "Olam Hazeh" (dunia hii) kwa kuunganika na Mungu na kujiandaa kwa "Olam Haba" (ulimwengu ujao). <ref name="Braham">{{cite book |author=Randolph L. Braham |title=Contemporary Views on the Holocaust |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryview0000unse_n9q0 |publisher=Springer |year=1983 |isbn=089838141X}}</ref> ====Ukristo==== [[File:Das Jüngste Gericht (Memling).jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[Picha]] ya [[Hans Memling]] inayoitwa ''[[Hukumu ya Mwisho]]'', inaonyesha [[Malaika mkuu]] [[Mikaeli]] akipima nafsi na kuwafukuza waliohukumiwa kuelekea [[jehanamu]].]] Ingawa [[Ukristo]] una mizizi yake katika Uyahudi, na unafanana sana na [[ontolojia]] ya Uyahudi, imani kuu ya Ukristo inatokana na mafundisho ya [[Yesu Kristo]] yaliyotolewa katika [[Agano Jipya]]. Kusudi la maisha kwa Mkristo ni kutafuta [[wokovu]] wa Kimungu kupitia [[neema]] ya Mungu iliyoletwa na [[Yesu]] ([[Yoh]] 11:26). Agano Jipya linaongea kuhusu Mungu kutaka uhusiano na binadamu wote katika maisha haya na yale yajao, jambo ambalo linaweza kufanyika tu kama [[dhambi]] za mtu zimesamehewa ([[Yoh]] 3:16-21), ([[2 Pet]] 3:9). Katika mtazamo wa Kikristo, watu waliumbwa katika hali njema kwa mfano wa Mungu, lakini kuanguka kwao ([[dhambi ya asili]]) kulisababisha wanaozaliwa kuirithi dhambi hiyo. [[Sadaka]] ya [[Yesu Kristo]] ya upendo, kifo na ufufuko hutoa njia ya kuishinda hali hiyo chafu ([[Rum]] 6:23). Njia ya kufanya hivyo inatofautiana kati ya [[madhehebu]] mbalimbali ya Wakristo, lakini yote yanategemea imani kwa Yesu, kazi yake [[msalaba]]ni na [[ufufuko wa Yesu|kufufuka kwake]] kama msingi wa uhusiano mpya na Mungu. Chini ya mtazamo wa Ukristo, watu wanafanywa waadilifu kupitia imani katika [[kafara]] ya Yesu kufa msalabani. [[Injili]] inafundisha kwamba, kupitia imani hiyo, kizuizi ambacho dhambi imeunda kati ya mtu na Mungu kinaondolewa, ili kumruhusu Mungu kuwageuza watu na kuweka ndani yao [[moyo mpya]] unaotii mapenzi yake, na uwezo wa kutii hivyo. Hii ndiyo maana inayoashiriwa na maneno 'kuzaliwa upya' au 'kuokolewa'. Jambo hili linatofautisha sana Ukristo na dini nyingine ambazo zinadai kwamba waumini ni waadilifu kwake Mungu kwa kushikamana na mwongozo au sheria waliyopewa na Mungu. Katika "[[Katekisimu]] Fupi ya [[Westminster]]", swali la kwanza ni: "Ni nini lengo kuu la binadamu?". Jibu ni: "Lengo kuu la binadamu ni kumtukuza Mungu na kufurahi naye milele. Mungu anataka mtu atii sheria ya maadili aliyomwonyesha akisema tumpende Bwana Mungu wetu kwa moyo wetu wote, kwa roho yetu yote, kwa nguvu zetu zote, na kwa akili zetu zote; na majirani wetu kama sisi wenyewe".<ref>{{cite web |title=The Westminster Shorter Catechism |url=http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html |accessdate=2008-03-21 |archivedate=2008-03-11 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080311000717/http://www.creeds.net/reformed/Westminster/shorter_catechism.html }}</ref> Katekisimu ya [[Baltimore]] inajibu swali, "Kwa nini Mungu amekuumba?" ikisema "Mungu ameniumba ili nimjue, nimpende na kumtumikia katika dunia hii, na kuwa na heri pamoja naye milele mbinguni."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Baltimore Catechism |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/balt/balt1.htm |accessdate=2008-06-12}}</ref> [[Mtume Paulo]] alijibu swali hilo katika hotuba yake kwenye [[Areopago]] mjini [[Athene]]: "Kutokana na mtu mmoja (Mungu) alifanya kila taifa la wanadamu, ili waishi duniani kote; akapima nyakati hasa zilizowekwa kwao na mahali ambapo wanapaswa kuishi. Mungu alifanya hivyo ili binadamu amtafute kama kwa kupapasa ili kumpata, ingawa hayupo mbali na kila mmojawetu. ([[Mdo]] 17:26-27)<ref>[[Bible]], [[Acts]] 17:26-27, [[NKJV]]</ref> ====Uislamu==== Katika [[Uislamu]], lengo kuu la maisha ya binadamu ni kumtumikia [[Allah]] (kwa Kiarabu sawa na "Mungu") na kukaa na miongozo ya Kimungu iliyofafanuliwa katika [[Qur'an]] na [[Mapokeo ya Mtume]]. Maisha ya duniani ni [[mtihani]] tu ambao huamua maisha ya mtu baada ya kifo, katika Jannat (Mbinguni) au katika Jahannum (Kuzimu). Kwa ajili ya radhi ya Mwenyezi Mungu, kupitia Qur'ani, lazima Waislamu wote waamini katika Mungu, ufunuo wake, malaika wake, wajumbe wake, na katika "Siku ya Kiyama".<ref>{{cite quran|2|4|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|2|285|style=ref}}, {{cite quran|4|136|style=ref}}</ref> Qur'an inaelezea madhumuni ya uumbaji kama ifuatavyo: "Heri yeye ambaye mkononi mwake ana ufalme, yeye ana nguvu juu ya kila kitu, ambaye aliumba mauti na uhai ili apate kuchunguza nani kati yenu ndiye bora katika matendo, na yeye ni mwenyezi, Mwenye kusamehe "(Qur'an67 :1-2) na" 'Mimi tu niliumba malaika na binadamu kuniabudu Mimi "(Qur'an 51:56). Ibada inashuhudia kuwepo kwa umoja wa Mungu katika uongozi wake, majina yake, na sifa yake. maisha ya Duniani ni mtihani; jinsi mtu anavyotenda huamua kama nafsi ya mtu inakwenda Jannat (Mbinguni) au Jahannam (Motoni). [[Nguzo Tano za Kiislamu]] ni [[wajibu]] wa kila Muislamu; yaani: [[Shahadah]] ([[ungamo la imani]]); [[Salah]] (Maombi); [[Zakah]] (ukarimu); [[Sawm]] (kufunga wakati wa Ramadhan) na [[Hajj]] ([[Hija]] kwenda [[Makka]]).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Pillars of Islam | encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Zinatokana na maandiko ya [[Hadith]], hasa ya [[Sahih Al-Bukhari]] na [[Sahih Muslim]]. Imani ni tofauti kati ya Kalam. Dhana ya Kisunni ya mwisho wa safari iliyoamuliwa awali ni amri ya Kimungu;<ref>{{Muslim|1|1}}</ref> aidha, dhana ya Kishi'a ya nafsi kuwa na mahali pa kwenda kabla ya kifo ni haki ya Kimungu; katika mtazamo wa Kisufi unaoeleweka na wachache Ulimwengu upo tu kwa radhi ya Mungu; Uumbaji ni mchezo mkubwa, ambapo Mwenyezi Mungu ndiye tuzo kuu.<ref name="Yusuf Ali">{{cite book |author=[[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]] |title=[[Qur'an|The Holy Qur'an]] |publisher=Wordsworth Editions |year=2000 |isbn=1853267821}}</ref><ref name="Yusuf Ali" /> ====Imani ya Bahá'í==== [[Imani ya Bahai]] inasisitiza umoja wa ubinadamu.<ref>{{Citation | year = 2007 | title = "Bahaism." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language | volume = Fourth Edition | publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company | url = http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bahaism}}</ref> Kwa Wabahá'í, madhumuni ya maisha ni kukua kiroho na kutoa huduma kwa ubinadamu. Binadamu wanatazamwa kama viumbe wa kiroho kwa undani. Maisha ya watu katika dunia hii tunayoishi hutoa fursa zilizopanuliwa za kukua, kukuza sifa na fadhila za Kimungu, na manabii walitumwa na Mungu kuwezesha hili.<ref>{{cite book |last = Smith |first = P. |year = 1999 |title = A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |url = https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit_v0u6 |publisher = Oneworld Publications |location = Oxford, UK |pages = [https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit_v0u6/page/325 325]–328|isbn = 1851681841 }}</ref><ref>For a more detailed Bahá'í perspective, see {{Citation | title = "The Purpose of Life" Bahá'í Topics An Information Resource of the Bahá'í International Community| url = http://info.bahai.org/article-1-4-0-6.html}}</ref> ==Katika sanaa== Siri ya maisha na maana yake ni jambo linalorudiwa mara nyingi katika utamaduni maarufu, unaoonyeshwa katika [[burudani]] ya [[vyombo vya habari]] na aina mbalimbali za [[sanaa]]. [[File:Charles Allan Gilbert - All is Vanity.jpg|thumb|120px|''Yote ni bure'', picha ya [[Charles Allan Gilbert]], ni mfano wa ''vanitas''. Inaonyesha mwanamke akitazama uso wake katika kioo, lakini vyote vimepangwa ili kuifanya picha ya kifuvu kuonekana.]] Katika mfululizo maarufu wa vitabu vya kuchekesha vya [[Douglas Adams]] kwa jina "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", Jibu la Swali Kuu la Maisha, Ulimwengu, na Yote lina ufumbuzi wa kinambari wa 42, ambayo ilipatikana baada ya muda wa zaidi ya miaka milioni saba na nusu kupitia tarakilishi yenye nguvu kubwa kwa jina "Deep Thought". Baada ya kunganyika kwingi kutoka wazao wa waumbaji wake, "Deep Thought" anaelezea kuwa tatizo ni kuwa hawajui Swali Kuu, na ingewabidi kujenga [[kompyuta]] yenye nguvu zaidi ili kulibainisha. Kompyuta inaonyeshwa kuwa [[Dunia]], ambayo, baada ya kuhesabu kwa miaka milioni, inaharibiwa ili kuunda Barabara ya Kiulimwengu dakika tano kabla ya kukamilisha kufanya hesabu.<ref name="Yeffeth"/><ref name="Baggini" /><ref name="Badke"/><ref name="Adams H2G2 book1">{{cite book|title=[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1979|isbn=0-330-25864-8|year=1979|publisher=Pan Books|location=London}}</ref> Katika Maisha, Ulimwengu na Kila kitu, inathibitishwa kwa kweli kuwa 42 ndilo Jibu Kuu, na kwamba haiwezekani kwa Jibu Kuu na Swali Kuu kujulikana katika ulimwengu mmoja, kwani zitafutana na kuuchukua ulimwengu, na kubadilishwa na kitu cha maajabu zaidi,(mhusika mmoja, Prak, anapendekeza kwamba hili huenda likawa limetokea tayari).<ref name="Adams H2G2 book3">{{cite book|isbn=0-330-26738-8|title=[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1982|year=1982|publisher=Pan|location=London}}</ref> Hatimaye, katika matumaini kwamba fahamu yake ina swali, Arthur Dent anajaribu kuliwaza swali, na anapata "unapata nini ukizidisha sita mara tisa?", Pengine ni dhana isiyosahihi, kwani kuwasili kwa "Golgafrinchans" katika Dunia ya kabla ya historia ingeharibu mchakato wa kuhesabu.<ref name="Adams H2G2 book2">{{cite book|title=[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|date=1 Januari 1980|isbn=0-345-39181-0|publisher=Ballantine Books|location=New York}}</ref> Hata hivyo, Dent, Fenchurch, na Marvin anayekaribia kufa waliona ujumbe wa mwisho wa Mungu kwa uumbaji wake: "Sisi tunaomba msamaha kwa shida tuliyowaletea".<ref name="Adams H2G2 book4">{{cite book|isbn=0-330-28700-1|title=[[So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish]]|author=[[Douglas Adams]]|published=1984|year=1985|publisher=Pan|location=London}}</ref> [[File:HamletSkullHCSealous.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Hamlet na fuvu la kichwa la Yorick]] Katika maana ya maisha ya Monty Python,kuna kugusia kwingi kwa maana ya maisha. Katika "Sehemu ya VI B: Maana ya Maisha" mwanamke anayefanya kazi ya kusafisha anaelezea "Maisha ni mchezo, wakati mwingine unashinda au kushindwa" na baadaye mtu wa kupelekea watu vyakula hotelini anaelezea falsafa yake ya kibinafsi "Dunia ni pahali pazuri. Lazima uende ndani yake, na upende kila mtu, usiwachukie watu. Lazima hujaribu na kumfanya kila mtu awe na furaha, na upeleke amani na ridhaa kokote uendapo.<ref name="useless website">[http://www.intriguing.com/mp/_scripts/meanlife.asp Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning Of Life: Complete Script]</ref> Katika mwisho wa filamu, tunaweza kumuona Michael Palin akipewa bahasha, anaifungua, na kupea watazamaji 'maana ya maisha': "Basi, si kitu maalumu sana. Uh, jaribu kuwa mzuri kwa watu, epuka kula mafuta, soma kitabu kizuri kila wakati, pata kutembea, na jaribu kuishi pamoja kwa amani na utulivu na watu wa Imani zote na mataifa yote.<ref name="useless website" /><ref name="Burnham">{{cite book |author=Terry Burnham |title=Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality |url=https://archive.org/details/meanmarketslizar0000burn |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |year=2005 |isbn=0471716952}}</ref><ref name="Fernandez">{{cite book |author=Yolanda Fernandez |title=In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders |url=https://archive.org/details/intheirshoes0000unse |publisher=Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1885473486}}</ref> Katika kipindi kimoja cha "The Simpsons" kilichoitwa "Homer the Heretic", mfano wa Mungu unakubali kumwambia Homer maana ya maisha, lakini majina ya wahusika wa kipindi yanaanza kuonekana anapoanza kusema ni nini. Mapema katika kipindi hicho, Homer anaanzisha dini yake mwenyewe, ambapo anajaribu kumwabudu Mungu kwa njia yake mwenyewe, baadaye akimwwambia Moe kwamba dini hiyo haina kuzimu na haina kupiga magoti. Hata hivyo, Homer anaiacha kwa haraka dini yake ya anasa na ubinafsi baada baada ya nyumba yake kunusurika kuchomeka, akitafsiri moto kama ishara ya kulipiza kisasi kwa kimungu, na kuita "O Mwenye Nguvu za Kuumiza, nionyeshe nani wa kuumiza, naye ataumizwa." Ned anamfariji Homer kuwa moto haukuwa kisasi cha Mungu na Lovejoy anaelezea kwamba Mungu alikuwa "akifanya kazi katika mioyo ya marafiki na majirani wako walipokuja kukusaidia."<ref name="Pinsky">{{cite book|author=Mark I. Pinsky|title=The Gospel According To The Simpsons: The Spiritual Life Of The World's Most Animated Family|url=https://archive.org/details/gospelaccordingt00mark|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=2001|isbn=0664224199}}</ref> Mwishoni mwa "The Matrix Revolutions", Smith anahitimsha kwamba "madhumuni ya maisha ni kuisha" na anakusudia kuharakisha lengo hilo.<ref name="Lawrence">{{cite book|author=Matt Lawrence|title=Like a Splinter in Your Mind: The Philosophy Behind the Matrix Trilogy|url=https://archive.org/details/likesplinterinyo0000lawr|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2004|isbn=1405125241}}</ref> [[The Matrix (series)|''The Matrix'' series]]. Mfululizo wa filamu wa "The Matrix" pia unatoa wazo la "wanaoishi katika ukweli uliobuniwa" na swali linalohusika na wazo hilo ikiwa kuwepo huko kunafaa kutazamwa kama kusiokuwa na maana, katika njia inayoweza kulinganishwa na Hadithi fupi yenye mafunzo ya pango ya Plato na jinsi baadhi ya mifumo ya imani hutazama ukweli, kama Ubuddha au Uaginostiki.<ref>Christopher Grau (2005). Philosophers Explore the Matrix. Oxford University Press.</ref> ==Tazama pia== * [[Maadili]] * [[Maisha]] * [[Ubora wa maisha]] * [[Uhai]] * [[Ulimwengu]] * [[Teleolojia]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist|2}} ==Viungo vya nje== ===Jumla=== * [http://meaningoflife.tv/ Meaningsoflife.tv] &ndash; Video discussions on the ultimate meaning of life with various religious and philosophical leaders. *[http://www.erinstoddard.com/meaningoflife.html Meaning of life”] {{Wayback|url=http://www.erinstoddard.com/meaningoflife.html |date=20100104110401 }} * [http://yudkowsky.net/tmol-faq/meaningoflife.html Frequently Asked Questions about the Meaning of Life] {{Wayback|url=http://yudkowsky.net/tmol-faq/meaningoflife.html |date=20070927211431 }} * [http://www.benbest.com/lifeext/whylife.html Why Life Extension &mdash; or Why Live at All?] ===Kisayansi=== * [http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/ Meaning and Happiness] &ndash; Research on meaning and happiness from the perspective of [[Positive psychology]]. ===Kifalsafa=== * [http://www.einstein-website.de/z_biography/credo.html Einstein's credo] {{Wayback|url=http://www.einstein-website.de/z_biography/credo.html |date=20220311035821 }} * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life-meaning/ "The Meaning of Life" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] * [http://rationalphilosophy.net/meaning-of-life/ An Objective Philosophy: Why We Exist?] {{Wayback|url=http://rationalphilosophy.net/meaning-of-life/ |date=20080514151238 }} &ndash; by Martin G. Walker. *[http://eneida.over-blog.net/ Hedonism & Meaning of life] {{Wayback|url=http://eneida.over-blog.net/ |date=20080626035211 }} *[http://journal.ilovephilosophy.com/Article/The-Logic-of-Existential-Meaning/217 The Logic of Existential Meaning] {{Wayback|url=http://journal.ilovephilosophy.com/Article/The-Logic-of-Existential-Meaning/217 |date=20070709004210 }} * [http://myweb.dal.ca/kernohan/godless A Guide for the Godless: The Secular Path to Meaning] {{Wayback|url=http://myweb.dal.ca/kernohan/godless |date=20110706174824 }} * [http://www.originofhumannature.ca The Origin of Human Nature, A Zen Buddhist Looks a Evolution] {{Wayback|url=http://www.originofhumannature.ca/ |date=20090113141910 }} by [[Albert Low]] ===Kiroho=== * [http://www.motherearthnews.com/Alternative-Energy/1978-07-01/A-Guide-for-Perplexed.aspx A Guide for the Perplexed (excerpt included)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.motherearthnews.com/Alternative-Energy/1978-07-01/A-Guide-for-Perplexed.aspx |date=20071210070232 }} &ndash; by [[E. F. Schumacher]] * [http://www.simpletoremember.com/vitals/MeaningofLife.htm The Meaning of Life (from a Jewish perspective)] &ndash; by Rabbi [[Noah Weinberg]] * [http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/Books2/Dhammananda_Human_Life.htm Human Life] {{Wayback|url=http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/Books2/Dhammananda_Human_Life.htm |date=20091205205727 }} &ndash; by [[K. Sri Dhammananda]] * [http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/Books/Bhikkhu_Buddhadasa_Handbook_for_Mankind.pdf Handbook for Mankind] {{Wayback|url=http://www.what-buddha-taught.net/Books/Bhikkhu_Buddhadasa_Handbook_for_Mankind.pdf |date=20081216225943 }} &ndash; by [[Buddhadasa Bhikkhu]] * [http://www.mormon.org Answers to Life's questions] &ndash; by [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] * [http://www.humanmindmap.net Human life on earth - A Spiritual Perspective] {{Wayback|url=http://www.humanmindmap.net/ |date=20170913154041 }} &ndash; by [[New age]] [[Jamii:Dini]] [[Jamii:Falsafa]] [[Jamii:Elimu jamii]] pbjxnnc3s8i0tlfptqtb0xsrhc7ycts 0 35061 1580061 1433509 2026-07-17T23:36:19Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580061 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement <!--See the Table at Infobox settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--> <!-- Basic info ----------------> |name = Amarna |other_name = |native_name = <!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --> |nickname = |settlement_type = |motto = <!-- images and maps -----------> |image_skyline = Small aten temple.jpg |imagesize = 300px |image_caption = Small Temple of the [[Aten]] at Akhetaten |image_flag = |flag_size = |image_seal = |seal_size = |image_shield = |shield_size = |image_map = |mapsize = |map_caption = |pushpin_map = Misri |pushpin_label_position = bottom |pushpin_mapsize = 300 |pushpin_map_caption = Location in Egypt <!-- Location ------------------> |subdivision_type = Country |subdivision_name = {{flag|Egypt}} |subdivision_type1 = [[Governorates of Egypt|Governorate]] |subdivision_name1 = [[Minya Governorate]] |subdivision_type2 = |subdivision_name2 = |subdivision_type3 = |subdivision_name3 = |<!-- Politics -----------------> |government_footnotes = |government_type = |leader_title = |leader_name = |leader_title1 = <!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --> |leader_name1 = |established_title = <!-- Settled --> |established_date = <!-- Area ---------------------> |area_magnitude = |unit_pref =Imperial <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--> |area_footnotes = |area_total_km2 = <!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--> |area_land_km2 = <!--See table @ Template:Infobox settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--> <!-- Population -----------------------> |population_as_of = |population_footnotes = |population_note = |population_total = |population_density_km2 = |population_density_sq_mi = |population_metro = |population_density_metro_km2 = |population_density_metro_sq_mi = |population_blank1_title =Ethnicities |population_blank1 = |population_density_blank1_km2 = |population_density_blank1_sq_mi = <!-- General information ---------------> |timezone =[[Egypt Standard Time|EST]] |utc_offset = +2 |timezone_DST = +3 |utc_offset_DST = |latd=27|latm=39|lats=42|latNS=N |longd=30|longm=54|longs=20|longEW=E |elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use <ref> </ref> tags--> |elevation_m = |elevation_ft = <!-- Area/postal codes & others --------> |postal_code_type = <!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --> |postal_code = |area_code = |blank_name = |blank_info = |blank1_name = |blank1_info = |website = |footnotes = }} [[Picha:Small_aten_temple.jpg|thumbnail|right|280px|Sehemu ya Amarna]] '''Amarna''' (hujulikana zaidi kama '''el-Amarna''' au mara nyingine hukosewa na kuitwa '''Tel el-Amarna'''; kwa {{lang-ar|العمارنة ''al-‘amārnah''}}) ni eneo lilipo katika kingo za [[Mto Nile]] katika [[Misri]] ya sasa katika [[mkoa]] wa [[Minya]]. Lipo [[kilomita]] 5858 [[kusini]] mwa [[mji]] wa [[al-Minya]] na kilomita 312 au [[maili]] 194 kusini mwa [[mji mkuu]] wa [[Misri]] [[Kairo]] na [[km]] 402 [[kaskazini]] mwa [[Luxor]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://maps.google.com/maps?t=k&ie=UTF8&ll=27.649016,30.908833&spn=0.056566,0.077248&z=14|accessdate=2008-10-01|publisher=Google|title=Google Maps Satellite image}}</ref> Eneo la Amarna linajumuisha [[vijiji]] kadhaa vya kisasa kama vile [[el-Till]] kwa upande wa kaskazini na [[el-Hagg Qandil]] kwa upande wa kusini. Katika eneo hili pia kuna [[makumbusho]] makubwa ya Misri ambayo yanajumuisha mabaki ya mji mkuu wa zamani, uliojengwa upya na [[Farao]] [[Akhenaten]] wa kipindi cha [[nasaba]] ya kumi na nane (1353 hivi) na kuachwa muda mfupi baadae. Akhenaten alijenga mji huo alipojaribu kubadilisha [[dini]] ya Misri kuelekea [[ibada]] ya [[mungu]] mmoja tu aliyekuwa Aten au [[Jua]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amarnaproject.com/|title=The Official Website of the Amarna Project |accessdate=2008-10-01}}</ref> Jina la mji huo lililotungwa na Wamisri linaandikwa hivi, '''Akhetaten''' (or '''Akhetaton'''{{ndash}} [[tafsiri]] inabadilika katika [[lugha]] mbalimbali, katika lugha ya [[Kiingereza]], tafsiri ya Akhetaten inamaanisha "[[akhet (hieroglyph and season)|Horizon]] ya [[Aten]]."<ref name="davidp125">David (1998), p.125</ref> Eneo hili pia limeshawahi kukaliwa na [[Wakristu]] kutoka [[Roma]] na wengineo na katika kipindi cha kuhama eneo hili, waliacha masalia mbalimbali.<ref name="roman">{{cite web |url=http://www.amarnaproject.com/pages/recent_projects/survey/middle_egypt/2006.shtml |title=Middle Egypt Survey Project 2006 |publisher=Amarna Project |year=2006 |accessdate=2007-06-06}}</ref> == Jiji la Akhentaten == <!-- [[Image:Amarna Map.png|350px|thumb|Map of Amarna]] --> Eneo la mji huu, halijawahi kuhamiwa na watu wengi, na ndio mji ambao [[Akhenaten]] aliuelezea kama Aten <blockquote> "''..sehemu ya kwanza, ambayo aliifanya akijua kuwa atakuja kukaa hapo,''" </blockquote> Inawezekana kuwa, [[familia]] ya kifalme ililipenda eneo hili, na pia kuamini kuwa, hili ndilo sehemu ya kuishi na kuanzisha mji katika eneo hili. Mji huo ulijengwa kama mji mpya wa [[Akhenaten|Farao Akhenaten]], na kuutoa kwa ajili ya dini na [[imani]] yake mpya ya Aten. [[Ujenzi]] ulianza kiasi cha miaka mitano ya [[uongozi]] wake ([[1346 KK]]) na unadhaniwa ulimalizika baada ya miaka tisa ([[1341 KK]]) japokuwa ulikua mji miaka miwili kabla. Kurahisisha ujenzi, majengo mengi katika mji huu, yamejengwa kwa kutumia [[miti]] na [[matope]] na kupakwa [[rangi]] [[nyeupe]], wakati majengo yaliyokuwa ya muhimu yalijengwa kwa kutumia [[mawe]].<ref>Grundon (2007), p.89</ref> Huu ni mji pekee nchini [[Misri]] unaotunza sehemu kubwa ya michoro yake ya ndani kwa sehemu kubwa, hii inawezekana ni kutokana na mji huu kutelekezwa baada ya [[kifo]] cha Akhenaten. Mji huu unaonekana ulibakia imara kwa kipindi cha [[karne]] moja au zaidi hata baada ya kifo chake,<ref name="kemp">{{cite web |url=http://www.archaeology.org/online/interviews/kemp.html |title=Excavating Amarna |publisher=Archaeology.org |date=2006-09-27 |accessdate=2007-06-06 |archive-date=2007-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711043111/http://www.archaeology.org/online/interviews/kemp.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> baada ya mji huu kutelekezwa ulibaki bila kuhamiwa na mtu hadi Wakristo kutoka [[Roma]] walipokuja na kuanzisha makazi yao <ref name="roman" /> karibu katika maeneo ya pembezoni mwa Mto Nile. === Sehemu na Kupanga === Ukiwa katika kingo za Mto nile, kwa upande wa Mashariki, mabaki ya mji huu yapo katika sehemu mbalimbali, kaskazini na Kusini hususani katika barabara za kifalme. Ambayo hivi sasa yanaitwa 'Sikhet es-Sultan'.<ref name="waterson81">Waterson (1999), p.81</ref><ref name="grundon92">Grundon (2007), p.92</ref> The Royal residences are generally to the north, in what is known as the [[North City, Amarna|North City]], na kuwa na kituo cha utawala na shughuli za kidini, na katika upande wa kusini mwa mji huu, kuna makazi ya watu. {{Amarna Image Map|width=425}} ==== Mji wa Kaskazini ==== Eneo la kaskazini mwa mji ni sehemu yenye nyumba na mahekalu ya kifalme, na ndio makazi kwa familia za kifalme. Wakati upande wa kasakazini uaendelea kupungua ukubwa na wingi kwa nyumba nzuri. Hii ikiwa ni kulingana na mji wenyewe ulivyo.<ref name="grundon92"/> ==== Katikati ya Mji ==== Majengo muhimu ya sherehe na utawala yapo katika eneo la katikati ya mji. Hekalu la [[Aten]] na hekalu dogo la Aten, yalikuwa yanatumika kwa ajili ya shughuli za kidini, na kati ya hekalu la [[Great Royal Palace]] na [[Royal Residence, Amarna|Royal Residence]] yalikuwa yakitumika kwa shughuli za sherehe kwa ajili ya familia za kifalme naitajiri na zilikuwa zikiunganishwa na daraja..<ref>Waterson (1999), p.82</ref> <ref>Moran (1992), p.xiv</ref> Hili pengine ndili eneo la kwanza kuwahi kumalizika na lilijengwa kwa awamu mbili.<ref name="waterson81"/> ==== Kando ya kiunga cha Kusini ==== Eneo la kusini, lilikuwa ni eneoe ambalo hii leo linajulikana kama, ''Southern Suburbs' yaani viunga vya kando upande wa kusini. Eneo hili lina nyumba kubwa kwa ajili ya makazi ya familia tajiri. Kama vie. [[Nahkt]] (waziri mkuu, ), [[Renefer]] (General), [[Panehesy]] (High Priest of the Aten) and [[Ramose]] (Master of Horses). This area also aliyekuwa akimiliki studia ya kuchongea michoro katika mawe. [[Thutmose]], ambapo michoro yenye umbo la moyo ilipatikana iliyokuwa ikimilikiwa na hii ikiwa ni mwaka 1912.<ref>Waterson (1999), p.138</ref> Kwa upande wa Kusini kwenda mbele katika mji huu, kulikuwa na eneo la [[Kom el-Nana]], eneo lililofungiwa na lililikuwa likijulikana kama ''sun-shade'', na pengine lilijengwa kama vile hakalu la sun-temple.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amarnaproject.com/pages/amarna_the_place/komelnana/index.shtml|title=Kom El-Nana|accessdate=2008-10-04}}</ref>, na pia [[Maru-Aten]], ilikuwa ndilo hekalu mbalo asili yake lilidhaniwa kutengenezwa kwa ajili ya malkia wa [[Akhenaten]] aliyeitwa [[Kiya]],lakini baada ya kifo chake, jina na picha zake vilibadilishwa nay ale ya motto wake wa [[Meritaten]],.<ref>Eyma (2003), p.53</ref>. ==Sanaa ya Amarna== Sanaa ya eneo la Amarna ni ya kipekee katika sanaa nyingi zinazopatina katika ncgi ya [[Misri]] . Hii ni kutokana na uwezo wao mkubwa wa kuchora kwa kuonesha uhalisia wa hali halisi ya michoro. Hii ikiwa ni pamoja na kuonesha hali halisi ya michoro mbalimbali kama vile ya familia za Kifalme wakiwa na watoto wao.Japokuwa imani katika eneo la [[Aten]] iliwahi kuangushwa kabisa lakini sanaa katika eneo hili bado inaonesha kuwa na nguvu sana. Hii ikiwa ni pamoja na kuonesha picha halisi za wanawake zikiwa zenye kung’aa kuliko za wanaume. Sanaa hii pia hujuisha uchoraji wa katuni. ==Kugunduliwa mara ya pili== [[Picha:Amarna Akkadian letter.png|thumb|150px|One of the [[Amarna letters]]]] Kwa mara ya kwanza, jina hili lilitajwa mwaka 1714, na [[Claude Sicard]], mfaransa aliyekuwa mafausi wa Yesu, abaye alikuwa akisafiri katika fukwe za [[Mto Nile]] na bonde la Mto huo, katika mipaka ya Stela kutokea katika eneo la Amarna. Na kutokana na watu wengi kutembelea katika nchi ya [[Misri]] pia watu kadhaa walikuwa wakitembelea katika eneo hili,. Vikosi vya Napoleon, mwaka 1798. 1799 walitengeneza ramani ya kwanza ya Armana ambayo baadae ilikuja kuchaishwa na kati ya mwaka 1821 na 1830.<ref name="amarnamapping">{{cite web|url=http://www.amarnaproject.com/pages/recent_projects/survey/index.shtml|title=Mapping Amarna|accessdate=2008-10-01}}</ref> Mwaka 1887, mwanamke wa kijijini alikua akilima na kugundua kugae chenye umri wa zaidi ya miaka 300<ref>{{cite web|url=http://members.tripod.com/~ib205/budge.html|title=Wallis Budge describes the discovery of the Amarna tablets|accessdate=2008-10-01}}</ref> Mwaka 1891 na 1892, [[Alessandro Barsanti]] aligumndua kaburi la Mfalme (japo lilikuwa likijulikana na wakazi wa eneo hilo tangu mwaka 1880).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amarnaproject.com/pages/amarna_the_place/royal_tombs/index.shtml|title=Royal Tomb|publisher=The Amarna Project|accessdate=2008-10-01}}</ref> Kuna wakati kipindi cha Sir [[Flinders Petrie]] aliwahi kufanya kazi katika eneo kwa kipindi kimoja t Amarna, alifanya kazi yeye binafsi katika eneo [[Egypt Exploration Fund]]. Alianzia katika machimbo ya ya katika ya mji, akijaribu kupeleleza kuhusu hekalu kubwa zaidi la [[Aten]], na nyumba mbalimbali za kifalme ikiwa ni pamoja na makazi ya Farao.Katika hatua mbalimbali alikuwa akifanikiwa kupata mabaki vya vigae na vyombo mbalimbali vya ndaniref name="grundon9091"/> Baada ya kuchapa matokeo ya tafiti zake, Petrie aliweza kuhamasisha watu zaidi kujiunga katika kufanya pelelezi katika maeneo mbalimbali. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book|first=Donald|last=Redford|title=Akhenaten : The Heretic King|publisher=Princeton|year=1984}} * {{cite book|first=Rosalie|last=David|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt|url=https://archive.org/details/handbooktolifein00aros|publisher=Facts on File Inc.|year=1998}} * {{TheAmarnaLettersRef}} * {{cite book|first=Cyril|last=Aldred|title=Akhenaten, King of Egypt|url=https://archive.org/details/00book1496783233|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=1988}} * {{cite book|title=The Rash Adventurer, A Life of John Pendlebury|first=Imogen|last=Grundon|year=2007|publisher=Libri|location=London}} * {{cite book|first=Norman|year=1903-1908|last=de Garis Davies|title=The Rock Tombs of El Amarna. Part 1-6|publisher=EES|location=London}} * {{cite book|first=G.T.|last=Martin|title=The Royal Tomb at el-'Amarna, 2 vols|year=1974, 1989|publisher=EES|location=London}} * Aayko Eyma ed., ''A Delta-Man in Yebu'', Universal-Publishers. 2003 * {{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Waterson|year=1999|title=Amarna: Ancient Egypt's Age of Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/amarnaancientegy0000watt}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.amarnaproject.com/ The University of Cambridge's Amarna Project] * [http://katherinestange.com/egypt/gallery.htm Amarna Art Gallery] Shows just a few, but stunning, examples of the art of the Amarna period. * [http://www.mansooramarnacollection.com/ M.A. Mansoor Amarna Collection] [[Amarna]] [[Jamii:Miji ya Misri]] [[Jamii:Misri ya Kale]] m0izgeb3tcea5glcriefjnla9t4c16c 0 36299 1580079 1578055 2026-07-17T23:52:12Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580079 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Kaswende - Syphilis | Image = Treponema pallidum.jpg | Caption = Electron micrograph of ''Treponema pallidum'' | ICD10 = {{ICD10|A|50||a|50}}-{{ICD10|A|53||a|50}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|090}}-{{ICD9|097}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | DiseasesDB = 29054 | MedlinePlus = 000861 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 2224 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|563}} {{eMedicine2|derm|413}} | MeshID = D013587 | }} [[Image:Chancres on the penile shaft due to a primary syphilitic infection caused by Treponema pallidum 6803 lores.jpg|thumb|200px|Vipele vya awali vya kaswende katika [[uume]].]] [[Image:Secondary Syphilis on palms CDC 6809 lores.rsh.jpg|right| thumb|200px|Hatua ya pili ya kaswende inavyojitokeza mikononi.]] [[Image:Tertiary syphilis head.JPG|image|thumb|200px|Mfano wa kichwa cha mtu mwenye kaswende katika hatua ya tatu.]] '''Kaswende''' ([[ing.]] ''syphilis'') ni mojawapo kati ya [[maradhi ya zinaa]] ambayo inasababishwa na [[bakteria]] inayofahamika kama ''Treponema pallidum''. Katika hatua za mwanzo, vipele katika sehemu za uzazi huanza kujitokeza muda mfupi baada ya maambukizi ambavyo baadaye hupotea vyenyewe. Kama [[ugonjwa]] hautatibiwa, maambukizi huendelea kwa miaka, yakishambulia [[mifupa]], [[ubongo]] na [[moyo]] na kusababisha madhara mengine yanayotokana na matatizo katika [[mfumo wa fahamu]] kama vile [[homa ya uti wa mgongo]] na magonjwa ya [[moyo]] na [[kiharusi]]. Kaswende wakati wa ujauzito unaweza kuwa hatari kubwa kwa kiumbe tumboni, kama vile kusababisha kutoumbika vizuri (''deformity'') na [[kifo]]. Wanawake wengi wajawazito katika [[nchi zilizoendelea]] huchunguzwa kwa uwepo wa ugonjwa huu katika majuma ya kwanza ya [[mimba]] ili kutibu ugonjwa kabla kitoto hakijaathirika. Siku hizi kaswende inaweza kutibika kwa urahisi fulani kwa [[penicillin]]. ==Maelezo zaidi ya msingi== Kaswende inasababishwa na [[bakteria ya]] spirochete ''[[Treponema pallidum]]'' baadhi ya spishi ''pallidum''. Njia ya kawaida zaidi ya kuambukizwa ni kupitia [[ngono]]; hata hivyo, kaswende pia inaweza kuambukizwa kutoka kwa mama hadi kwa [[mimba]] wakati wa ujauzito au wakati wa kuzaliwa kwa mtoto, na kusababisha [[kuzaliwa na kaswende]]. Magonjwa mengine ya binadamu yanayohusiana ni''[[Treponema pallidum]]''bakteria inajumusiha [[buba]] (baadhi ya spishi ''pertenue''), [[Pinta (ugonjwa)|pinta]] (baadhi ya spishi ''carateum'') na [[bejel]] (baadhi ya spishi ''endemicum''). Dalili na ishara za kaswende hutofautiana kulingana na hatua iliyoko kati ya hatua nne. Hatua ni ya kwanza, ya pili, fiche, na ya mwisho. Hatua ya kwanza kawaida inajitokeza kimoja na [[shanka]] utokeaji wa kidonda kwa ngozi isiyowasha, ngumu, isiyokuwa na uchungu). Hatua ya pili ya kaswende hujitokeza na upele ambayo mara kwa mara inahusisha viganja vya mikono na nyayo za miguu. Hatua fiche ya kaswende hujitokeza na dalili kiasi au hata bila. Hatua ya mwisho ya kaswende hujitokeza na [[Guma (patholojia)|guma]], dalili zinazohusiana na mfumo wa neva, au zinazohusiana na moyo. Hata hivyo, kaswende imeitwa "mwiigaji mkuu" sababu mara nyingi hujitokeza kwa njia isiyo ya kawaida. Kwa kawaida kaswende hutambulika kwa [[kuchunguzwa na serolojia|uchunguzi wa damu]];hata hivyo, bakteria inaweza kuonekana kwa kutumia hadubini. Kaswende inaweza kutibiwa kwa njia inayofaa kwa kutumia [[antibiotiki]], haswa ndani ya misuli [[penisilini G]]. Hii inapendekezwa kwa watu walio na aleji ya penisilini, [[seftriaksoni]]. Inaaminika kwamba kufikia mwaka wa 1999 watu milioni 12 walikuwa wameambukizwa kaswende ulimwenguni na zaidi ya asilimia 90 ya hali hizi kutoka kwa [[nchi zinazoendelea]]. Hali za kaswende zilipungua kwa kasi baada ya penisilini kupatikana kwa urahisi katika miaka ya 1940, lakini viwango vya maambukizi vimeongezeka tangu mwaka 2000 katika nchi nyingi. Mara nyingi kaswende hupatikana pamoja na [[virusi vinavyosababisha UKIMWI]] (VVU). Hii imehusishwa na sehemu ya matendo ya ngono yasiyokuwa salama kati ya [[wanaume wanaofanya ngono na wanaume wengine]];Ongezeka la uasherati; ukahaba; na kupungua kwa matumizi ya kondomu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coffin|first=LS|coauthors=Newberry, A, Hagan, H, Cleland, CM, Des Jarlais, DC, Perlman, DC|title=Syphilis in Drug Users in Low and Middle Income Countries|journal=The International journal on drug policy|date=2010 Jan|volume=21|issue=1|pages=20–7|pmid=19361976|doi=10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.02.008|pmc=2790553}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Gao|first=L|coauthors=Zhang, L, Jin, Q|title=Meta-analysis: prevalence of HIV infection and syphilis among MSM in China|journal=Sexually transmitted infections|date=2009 Sep|volume=85|issue=5|pages=354–8|pmid=19351623|doi=10.1136/sti.2008.034702}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Karp|first=G|coauthors=Schlaeffer, F, Jotkowitz, A, Riesenberg, K|title=Syphilis and HIV co-infection|journal=European journal of internal medicine|date=2009 Jan|volume=20|issue=1|pages=9–13|pmid=19237085|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2008.04.002}}</ref> {{TOC limit|3}} ==Dalili na ishara== Kaswende inaweza kuwa katika hatua moja kati ya hatua nne tofauti: ya kwanza, ya pili, fiche, na ya mwisho,<ref name=Kent08>{{cite journal |author=Kent ME, Romanelli F |title=Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management |journal=Ann Pharmacother |volume=42|issue=2 |pages=226–36 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=18212261 |doi=10.1345/aph.1K086 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-pharmacotherapy_2008-02_42_2/page/226}}</ref> na pia inaweza kujitokeza [[wakati wa kuzaliwa]].<ref name=ST10/> ilirejelewa kama "mwiigaji mkuu" na [[Sir William Osler]] kutokana na njia mbalimbali inavyojitokeza<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=TUS00/> ===Hatua ya kwanza=== [[Image:Extragenital syphilitic chancre of the left index finger PHIL 4147 lores.jpg|thumb|200px|Vipele vya awali vya kaswende katika mkono.]] Hatua ya kwanza ya kaswende kawaida hupatikana kwa kuwasiliana kwa njia ya moja kwa moja kwa ngono na vidonda vilivyoambukizwa vya mtu mwingine.<ref name=RedBookSyphilis>{{cite book|author=Committee on Infectious Diseases |editor = Larry K. Pickering |title=Red book 2006 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases|url=https://archive.org/details/redbook0000larr |year=2006| pages=[https://archive.org/details/redbook0000larr/page/631 631]–44|publisher=American Academy of Pediatrics|location=Elk Grove Village, IL|isbn=9781581102079|edition=27th}}</ref>Takriban siku 3 hadi 90 baada ya kuathiriwa hapo awali ( wastani ya siku 21&nbsp;) kidonda kwa ngozi, iitwayo [[shanka]], hutokea mahali palipogusana.<ref name=Kent08/> Huu ni mfano hasa&nbsp;(Asilimia 40 ya wakati) kidonda kimoja, kigumu, kisichokuwa na uchungu, kisichowasha na sehemu yake ya chini iliyokuwa safi na mipaka mikali kati ya sentimita 0.3 na 3.0 kwa ukubwa .<ref name=Kent08/> Hata hivyo, kidonda, kinaweza kuonekana kuwa tofauti sana. <ref name=Pri2008>{{cite journal|last=Eccleston|first=K|coauthors=Collins, L, Higgins, SP|title=Primary syphilis|journal=International journal of STD & AIDS|date=2008 Mar|volume=19|issue=3|pages=145–51|pmid=18397550|doi=10.1258/ijsa.2007.007258}}</ref> Katika viwango, hugeuka kutoka[[macule]] hadi [[kipele]]na kisha kwa [[uyeyukaji (ugonjwa wa ngozi)#Hatua ya kwanza ya vidonda|uyeyukaji]] au [[Donda (ngozi)|donda]].<ref name=Pri2008/> Mara chache, kutakuwa na vidonda kadhaa. (~40%),<ref name=Kent08/> Hii pia ni ya kawaida mtu anapoambukizwa Virusi Vya Ukimwi<!-- Pri2008 --> Shanka yanaweza kuwa na uchungu au nyororo (30%),<!-- Pri2008 --> na zinaweza kutokea nje viungo vya uzazi (2–7%).<!-- Pri2008 --> Mahali pa kawaida zaidi pa chanikeri kwa wanawake ni [[kwa seviksi]](44%). Mahali pa kawaida zaidi kwa wanaume wanaovutiwa na jinsia tofauti ni [[Kwa uume]] (99%). Wakati mwingine shanka hutokea kwa tupu ya nyama au rektamu kwa[[wanaume wanaojishirikisha ngono na wanaume wengine]] (34%).<ref name=Pri2008/> [[Tenzi]] kuvimba mara kwa mara&nbsp;(80%)hutokea pahali palipo ambukizwa,<ref name=Kent08/> hutokea siku 7 hadi 10&nbsp;baada ya kutokea kwa shanka<ref name=Pri2008/> [[kidonda]] kinaweza kuendelea kutokea wiki watatu hadi sita bila matibabu<ref name=Kent08/> ===Hatua ya pili=== [[image:Syphilis second state 2.jpg|thumb|Nyekundu [[vipele]] na [[Uvimbe (daktari wa ngozi)#Hatua ya kwanza ya vidonda|vipele]] kuzidi mwilini kutokana na hatua ya pili ya kaswende]] Hatua ya pili ya kaswende hutokea takriban wiki nne hadi kumi baada ya hatua ya kwanza ya maambukizi.<ref name=Kent08/> hatua ya pili ya ugonjwa unaweza kujitokeza kwa njia nyingi tofauti, lakini kwa kawaida dalili sana sana huhusisha ngozi, [[membreni ute]], na [[tezi ya limfu]].<ref name=Sec2010/> kunaweza kuwa na upele mwekundu-waridi-isiyokuwa na mwasho kwa kiwiliwili pamoja na limbu (miguu na mikono), ikiwa ni pamoja na viganja na nyayo.<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=2darySyphilis>{{cite journal | author=Dylewski J, Duong M | title=The rash of secondary syphilis | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-medical-association-journal_2007-01-02_176_1/page/33 | journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal | date= 2 January 2007 |volume=176 | issue=1 | pages=33–5 | doi= 10.1503/cmaj.060665 | pmid=17200385 | pmc=1764588}}</ref> Vipele vinaweza kuwa [[makulopapula]] au [[usaha|yenye pustuli]].<!-- Kent08 --> inaweza kutengeneza chunjua kama vidonda iliyopana, nyeupe na sawa sawa inayojulikana kama [[kondiloma latum]] kwa [[membreni yenye ute]]s.<!-- Kent08 --> Vidonda hivi vyote vinamaambukizi na yanahifadhi bakteria.<!-- Kent08 --> Dalili zingine inaweza ni pamoja na [[homa]], [[uchungu wa koo]], [[hitilafu ya mwili]],[[kupunguza uzito]], [[kutokwa na nywele]], na [[maumivu ya kichwa]].<ref name=Kent08/> matokeo yasiyo kuwa ya kawaida ni pamoja na [[hepatitisi]], [[figo]] ugonjwa, [[athritisi]],[[periostitisi]], [[neuritsi ya kuona]], [[uveitisi]], na [[keratitisi ya interstitial]].<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=Eye07/> Kwa kawaida dalili kali uyeyuka baadaye kati ya wiki tatu hadi sita;<ref name=Eye07/> hata hivyo, katika hali iliyokaribia 25%, dalili ya hatua ya pili yanaweza kurudi. <!-- Sec2010 --> Watu wengi walio katika hatua ya pili ya kaswende (40–85% ya wanawake, 20–65% ya wanaume) hawatoi ripoti kuwa na shanka ya kiwango kilicho juu cha hatua ya kwanza ya kaswende.<ref name=Sec2010>{{cite journal|last=Mullooly|first=C|coauthors=Higgins, SP|title=Secondary syphilis: the classical triad of skin rash, mucosal ulceration and lymphadenopathy|journal=International journal of STD & AIDS|date=2010 Aug|volume=21|issue=8|pages=537–45|pmid=20975084|doi=10.1258/ijsa.2010.010243}}</ref> ===Hatua fiche=== Hatua fiche ya kaswende imefafanuliwa kama kuwa na [[serolojia|serologic]] utambuzi wa maambukizi bila dalili ya magonjwa.<ref name=RedBookSyphilis/> Imeelezwa zaidi kama ya hapo awali (chini ya mwaka wa 1&nbsp;mwaka mmoja baada ya hatua ya pili ya kaswende) katika Marekani<ref name=Eye07/> Uingerezani, masaa hizi huitwa miaka miwili ya hatua fiche ya kaswende ya mapema na iliyochelewa.<ref name=Pri2008/> Dalili ya hatua fiche ya kaswende ya mapema huweza kurudi tena.<!-- Eye07 --> Hatua fiche ya kaswende iliyochelewa huwa [[haina dalili za magonjwa]] (hayana dalili), na hatua fiche ya kaswende iliyochelewa haiambukizwi kwa urahisi kama hatua fiche ya kaswende ya mapema.<ref name=Eye07/> ===Hatua ya mwisho=== Hatua ya mwisho ya kaswende inaweza kutokea takriban miaka mitatu hadi 15 baada ya maambukizi ya kwanza, na inaweza kugawanywa kwa aina tatu tofauti: kaswende iliyosababishwa na guma (15%), iliyochelewa [[kaswende katika mfumo wa neva]] (6.5%), na kaswende inayoathiri moyo na mishipa ya damu (10%).<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=Eye07/> Bila matibabu, theluthi moja ya watu ambao wameambukizwa kaswende hupata hatua ya mwisho ya kaswende.<ref name=Eye07/> Watu walio na awamu ya mwisho ya kaswende hawawezi kuambukiza wengine.<ref name=Kent08/> Kaswende inayosababishwa na gum, pia inayoitwa [[mwanzo|hafifu]] kaswende, kwa kawaida hutokea moja kwa miaka&nbsp;46 baada ya maambukizi ya awali, kwa wastani wa miaka.15&nbsp; <!-- Kent08 --> Hatua hii ni sifa ya muundo sugu wa [[guma(patholojia)|guma]], ambayo ni uvimbe nyororo zinazofanana na vidonge vya inflamesheni vinavyoweza kuwa zinabadilika kulingana na ukubwa.<!-- Kent08 --> Kawaida huathiri ngozi, mifupa, na ini, lakini inaweza kutokea mahali popote.<ref name=Kent08/> [[Kaswende katika mfumo wa neva]] inamaanisha maambukizi inayohusisha [[mfumo mkuu wa neva]]. Unaweza kutokea mapema, ikiwa aidha isiyo kuwa na dalili ya ugonjwa au ya kusababisha kaswende [[meninjitisi]]; au inaweza kuchelewa, kama kaswende ya veni za tando za ubongo, [[paresi ya jumla]], au [[tabesi dorsalisi]], ambayo inahusu usawa wa mwili na uchungu mkali kwa limbu za chini.<!-- Kent08 --> Kaswende ya neva iliyochelewa huja kabisa baada ya miaka minne hadi 25 baada ya maambukizi ya hapo awali.<!-- Kent08 --> Kaswende ya veni za utando za ubongo hufanana hasa ikiwa haiwezi kuzuiliwa [[kifafa]], na paresi ya jumla hufanana hasa na [[dimenshia]] na [[tabtesi dorsalisi]].<ref name=Kent08/> Pia, kunaweza kuwa na [[Mboni za Agryll Robertson]] ambazo ni mboni ndogo kwa macho zinazofinyika mtu anapotazama vitu vilivyokaribu, lakini hayafinyiki zikiwa wazi kwa mwanga mkali. Kaswende ya moyo na mishipa kwa kawaida hutokea miaka 10 hadi30&nbsp;baada ya maambukizi ya awali.<!-- Kent08 --> Tatizo la kawaida kabisa ni ule wa [[kaswende ya kuvimba kwa aota]], ambayo inaweza kusababisha [[aneurisimi wa aota|aneurisimi]] kuundwa.<ref name=Kent08/> ===Ya kuzaliwa nayo=== [[Kaswende ya kuzaliwa nayo]] inaweza kutokea wakati wa mimba au wa kuzaa.<!-- Wood09 --> Theluthi-mbili ya watoto wazawa wanazaliwa bila dalili.<!-- Wood09 --> Dalili ambazo huendelea zaidi ya miaka michache ya kwanza ya maisha ni pamoja na: [[kunenepa nenepa kwa ini au wengu]] (70%), upele (70%), joto jingi mwilini (40%), kaswende ya neva (20%), na [[ugonjwa wa mapafu kuvimba]] (20%).<!-- Wood09 --> Ikiwa haita tibiwa, [[kaswende ya kuzaliwa ya baadae]] inaweza kutokea kwa 40 %, ikiwa ni pamoja na: [[pua lenye umbo la tandiko]]ulemavu, [[Higoumenakis sign]], [[saber shin]], au [[Clutton's joints]], miongoni mwa zingine.<ref name=Wood09/> ==Chanzo== ===Bakteriolojia=== [[Picha:Treponema pallidum 01.png|thumb|Histopatholojia ya ''Treponema pallidum'' spirosheti zinazotumia kifaa chembamba cha kutia waa cha kisasa]] ''Treponema pallidum'', kundi la spishi ''pallidum'' ni wa umbo la mzunguko, [[gramu-hasi]], bakteria inayosambaa kwa kasi.<ref name=Pri2008/><ref name=Music08/>Magonjwa mengine matatu ya binadamu husababishwa na zinazohusiana na ''Treponema pallidum'', ikiwa ni pamoja na [[buba]] (kundi la spishi ''pertenue''), [[Pinta (maradhi)|pinta]](kundi la spishi ''carateum''), na [[bejel]] (kundi la spishi ''endemicum'').<ref name=Kent08/> Tofauti na aina ya ''pallidum'' haya hayasababishi ugonjwa wa neva.<ref name=Wood09>{{cite journal |author=Woods CR|title=Congenital syphilis-persisting pestilence|journal=Pediatr. Ambukiza. Dis. J. |volume=28|issue=6 |pages=536–7 |year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19483520|doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e3181ac8a69 |url=}}</ref> Wanadamu tu ndio wanaojulikana kuwa na [[hifadhi asili]] kwa kundi la spishi ''pallidum''.<ref name=ST10/> Bakteria hii haiwezi kuishi bila kimelea.<!-- Pri2008 --> Hii ni kwa sababu ya jenomu yake ndogo (1.14&nbsp;[[Yuniti ya masi atomu|MDa]])na hivyo basi haitaweza kutengeneza virutubishi vikuu.<!-- Pri2008 --> Ina wakati mfupi wa kujiongeza zaidi ya saa&nbsp;30.<ref name=Pri2008/> ===Maambukizi=== Kaswende huambukizwa kimsingi kwa kupitia ngono [[ujauzito]] kutoka kwa mama hadi kwa [[fetasi]]; spirosheti huweza kupitia ukiwa mzima kwa membreni ya utetelezi au ngozi yenye haina kinga.<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=ST10>{{cite journal |author=Stamm LV |title=Global Challenge of Antibiotic-Resistant Treponema pallidum |journal=Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=583–9 |year=2010 |month=February |pmid=19805553 |pmc=2812177 |doi=10.1128/AAC.01095-09 |url=http://aac.asm.org/content/54/2/583.full.pdf |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2014-04-25 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6P5jOzkSb?url=http://aac.asm.org/content/54/2/583.full.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> na hivyo husambazwa kwa[[kubusu]], pia mdomo kwa, uke, na tupu ya nyuma wakati wa ngono.<ref name=Kent08/> Takriban 30% hadi 60% kwa wale wako wazi kwa hatua ya kwanza au ya pili ya kaswende watapata ugonjwa huo.<ref name=Eye07>{{cite journal |author=Bhatti MT |title=Optic neuropathy from viruses and spirochetes |journal=Int Ophthalmol Clin |volume=47|issue=4 |pages=37–66, ix |year=2007 |pmid=18049280 |doi=10.1097/IIO.0b013e318157202d |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-ophthalmology-clinics_fall-2007_47_4/page/37}}</ref> Maambukizi ya kaswende imefananishwa na ukweli kwamba mtu ambaye amechanjwa na mshushio 57 pekee ana nafasi 50% ya kuambukizwa.<ref name=Pri2008/> Nyingi ya (60%) hali mpya Marekani hutokea kwa wanaume ambao hufanya ngono na wanaume wengine.<!-- Kent08 --> Kaswende inaweza kusambazwa kupitia [[vifaa vya damu]]. Hata hivyo, bidhaa za damu hupimwa kama kuna kaswende katika nchi nyingi, na hivyo hatari hupunguka.<!-- Kent08 --> Hatari ya maambukizi kutoka kwa [[kugawana sindano]] imeonekana kuwa ni chache.<ref name=Kent08/> Kaswende haiwezi kusambazwa kwa kupitia makalio ya choo, shughuli za kila siku, beseni ya maji moto, au kugawana vyombo vya kukulia au mavazi.<ref name="CDC Fact Sheet">{{cite web | title = Syphilis - CDC Fact Sheet | publisher = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) | date = 16 September 2010 | url =http://www.cdc.gov/std/syphilis/STDFact-Syphilis.htm | accessdate = 2007-05-30 }}</ref> ==Utambuzi== [[Picha:Syphilis false shame and fear may destroy your future.png|thumb|Bango ya kupima kaswende, inaonyesha mwanamke na mwanaume wakiinamisha vichwa vyao kwa aibu (1936 hivi)]] Ni vigumu kutambua kaswende kwa kliniki mapema katika uwasilishaji wake.<ref name=Pri2008/> Uthibitisho wake hufanywa aidha kupitia [[kupima damu]] au moja kwa moja kukagua kwa kupitia [[uchunguzi kwa kutumia hadubini]].<!-- Kent08 --> Kwa kawaida vipimo vya damu hutumika, kwa sababu hutambulika kwa urahisi zaidi.<ref name=Kent08/> Vipimo vya kutambua ugonjwa haziwezi, hata hivyo, hutofautisha kati ya hatua ya ugonjwa.<ref name= Orgin10/> ===Kupima damu=== Kupimwa kwa damu hugawanywa katika [[Uchunguzi wa kaswende usiokuwa na treponemal |nontreponemal]] na vipimo vya treponemal .<ref name=Pri2008/> Vipimo vya Nontreponemal hutumika hapo awali, na ni pamoja na [[utafiti wa ugonjwa wa zinaa maabarani]] na [[vipimo vya]] Kuongeza ghafla tena kwa plasma. Hata hivyo, kwa vile vipimo hivi ni vya mara kwa mara[[Matokeo chanya#Kosa la kuandika I |matukio chanya]],uthibitisho inahitajika kwa kupima treponemal, kama vile [[treponemal pallidum particle agglutination]] au [[Uchunguzi wa ufonyzaji wa antibodi ya treponemal iliyo na mwangaza]] (FTA-Abs).<ref name=Kent08/> matukio chanya usiokuwa ya ukweli katika uchuguzi wa usio kuwa wa treponemal inaweza kutokea na maambukizi fulani ya virusi kama vile [[tetekuwanga]] na [[ukambi]], pia inaweza kutokea na [[limfoma]], [[kifua kikuu]], [[malaria]],[[uvimbemoyo]], [[ugonjwa wa kuungana kwa tishu]], na [[mimba]].<ref name=RedBookSyphilis/> Vipimo vya antibodi vya treponemal kawaida huwa chanya baada ya wiki mbili hadi tano ya maambukizi ya hapo awali.<ref name=Pri2008/> Kaswende ya neva hutambulika kwa kupata idadi ya juu ya [[lukosaiti]] (kuzidi[[limfositi]]) na kiwango cha juu cha protini [[viowevu vya ubongo na uti wa mgongo]] katika mazingira ya kaswende inayojulikana.<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=RedBookSyphilis/> ===Uchunguzi wa moja kwa moja=== [[Eneo la giza linalochunguzwa kwa kutumia hadubini|Eneo la giza linalochunguzwa kwa kutumia hadubini]] ya [[viowevu vya seramu]] kutoka shanka inaweza kutumika kwa kufanya utambuzi wa haraka.<!-- Pri2008 -->Hata hivyo, sio kawaida kupata vifaa au wakazi wenye ujuzi hospitalini, na vipimo hivi lazima vifanywe kati ya dakika &nbsp;10 ya kupata sampuli.<!-- Pri2008 --> [[kiwango cha hisi na udhihirishaji|Kiwango cha hisi]] kimeripotiwa kuwa takriban 80%, hivyo vipimo hivi vinaweza kutumika tu kuthibitisha utambuzi, lakini si kwa kuchuja moja nje.<!-- Pri2008 --> Vipimo vingine viwili vina weza kufanywa kwa sampuli iliyo toka kwa shanka ni [[antibodi ya mwangaza ya moja kwa moja]] na [[msururu wa athari za polima na vipimo vya|asidi ya kiini]] .<!-- Pri2008 --> antibodi ya floresini ya njia ya moja kwa moja [[antibodi]]zilizobandikwa na[[floresini]], ambayo inajishikilia kwa protini maalum za kaswende. Asidi ya kiini hutumia ufundisanifu, kama vile [[msururu wa athari za polima]], kutambua uwepo wa jeni maalum ya kaswende.<!-- Pri2008 --> Uchunguzi hizi sio shida kwa wakati kama makroskopu inayotumia giza, kwa sababu bakteria hahitajiki ili kufanya utambuzi.<ref name=Pri2008/> ==Udhibiti== Hakuna chanjo inayofaa kudhibiti. <ref name=ST10/> Kujiepusha na uhusiano kimwili na mtu aliyeambukizwa ni shahihi kwa kupunguza maambukizi ya kaswende, kama ilivyo kiasi kwa matumizi sahihi ya [[kondomu]], ambayo, hata hivyo, hayaondoi kabisa hatari.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Koss CA, Dunne EF, Warner L |title=A systematic review of epidemiologic studies assessing condom use and risk of syphilis |journal=Sex Transm Dis |volume=36 |issue=7 |pages=401–5 |year=2009 |month=July |pmid=19455075 |doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3181a396eb|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_sexually-transmitted-diseases_2009-07_36_7/page/401}}</ref><ref name="CDC Fact Sheet" /> Hivyo, [[Vituo vya kudhibiti na kuzuia magonjwa]]vinapendekeza uhusiano wa muda-mrefu, kwa kushirikiana na mtu mmoja hajaambukizwa na kujiepusha na vitu kama [[vinywaji vinavyolewesha|pombe]] na dawa zingine ambazo huongeza hatari za kufanya ngono kiholela.<ref name="CDC Fact Sheet" /> Kaswende ya kuzaliwa nayo inaweza kuzuiwa kwa kuchunguzi mama mapema wakati wa ujauzito na kutibu wale ambao wameambukizwa.<ref name=Screening04>{{cite journal|last=Schmid|first=G|title=Economic and programmatic aspects of congenital syphilis prevention|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|date=2004 Jun|volume=82|issue=6|pages=402–9|pmid=15356931|pmc=2622861}}</ref> [[Muungano wa Wahudumu wa kutoa udhibiti Merikani]] inapendekeza sana uchunguzi kwa wanawake wote wajawazito,<ref>{{cite journal|last=U.S. Preventive Services Task|first=Force|title=Screening for syphilis infection in pregnancy: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force reaffirmation recommendation statement|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2009-05-19_150_10/page/n69|journal=Annals of internal medicine|date=2009 May 19|volume=150|issue=10|pages=705–9|pmid=19451577}}</ref> [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] inapendekeza wanawake wote kupimwa mara ya kwanza wakitembelea kliniki(kabla ya kujifungua)na tena katika[[kipindi cha tatu cha ujauzito]].<ref name=Lancet11/> Iwapo vipimo vinaonyesha uwepo wa ungojwa,inapendekezwa washirika wa akina mama hawa pia watibiwe.<ref name=Lancet11>{{cite journal|last=Hawkes|first=S|coauthors=Matin, N, Broutet, N, Low, N|title=Effectiveness of interventions to improve screening for syphilis in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=The Lancet infectious diseases|date=2011 Jun 15|pmid=21683653|volume=11|issue=9|pages=684–91|doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70104-9}}</ref>. Kaswende ya kuzaliwa nayo, hata hivyo, bado iko kawaida katika inch zinazoendelea, kwa kuwa wanawake wengi hawapati [[huduma ya kliniki ya wajauzito]] > kabisa, na wengine huduma ya kliniki ya wajawazito wanayopata haijumulishi uchunguzi wa kaswende.<ref name=Screening04/> Kaswende ya kuzaliwa nayo huaipatikani mara kwa mara katika nchi zilizoendelea, kwa sababu wale wanaoweza kupata kaswende (kupitia matumizi ya dawa, n.k) pia wako uwezo mdogo zaidi wa kupata huduma wakati wa ujauzito.<ref name=Screening04/> Hatua zingine za kuongezea upatikanaji wa kupimwa huonekana kuwa na ufanisi katika kupunguza viwango vya kaswende ya kuzaliwa nayo katika chini zilizo na mapato ya chini na ya kati.<ref name=Lancet11/> Kaswende ni [[ugonjwa inayohitaji kutolewa taarifa]] katika nchi nyingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na Canada,<ref>{{cite web|title=National Notifiable Diseases|url=http://dsol-smed.phac-aspc.gc.ca/dsol-smed/ndis/list-eng.php|publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada|date=2005-04-05|accessdate=2 August 2011|archivedate=2011-08-09|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809162040/http://dsol-smed.phac-aspc.gc.ca/dsol-smed/ndis/list-eng.php}}</ref> Umoja wa Ulaya,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Viñals-Iglesias|first=H|coauthors=Chimenos-Küstner, E|title=The reappearance of a forgotten disease in the oral cavity: syphilis|journal=Medicina oral, patologia oral y cirugia bucal|date=2009 Sep 1|volume=14|issue=9|pages=e416–20|pmid=19415060}}</ref> na Marikani.<ref>{{cite web|title=Table 6.5. Infectious Diseases Designated as Notifiable at the National Level-United States, 2009 [a]|url=http://www.unboundmedicine.com/redbook/ub/view/RedBook/187389/all/Table_6_5__Infectious_Diseases_Designated_as_Notifiable_at_the_National_Level_United_States__2009_%5Ba%5D|work=Red Book|accessdate=2 August 2011}}</ref> Hii inamaanisha kuwa wahuduma wa Afya wanatakiwa kutoa taarifa kwa[[wizara ya Afya]] ambayo itatoa [[taarifa kwa washirika]] hadi kwa washirika wa watu. <ref>{{cite book|title=Brunner & Suddarth's textbook of medical-surgical nursing.|year=2010|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781785891|pages=2144|edition=12th|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=SmtjSD1x688C&pg=PA2144}}</ref> Madaktari pia wanaweza kuhimiza wagonjwa kutumia washirika wao kupata huduma.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Hogben|first=M|title=Partner notification for sexually transmitted diseases|journal=Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=2007 Apr 1|volume=44 Suppl 3|pages=S160–74|pmid=17342669|doi=10.1086/511429}}</ref> Kituo cha kudhibiti na kuzuia magonjwa kinapendekeza kwamba wanaume wanaoshiriki ngono na wanaume wengine lazima wapimwe angalau kila mwaka.<ref>{{cite web|title=Trends in Sexually Transmitted Diseases in the United States: 2009 National Data for Gonorrhea, Chlamydia and Syphilis|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats09/tables/trends-table.htm|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|date=22 November 2010|accessdate=3 August 2011}}</ref> ==Matibabu== ===Maambukizi ya mapema=== Chaguo la kwanza kwa matibabu ya kaswende isiyo na tatizo bado tu ni dosi kimoja ya shindano kwa misuli[[Benzlipenisillini|penisilini G]] au dosi moja ya dawa ya kumeza[[azithromycin]].<ref>{{cite book|author = David N. Gilbert, Robert C. Moellering, George M. Eliopoulos, ''et al.''|title=The Sanford guide to antimicrobial therapy 2011|publisher=Antimicrobial Therapy |location=Sperryville, VA|isbn=9781930808652|pages=22| edition = 41st }}</ref><!-- ST10 -->[[Doksiklini]] na [[tetrasaiklini]] ni chaguo mbadala; hata hivyo, hazitumiki kwa akina mama wajawazito.<!-- ST10 --> [[Pingamizi kwa antibiotiki]]imetokezea kwa baadhi ya maajenti, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[makrolidi]], [[klindamisini]], na [[rifampini]].<ref name=ST10/> [[seftriaksoni]], sephalosporini-za tokeo la tatu [[antibiotiki]], zinaweza kufanya kazi kama penisilini kulingana na matibabu.<ref name=Kent08/> ===Maambukizi ya baadaye=== Kwa kaswende kwa sababu ya uingiaji duni wa penisilini G kwenye [[mfumo mkuu wa neva]], watu walioathiriwa wanashauriwa kupewa dosi kubwa za penisilini kwa mshipa kwa muda usiopungua siku 10 .<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=ST10/> Iwapo mtu ana aleji ya penisilini, seftriaksoni inaweza kutumiwa, au utoaji wa aleji ya penisilini unaweza kujaribiwa.<!-- Kent08 --> Zinaotokea baadaye zinaweza kutibiwa na shidano ya penisilini G kwa misuli mara moja-kwa wiki kwa muda wa wiki tatu.<!-- Kent08 --> Ikiwa mgonjwa ana aleji, doksikilini au tetrasaikilini zinaweza kutumiwa, lakini kwa muda mrefu.<!-- Kent08 -->Matibabu kwa wakati huu huzuia uendeleaji wa ugonjwa, lakini ina mabaadiliko madogo tu kwa madhara yenye tayari yametokea.<ref name=Kent08/> ===Athari ya Jarisch-Herxheimer=== Moja wapo ya athari inayoweza kutokana na matibabu ni [[athari aina ya Jarisch-Herxheimer]].<!-- Kent08 --> Mara nyingi inaanza ndani ya saa moja baada ya matibabu na hudumu kwa masaa 24, kukiwa na dalili za joto nyingi mwilini, maumivu kwa misuli, maumivu ya kichwa, na [[takikadia]].<ref name="Kent08"/> Inasababishwa na [[saitokini]] zinazotolewa na mfumo wa kinga kutokana na lipoprotini zinazotolewa wakati bakteria za kaswende zinazopasuka.<ref name=Radolf2006>{{cite book |author= Radolf, JD; Lukehart SA (editors)| year=2006 |title=Pathogenic ''Treponema'': Molekiuli na bayolojia ya chembechembe |url= https://archive.org/details/pathogenictrepon0000unse| publisher=Caister Academic Press | isbn= 1-904455-10-7}}</ref> ==Epidemiolojia== [[Image:Syphilis world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|[[Age adjustment|Age-standardized]] death from syphilis per 100,000&nbsp;inhabitants in 2004<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html |title=Disease and injury country estimates |year=2004 |publisher = [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |accessdate=11 November 2009}}</ref> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<35}} {{legend|#fff200|35-70}} {{legend|#ffdc00|70-105}} {{legend|#ffc600|105-140}} {{legend|#ffb000|140-175}} {{legend|#ff9a00|175-210}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|210-245}} {{legend|#ff6e00|245-280}} {{legend|#ff5800|280-315}} {{legend|#ff4200|315-350}} {{legend|#ff2c00|350-500}} {{legend|#cb0000|>500}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Inaaminiwa kuwa kaswende iliathiri watu milioni 12 mwaka wa 1999, 90% ya maambukizi yakiwa kwa [[nchi zinazoendelea]].<ref name=ST10/> Huathiri kati ya mimba 700,000 na milioni 1.6&nbsp; kwa mwaka, na kusababisha [[kuharibika kwa mimba bila hiari]]s, [[kuzaa mtoto aliyekufa]] na kuzaliwa na kaswende.<!-- Wood09 --> Katika[[sub-Saharan Africa]], kaswende huchangia takriban 20% ya [[vifo vya watoto wakati wa kuzaliwa]].<ref name=Wood09/> Viwango viko juu zaidi vikilinganishwa na [[wanaotumia dawa ya kulevya|wanaojidunga dawa kwa mshipa]], walio na maambukizi ya VVU, na wanaume wanaofanya ngono na wanaume wengine.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coffin|first=LS|coauthors=Newberry, A, Hagan, H, Cleland, CM, Des Jarlais, DC, Perlman, DC|title=Syphilis in Drug Users in Low and Middle Income Countries|journal=The International journal on drug policy|date=2010 Jan|volume=21|issue=1|pages=20–7|pmid=19361976|doi=10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.02.008|pmc=2790553}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Gao|first=L|coauthors=Zhang, L, Jin, Q|title=Meta-analysis: prevalence of HIV infection and syphilis among MSM in China|journal=Sexually transmitted infections|date=2009 Sep|volume=85|issue=5|pages=354–8|pmid=19351623|doi=10.1136/sti.2008.034702}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Karp|first=G|coauthors=Schlaeffer, F, Jotkowitz, A, Riesenberg, K|title=Syphilis and HIV co-infection|journal=European journal of internal medicine|date=2009 Jan|volume=20|issue=1|pages=9–13|pmid=19237085|doi=10.1016/j.ejim.2008.04.002}}</ref> Nchini Marekani viwango vya kaswende mno mwaka wa 2007 vilikuwa mara sita zaidi kwa wanaume kuliko ya Wanawake, hata ingawa viwango hivi vilikuwa karibu sawa mwaka wa 1997.<ref>{{cite web|title=Trends in Reportable Sexually Transmitted Diseases in the United States, 2007|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats07/trends.htm|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]](CDC)|date=13 January 2009|accessdate=2 August 2011}}</ref> [[Wafrika Wamarika]] walichangia kwa takriban nusu ya walioambukizwa mwaka wa 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=STD Trends in the United States: 2010 National Data for Gonorrhea, Chlamydia, and Syphilis|url=http://www.cdc.gov/std/stats10/tables/trends-table.htm|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|date=22 November 2010|accessdate=20 November 2011}}</ref> Kaswende ilikuwa ni kawaida nchini Ulaya wakati wa karne ya 18 na 19.<!-- Music08 --> -!>. Katika nchi zilizoendelea mwanzo wa karne ya 20, maambukizi yalipungua kwa haraka kwa sababu ya ongezeko la matumizi ya [[antibiotiki]], hadi miaka ya 1980 na 1990.<ref name=Music08/> Tangu mwaka wa 2000, viwango vya kaswende vimeongezeka nchini Marekani, Uingereza, Australia na Ulaya, hasa kati ya wanaume wanaofanya mapenzi na wanaume wengine.<ref name=ST10/> viwango vya kaswende miongoni mwa wanawake wa Marekani, hata hivyo,imebakia sawa wakati huu, na viwango kati ya wanawake Uingereza vimeongezeka, lakini katika kiwango cha chini kuliko kile cha wanaume.<ref name=AOP08>{{cite journal|last=Kent|first=ME|coauthors=Romanelli, F|title=Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-pharmacotherapy_2008-02_42_2/page/226|journal=The Annals of pharmacotherapy|date=2008 Feb|volume=42|issue=2|pages=226–36|pmid=18212261|doi=10.1345/aph.1K086}}</ref> Ongezeko kwa viwango miongoni mwa wapenzi wa jinsia tofauti ilitokea China na Urusi tangu miaka ya 1990.<ref name=ST10/> Hii imehusishwa na mazoea ya kufanya mapenzi bila kinga, kuwa na wapenzi wengi, ukahaba, na upunguvu wa matumizi ya kinga kama vile kondomu.<ref name=ST10/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ficarra|first=G|coauthors=Carlos, R|title=Syphilis: The Renaissance of an Old Disease with Oral Implications|journal=Head and neck pathology|date=2009 Sep|volume=3|issue=3|pages=195–206|pmid=20596972|doi=10.1007/s12105-009-0127-0|pmc=2811633}}</ref><ref name=AOP08/> Bila kutibiwa, kaswende inasababisha vifo kwa 8% hadi 58%,kiwango kikubwa ikiwa kwa wanaume.<ref name=Kent08/> Dalili za kaswende zimepunguka kwa ukali katika karne ya 19 na 20&nbsp;,kwa sababu ya ueneaji na upatikanaji wa matibabu yanayofaa, na pia kupungua kwa[[ukali]] wa spirochaete.<ref name=Sec2010/> Ikitibiwa mapema, matatizo chache hutokea.<ref name=Pri2008/> Kaswende huongeza hatari ya maambukizi ya VVU kwa mara 2-5, na yale yanayoambatana ni ya kawaida (30-60% kwa baadhi ya vituo vya mijini).<ref name=Kent08/><ref name=ST10/> == Historia== [[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 095.jpg|thumb|Portrait of [[Gerard de Lairesse]] na [[Rembrandt van Rijn]], ca. 1665–67, oil on canvas. De Lairesse,mwenyewe ni mchoraji na mwanasanaa, aliathiriwa na kaswende kutoka kuzaliwa iliyomwaribu uso wake na hatimaye ikasababisha upofu kwake<ref>''[[Metropolitan Museum of Art|The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin]]'', Summer 2007, pp. 55–56.</ref>]] Mwanzo halisi wa kaswende haujulikani <ref name=Kent08/> Kuna nadharia tete mbili za kimsingi:. Moja inapendekeza kuwa kaswende ililetwa Ulaya na wafanyikazi wa meli kutoka [[Christopher Columbus]] safari kuelekea [[Marikani]], na nyingine inapendekeza kwamba kaswende ilikuwepo Ulaya hapo awali, lakini haikuwa imetambuliwa. <!-- Orgin10 --> nadharia hizi hujulikana kama nadharia "Columbian" na "kabla ya Columbian", mtawalio.<ref name=Orgin10>{{cite journal|last=Farhi|first=D|coauthors=Dupin, N|title=Origins of syphilis and management in the immunocompetent patient: facts and controversies|journal=Clinics in dermatology|date=2010 Sep-Oct|volume=28|issue=5|pages=533–8|pmid=20797514|doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.011}}</ref> Nadharia ya Columbia inathibitiswa na ushahidi uliopo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rothschild|first=BM|title=History of syphilis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_2005-05-15_40_10/page/1454|journal=Clinical infectious diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=2005-05-15|volume=40|issue=10|pages=1454–63|pmid=15844068|doi=10.1086/429626}}</ref> Taarifa ya kwanza iliyoandikwa kuhusu mlipuko wa kaswende katika Ulaya iliyotokea katika mwaka wa 1494/1495 katika[[Naples|Naples, Italia]], wakati waliingiliwa na Ufaransa.<ref name=Music08>{{cite journal|last=Franzen|first=C|title=Syphilis in composers and musicians--Mozart, Beethoven, Paganini, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana|url=https://archive.org/details/european-journal-clinical-microbiology_2008-12_27_12/page/1151|journal=European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases |date=2008 Dec|volume=27|issue=12|pages=1151–7|pmid=18592279|doi=10.1007/s10096-008-0571-x}}</ref><ref name=Orgin10/> Kutokana na kuenezwa na kundi la wapiganaji wafaransa waliporudi, hapo awali ilijulikana kama "ugonjwa wa Kifaransa". Mwaka wa 1530, jina "kaswende" lilitumiwa kwanza na daktari Mwitaliano na mshairi [[GirolamoFracastoro]] kama kichwa cha[[Kilatini]] shairi lake kuelezea ongezeko la ugonjwa huo Italia.<ref> Nancy G. "Siraisi, Drugs and Diseases: New World Biology and Old World Learning," in Anthony Grafton, Nancy G. raisi, with April Shelton, eds., New World, Ancient Texts (Cambridge MA: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 1992), 159-94 </ref> Kaswende pia ilijulikana kihistoria kama "Poksi Kuu".<ref name=Old05>{{cite journal|last=Dayan|first=L|coauthors=Ooi, C|title=Syphilis treatment: old and new|journal=Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy|date=2005 Oct|volume=6|issue=13|pages=2271–80|pmid=16218887|doi=10.1517/14656566.6.13.2271}}</ref><ref name=Euro04>{{cite journal|last=Knell|first=RJ|title=Syphilis in renaissance Europe: rapid evolution of an introduced sexually transmitted disease?|journal=Proceedings. Biological sciences / the Royal Society|date=2004-05-07|volume=271 Suppl 4|pages=S174–6|pmid=15252975|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2003.0131|pmc=1810019|issue=Suppl 4|url=http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/271/Suppl_4/S174.full.pdf|archive-date=2014-08-03|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803093827/http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/271/Suppl_4/S174.full.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Viumbe visababishi, ''Treponema pallidum'', vilitambuliwa kwa mara ya kwanza na [[Fritz Schaudinn]] na [[Erich Hoffmann]] mwaka wa 1905. <ref name=Music08/> matibabu yaliyofaa ya kwanza([[Salvarsan]]) yalitengezwa mwaka wa 1910 na [[Paul Ehrlich]], ambayo ilifuatiliwa na majaribio ya [[penisilini ]] na uthibitisho wa ufanisi wa dawa hiyo mwaka wa 1943 <ref name=Music08/><ref name=Old05/> Kabla ya kuwepo kwa matibabu yaliyofaa, [[mercury (elementi)|mercury]] na kwa kawaida utengaji ulitumika mara nyingi, pamoja na matibabu yaliyokuwa mara nyingi mbaya zaidi kuliko ugonjwa <ref name=Old05/> Watu wengi maarufu wa kihistoria, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[Franz Schubert]],[[Arthur Schopenhauer]], [[ÉdouardManet]]<ref name=Music08/> and [[Adolf Hitler]],<ref>{{cite news | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/2842819.stm | title = Hitler syphilis theory revived | publisher = BBC News | date = 12 March 2003}}</ref> waliaminika kuwa walikuwa na ugonjwa huo. ==Jamii na Utamaduni== ===Sanaa na Fasihi=== [[Picha:400Behandlung der Syphilis.jpg|thumb|The earliest known medical illustration of patients suffering from syphilis, Vienna, 1498]] Sanamu ya kwanza Ulaya iliyoonyesha kaswende ni ya[[Albrecht Dürer]] ''Mtu aliye kuwa na Kaswende'', sanamu ilioyo katwa kutoka kwa mti aliaminika kuonyeza [[Landsknecht]], mtu wa kutoka Ulaya kaskazini[[kufanya kwa lengo la pesa]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Eisler|first=CT|title=Who is Dürer's "Syphilitic Man"?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_perspectives-in-biology-and-medicine_winter-2009_52_1/page/48|journal=Perspectives in biology and medicine|date=2009 Winter|volume=52|issue=1|pages=48–60|pmid=19168944|doi=10.1353/pbm.0.0065}}</ref> kisasili cha''[[femme fatale]]'' au "Wanawake sumu" wa karne ya 19 inaaminika kuwa ilitokana na uharibifu wa kaswende, ikiwa na mifano maarufu katika maelezo pamoja na [[John Keats]]' [[La Belle Dame sans Merci]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Robert|title=Things I didn't know : a memoir|url=https://archive.org/details/thingsididntknow00unse|year=2007|publisher=Vintage|location=New York|isbn=9780307385987|pages=[https://archive.org/details/thingsididntknow00unse/page/346 346]|edition=1st Vintage Book}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=[ed]: Joanne Entwistle, Elizabeth|title=Body dressing|url=https://archive.org/details/bodydressing0000unse|year=2005|publisher=Berg Publishers|location=Oxford|isbn=9781859734445|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bodydressing0000unse/page/205 205]|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}</ref> Msanii [[Jan van der Straet]] alichora mtu tajiri akipokea matibabu ya kaswende kwenye mti wa tropiki [[guaiacum]] hapo karibu mwaka wa 1580.<ref>{{cite book|last=Reid|first=Basil A.|title=Myths and realities of Caribbean history|year=2009|publisher=University of Alabama Press|location=Tuscaloosa|isbn=9780817355340|pages=113|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KtT0_P-9xiAC&pg=PA113|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}</ref> Kichwa cha kazi hiyo ni "Maandalizi na Matumizi ya Guayaco kwa Kutibu Kaswende".Kwa kuwa msanii alichagua kuweka picha hii kwa kazi zilizofuatana za kuadhimisha Dunia mpya inayoonyesha umuhimu wa matibabu ya kaswende, hata ingawa yasiofaa, ya kaswende ulivyokuwa kwa wasomi wa Ulaya wakati huo. Mchoro uliyokuwa na rangi nyingi na tondoti inaonyesha wafanyi kazi wanne wakiandaa mchanganyiko huo wakati daktari akiangalia, akiwa ameficha kitu nyuma wakati mgonjwa hasio bahatika anakunywa.<ref name="ALLPOSTERS">[http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Preparation-and-Use-of-Guayaco-for-Treating-Syphilis-Posters_i1587366_.htm"Preparation and Use of Guayaco for Treating Syphilis"] {{Wayback|url=http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Preparation-and-Use-of-Guayaco-for-Treating-Syphilis-Posters_i1587366_.htm |date=20110521060238 }}. Jan van der Straet. Retrieved 6 August 2007.</ref> ===Utafiti wa Tuskegee na Guatemala=== Moja ya hali iliyokuwa na sifa mbaya Merikani kuhusu [[maadili ya kimatibabu]] katika karne ya 20 ilikuwa [[Utafiti wa kaswende ya Tuskegee]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Katz RV, Kegeles SS, Kressin NR, ''et al.''|title=The Tuskegee Legacy Project: Willingness of Minorities to Participate in Biomedical Research |journal=J Health Care Poor Underserved |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=698–715|year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17242525|pmc=1780164 |doi=10.1353/hpu.2006.0126 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-health-care-for-the-poor-and-underserved_2006-11_17_4/page/698}}</ref> Utafiti ulifanywa [[Tuskegee, Alabama]], ilifadhiliwa na [[Huduma ya afya ya umma Marikani]] (PHS) ikisaidiana na [[Taasisi ya Tuskegee]].<ref name=CDCTime>{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm |title=U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee | publisher = [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) | date = 15 June 2011 |accessdate=2010-07-07 }}</ref> Utafiti huu ulianza mwaka wa 1932, wakati kaswende ilikuwa tatizo sana na hakukuwa na matibabu yaliyofaa na salama.<ref name=TUS00>{{cite journal|last=White|first=RM|title=Unraveling the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis|journal=Archives of internal medicine|date=2000-03-13|volume=160|issue=5|pages=585–98|pmid=10724044|doi=10.1001/archinte.160.5.585}}</ref> Utafiti huo ulinuia kupima Maendeleo ya kaswende bila matibabu. Kufikia 1947, penisilini ilikuwa imekubaliwa kuwa ndio tiba sahihi kwa matibabu yaliofaa kwa kaswende na ilikuwa ikitumika sana kwa kutibu ugonjwa huo. <-! CDCTime ->Wakurugenzi wa utafiti huu, hata hivyo, waliendelea na utafiti na hawakuwapa washiriki matibabu na penisilini. <ref name=CDCTime/>hiiimejadiliwa, na baadhi yao wamegundua kwamba penisilini alipewa washirika wengi<ref. name="TUS00"/>Utafiti haukuisha hadi 1972.<ref name=CDCTime/> Majaribio ya kaswende pia yalifanywa katika[[Guatemala]] kutoka 1946 hadi 1948. Yalikuwa yamefadhiliwa na[[marikani]] [[|utafiti kwa binadamu|majaribio kwa binadamu]], yaliyofanywa wakati wa serikali ya [[Juan José Arévalo]] ikiwa na ushirikiano na baadhi ya wizara za afya na maafisa wa Guatemala. Madaktari waliambukiza askari, wafungwa, na [[wagonjwa wa akili]] na kaswende na magonjwa mengine[[magojnwa ya zinaa]], bila [[ridhaa]] ya washiriki, na kisha kuwatibi na [[antibiotiki]]. Mwezi wa Oktoba 2010, Marekani iliomba msamaha rasmi kwa Guatemala kwa kufanya majaribio haya.<ref>{{cite news |author= |coauthors= |title=U.S. apologizes for newly revealed syphilis experiments done in Guatemala|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/10/01/AR2010100104457.html |quote=The United States revealed on Friday that the government conducted medical experiments in the 1940s in which doctors infected soldiers, prisoners and mental patients in Guatemala with syphilis and other sexually transmitted diseases.|work=[[The Washington Post]] |date=1 October 2010 |accessdate=1 October 2010}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} [[Jamii:Maradhi ya zinaa]] [[Jamii:Maradhi ya ngozi]] [[Jamii:magonjwa ya bakteria]] l679u3n224splswhuhfvawasds1ls0c 0 39840 1580090 1506678 2026-07-17T23:59:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580090 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Tuzo 2 | jina = Grammy Legend Award | maelezo = Michango endelevu na athira katika tasnia ya muziki | picha = | ukubwa wa picha = | caption = | hutolewa na =[[National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences]] | nchi = Marekani | miaka = 1990 | tovuti = [http://www.grammy.com/ grammy.com] }} '''Grammy Legend Award''', au '''Grammy Living Legend Award''',<ref name="Liza: Life in the limelight">{{cite web|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4506978/|title=Liza: Life in the limelight|last=Kotb|first=Hoda|date=12 Machi 2004|publisher=[[msnbc.com]]|accessdate=31 Desemba 2009}}</ref><ref name="Billy Joel biography">{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/music/artist/joel_billy/artist.jhtml|title=Billy Joel biography|last=Erlewine|first=Stephen Thomas|publisher=[[MTV]]|accessdate=31 Desemba 2009|archive-date=2009-12-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091227085849/http://www.mtv.com/music/artist/joel_billy/artist.jhtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> ni tuzo maalumu inayotolewa na [[Grammy Awards]] kwa ajili ya wakongwe wa muziki walio hai , sherehe ambazo zilianzishwa tangu 1958 na hapo awali iliitwa Gramophone Awards.<ref name="Seen and heard at the 50th Grammy Awards">{{cite web|url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/2008-02-10-3988122778_x.htm|title=Seen and heard at the 50th Grammy Awards|date=11 Februari 2008|work=[[USA Today]]|publisher=[[Gannett Company]]|accessdate=20 Desemba 2009}}</ref><ref name="The 2001 Grammys">{{cite web|http://articles.latimes.com/2001/feb/18/entertainment/ca-26779|title=The 2001 Grammys|last=Henken|first=John|date=18 Februari 2001|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|format=Payment required to access full article|accessdate=20 Desemba 2009|publisher=[[Tribune Company]]}}</ref> ==Waliopokea tuzo hii== {| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" style="text-align:center;" ! width=100 style="background:#FFE4C4;"|Mwaka{{ref|1|[I]}} ! class=unsortable width=100 style="background:#FFE4C4;"|Picha ! width=400 style="background:#FFE4C4;"|Mpokeaji ! width=100 style="background:#FFE4C4;"|Maisha ! width=200 style="background:#FFE4C4;"|Utaifa ! class=unsortable style="background:#FFE4C4;"|Marejeo |- |align="center"|[[32nd Grammy Awards|1990]] || [[File:AndrewLloydWebber3.png|100px|alt=An upperbody shot of a middle-aged man in a dark suit.]] || {{sortname|Andrew|Lloyd Webber}} || {{sort|1948|amezaliwa 1948}} || {{UK}} || <ref name="cader 545">Cader Books, p. 545</ref> |- |align="center"|[[32nd Grammy Awards|1990]] || [[File:Liza Minnelli.jpg|100px|alt=A woman in a red dress, jacket and scarf smiles toward the camera.]] || {{sortname|Liza|Minnelli}} || {{sort|1946|amezaliwa 1946}} || {{USA}} || <ref name="Liza: Life in the limelight" /> |- |align="center"|[[32nd Grammy Awards|1990]] || [[File:Smokey Robinson 2.jpg|100px|alt=A man in a light-colored suit sings into a microphone]] || {{sortname|Smokey|Robinson}} || {{sort|1940|amezaliwa 1940}} || {{USA}}|| <ref name="kalte 117">Kalte, p. 117</ref> |- |align="center"|[[32nd Grammy Awards|1990]] || [[File:WillieNelson.jpg|100px|alt=An elderly man holds a guitar while in front of a microphone. He has white facial hair and wears a United States flag bandana.]] || {{sortname|Willie|Nelson}} || {{sort|1933|amezaliwa 1933}} || {{USA}} || <ref name="Grammy Legend Award">{{cite web|url=http://www2.grammy.com/Recording_Academy/Awards/Legends/|title=Grammy Legend Award|publisher=Grammy.com|accessdate=20 Desemba 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207040854/http://www2.grammy.com/Recording_Academy/Awards/Legends/|archivedate=2010-12-07}}</ref> |- |align="center"|[[33rd Grammy Awards|1991]] || [[File:Arethafranklin.jpg|100px|alt=A woman stands on stage and sings into a microphone. She wears a blue dress and has a blue feather boa around her arms.]] || {{sortname|Aretha|Franklin}} || {{sort|1942|amezaliwa 1942}} || {{USA}} || <ref name="Franklin not ready to rest on another laurel">{{cite web|url=http://news.google.co.uk/newspapers?id=lCcqAAAAIBAJ&sjid=LkUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5316,4612077&dq=grammy+legend+1991+aretha-franklin&hl=en|title=Franklin not ready to rest on another laurel|last=Barrera|first=Sandra|date=6 Septemba 2005|work=[[Milwaukee Journal Sentinel]]|accessdate=31 Desemba 2009|publisher=[[Journal Communications]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305095700/https://news.google.co.uk/newspapers?id=lCcqAAAAIBAJ&sjid=LkUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5316,4612077&dq=grammy+legend+1991+aretha-franklin&hl=en|archivedate=2016-03-05}}</ref> |- |align="center"|[[33rd Grammy Awards|1991]] || [[File:Billy Joel Shankbone NYC 2009.jpg|100px|alt=An upper body shot of a man wearing a shirt, suit and tie. He is balding and his smiling mouth is framed by a white goatee beard.]] || {{sortname|Billy|Joel}} || {{sort|1949|amezaliwa 1949}} || {{USA}} || |- |align="center"|[[33rd Grammy Awards|1991]] || [[File:JohnnyCash1969.jpg|100px|alt6=A man with dark hair looks forlornly down to his left. He rests his chin between his thumb and finger.]] || {{sortname|Johnny|Cash}} || {{sort|1932–2003|1932–2003}} || {{USA}} || <ref name="Critic's choice">{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=ST&s_site=dfw&p_multi=ST&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF8DDFDE5B8966&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=Critic's choice|date=15 Februari 1991|work=[[Fort Worth Star-Telegram]]|format=Payment required to access full article|accessdate=20 Desemba 2009|publisher=[[The McClatchy Company]]|archive-date=2016-03-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303172719/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=ST&s_site=dfw&p_multi=ST&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EAF8DDFDE5B8966&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- |align="center"|[[33rd Grammy Awards|1991]] || [[File:Quincy Jones 2006.jpg|100px|alt=A man in a blue jacket looks ahead. The balding male's dark sunglasses conceal his eyes.]] ||{{sortname|Quincy|Jones}} || {{sort|1933|amezaliwa 1933}} || {{USA}} || <ref name="‘Melody’ Missing from Music Industry, Quincy Jones Says">{{cite web|url=http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/56271|title=‘Melody’ Missing from Music Industry, Quincy Jones Says|last=Ballasy|first=Nicholas|date=29 Oktoba 2009|publisher=[[CNSNews.com]]|accessdate=31 Desemba 2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128023937/http://www.cnsnews.com/news/article/56271|archivedate=2010-01-28}}</ref> |- |align="center"|[[34th Grammy Awards|1992]] || [[File:Barbra Streisand.jpg|100px|alt=A blond-haired woman looks down to the ground. She wears a white dress and a silver necklace.]] || {{sortname|Barbra|Streisand}} || {{sort|1942|amezaliwa 1942}} || {{USA}} || <ref name="The 1992 Grammys an 'unforgettable' night for Natalie Cole, Bonnie Raitt and R.E.M">{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=PI&s_site=philly&p_multi=PI&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB2A30592416810&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=The 1992 Grammys an 'unforgettable' night for Natalie Cole, Bonnie Raitt and R.E.M|date=26 Februari 1992|work=[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]|format=Payment required to access full article|accessdate=20 Desemba 2009|publisher=[[Philadelphia Media Holdings]]|archive-date=2018-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817023108/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=PI&s_site=philly&p_multi=PI&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB2A30592416810&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- |align="center"|[[35th Grammy Awards|1993]] || [[File:Michael 1988 by himself.jpg|100px|alt=A headshot of a man wearing a red baseball cap and shirt. He has long black hair and is smiling towards the camera.]] ||{{sortname|Michael|Jackson}} || {{sort|1958–2009|1958–2009}} || {{USA}} || <ref name="Grammy moments - memorable and forgettable">{{cite web|url=http://news.google.co.uk/newspapers?id=Z04pAAAAIBAJ&sjid=y4QDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3702,4129430&dq=michael-jackson+legend-award&hl=en|title=Grammy moments - memorable and forgettable|last=McShane|first=Larry|date=25 Februari 1993|work=[[Deseret News]]|accessdate=31 Desemba 2009}}</ref> |- |align="center"|[[36th Grammy Awards|1994]] || [[File:Curtis Mayfield.png|100px]] || {{sortname|Curtis|Mayfield}} || {{sort|1942–2999|1942–1999}} || {{USA}} || <ref name="Curtis Mayfield, 57, entertainer, songwriter">{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=WO&p_theme=wo&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EADFAF47039E50C&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=Curtis Mayfield, 57, entertainer, songwriter|date=27 Desemba 1999|work=[[Telegram & Gazette]]|format=Payment required to access full article|accessdate=20 Desemba 2009|publisher=The New York Times Company|archive-date=2018-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817023103/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=WO&p_theme=wo&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EADFAF47039E50C&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|url-status=dead}}</ref> |- |align="center"|[[36th Grammy Awards|1994]] || [[File:Franksinatra.jpg|100px|alt=A middle-aged man in a tuxedo sits and smiles into the distance.]] || {{sortname|Frank|Sinatra}} || {{sort|1915–1998|1915–1998}} || {{USA}} || |- |align="center"|[[40th Grammy Awards|1998]] || [[File:Luciano Pavarotti 15.06.02 cropped.jpg|100px|alt=A man in a dress coat and white shirt opens his mouth, which is framed by dark facial hair.]] || {{sortname|Luciano|Pavarotti}} || {{sort|1935–2007|1935–2007}} || {{ITA}} || <ref name="Prince among tenors, undisputed king of high C's">{{cite web|url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/people/prince-among-tenors-undisputed-king-of-high-cs/2007/09/06/1188783415787.html|title=Prince among tenors, undisputed king of high C's|last=Shmith|first=Michael|date=7 Septemba 2007|work=[[The Age]]|accessdate=20 Desemba 2009|publisher=[[Fairfax Media]]}}</ref> |- |align="center"|[[41st Grammy Awards|1999]] || [[File:Elton John on stage, 2008.jpg|100px|alt=A blond-haired middle-aged man stands with his arms open and fists clenched. He wears a dark suit and red shirt. He also sports a cross pendant around his neck, and wears purple sunglasses.]] || {{sortname|Elton|John}} || {{sort|1947|amezaliwa 1947}} || {{UK}} || <ref name="Grammy Legend Award" /> |- |align="center"|[[45th Grammy Awards|2003]] || [[File:The Bee Gees.png|100px|The Bee Gees]] || {{sortname|Bee|Gees}} || &mdash; || {{UK}} || <ref name="The 45th Annual Grammy Awards">{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=PI&s_site=philly&p_multi=PI&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F96BA72E6C4286F&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=The 45th Annual Grammy Awards|date=24 Februari 2003|work=The Philadelphia Inquirer|format=Payment required to access full article|accessdate=20 Desemba 2009|publisher=Philadelphia Media Holdings|archive-date=2018-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620232449/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=PI&s_site=philly&p_multi=PI&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0F96BA72E6C4286F&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|url-status=dead}}</ref> |} ==Tazama pia== *[[Grammy Award]] ==Tanbihi== {{Marejeo}} ==Marejeo== *{{cite book|author=''[[People (magazine)|People]]''|others=Cader Books|title=2001 People Entertainment Almanac|url=https://archive.org/details/peopleentertainm0000unse|publisher=People Books|date=2000|isbn=1929049072}} *{{cite book|last=Kalte|first=Pamela M.|title=Contemporary Black Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryblac0049unse|publisher=Gale Group|date=2005|isbn=0787679216}} ==Viungo vya Nje== *[http://www.grammy.com/ Official website] of the [[Grammy Awards]] [[Category:Tuzo za Grammy|Legend Award]] illyvzjmaed5an9b0llcstlt09l6wzg 0 40243 1579960 896021 2026-07-17T14:57:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579960 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Jarlabanke.JPG|thumb|250px|''Sanamu ya Jarlabanke]] [[Picha:Täby Municipality in Stockholm County.png|thumb|180px|]] '''Täby''' ni manispaa [[Uswidi]]. Kuna wakazi 58,593 (mwaka 2005). == Jiografia == Eneo lake ni 25.82 [[km²]]. <gallery> Picha:Storstugan vid Täby centrum, 2009.JPG|''Uwanda wa Täby'' Picha:Täby kyrka från norr.jpg |''Kanisa la Täby'' Picha:Stenbro vid Täby kyrka.JPG |''Daraja la mawe katika Täby'' </gallery> == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.taby.se www.taby.se] {{Wayback|url=http://www.taby.se/ |date=20090205054905 }} {{Mbegu-jio-Uswidi}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Uswidi]] ethp3l6ixj73cp3jpwxmb9o0rcxwz51 0 40508 1580270 1578089 2026-07-18T02:06:05Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580270 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Cristo crucificado.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Mchoro]] wa [[Diego Velázquez]], ''[[Yesu msulubiwa]]'', [[1631]], [[Jumba la Makumbusho|Makumbusho]] ya [[Prado]] ([[Madrid]], [[Hispania]]) unaonyesha anwani juu ya [[kichwa]] chake.]] [[Picha:SabinaCrucify.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Kigae]] cha msalaba - [[Basilika]] la [[Santa Sabina]] huko [[Roma]] ([[Italia]]).]] {{Yesu Kristo}} '''Msalaba wa Yesu''' ni [[msalaba]] ule ambao [[Yesu Kristo]] alisulubiwa juu yake hadi [[Mauti|kifo]] [[Kifo cha Yesu|chake]] kilichotokea huko [[Yerusalemu]] kwa [[amri]] ya [[Ponsyo Pilato]] [[siku]] ya [[Ijumaa Kuu|Ijumaa]], labda [[tarehe]] [[7 Aprili]] [[30]] [[BK]], la sivyo tarehe [[3 Aprili]] [[33]]<ref name=ChronosPaul >[[Paul L. Maier]] "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in ''Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies'' by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 {{ISBN|0-931464-50-1}} pp. 113–129</ref><ref name=Kostenberger140 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by [[Andreas J. Köstenberger]], L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} p. 114</ref><ref name=Barnett19 >''Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times'' by Paul Barnett 2002 {{ISBN|0-8308-2699-8}} pp. 19–21</ref>. Tukio hilo {{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|page=172. "...if there is any fact of Jesus' life that has been established by a broad consensus, it is the fact of Jesus' crucifixion.}}, pamoja na [[ufufuko wa Yesu]] unaosadikiwa na [[Ukristo]] kutokea [[siku]] ya [[tatu]] ([[Jumapili]] ya [[Pasaka ya Kikristo|Pasaka]]), ndiyo [[kiini]] cha [[imani]] ya [[dini]] hiyo mpya iliyotokana na ile ya [[Uyahudi]]. Kwa Wakristo [[fumbo]] hilo la [[Pasaka]] ndilo [[kilele]] cha [[historia ya wokovu]] inayotangazwa na [[Biblia ya Kikristo]]<ref>Haight, Roger. "Jesus and Salvation: An Essay in Interpretation." Theological Studies, vol. 55, no. 2, 1994, pp. 227–250. [https://theologicalstudies.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/55.2.2.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217015756/https://theologicalstudies.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/55.2.2.pdf |date=February 17, 2024 }}</ref>. Fumbo hilo lilisababisha kazi nyingi za [[sanaa ya Kikristo]], hasa [[uchoraji]] na [[uchongaji]]. ==Historia== [[Adhabu]] hiyo kali ilianza kutumika huko [[Uajemi]] na kuenea hadi [[Dola la Roma]] ambalo liliitumia hasa katika maeneo ya pembeni na kwa [[watumwa]]. Kadiri ya [[Injili]] zote [[nne]], zinazoungwa mkono na [[maandishi]] mengine mbalimbali, Ponsyo Pilato, [[liwali]] wa [[Palestina]] ([[26]]-[[36]]<ref name="Lémonon 1981 29–32">{{cite book |last=Lémonon |first=J.P. |title=Pilate et le gouvernement de la Judée: textes et monuments, Études bibliques |publisher=Gabalda |location=Paris |year=1981 |pages=29–32}}</ref> ), aliamua [[Yesu]] aadhibiwe hivyo kulingana na shtaka la [[Kiongozi|viongozi]] wa [[Wayahudi]] waliodai kwamba mtuhumiwa huyo alijitangaza kuwa [[mfalme]] na kupinga [[mamlaka]] ya [[Kaisari]] wa [[Roma]], kwa wakati huo [[Tiberius]], ingawa Pilato alikuwa ametambua shtaka halikuwa la kweli, bali lilitokana na [[husuda]]<ref name=Kostenberger104 >''The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament'' by [[Andreas J. Köstenberger]], L. Scott Kellum 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8054-4365-3}} pp.&nbsp;104–108</ref><ref name="Evans, Craig A. 2001 page 316">{{Rejea kitabu|last1=Evans|first1=Craig A. |year=2001|title=Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies|url=https://archive.org/details/jesushiscontempo0000evan|isbn=0-391-04118-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesushiscontempo0000evan/page/316 316]}}</ref><ref name="Wansbrough, Henry 2004 page 185">{{Rejea kitabu|last1=Wansbrough|first1=Henry |year=2004|title=Jesus and the Oral Gospel Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusoralgospelt0000unse|isbn=0-567-04090-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusoralgospelt0000unse/page/184 185] |publisher=A&C Black }}</ref>. Kadiri ya [[Injili ya Yohane]], Pilato mwenyewe alisisitiza kwamba, katika [[maandishi]] yaliyotakiwa kuwajulisha [[watu]] sababu ya [[adhabu ya kifo]], iwekwe wazi kwamba Yesu aliuawa kama [[mfalme wa Wayahudi]], ingawa [[neno]] hilo lilichukiza viongozi wa [[taifa]]. Maneno ya ilani hiyo yaliandikwa katika [[lugha]] [[tatu]]: *[[Kilatini]]: Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudeorum, [[kifupi]] [[INRI]], *[[Kigiriki]]: Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ Bασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίω. Kutokana na [[herufi]] hizo, [[Wagiriki]] wanaandika INBI. *[[Kiebrania]]: ישוע הנוצרי ומלך היהודים. [[Herufi]] za kwanza za maneno hayo kwa Kiebrania ni יהוה, [[YHWH]], ndilo [[jina]] takatifu la [[Mungu]] katika [[Biblia ya Kiebrania]]. Yesu akiwa msalabani alisema maneno kadhaa. Kati ya hayo, ni maarufu [[maneno saba]] yaliyoripotiwa na Injili yakimuelekea [[Mungu Baba]], [[Bikira Maria]], [[Mtume Yohane]] na [[Dismas Mtakatifu|mhalifu aliyesulubiwa pamoja naye]]. ==Picha== <gallery widths="180" heights="180"> File:14th-century fresco of Jesus Christ bearing the cross, Visoki Dečani, Kosovo.jpg|''Kubeba Msalaba'' [[mchoro wa ukutani]], [[Decani monastery]], [[Kosovo]], karne ya 14 File:MCB icon3.jpg|[[Picha takatifu]] ya Yesu kusulubiwa, [[Athens]], [[Ugiriki]] File:Miguel Angel Crucifixion La Redonda Logrono Spain.jpg|''Kusulubiwa kwa Kristo'', mchoro wa [[Michelangelo]], 1540 File:De kruisiging.jpg|alt=Print of the Crucifixion, made at the end of the 16th century|[[Albrecht Dürer]], ''Die Kreuzigung'', iliyochapishwa karne ya 16<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=De Kruisiging|url=https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:B4D16A3C-15CD-11E9-954B-23312282636C#?c=&m=&s=&cv=&xywh=-2876,-181,8131,3613|access-date=2020-09-28|website=lib.ugent.be|archive-date=October 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017140700/https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:B4D16A3C-15CD-11E9-954B-23312282636C#?c=&m=&s=&cv=&xywh=-2876,-181,8131,3613|url-status=live}}</ref> File:Paolo Veronese 010.jpg|''[[Kalivari]]'', mchoro wa [[Paolo Veronese]], karne ya 16 File:History of the Kings (f.38) the Crucifixion of Christ.jpg|[[Mchoro mdogo]] wa karne ya 14 au 15, [[Welisi]] File:ArchdiocesanShrineofSaint Annejf0133 12.JPG|Msalaba katika [[Taguig Church]], [[Ufilipino]] File:Jesus Tkors Ytterselo01.gif|Yesu msulubiwa, Ytterselö kyrka, [[Uswidi]], 1500 hivi File:Santíssimo Cristo 02.jpg|''[[Cristo de La Laguna]]'', 1510–14, [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]], Hispania File:Crucifixion by G.Margkazinis (17th c.).jpg|''Kusulubiwa'', [[Georgios Markazinis]], 1647 File:Raffaello, pala baglioni, deposizione.jpg|''Kushushwa kutoka msalabani'', mchoro wa [[Raphael]], 1507 File:Peter Paul Rubens - Descent from the cross (1617).jpg|''Kushushwa kutoka msalabani'', mchoro wa [[Rubens]], 1616–17 </gallery> ==Tazama pia== * [[Kifo cha Yesu]] * [[Yesu kushushwa]] * [[Titulus Crucis]] ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} ==Vyanzo== {{refbegin}} <!-- B --> * {{cite book | last =Blomberg | first =Craig L. | year =2009 | title =Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey | publisher =B&H Publishing | isbn =978-0-8054-4482-7}} <!-- C --> * {{cite book | last =Crossan | first =John Dominic | year =1995 | title =Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography | url =https://archive.org/details/jesusrevolutiona00cros_1 | publisher=HarperOne | isbn =0-06-061662-8}} <!-- D --> * {{cite book | last =Dunn | first =James D. G. | year =2003 | title =Jesus Remembered | url =https://archive.org/details/jesusremembered0000dunn | publisher =Wm. B. Eerdmans | isbn =0-8028-3931-2}} <!-- E --> * {{cite book | last1 =Eddy | first1 = Paul |last2=Boyd | first2 =Gregory | year =2007 | title =The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition | publisher =Baker Academic | isbn =978-0-8010-3114-4}} * {{cite book | last =Ehrman | first =Bart D. | year =2008 | title =A Brief Introduction to the New Testament | url =https://archive.org/details/briefintroductio0000ehrm_x4c5 | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =978-0-19-536934-2}} <!-- L --> * {{cite book | last =Lüdemann | first =Gerd | year =1997 | title =The Unholy in Holy Scripture: The Dark Side of the Bible| publisher =Westminster John Knox Press | isbn =0-664-25739-9}} <!-- M --> * {{cite book | last = Meier | first =John P. | year =2006 | chapter =How do we decide what comes from Jesus | editor-last1 =Dunn | editor-first1 =James D. G. | editor-last2 =McKnight | editor-first2 =Scot | title =The Historical Jesus in Recent Research | url = https://archive.org/details/historicaljesusi0010unse | publisher =Eisenbrauns | isbn =1-57506-100-7}} <!-- T --> * {{cite book | last =Tuckett | first =Christopher M. | chapter = | editor-last =Bockmuehl | editor-first =Markus N. A. | year =2001 | title =The Cambridge Companion to Jesus | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =0-521-79678-4}} <!-- V --> * {{cite book | last =Verhoeven | first =Paul | year =2010 | title =Jesus of Nazareth | url =https://archive.org/details/jesusofnazareth0000verh | publisher =Seven Stories Press | isbn =978-1-58322-905-7}} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== * {{Rejea jarida| title = 'Doketismus' – eine Problemanzeige |periodical = Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte |last = Brox |first = Norbert |publisher =[[Kohlhammer Verlag]]|year = 1984 |volume = 95 |pages = 301–314 |issn = 0044-2925 }} * {{cite book |title=A Theology of the Cross: The Death of Jesus in the Pauline Letters |url=https://archive.org/details/theologyofcrossd0000cous |last=Cousar |first=Charles B. |year=1990 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=0-8006-1558-1 }} * {{cite journal |last=Dennis |first=John |year=2006 |title=Jesus' Death in John's Gospel: A Survey of Research from Bultmann to the Present with Special Reference to the Johannine Hyper-Texts |journal=[[Currents in Biblical Research]] |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=331–363 |doi=10.1177/1476993X06064628 |s2cid=170326371 }} * {{cite book|title=The Symbols of the Church|last=Dilasser|first=Maurice|year=1999|publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-2538-5|url=https://archive.org/details/symbolsofchurch00dila}} * {{cite book |title=The Death of Jesus: Tradition and Interpretation in the Passion Narrative |url=https://archive.org/details/deathofjesustrad0000gree |last=Green |first=Joel B. |year=1988 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=3-16-145349-2 }} * {{cite journal |last=Humphreys |first=Colin J. |date=December 1983 |title=Dating the Crucifixion |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_december-22-29-1983_306_5945/page/743 |journal=Nature |volume=306 |issue=5945 |pages=743–746 |doi=10.1038/306743a0 |author2=W. G. Waddington |bibcode=1983Natur.306..743H|s2cid=4360560 }} * {{cite book |title=Archaeology and the New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologynewte0000mcra |last=McRay |first=John |year=1991 |publisher=Baker Books |isbn=0-8010-6267-5 }} * {{cite journal |last=Rosenblatt |first=Samuel |date=December 1956 |title=The Crucifixion of Jesus from the Standpoint of Pharisaic Law |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-biblical-literature_1956-12_75_4/page/314 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=75 |issue=4 |pages=315–321 |doi=10.2307/3261265 |publisher=The Society of Biblical Literature |jstor=3261265 }} * {{cite book |title=Crucifixion in Antiquity |url=https://archive.org/details/crucifixioninant0000samu |last=Samuelsson |first=Gunnar. |year=2011 |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |isbn=978-3-16-150694-9 }} * {{Rejea kitabu|chapter = The Gospel of Peter |title = New Testament Apocrypha: Gospels and related writings |last1 = Schneemelcher |first1 = Wilhelm |author-link = Wilhelm Schneemelcher |last2 = Maurer |first2 = Christian |editor1-last = Schneemelcher |editor1-first = Wilhelm |editor1-link = Wilhelm Schneemelcher |editor2-last = Wilson |editor2-first = McLachlan |publisher = Westminster John Knox Press |year = 1994 |orig-year = 1991 |volume = 1 |pages = 216–227 |isbn = 978-0-664-22721-0 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TDW0PeFSvGEC&pg=PA220 |access-date = April 25, 2012}} * {{cite book |title=The Crucifixion of Jesus |url=https://archive.org/details/crucifixionofjes0000sloy_l5n0 |last=Sloyan |first=Gerard S. |year=1995 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=0-8006-2886-1 }} {{Bikira Maria}} {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Yesu Kristo]] [[Jamii:Injili]] [[Jamii:Teolojia]] [[Jamii:Rozari]] 7f1c8zsuei90ye3uiiss60q57otrt0x 0 44062 1580249 897592 2026-07-18T01:51:20Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580249 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Vänersborg, Drottninggatan, den 5 juli 2006.JPG|thumb|200px| ''Vänersborg'']] [[Picha:Vänersborg Municipality in Västra Götaland County.png|thumb|200px|Mahali pa Vänersborg katika [[Västra Götalands län]]]] '''Vänersborg''' ni mji na manispaa nchini [[Uswidi]]. Kuna wakazi 21,672 (mwaka 2005). == Jiografia == Eneo lake ni 11.57 [[km²]]. Umbali na Jiji la [[Göteborg]] ni 107&nbsp;km. Iko kando ya [[Ziwa Vänern]]. <gallery> Picha:Vänersborgs central, den 10 januari 2008, bild 3.jpg | '' Kituo cha gari'' Picha:Vänersborg, Edsgatan, den 5 juli 2006.JPG | ''Edsgatan'' (Barabara ya Ed) Picha:Vänersborgs kyrka, den 5 juli 2006, bild 2.JPG | ''Kanisa la Vänersborg'' </gallery> == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.vanersborg.se www.vanersborg.se] {{Wayback|url=http://www.vanersborg.se/ |date=20210505181856 }} {{Mbegu-jio-Uswidi}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Uswidi]] o4g7jtqvi0srsaej2oabj0i6bhn8xu7 0 44459 1580134 1528023 2026-07-18T00:28:32Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580134 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Utaifa''' ni [[itikadi]] ya [[mtu]] kupenda [[taifa]] lake kupita kiasi, hata kudharau watu wa mataifa mengine. Hivyo ni tofauti na [[uzalendo]] unaomfanya mtu apende nchi yake kwa kutambua mema mengi aliyopata kutoka kwake. <ref name = rothi>Rothi, Despina et al. (2005). National attachment and patriotism in a European nation: A British study. Political Psychology, 26, 135 - 155.</ref> Mara nyingi unajitokeza pia kama dharau kwa wananchi walio tofauti na kawaida kwa [[utamaduni]], [[lugha]] n.k. Katika [[ngazi]] ya chini, tunakuta [[ukabila]]. [[Bendera ya taifa]], [[wimbo wa taifa]] na [[alama]] nyingine za utambulisho ni muhimu katika kuchochea uzalendo, lakini mara nyingine zinachangia utaifa.{{sfn|Billig|1995|p=72}}<ref name="Gellner 2005">{{Rejea kitabu|last=Gellner|first=Ernest|authorlink=Ernest Gellner|title=Nations and Nationalism |publisher=Blackwell |year=2005 |edition=2nd |isbn=1405134429|url=http://books.google.com/?id=jl7t2yMfxwIC}}</ref><ref name="Canovan 1996">{{Rejea kitabu|last=Canovan|first=Margaret|authorlink=Margaret Canovan|title=Nationhood and Political Theory|url=https://archive.org/details/nationhoodpoliti0000cano|publisher=Edward Elgar| location=Cheltenham, UK| year=1996 |isbn=1-85278-852-6}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Miller|1995|p=160}}</ref> [[Elimunafsia]] inaeleza kwamba [[pendo]] kwa taifa linatokana na haja ya kuhusiana na wengine, lakini ni tofauti na mapendo mengine, k.mf. pendo kwa [[dini]] au kwa [[mchumba]]. Kwa vyovyote [[ukomavu]] unadai mtu ajali wenzake asiwaone kama ma[[adui]] kwa sababu tu ni tofauti naye. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|title=Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism |year=1983 |publisher=Verso |location=London |isbn=0-86091-059-8 |authorlink=Benedict Anderson |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4mmoZFtCpuoC&printsec=frontcover |ref=harv}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Billig |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Billig |title=Banal Nationalism |publisher=Sage |location=London |year=1995 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VV18cdwqVf4C&printsec=frontcover |isbn=0-8039-7525-2 |ref=harv}} * {{Rejea kitabu |editor-last =Delanty | editor-first =Gerard |editor2-last=Kumar |editor2-first=Krishan |editor2-link=Krishan Kumar |title=The Sage Handbook of Nations and Nationalism |location =London |publisher=Sage Publications |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3Y3zK_jyagQC&printsec=frontcover |isbn=1-4129-0101-4 |year =2006 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=James |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul James (academic) |title=Nation Formation: Towards a Theory of Abstract Community | url= http://books.google.com.au/books?isbn=0761950737 | year=1996 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=London |isbn=0-7619-5072-9 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=James |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul James (academic) |title=Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In |url= http://www.academia.edu/1642214/Globalism_Nationalism_Tribalism_Bringing_Theory_Back_In_author_Sage_Publications_London_2006 | year=2006 | publisher= Sage Publications |location=London}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Kymlicka |first=Will |authorlink=Will Kymlicka |title=Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |year=1995 |isbn=0-19-827949-3 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=w5Kaqqy-W78C&printsec=frontcover |ref=harv}} * {{Rejea kitabu|year=2001 |editor-last=Leoussi |editor-first =Athena S. |title=Encyclopedia of Nationalism |location=New Brunswick, N.J |publisher=Transaction Publishers |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9_vuJusOJkMC&pg=PA62 |isbn=0-7658-0002-0 |ref=harv}} * {{Rejea kitabu| last= Miller| first=David |authorlink=David Miller (political theorist) |title=On Nationality |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1995 |isbn=0-19-828047-5 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=naLMTURfICAC&printsec=frontcover |ref=harv}} * {{Rejea kitabu|year=2001| editor-link=Alexander J. Motyl|editor-last=Motyl|editor-first =Alexander|title=Encyclopedia of Nationalism|volume=1|location=San Diego|publisher=Academic Press |isbn=0-12-227230-7|ref=harv}} * {{Rejea kitabu |author-link=Louis Leo Snyder |last=Snyder |first=Louis L. |title=Encyclopedia of Nationalism |location=New York |publisher=Paragon House |isbn=1-55778-167-2 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=8ogYAAAAIAAJ |year =1990 |ref=harv}} * {{Rejea kitabu |year=1999 |editor-last=Spira |editor-first=Thomas |editor-link=Thomas Spira |title=Nationalism and Ethnicity Terminologies: An Encyclopedic Dictionary and Research Guide |publication-place=Gulf Breeze, FL |publisher=Academic International Press |url=http://www.ai-press.com/NET.html |isbn=0-87569-205-2 |ref=harv |access-date=2014-06-29 |archive-date=2009-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316213557/http://www.ai-press.com/NET.html |dead-url=yes }} ==Marejeo mengine== * {{cite book |last=Breuilly |first=John |title=Nationalism and the State |url=https://archive.org/details/nationalismstate0000breu_s6p6 |year=1994|edition=2nd|publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=0-226-07414-5 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Brubaker |first=Rogers |authorlink=Rogers Brubaker |title=Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/nationalismrefra0000brub |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-57224-X |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Greenfeld|first=Liah|title=Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity |url=https://archive.org/details/nationalismfiver0000gree_x0x6|year=1992 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Mass |isbn=0-674-60318-4 |authorlink=Liah Greenfeld|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Hobsbawm |first=Eric J. |authorlink=Eric Hobsbawm |title=Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality |url=https://archive.org/details/nlsiu.320.54.hob.2.14868 |year=1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0-521-43961-2 |edition=2nd|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Jusdanis |first=Gregory |title=The Necessary Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/necessarynation0000jusd |year=2001 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=0-691-07029-6 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Malesevic |first=Sinisa |authorlink=Sinisa Malesevic |title=Identity As Ideology: Understanding Ethnicity and Nationalism |url=https://archive.org/details/identityasideolo0000male |year=2006 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=Basingstoke [England] |isbn=1-4039-8786-6 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nationalism/ |title=Nationalism |first=Nenad |last=Miscevic |date=1 June 2010 |work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=[[Stanford University]]}} * {{cite journal |date=Spring 2010 |title=Nations and Nationalism |journal=[[Harvard Asia Pacific Review]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |url=http://issuu.com/harvard_asia_pacific_review/docs/hapr11.1?viewMode=magazine |issn=1522-1113|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Özkirimli |first=Umut |authorlink=Umut Özkirimli |title=Theories of Nationalism: A Critical Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/theoriesofnation0000zkrm |edition=2nd |year=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=0-230-57732-6 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last1=Royce |first1=Mathias O. |date=5 August 2010 |title=The Rise and Propagation of Political Right-Wing Extremism: The Identification and Assessment of Common Sovereign Economic and Socio-Demographic Determinants |series=Working Paper Series |publisher=[[Swiss Management Center]] |ssrn=1701742|ref=harv}} * {{cite web |url= http://nationalityinworldhistory.net/index.html |title= Nationality: The History of a Social Phenomenon |last1= White |first1= Philip L. |authorlink1= Philip L. White |last2= White |first2= Michael Lee |authorlink2= Michael Lee White |year= 2008 |work= Nationality in World History |accessdate= 2014-06-29 |archive-date= 2013-03-07 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130307060027/http://nationalityinworldhistory.net/index.html |url-status= dead }} ==Viungo vya nje== * {{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/mod/modsbook17.asp |title=Nationalism |work=Internet Modern History Sourcebook |publisher=[[Fordham University]] |accessdate=2014-06-29 |archivedate=2014-10-28 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028175309/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook17.asp }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.nationalismproject.org/ |title=The Nationalism Project |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date= |work=Association for Research on Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Americas |publisher=[[University of South Carolina]] |accessdate=2014-06-29 |archivedate=2019-10-02 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002100619/http://www.nationalismproject.org/ }} {{mbegu-siasa}} [[Jamii:Siasa]] [[Jamii:Saikolojia]] msshynxfuyz2sk2qk8v568v650ijtzn 0 45048 1580047 1147577 2026-07-17T23:26:54Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580047 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ngai''' ni jina analoitwa mungu katika kabila la [[Agikuyu]] nchini [[Kenya]]. Jina hili latumiwa pia kati ya [[Wamassai]] na [[Wakamba]]. Kama ilivyo katika makabila mengineo ya Afrika Ngai hutolewa kafara, ni muumba, anauwezo dhidi ya viumbe na hata vitu visivyo kuwa na uhai na kadhalika. makazi yake kulingana na hadithi ya asili ya Agikuyu ni [[mlima Kenya]] (Kirinyaga). Kulingana na hadithi hii, Ngai alimuumba Gikuyu na mkewe Muumbi. Akawapa eneo la Muranga kama makazi yao. Akawabariki na mabinti tisa, kisha akaumba vijana tisa wa kiume iliwawaoe walipobaleghe. Kizazi baada ya kizazi jamii ya wakikuyu ilichipuka kutoka kwa nyumba hizi tisa. Majina ya Nyumba hizi hufanana na yale ya mabinti wa Gikuyu. ==Marejeo== * {{cite book |title=Creation Myths of the World |url=https://archive.org/details/creationmythsofw0002leem |last=Leeming |first=David A. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2009 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-1598841749 |ref=harv }} ==Viungo vya Nje== *[http://www.mircea-eliade.com/from-primitives-to-zen/004.html Ngai, The High God of the Kikuyu] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mircea-eliade.com/from-primitives-to-zen/004.html |date=20070927200902 }} [[Jamii:Dini za Afrika]] [[Jamii:Wakikuyu]] 9ejnfdiy54h5tukpekuew25p4p5ivlw 0 54966 1580080 1300584 2026-07-17T23:52:48Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580080 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Shona witch doctor (Zimbabwe).jpg|thumb|[[Mganga wa kienyeji]] wa [[kabila]] la [[Washona]] huko [[Zimbabwe]].]] [[File:John William Waterhouse - Magic Circle.JPG|thumb|right|[[Mchoro]] wa [[John William Waterhouse]], [[1886]] kuhusu uchawi.]] [[File:Rila Monastery wall painting.jpg|thumb|Mchoro katika [[Monasteri]] ya [[Rila]], [[Bulgaria]], unaolaani uchawi na [[ushirikina]].]] '''Uchawi''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] "Witchcraft") ni [[nguvu]] zinazotumiwa na watu wenye maarifa maalumu yasiyo ya [[sayansi|kisayansi]] katika [[jamii]] nyingi [[duniani]] (zikiwemo za [[Afrika]], [[Asia]], [[Ulaya]] n.k.), ingawa kuna tofauti nyingi kulingana na mahali au utamaduni. Lengo lake ni kujaribu [[bahati]] ya mtu na kujilinda na maadui wengine ki[[mazingara]], au kwa ajili ya kujifurahisha, japo wenye [[imani]] potofu hulichukulia maanani na kupandikiza chuki kwa ndugu jamaa hata jirani kuwa ni mchawi. Kwa mujibu wa [[vitabu]] vya [[dini]] uwezo na nguvu zote za asili ni za [[Muumba]] wa [[mbingu]] na [[ardhi]] na vyote vilivyomo, hivyo yeye anampa [[mwanadamu]] uwezo kadiri tofautitofauti kama apendavyo, kwa maana uwezo huo hufanya [[kazi]] katika hali ya kubahatisha, yaani ni bahati, hakuna mwenye [[mamlaka]] ya kuongoza uwezo huo wa asili ila [[Mwenyezi Mungu]]. Kadiri ya dini mbalimbali watu wote wanaotumia nguvu hizo za asili katika hali (hasi) wapo kinyume na [[Mungu]] [[Muumbaji]] wa [[mbingu]] na [[dunia]], hawajui kuwa yeye ndiye mwanzilishi wa nguvu zote za asili ikiwa ni pamoja na wanadamu. [[Elimu]] pia inaweza kusaidia kuondoa imani hizo kwani hata baadhi ya [[madhehebu]] ya dini zinachochea kuziamini imani hizo. Wasomi wa [[karne ya 21]] wanapinga imani hizo potofu ambazo zimesababisha [[mateso]] kwa [[Mzee|wazee]] wasio na hatia hasa [[Kijiji|vijijini]] wakishtumiwa uchawi. Tena kumekuwa na mafarakano na [[chuki]] katika jamii na [[familia]] mbalimbali kwa ajili ya imani ya uchawi; kwa mfano, watu kuuana, kuharibiana [[mali]] na [[mifugo]] kwa kuhisiana uchawi kwa sababu ya watu waliopandikizwa imani za kishirikina. [[Serikali]] ya [[Tanzania]] imetumia jitihada zaidi pamoja na kuelimisha wananchi hasa kutokana na suala la imani potofu na tafsiri mbaya ya uchawi ambayo imepelekea watu takribani 5000 kupoteza [[uhai]] toka mwaka [[1961]] kutokana na mateso, kuchomewa [[nyumba]] na vibanda katika [[mikoa]] ya [[Tabora]], [[Kigoma]], [[Shinyanga]] na mikoa mingine; ni vilevile katika sehemu mbalimbali za [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] na [[Afrika ya Kati|ya Kati]]. Mwaka [[2008]] [[Rais]] wa Tanzania [[Jakaya Kikwete]] alilaani uchawi kama chanzo cha [[mauaji ya maalbino]] 25. Imani hizo potofu ni maarufu hata kwa viongozi japo kwa [[siri]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Uchawi wa Kiafrika]] == Marejeo == * [[Alan Macfarlane]], [https://books.google.com/books/about/Witchcraft_in_Tudor_and_Stuart_England.html?id=lmfuwq0mQMUC Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England], Psychology Press, 1999 (orig. 1970) * ''[[University of Kansas]] Publications in Anthropology'', No. 5 = John M Janzen and Wyatt MacGaffey: ''An Anthology of Kongo Religion: Primary Texts from Lower Zaïre''. Lawrence, 1974. * ''Studia Instituti Anthropos'', Vol. 41 = Anthony J. Gittins: ''Mende Religion''. Steyler Verlag, [[Nettetal]], 1987. == Marejeo mengine == * {{cite book|last=Ashforth|first=Adam|title=[[Madumo, A Man Bewitched]]|date=2000|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-02971-9}} * Boyer, Paul and Stephen Nissenbaum, eds. ''The Salem Witchcraft Papers: Verbatim Transcripts of the Legal Documents of the Salem Witchcraft Outbreak of 1692, Volumes I and II''. New York: De Capo Press, 1977. * {{cite thesis|type=M.A. Thesis|last=Easley|first=Patricia Thompson|title=A Gobber Tooth, A Hairy Lip, A Squint Eye: Concepts of the Witch and the Body in Early Modern Europe|url=http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc2646/|date=August 2000|publisher=UNT Digital Library}} * {{cite book|last=Favret-Saada|first=Jeanne |title=Deadly Words: Witchcraft in the Bocage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yFeuQgAACAAJ|date=December 1980|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-29787-5}} * {{cite book|last=Favret-Saada|first=Jeanne |title=Désorceler|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uu5KPgAACAAJ|date=2009|publisher=L'Olivier|isbn=978-2-87929-639-5}} * Gaskill, Malcolm. "Masculinity and Witchcraft in Seventeenth-century England." In ''Witchcraft and Masculinities in Early Modern Europe'', edited by Alison Rowlands, 171-190. New York: Palgrave-McMillan, 2009. * {{cite book|last=Geschiere|first=Peter|title=The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa = Sorcellerie Et Politique En Afrique — la viande des autres|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZW0CVu0W6DcC|origyear=Translated from French Edition (1995 Karthala)|date=1997|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0-8139-1703-0}} * {{cite book|last=Ginzburg|first=Carlo|authorlink=Carlo Ginzburg|author2=Translated by Raymond Rosenthal |title=Ecstasies: Deciphering the Witches' Sabbath|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eV0ZhvAkHC0C|origyear=Originally published in Italy as Storia Notturna (1989 Giulio Einaudi)|date=June 2004|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-29693-7}} * Hall, David, ed. ''[https://www.dukeupress.edu/witch-hunting-in-seventeenth-century-new-england Witch-hunting in Seventeenth-century New England: A Documentary History, 1638-1692]''. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1991. * [[Lizanne Henderson|Henderson, Lizanne]], [http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/7708/ ''Witch-Hunting and Witch Belief in the Gàidhealtachd''], Witchcraft and Belief in Early Modern Scotland Eds. Julian Goodare, Lauren Martin and Joyce Miller. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007 * Hutton, Ronald (1999) ''The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'', Oxford, OUP. * Hyatt, Harry Middleton. ''Hoodoo, conjuration, witchcraft, rootwork: beliefs accepted by many Negroes and white persons, these being orally recorded among Blacks and whites.'' s.n., 1970. * Kent, Elizabeth. "Masculinity and Male Witches in Old and New England." ''History Workshop'' 60 (2005): 69-92. * {{cite book|last=Lindquist|first=Galina|title=Conjuring Hope: Magic and Healing In Contemporary Russia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GTvYcjeyq3oC|accessdate=20 May 2013|date=2006|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-84545-057-1}} * Levack, Brian P. ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America'' (2013) [https://books.google.com/books?id=Lum96_FPZp0C excerpt and text search] * Moore, Henrietta L. and Todd Sanders 2001. ''Magical Interpretations, Material Realities: Modernity, Witchcraft and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa'' London: Routledge. * Notestein, Wallace. A history of witchcraft in England from 1558 to 1718. New York : Crowell, 1968 * Pentikainen, Juha. "Marnina Takalo as an Individual." C. [[JSTOR]]. 26 February 2007. * Pentikainen, Juha. "The Supernatural Experience." F. Jstor. 26 February 2007. * {{cite book |last=Pócs |first=Éva |authorlink=Éva Pócs |date=1999 |title=Between the Living and the Dead: A perspective on Witches and Seers in the Early Modern Age |url=https://archive.org/details/betweenlivingdea0000pocs |location=Budapest |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=963-9116-19-X}} * Ruickbie, Leo (2004) ''Witchcraft out of the Shadows: A History'', London, Robert Hale. *Stark, Ryan J. "Demonic Eloquence," in ''Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in Seventeenth-Century England'' (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 2009), 115-45. *{{cite book|last= Williams |first= Howard |authorlink= Howard Williams (humanitarian) |title= The Superstitions of Witchcraft |publisher= [[Longman|Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green]] |location= [[London]] |year= 1865 |website= [[Project Gutenberg]] |url= http://www.gutenberg.org/files/22822/22822-h/22822-h.htm}} * Worobec, Caroline. "Witchcraft Beliefs and Practices in Prerevolutionary Russia and Ukrainian Villages." Jstor. 27 February 2007. ==Viungo vya nje== {{commonscat|Witchcraft}} <!-- PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE ADDING LINKS HERE. Due to the rising popularity of Witchcraft, this article runs the risk of becoming nothing more than a links page to every Web site vaguely connected with Witchcraft, even if that Web site has a rather limited audience or deals only with relatively limited subject matter. Many links have already been removed. If you would like to add a link here, please read the guidelines on linking and then discuss the merits of adding your link on this article's talk page. If you do not there is a strong possibility your link will be removed. Thank-you. Linking guidelines: * http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/When_should_I_link_externally * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_only_links_relevant_to_the_context * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not Article talk page: * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Witchcraft Your consideration is appreciated. --> {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=325263 Kabbalah On Witchcraft&nbsp;– A Jewish view (Audio)] chabad.org * [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=220&letter=W&search=Witchcraft Jewish Encyclopedia: Witchcraft] * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17203 ''Witchcraft and Devil Lore in the Channel Islands''], 1886, by John Linwood Pitts, from [[Project Gutenberg]] * [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17209 ''A Treatise of Witchcraft''], 1616, by Alexander Roberts, from Project Gutenberg * [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/Research/witches/ University of Edinburgh's Scottish witchcraft database] {{Wayback|url=http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/Research/witches/ |date=20230326033737 }} * [http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/w&r/WR_007_1974.pdf 'Witchcraft and Statecraft, A Materialist Analysis of the European Witch Persecutions'] {{wiktionary}} {{Mbegu-utamaduni}} [[Jamii:Utamaduni]] [[Jamii:Dini]] [[Jamii:Dhambi]] nnuuzo1y0g2ckifceqzwkuumftz3qe7 0 55350 1580172 1578215 2026-07-18T00:51:31Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580172 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Prozac.jpg|thumb|right|Fluoxetine (Prozac), ni SSRI]] [[Picha:Venlafaxine-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|Venlafaxine, ni SNRI]] '''Dawamfadhaiko''' (''[[ing.]] antidepressant'') ni [[dawa]] za [[ugonjwa wa akili]] zinazotumika kupunguza mivurugo ya halihisi ya moyo, kama vile mfadhaiko mkubwa na ukataji tamaa na hali ya wasiwasi kama vile woga wa kuingiliana na watu. Dawa kama vile vizuia oksidesi vya monoamini (MAOIs), dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki (TCAs), dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya tetrasaikliki (TeCAs), vizuizi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini kinachochagua (SSRIs), na vizuizi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini-norepinefrini(SNRIs) ndizo zinazohusishwa kwa kawaida na neno hilo. Dawa hizo ni kati ya zile ambazo kwa kawaida huagizwa na wataalamu wa magonjwa ya akili na madaktari wengine, na ufanifu pamoja na athari zake ni mada ya tafiti nyingi na madai mengi yanayoshindana. Dawa nyingi husababisha athari za dawamfadhaiko, lakini vikwazo kuhusu matumizi yake yameleta utata unaosababishwa na kuzitumia kutibu maradhi mengine mbali na yale yaliyokusudiwa, licha ya madai kuwa yana ufanisi wa kiwango cha juu. Ufanifu wa dawamfadhaiko ya kisasa aina ya thaimoleptiki haijawahi kudhihirishwa kikamilifu kuwa ni bora zaidi ya ule wa kipozaungo hai, kulingana na tafiti mbili za shirika la Cochrane Collaboraton.<ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60">{{cite journal |author=Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R |title=Selective publication of antidepressant trials and its influence on apparent efficacy |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2008-01-17_358_3/page/n74 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=358 |issue=3 |pages=252–60 |year=2008 |month=Januari |pmid=18199864 |doi=10.1056/NEJMsa065779 }}</ref><ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"> Moncrieff J, Wessely S, Hardy R. (2004) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=Display&amp;DB=pubmed Vipozaungo hai dhidi ya dawamfadhaiko kwa mfadhaiko.] ''Cochrane Database Syst Rev'' (1): CD003012.</ref> Kwa maandishi yaliyochapishwa, tibamifadhaiko ilikuwa na mafanikio ya 94% katika kutibu mfadhaiko. <ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60"/><ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/> Kwa maandishi ambayo hayakuchapishwa, mafanikio yalikuwa ni chini ya 50%.<ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60"/> Kwa ujumla, tafiti zote zilionyesha ufanisi<ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60"/> wa 51% - pointi mbili tu zaidi kuliko ile ya kipozaungo. Hii iliongeza dhahiri ufanifi wa dawamfadhaiko tofauti kutoka 11% hadi 69% zaidi ya kipozaungo.<ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60"/> Dawa ambayo huenda ikawa ni tofauti na ile ya mirtazepine- pinzani ya norepinefrini na serotonini, yenye athari zilizo kinyume na zile za SSRI na SNRIS - na venlafaksini, SNRI iliyo na usawa katika mfumo wa kemikali kwa kiwango kikubwa na tramadoli ya afyuni iliyonyumbuliwa. Afyuni zilitumika kutibu mfadhaiko wa kiwango cha juuu hadi mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1950. Ampfetamini zilitumika hadi katikati ya miaka ya 1960. Kuagiza afyuni au amfetamini kwa kutibu mfadhaiko ni jambo linaloleta utata kisheria. Utafiti kuhusu uwezo wa afyuni ya kunyumbuliwa wa kutibu mfadhaiko umefanywa mara chache tu katika kipindi cha miaka sitini iliyopita, ili hali amfetamini zimepata soko linalostawi kwa hali mbalimbali kama vile maradhi ya upungufu wa makini, nakolepsi, na [[unene wa kupindukia]] na zinaendelea kuchunguzwa kwa matumizi mengi. Afyuni na amfetamini zote husababisha mwitiko wa haraka sana wa matibabu. Huonyesha matokeo kwa muda usiopita masaa ishirini na manne hadi arobaini na manane; uwiano wa matibabu kwa afyuni na amfetamini ni mkubwa kuliko ule wa dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki. Katika baadhi ya tafiti hizi zenye vikwazo vikuu, buprenofini ya afyuni imeonyesha uwezo mkubwa wa kutibu mfadhaiko mkali ulio sugu kwa matibabu wa dawa yoyote inayojulikana katika utafiti mdogo ambao kwa ujumla ilitambuliwa na kuchapishwa mwaka wa 1995, lakini haijawahi kufwatiliwa kutokana na unyanyapaa wa kijamii unaohusishwa na afyuni pamoja na ile inayohusishwa na ugonjwa wa akili nchini Marekani.<ref> Bodkin JA. et al. (1995): "Buprenorphine treatment of refractory depression", Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 15:49-57. PMID 7714228</ref> Aina nyingi za dawamfadhaiko zinazofanana na asili huchelewa kuanza utekelezaji kwa (kati ya wiki 2-6) na kwa kawaida hutolewa kwa muda wa wakati wowote kati ya miezi hadi miaka. Licha ya jina hilo, dawamfadhaiko mara nyingi hutumika kwa njia ya ubishi, na katika muktadha wa upungufu wa ushahidi unaotegemea majaribio kusaidia dalili zao, matumizi ya dawa kutibu maradhi mengine bali na yale yaliyokusudiwa awali, kama vile hali ya wasiwasi, ugonjwa wa akili ambapo mtu huwa na kiwango cha juu cha tamaa au shauku, matatizo ya kula, maumivu sugu, na baadhi ya hali zinazotatiza urazini wa upatanisho wa homoni kama vile hedhi chungu. Zikiwa peke yao au pamoja na kinza msukosuko (kwa mfano Tegretoli au Depakote), dawa hizi zinaweza kutumika kutibu upungufu makini wa kupepesuka (ADHD) na matumizi mabaya ya dawa kwa kushughulikia mfadhaiko msingi. Pia, dawamfadhaiko zimetumika wakati mwingine kutibu kukoroma na vipandauso. Dawa zingine ambazo kwa kawaida haziitwi dawamfadhaiko, ikiwa ni pamoja na vizuia magonjwa ya akili vya vipimo vya chini <ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.4088/JCP.v64n0512 |author=Wheeler Vega JA, Mortimer AM, Tyson PJ |title=Conventional antipsychotic prescription in unipolar depression, I: an audit and recommendations for practice |journal=The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=568–74 |year=2003 |month=Mei |pmid=12755661 |url=http://www.psychiatrist.com/abstracts/abstracts.asp?abstract=200305/050311.htm |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2011-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717000127/http://www.psychiatrist.com/abstracts/abstracts.asp?abstract=200305/050311.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> na benzodiazepini, <ref>{{cite journal |author=Petty F, Trivedi MH, Fulton M, Rush AJ |title=Benzodiazepines as antidepressants: does GABA play a role in depression? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biological-psychiatry_1995-11-01_38_9/page/n13 |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=38 |issue=9 |pages=578–91 |year=1995 |month=Novemba |pmid=8573660 |doi=10.1016/0006-3223(95)00049-7}}</ref> zinaweza kutumika kwa kudhibiti mfadhaiko, ingawa benzodiazepini - pamoja na dawa zote zinazoitwa "dawamfadhaiko" - husababisha utegemezi wa mwili. Kuacha matibabu ya benzodiazepini (au SSRI) kwa ghafla kunaweza kusababisha dalili zisizopendeza za kuachishwa. Kizinduo cha mmea wa St John's Wort hutumika kwa kawaida kama dawamfadhaiko, ingawa imealamishwa kama kijalizo cha chakula katika nchi zingine. Neno ''dawamfadhaiko'' wakati mwingine hutumiwa kwa tiba (kwa mfano, matibabu ya kisaikolojia, tiba ya msukosuko ya umeme, tiba vitobo) au mchakato (kwa mfano kuvuruga usingizi, kuongezeka kwa kiwango cha mwanga, mazoezi ya mara kwa mara) yametambulika kama njia za kudhibiti mfadhaiko wa kimawazo. Vipozaungo tepetevu vinaweza kuleta athari kuu za dawamfadhaiko, kwa hivyo, ili kudhibitisha Dutu kama "dawamfadhaiko", katika utafiti wa kiafya wa kliniki ni muhimu kuonyesha ukuu wake ukilinganishwa na kipozaungo. <ref>" [http://healthlifeandstuff.com/2009/07/do-we-know-anything-about-antidepressants/ Je, dawamfadhaiko hufanya kazi kama ilivyoahidiwa?] {{Wayback|url=http://healthlifeandstuff.com/2009/07/do-we-know-anything-about-antidepressants/ |date=20100924095828 }}</ref> == Historia == [[Picha:Saint John's wort flowers.jpg|thumb|right|250px|St John's Wort]] Afyuni mbalimbali (kupitia kipokezi cha μ-cha afyuni na kipokezi cha k-cha afyuni) na ya amfetamini zilitumika mara nyingi kama dawamfadhaiko hadi miaka ya 1950, wakati zilipopoteza umaarufu wao kutokana na hali yao ya kulevya na madhara yake. <ref name="Weber 1988 255–66">{{cite journal|last=Weber|first=MM|year=1988|month=Julai|title=Current and Historical Concepts of Opiate Treatment in Psychiatric Disorders|journal=International Clinical Psychopharmacology|volume=3|issue=3|pages=255–66|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |pmid=3153713 |url=http://journals.lww.com/intclinpsychopharm/Abstract/1988/07000/Current_and_Historical_Concepts_of_Opiate.7.aspx |doi=10.1097/00004850-198807000-00007 |accessdate=2009-05-28|last2=Emrich|first2=HM}}</ref> Dondoo kutoka kwenye mmea wa St John's Wort zimetumika kwa muda mrefu kama "dawa ya kuchangamsha neva" ili kupunguza mfadhaiko. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Czygan|first=FC|date=8 Mei 2003|title=Kulturgeschichte und Mystik des Johanniskrauts: Vom 2500 Jahre alten Apotropaikum zum aktuellen Antidepressivum|journal=Pharmazie in unserer Zeit|volume=32|issue=3|pages=184–190|publisher=WILEY-VCH Verlag|location=Weinheim|doi=10.1002/pauz.200390062|language=German|accessdate=2009-05-28|pmid=12784538}}</ref> === Isoniazidi na iproniazidi === Katika mwaka wa 1951, watu wawili kutoka Hospitali ya Sea View katika kisiwa cha Staten, Irving Selikoff na Edward Robitzek, walianza kufanya utafiti wa kiafya kwa vikolezo viwili vipya vya [[Kifua kikuu|kupambana na kifua kikuu]] kutoka Hoffman-LaRoche, isoniazidi na iproniazidi. Ni wagonjwa waliolemewa na ugonjwa pekee waliotibiwa hapo awali; hata hivyo, hali yao iliendelea kuwa bora kwa kasi kikubwa. Selikoff na Robitzek waligundua "mchangamsho mpole kwa ujumla...wagonjwa walionekana kuwa na nguvu mpya na kwa kweli, mara kwa mara jambo hili lilisababisha matatizo ya kinidhamu." Matumaini ya tiba ya kifua kikuu katika majaribio ya hospitali ya Sea View yalijadiliwa kwa msisimuko katika vyombo vikuu vya habari. Katika mwaka wa 1952, baada ya kujifunza kuhusu madhara ya uchochezi ya isoniazidi, mtaalamu wa saikolojia kutoka Cincinnati, Max Lurie, aliijaribu kuitumia kwa wagonjwa wake. Katika mwaka uliofuata, yeye na Harry Salzer waliripoti kuwa isoniazidi ilipunguza mfadhaiko katika theluthi mbili ya wagonjwa wao na wakaunda neno ''dawamfadhaiko'' kuelezea kitendo hiki. <ref name="isbn0-88048-397-0">{{cite book|last=Healy|first=D|editor=Weissman MM|title=The treatment of depression: bridging the 21st century|url=http://books.google.com/?id=LAmBVolIG5kC|accessdate=2009-05-28|year=2001|publisher=American Psychiatric Pub|isbn=978-0-88048-397-1|pages=10–11|chapter=The Antidepressant Drama|chapterurl=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LAmBVolIG5kC&printsec=frontcover#PPA7,M1}}</ref> Tukio sawa na hili lilifanyika Paris, ambako Jean Delay, mkuu wa taaluma ya tiba ya magonjwa ya akili katika hospitali ya Sainte-Anne, aligundua madhara ya isoniazidi kutoka kwa wenzake wa taaluma ya magonjwa ya mpumuo katika hospitali ya Cochin. Katika mwaka wa 1952, kabla ya Lurie na Salzer, Delay, pamoja na mkaazi Jean-Francois Buisson, alitoa taarifa kuhusu athari chanya ya isoniazidi kwa wagonjwa waliofadhaika. <ref name="Healy96"> " {{cite book|last=Healy|first=David|title=The psychopharmacologists : interviews|accessdate=2009-05-28|year=c1996|publisher=Chapman and Hall|location=London|isbn=978-1-86036-008-4|page=8}}</ref> Kwa sababu zisizohusiana na ufanisi wake, matumizi ya isoniazidi kama dawamfadhaiko hatimaye yalitolewa maanani na kubadilishwa na dawa yenye sumu zaidi ya iproniazid, <ref name="isbn0-88048-397-0"/> ingawa bado ni msingi wa matibabu ya kifua kikuu. Njia ya utendakazi ya dawamfadhaiko ya isoniazidi bado haieleweki vyema. Inakisiwa kwamba athari zake zinatokana na kuzuiliwa kwa oksidesi diamini, pamoja na uzuiaji dhaifu wa oksidesi ya monoamini A. <ref name="isbn1-86036-010-6">{{cite book |author=Healy, David |title=The Psychopharmacologists: Volume 2 |url=https://archive.org/details/psychopharmacolo0000heal |publisher=A Hodder Arnold Publication |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychopharmacolo0000heal/page/132 132]–4 |isbn=978-1-86036-010-7 }}</ref> Dawa nyingine ya kifua kikuu iliyojaribiwa wakati huohuo na Selikoff na Robitzek, iproniazidi, ilionyesha athari kuu zaidi za "kichocheaakili", lakini ilikuwa na kiwango cha juu zaidi cha kusumisha. Baada ya chapisho kuhusu isoniazidi, majarida ya Jackson Smith, Gordon Kamman, George Crane, na Frank Ayd yalijitokeza, yakieleza namna mbalimbali ambavyo dawa ya iproniazid inaweza kutumika kutibu magonjwa ya akili. Zeller Ernst alitambua kuwa dawa ya iproniazidi ni kizuia oksidesi ya monoamini yenye nguvu. <ref name="pmid18004120">{{cite journal |author=López-Muñoz F, Alamo C, Juckel G, Assion HJ |title=Half a century of antidepressant drugs: on the clinical introduction of monoamine oxidase inhibitors, tricyclics, and tetracyclics. Part I: monoamine oxidase inhibitors |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychopharmacology_2007-12_27_6/page/555 |journal=J Clin Psychopharmacol |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=555–9 |year=2007 |pmid=18004120 |doi=10.1097/jcp.0b013e3181bb617 }}</ref> Hata hivyo, dawa ya iproniazidi ilibaki pembeni kiasi hadi pale ambapo Nathan Kline, mkuu wa utafiti katika hospitali ya Rock state mwenye ushaufu na ushawishi mkuubwa, alianza kuieneza katika vyombo vya habari vya uuguzi na vile maarufu kama "changamsho la akili". <ref name="pmid18004120"/> <ref>{{cite news|title=Psychic Energizer|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,862555,00.html|date=15 Aprili 1957|publisher=Time Magazine|accessdate=2009-05-28|archivedate=2013-08-11|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811223331/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C862555%2C00.html}}</ref> Roche ilitia juhudi za uuzaji wa iproniazid, ikiwa ni pamoja na ukuzaji wa matumizi yake kutibu maradhi mengine bali na yale yaliyokusudiwa awali kwa kutibu mfadhaiko. <ref name="pmid18004120"/> Mauzo yake yalikuwa kwa kiasi kikubwa katika miaka iliyofuata, hadi pale ambapo zilibatilishwa kutoka sokoni mwaka wa 1961 kutokana na matukio kadhaa ya uharibifu wa ini unaobababisha mauti. <ref name="pmid18004120"/> === Dawa ya Imipramini === Ugunduzi kwamba mchanganyiko wa duara tatu ("wenye duara tatu") uliokuwa na athari kubwa kama dawamfadhaiko iliundwa kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1957 na Roland Kuhn katika hospitali ya magonjwa ya akili nchini Uswisi. Kufikia wakati huo, vinyumbuliwa vya kimaliza kemikali za mzio vilitumiwa zaidi kutibu mshtuko wa upasuaji na baadaye kama niuroleptiki ya magonjwa ya akili. Ingawa katika mwaka wa 1955 risapini ilionyeshwa kuwa bora zaidi kuliko kipozaungo kwa kupunguza niuroleptiki za mfadhaiko (kwa maana iliyo wazi, "kushika neva" au "kukamata neva") zilikuwa zinaundwa kama vitulizo na vizuia magonjwa ya akili. Akijaribu kuboresha ufanisi wa klorpromazini, Kuhn, akishirikiana na kampuni ya madawa ya Geigy, aligundua kwamba mchanganyiko "G 22355" (uliotengenezwa na kuwekwa chini ya amri ya serikali dhidi ya uigaji wake nchini Marekani katika mwaka wa 1951 na Häfliger na Schinder) ilikuwa na athari ya manufaa kwa wagonjwa wa mfadhaiko unaofuatana na kudumaa kwa mwendo. Kuhn kwanza aliripoti matokeo yake kuhusu kile alichokiita "thaimoleptiki" (kwa maana iliyo wazi, "kukamata hisia," kinyume na niuroleptiki, "kukamata neva") katika miaka ya 1955-56. Hatua kwa hatua, yaliimarishwa, na kusababisha uuzaji na ununuzi wa dawa ya kwanza dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki, imipramini, ambayo punde ilifuatwa na vibadala. === Historia ya baadaye === Tiba hizi mpya za dawa ziligeuka kuwa dawa zinazoagizwa na daktari katika miaka ya 1950. Ilikadiriwa kuwa watu chini ya 50-100 kwa kila watu milioni moja waliugua kutokana na aina ya mfadhaiko ambao dawa hizi mpya zingetibu, na makampuni ya dawa hayakuwa na hamu. Mauzo katika miaka ya 1960 yaliendelea kuwa ya kiwango cha chini yakilinganishwa na dawa muhimu za kutuliza maumivu (nyuroleptiki / vizuia magonjwa ya akili) na dawa hafifu za kutuliza maumivu (kama vile benzodiazepini), ambazo ziliuzwa kwa matumizi mbalimbali. <ref name="3faces">{{cite journal |author=Healy D |title=The three faces of the antidepressants: a critical commentary on the clinical-economic context of diagnosis |journal=J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. |volume=187 |issue=3 |pages=174–80 |year=1999 |month=Machi |pmid=10086474 |doi=10.1097/00005053-199903000-00007 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0022-3018&volume=187&issue=3&spage=174 |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2012-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111120405/http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0022-3018&volume=187&issue=3&spage=174 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Imipramine ilibaki kwa matumizi ya kawaida na dawa zingine nyingi zilivumbuliwa. Uwanja wa vizuizi vya MAO ulikimya kwa miaka mingi hadi miundo "inayoweza kupinduliwa" na zinazoathiri tu aina ndogo ya MAO-A ziliingizwa, ili kuepuka baadhi ya athari mbaya. <ref name="3faces"/> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Pletscher A |title=The discovery of antidepressants: a winding path |journal=Experientia |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=4–8 |year=1991 |month=Januari |pmid=1999242 |doi= 10.1007/BF02041242|url=}}</ref> Kufikia miaka ya 1960, wataalamu wengi wa madawa walifikiri kuwa kazi muhimu ya matibabu ya trisaikliki ilikuwa ni kuzuia ufyonyaji mpya wa norepinefrini, lakini hatua kwa hatua ilidhihirika kwamba kitendo hiki kilihusishwa na athari za uchangamshaji na uchochezi wa misuli ya mwendo, ilhali baadhi ya michanganyiko ya dawamfadhaiko zilionekana kuwa na athari tofauti kupitia utendaji katika mifumo ya serotonini (hasa iliyopendekezwa katika mwaka wa 1969 na Carlsson na Lindqvist pamoja na Lapin na Oxenkrug). Watafiti walianza mchakato wa ubunifu wa madawa ya razini ili kutenga michanganyiko iliyozalishwa kutoka kwa kimaliza kemikali za mzio ambazo zingelenga mifumo hii kwa njia ya uteuzi. Mchanganyiko wa kwanza kama huu kulindwa na serikali dhidi ya uigaji ilikuwa zimelidini katika mwaka wa 1971, ili hali ya kwanza kuidhinishwa kwa matumizi ilikuwa indalpini. Fluoxetini iliidhinishwa kwa matumizi ya kibiashara na ya Shirika la Chakula na Dawa (Marekani) mwaka wa 1988, na ikawa SSRI ya kwanza kupata umaarufu. Fluoksetini ilitengenezwa na Eli Lilly katika miaka ya awali ya 1970 akiwa pamoja na Bryan Molloy, David Wong na wengine. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Domino EF |title=History of modern psychopharmacology: a personal view with an emphasis on antidepressants |journal=Psychosom Med |volume=61 |issue=5 |pages=591–8 |year=1999 |pmid=10511010 |doi= |url=http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10511010}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Wong DT, Bymaster FP, Horng JS, Molloy BB |title=A new selective inhibitor for uptake of serotonin into synaptosomes of rat brain: 3-(p-trifluoromethylphenoxy). N-methyl-3-phenylpropylamine |journal=J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. |volume=193 |issue=3 |pages=804–11 |year=1975 |month=Juni |pmid=1151730 |doi= |url=http://jpet.aspetjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=1151730 |access-date=2010-10-18 |archive-date=2021-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119145719/https://jpet.aspetjournals.org/content/193/3/804.long |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ingawa ilipoteza umaarufu wake katika nchi nyingi kupitia karne za 19 na 20, mmea St John's Wort iliendelea kuwa maarufu nchini [[Ujerumani]], ambapo dondoo za Haiparikamu hatimaye ziliidhinishwa, zikafungwa katika vifurushi na uagizwa na madaktari. Majaribio ya ufanisi kwa kiwango kidogo yalifanywa katika miaka ya 1970 na 1980, na yalitiliwa maanani zaidi katika miaka ya 1990 kufuatia uchambuzi wa matokeo ya tafiti kadhaa kati ya majaribio haya. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Linde K, Ramirez G, Mulrow CD, Pauls A, Weidenhammer W, Melchart D |title=St John's wort for depression--an overview and meta-analysis of randomised clinical trials |journal=BMJ |volume=313 |issue=7052 |pages=253–8 |year=1996 |month=Agosti |pmid=8704532 |pmc=2351679 |doi= |url=http://bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8704532}}</ref> Ilibaki kuwa dawa inayoweza kuuzwa bila maelekezo ya daktari (OTC) au ya kuongezea katika nchi nyingi na utafiti uliendelea ili kuchunguza athari zake za nyurotransmita na vijenzi kazi, hasa hyperforini <ref>{{cite journal |author=Müller WE |title=Current St John's wort research from mode of action to clinical efficacy |journal=Pharmacol. Res. |volume=47 |issue=2 |pages=101–9 |year=2003 |month=Februari |pmid=12543057 |doi= 10.1016/S1043-6618(02)00266-9|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1043661802002669}}</ref> SSRI zilikuja kuwa maarufu kama "dawamfadhaiko mpya" pamoja na dawa nyingine mpya zaidi kama vile SNRI na NRI zilizokwa na athari mbalimbali teuzi, kama vile venlafaksini, duloksetini, nefazodoni na mitazapini. <ref>{{cite journal | last = Freeman | first = H | year = 1996 | url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VM1-3WJNNMF-TX&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1996&_alid=513741720&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6137&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=72e4e5cb18384ee1f4f599ed1080eda7 | title = Tolerability and safety of novel antidepressants | journal = European Psychiatry | volume = 11 | issue = supplement 4 | pages = 206 | doi = 10.1016/0924-9338(96)88597-X | access-date = 2010-10-18 | archive-date = 2008-12-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081206232457/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VM1-3WJNNMF-TX&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1996&_alid=513741720&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6137&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=72e4e5cb18384ee1f4f599ed1080eda7 | dead-url = yes }}</ref> == Aina za dawamfadhaiko == === Vizuizi chaguzi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini (SSRIs) === ''Vizuizi chaguzi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini'' (SSRIs) ni aina ya dawamfadhaiko zinazozingatiwa kama matibabu ya madawa ya kiwango cha kisasa. Yamkini chanzo kimoja cha mfadhaiko ni kiwango kisichotosha cha serotonini, kemikali inayotumika kwenye ubongo kuhamisha ishara kutoka niuroni moja hadi nyingine. Inaaminika kuwa SSRI hufanya kazi kwa kuzuia ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini (inayojulikana pia kama 5 haidroksitriptamini, au 5-HT) kupitia niuroni ya mwanya wa sinapati, na hivyo kudumisha viwango vya juu vya 5-HT katika sinepsi. Wataalamu wa kemia Klaus Schmiegel na Bryan Molloy wa Eli Lilly waligundua fluoksetini ya SSRI ya kwanza. Kategoria hii ya madawa ni pamoja na: *Sitalopramu (Celexa, Cipramili) *Eskitalopramu (Lexapro, Cipralex, Seroplex, Lexamili) *Fluoksetini (Prozak, Sarafemu, Symbyax) *Fluvoksamini (Luvox) *Paroksetini (Paxili, Aropax) *Satralini (Zoloft) Kwa kawaida, dawamfadhaiko hizi huwa na athari chache zaidi ikilinganishwa na zile za duara tatu au MAOI, ingawa athari kama kizunguzungu, kinywa kikavu, woga, wasiwasi, kukosa usingizi, kupungua kwa hamu ya chakula, kuongeza uzito kwa muda mrefu na kupunguka kwa uwezo kujamiiana huweza kutokea. Baadhi ya athari zinaweza kupungua kulingana na namna ambavyo mtu anazoea dawa, lakini huenda athari zingine zikaendelea. Ingawa ni salama kuliko kizazi cha kwanza cha dawamfadhaiko, SSRI huenda zisitibu wagonjwa wengi ikilinganishwa na kategoria za awali za dawamfadhaiko, {{Citation needed|date=Mei 2009}} na hivyo kupendekeza kuwa jukumu la norepinefrini katika matibabu ya mfadhaiko bado ni muhimu. Kazi ya watafiti wawili imeibua suala la uhusiano kati ya upungufu wa serotonini na dalili za mfadhaiko, ikibainisha kuwa utendakazi bora wa SSRI kama dawa ya matibabu pekee haithibitishi uhusiano huo. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Lacasse J, Leo J |title=Serotonin and depression: a disconnect between the advertisements and the scientific literature |journal=PLoS Med |volume=2 |issue=12 |pages=e392 |year=2005 |pmid=16268734 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020392 |pmc=1277931}} ''[http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020392 Maelezo kamili] {{Wayback|url=http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0020392 |date=20090122081424 }}''</ref> Utafiti unaonyesha kuwa dawa hizi zinaweza kuingiliana na vipengele vya unukuzi vinavyojulikana kama "jeni za saa" <ref>{{cite journal |author=Uz T, Ahmed R, Akhisaroglu M, Kurtuncu M, Imbesi M, Dirim Arslan A, Manev H |title=Effect of fluoxetine and cocaine on the expression of clock genes in the mouse hippocampus and striatum |journal=Neuroscience |volume=134 |issue=4 |pages=1309–16 |year=2005 |pmid=15994025 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.003}}</ref>, zinazoweza kuchangia pakubwa kwa tabia ya uzoefu wa madawa ya kulevya (matumizi mabaya ya madawa), na huenda pia ikasababisha unene wa kupindukia. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Yuferov V, Butelman E, Kreek M |title=Biological clock: biological clocks may modulate drug addiction |journal=Eur J Hum Genet |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=1101–3 |year=2005 |pmid=16094306 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201483}}</ref> <ref> {{cite journal |author=Manev H, Uz T |title=Clock genes as a link between addiction and obesity |journal=Eur J Hum Genet |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=5 |year=2006 |pmid=16288309 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201524}} ''[http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v13/n10/full/5201483a.html Maelezo kamili]'' </ref> Majaribio yaliyodhibitiwa na yasiyo na utaratibu maalumu yaliyochapishwa katika Hifadhi za nyaraka za taaluma ya jumla ya tiba ya magonjwa ya akili yalionyesha kuwa hadi moja kati ya tatu ya athari za matibabu ya SSRI yanaweza kuonekana katika wiki ya kwanza. Athari hizi za awali pia zimeonyesha kuongeza upungufu kamili wa alama za HRSD kwa 50%. === Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini-norepinefrini (SNRIs) === ''Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini-norepinefrini'' (SNRIs) ni aina mpya ya dawamfadhaiko zinazofanya kazi na norepinefrini na 5-HT zote. Kwa kawaida dawa hizi zina athari sawa na SSRIs, ingawa zinaweza kusababisha athari zinazotokana na kutoendelea kuzitumia na jambo hili linaweza kulazimisha kupunguzwa polepole kwa kipimo cha dawa. Hizi ni pamoja na: *Desvenlafaksini (Pristiq) *Duloksetini (Cymbalta) *Milnasipramu (Ixel) *Venlafaksini (Effexor) === Dawamfadhaiko za norepinefrini na zinazotoa serotonini (NaSSAs) === Dawamfadhaiko za norepinefrini na zinazotoa serotonini (NaSSAs) zinaunda kategoria mpya zaidi ya dawamfadhaiko ambayo inaaminika inatenda kazi kwa kuongeza norepinefrini (noradrenalini) na uhamishaji wa serotonini kati ya niuroni kwa kuzuia vipokezi vya adrenaji vya mwanya wa sinapati alfa 2 na kwa wakati huo huo kuzuia vipokezi fulani vya serotonini. <ref> http://www.cnsforum.com/imagebank/item/Drug_nassa/default.aspx</ref> Athari ni pamoja kizunguzungu, kuongezeka kwa hamu ya chakula, na kuongezeka kwa uzito. <ref name="Stimmel">{{cite journal|last=Stimmel |first=GL|year=1997|month=Jan-Feb|title=Mirtazapine: an antidepressant with noradrenergic and specific serotonergic effects|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pharmacotherapy_january-february-1997_17_1/page/10 |journal=Pharmacotherapy|volume=17|issue=1|pages=10–21|publisher=American College of Clinical Pharmacy|issn=0277-0008|pmid=9017762|accessdate=2009-05-28|last2=Dopheide|first2=JA|last3=Stahl|first3=SM}}</ref> Mifano ni pamoja na: *Mianserini (Tolvon) *Mirtazapini (Remeron, Avanza, Zispin) === Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini (NRIs) === ''Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini'' (NRIs) hutenda kazi kupitia norepinefrini (inayojulikana pia kama ''noradrenalini).'' NRIs zinadhaniwa kuwa na athari chanya hasa kwa umakini na motisha. Hivi ni pamoja na: *Atomoksetini (Strattera) *Mazindoli (Mazanor, Sanorex) *Reboksetini (Edronax) *Viloksazini (Vivalan) === Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini na dopamini (NDRIs) === ''Vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini na dopamini'' huzuia na ufyonyaji upya wa dopamini na norepinefrini (noradrenalini). <ref>{{cite journal|last=Stahl|first=SM|year=2004|title=A Review of the Neuropharmacology of Bupropion, a Dual Norepinephrine and Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitor|journal=Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry|volume=6|issue=4|pages=159–166|publisher=Physicians Postgraduate Press|pmc=514842|accessdate=2009-05-28|doi=10.4088/PCC.v06n0403|pmid=15361919|last2=Pradko|first2=JF|last3=Haight|first3=BR|last4=Modell|first4=JG|last5=Rockett|first5=CB|last6=Learned-Coughlin|first6=S}}</ref> Hivi ni pamoja na: *Bupropioni (Wellbutrini, Zybani) === Vizidishi chaguzi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Serotonini (SSREs) === *Tianeptini (Stablon, Coaxil, Tatinol) === Viondoa vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini na dopamini (NDDIs) === Viondoa vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa Norepinefrini na dopamini (NDDIs) hutenda kazi kwa kupingana na kipokezi cha serotonini cha 5-HT2C ambacho kwa kawaida huzuia kuondolewa kwa norepinefrini na dopamini, na hivyo kuendeleza mbubujiko wa nyurotransmita hizi. *Agomelatini (Valdoxan, Melitor, Thymanax) === Dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya Trisaikliki (TCAs) === ''Dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya Trisaikliki'' ni kategoria nzee zaidi ya dawa za dawamfadhaiko. Dawa za Trisaikliki huziba ufyonyaji upya wa nyurotransmita fulani kama vile norepinefrini (noradrenalini) na serotonini. Hazitumiki sana kutokana na uvumbuzi wa madawa salama zaidi na yenye uwezo zaidi wa kuchagua. Madhara ni pamoja na kuongezeka kwa kiwango cha upigaji [[Moyo|moyo]], kuzinzia, mdomo mkavu, uyabisi wa tumbo, uwekaji wa mkojo, kiwaa, kizunguzungu, kuchanganyikiwa, na utendakazi mbaya wa kingono. Kiwango cha sumu hutokea wakati takriban mara kumi ya kipimo cha kawaida cha dawa kinapofikiwa. Mara nyingi madawa haya husababisha mauti yakizidisha kiasi cha dawa kinachohitajika, na yanaweza kusababisha arithimia mbaya. Hata hivyo, dawa za dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki bado zinatumika kutokana na ufanisi wao, hasa katika matukio mabaya ya mfadhaiko mkuu. Hizi ni pamoja na: '''Dawamfadhaiko za kiwango cha juu aina ya trisaikliki amini''' *Amitriptailini (Elavil, Endep) *Klomipramini (Anafranili) *Doksepini (Adapini, Sinequani) *Imipramini (Tofranili) *Trimipramini (Surmontil) '''Dawamfadhaiko za kiwango cha kati aina ya trisaikliki amini''' *Desipramini (Norpramini) *Nortriptailini (Pamelor, Aventili, Noritreni) *Protriptailini (Vivactili) === Kizuizi cha oksidesi ya monoamini (MAOIs) === ''Vizuizi vya oksidesi ya monoamini'' (MAOIs) vinaweza kutumika ikiwa dawa zingine za dawamfadhaiko hazijafaulu kufanya kazi. MAOIs hufanya kazi za kuzuia kimeng'enya cha oksidesi ya monoamini inayovunja nyurotransmita dopamini, serotonini, na norepinefrini (noradrenalini). Kutokana na uwezekano wa mwingiliano unaoweza kusababisha kifo kati ya kategoria hii ya madawa na vyakula fulani (hasa vile vyenye tairamini), pamoja na baadhi ya madawa, MAOIs za zamani huagizwa mara chache zaidi siku hizi. Hata hivyo, Emsam,dawa yenye muundo wa kiraka wa selegilini inayopitia kwenye ngozi, ni tofauti. Kutokana na ukwepaji wake wa tumbo, ina uwezekano mdogo zaidi wa kusababisha matukio sawa na yale ya madawa mengine katika kikundi cha MAOIs. <ref name="Cascade01">{{cite journal |author=Cascade EF, Kalali AH |journal=Psychiatry 2007 |month=Juni |year=2007 |title=EMSAM: The First Year |url=http://www.psychiatrymmc.com/emsam-the-first-year/ |accessdate=2009-11-30 |archive-date=2010-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228220220/http://www.psychiatrymmc.com/emsam-the-first-year/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Madawa ya MAOIs yanaweza kuleta matokeo bora sawa na yale ya madawa dhidi ya dawamfadhaiko aina ya tricyclic, ingawa kwa ujumla hayatumiki sana kwa sababu yamerekodi matukio mengi zaidi ya athari hatari na kuathiriana. Kizazi kipya cha MAOIs kimeanzishwa; moklobemidi (Manerix), inayojulikana kama kizuizi kinachopindulika cha oksidesi ya monoamini A RIMA), na kinafanya kazi kwa kipindi kifupi zaidi na kwa njia ya kuchagua na haihitaji chakula maalum. Kikundi cha madawa ya MAOI ni pamoja na: *Aisokaboksazidi (Marplan) *Moklobemidi (Aurorix, Manerix) *Fenilzini (Nardili) *Selegilini (Eldepryl, Emsamu) *Tranilsaipromini (Parnati) === Dawa za Kukuza === Imetambulika kuwa baadhi ya dawa za mfadhaiko zinafanya kazi vizuri zaidi kwa wagonjwa wengine yakitumiwa pamoja na dawa zingine. Dawa kama hizo za "kukuza" ni pamoja na: *Buspironi (Buspar) *Gepironi (Ariza) *Nefazodoni (Serzoni) *Tandospironi (Sedieli) *Trazodoni (Desyreli) *Bupropioni (Wellbutrini / Zybani) ''Vitulizo na vipozo'', hasa vile vya benzodiazepini, huagizwa kwa kupunguza wasiwasi na kuleta usingizi. Kwa sababu ya hatari kubwa ya utegemezi, dawa hizi zinanuiwa kutumika kwa kipindi kifupi au mara chache pekee. Mara nyingi madawa huwa hayatumiki kwa utendakazi wao msingi, bali kwa ajili ya kutumia kile ambacho kwa kawaida ni athari yao. Fumarati ya Kwetiapini (Seroquel) imebuniwa kimsingi kwa kutibu skizofrenia na ugonjwa wa furaha-mfadhaiko, lakini mara kwa mara husababisha kusinzia kutokana na mshikamano wake na vipokezi vya histamini (H1 na H2); na hivyo inatumia madhara sawa na kidhibiti mzio wa hewa (Benadryl). ''Vizuia magonjwa ya akili'' kama vile risperidoni (Risperdal), olanzapini (Zyprexa), na kwetiapini (Seroqueli) yanaagizwa kama vidhibiti halihisi ya moyo na kwa kutibu wasiwasi. Matumizi yao kama vidhibiti halihisi ya moyo ni jambo la hivi karibuni, na limeibua utata kati ya wagonjwa wengine. Vizuia magonjwa ya akili, viwe ni vya kawaida au visokawaida vinaweza pia kuagizwa ili kukuza dawamfadhaiko, kuongeza ukolezi kwenye damu wa dawa nyingine, au kupunguza dalili za kichaa au za wazimu ambazo mara nyingi huandamana na mfadhaiko wa kimawazo. Hata hivyo, vinaweza kusababisha madhara makubwa, hasa vikichukuliwa kwa vipimo vya juu. Madhara ni pamoja na Kiwaa, mkazoghafla wa misuli, kutotulia, kutoweza kusongeza viungo kwenye dalili zinazoonekana polepole, na kuongezeka kwa uzito. Vichocheaakili wakati mwingine huongezwa kwenye utaratibu wa matibabu dhidi ya mfadhaiko ikiwa mgonjwa anaugua kutokana na anihedonia, na kulala kupindukia na/ au kula kupindukia pamoja na kiwango cha chini cha motisha. Dalili hizi ni za kawaida kwa mfadhaiko usio wa kawaida, na zinaweza kutatuliwa kwa kuongeza kipimo cha chini hadi wastani cha amfetamini (Adderall), methylphenidate (Ritalin) au modafinili (Provigil, Alertec), kwa kuwa kemikali hizi zinaweza kuongeza motisha na kuboresha maingiliano ya kijamii, na kuzuia hamu ya chakula na usingizi. Modafinili ni ya kipekee kutokana na athari zake kwa usingizi: inaongeza umakini na kupunguza kizunguzungu wakati mgonjwa yuko macho, lakini haizuii kulala kwa kawaida. Dawa hizi pia zinaweza kurejesha msukumo wa ngono, ingawa hii ni athari hasi na sio sababu ya kuagizwa kwa vichocheaakili. Hata hivyo, tahadhari ni lazima ichukuliwe vikitumika kwa watu fulani. Vichangamsha vimetambuliwa kuchokonoa vipindi vya wazimu kwa watu wanaougua maradhi ya hisia mseto. Usimamizi wa karibu unasisitizwa kwa walio na matatizo ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa. Wagonjwa wenye mhemuko unaobadilika kwa urahisi wanapaswa kujiepusha na vichangamsha kwa kuwa vinatibua kubadilika kwa halihisi ya moyo. ''Lithiamu'' bado ndiyo tiba ya kiwango kilichokubalika kutibu maradhi ya hisia mseto, na mara nyingi hutumika pamoja na madawa mengine, ikitegemea ikiwa kinachotibiwa ni wazimu au mfadhaiko. Madhara ya Lithiamu ambayo huenda yakajitokeza ni pamoja na kiu, kutetemeka,udhaifu, kichefuchefu na kuendesha. Baadhi ya kinza-msukosuko, kama vile kabamazefini (Tegretol), valiproati ya sodiamu (Epilim), na lamotrijini (Lamictal), pia hutumika kama vidhibiti halihisi ya moyo, hasa kwa kutibu maradhi ya hisia mseto. Lithiamu na lamotrijini zote pia zimechunguzwa na kutumika kwa kukuza dawa dhidi ya dawamfadhaiko katika matibabu ya mfadhaiko sugu ya hisia aina moja. == Mikondo ya uagizaji dawa == Nchini Uingereza matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko yameongezeka kwa 234% katika kipindi cha miaka 10 kufikia mwaka wa 2002. <ref>[74] ^ (Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Ubora wa Matibabu, 2004)</ref> Nchini Marekani, ripoti huru iliyotolewa mwaka wa 2005 ilionyesha kuwa 11% ya wanawake na 5% ya wanaume wasioishi katika nyumba za utunzaji wa wenye mahitaji maalum (2002) hutumia dawamfadhaiko. <ref>[http://www.meps.ahrq.gov/mepsweb/data_stats/Pub_ProdResults_Details.jsp?pt=Statistical%20Brief&amp;opt=2&amp;id=685 ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.meps.ahrq.gov/mepsweb/data_stats/Pub_ProdResults_Details.jsp?pt=Statistical%20Brief&opt=2&id=685 |date=20250626193041 }} Stagnitti, M. (2005) Matumizi ya Dawamfadhaiko kati ya wananchi wa Marekani wasio katika vyumba vya ustawi wa jamii, 2002. Takwimu fupi # 77. Rockville, MD: Jopo la Matumizi ya pesa kwa Uuguzi, Shirika la Utafiti kuhusu Ubora wa Huduma za Afya.</ref> Uchunguzi uliofanywa mwaka wa 1998 uligundua kuwa 67% ya wagonjwa waliotambuliwa kuwa na mfadhaiko waliagiziwa dawamfadhaiko. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Sleath B, Shih YC |title=Sociological influences on antidepressant prescribing |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-science-medicine_2003-03_56_6/page/1335 |journal=Soc Sci Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=1335–44 |year=2003 |month=Machi |pmid=12600369 |doi=10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00132-6 }}</ref> Utafiti uliofanywa mwaka wa 2007 ulionyesha kuwa 25% ya Wamarekani walitambulishwa kuwa na ugonjwa wa mfadhaiko zaidi ya idadi kamili iliyougua ugonjwa huo, hata bila kuzingatia matibabu yoyote.<ref>{{cite news|title=Depression could be overdiagnosed|url=http://www.heraldnet.com/article/20070403/NEWS02/704030755|agency=The Washington Post|publisher=HeraldNet|year=2007|month=Aprili|accessdate=2009-05-28}}</ref> Msingi wa matokeo haya yalikuwa ni utafiti wa kitaifa wa watu 8,098. Utafiti uliofanywa mwaka wa 2002 ulitambua kuwa karibu 3.5% ya watu wote nchini [[Ufaransa]] walikuwa wakiagiziwa dawamfadhaiko, ikilinganishwa na 1.7% mwaka wa 1992. Mara nyingi dawa hizi huagizwa bila kuzingatia amri wala miongozo <ref name="Ol">{{cite journal|last=Olié|first=JP|year=2002|month=Oktoba|title=Antidepressants consumption in the global population in France|journal=L'Encéphale|volume=28|issue=5 pt. 1|pages=411–7|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=12386542 |doi=ENC-10-2002-28-5-0013-7006-101019-ART4|accessdate=2009-05-29|language=French|doi_brokendate=2009-10-24|last2=Elomari|first2=F|last3=Spadone|first3=C|last4=Lépine|first4=JP}}</ref> Kati ya mwaka wa 1996 na 2004 katika [[British Kolumbia|British Columbia]], matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko yaliongezeka kutoka 3.4% hadi 7.2% ya wananchi. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Raymond|first=CB|year=2007|month=Januari|title=Antidepressant utilization in British Columbia from 1996 to 2004: increasing prevalence but not incidence|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychiatric-services_2007-01_58_1/page/79|journal=Psychiatric Services|volume=58|issue=1|pages=79–84|publisher=American Psychiatric Association|pmid=17215416|doi=10.1176/appi.ps.58.1.79|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Morgan|first2=SG|last3=Caetano|first3=PA}}</ref> Takwimu ya mwaka wa 1992 hadi 2001 kutoka [[Uholanzi]] ulionyesha ongezeko la kiwango cha maagizo ya SSRIs, na kuongezeka kwa muda wa matibabu. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Meijer W, Heerdink E, Leufkens H, Herings R, Egberts A, Nolen W |title=Incidence and determinants of long-term use of antidepressants |journal=Eur J Clin Pharmacol |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=57–61 |year=2004 |pmid=14985889 |doi=10.1007/s00228-004-0726-3}}</ref> Utafiti unaonyesha kwamba matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko, hasa ya SSRIs, yameongezeka kwa haraka katika nchi nyingi zilizoendelea. Jambo hili linaendeshwa na kuongezeka kwa ufahamu kuhusu mfadhaiko pamoja na matangazo ya kibiashara kuhusu dawa mpya za dawamfadhaiko. <ref>{{cite journal |author=McManus P, Mant A, Mitchell PB, Montgomery WS, Marley J, Auland ME |title=Recent trends in the use of antidepressant drugs in Australia, 1990-1998 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-journal-of-australia_2000-11-06_173_9/page/n10 |journal=Med. J. Aust. |volume=173 |issue=9 |pages=458–61 |year=2000 |month=Novemba |pmid=11149300 }}</ref> Dawamfadhaiko pia zinazidi kutumiwa duniani kote kwa kutibu wagonjwa wasio na mfadhaiko na utafiti unaendelea kuonyesha uwezo wa sifa za dawamfadhaiko wa kubadili hali ya kinga mwilini, kutuliza maumivu, na kuzuia uvimbe. Uchaguzi wa aina fulai ya dawamfadhaiko unaripotiwa kufanyika kwa misingi isiyokuwa na ushahidi wa utafiti wa tofauti katika utendakazi, ili kuepuka athari fulani na kuzingatia magonjwa ambatani ya akili (yanayojitokeza kwa wakati mmoja), dalili maalumu ya ugonjwa na historia kabla ya matibabu. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=M|year=2004|month=Julai|title=Which factors influence psychiatrists' selection of antidepressants?|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|volume=161|issue=7|pages=1285–9|publisher=American Psychiatric Association|pmid=15229063|url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/161/7/1285|accessdate=2009-05-29|doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.161.7.1285|last2=Posternak|first2=M|last3=Friedman|first3=M|last4=Attiullah|first4=N|last5=Baymiller|first5=S|last6=Boland|first6=R|last7=Berlowitz|first7=S|last8=Rahman|first8=S|last9=Uy|first9=K|archive-date=2008-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926121035/http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/161/7/1285|url-status=dead}}</ref> Pia imeripotiwa kwamba, licha ya ushahidi babaishi unaoonyesha tofauti kubwa ya utendakazi kati ya dawamfadhaiko za awali na zile za karibuni zaidi, matabibu wanaona kuwa madawa mapya zaidi, ikiwa ni pamoja na SSRIs na SNRIs, yana ufanisi zaidi kuliko dawa za awali (dawa dhidi ya dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki na MAOIs). <ref>{{cite journal|last=Petersen|first=T|year=2002|month=Januari|title=A survey of prescribing practices in the treatment of depression|journal=Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry|volume=26|issue=1|pages=177–87|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=11853110|doi=10.1016/S0278-5846(01)00250-0 |accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Dording|first2=C|last3=Neault|first3=NB|last4=Kornbluh|first4=R|last5=Alpert|first5=JE|last6=Nierenberg|first6=AA|last7=Rosenbaum|first7=JF|last8=Fava|first8=M}}</ref> Utafiti nchini Uingereza ulionyesha kwamba madaktari wa kiume walikuwa na uwezekano mkubwa zaidi wa kuagiza dawamfadhaiko kuliko madaktari wa kike. <ref>{{cite news|title=Male GPs depression pills 'bias' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4704053.stm|date=21 Julai 2005|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2009-05-29}}</ref> Idadi ya dawamfadhaiko iliyoagizwa na NHS nchini Uingereza iliongezeka karibu mara dufu katika kipindi cha mwongo mmoja, kulingana na ripoti ya serikali katika mwaka wa 2010. Aidha idadi iliongezeka sana katika mwaka wa 2009 wakati maagizo milioni 39.1 yalitolewa ikilinganishwa na milioni 20.1 mwaka wa 1999. Pia, madaktari walitoa maagizo ya dawa milioni 3.18 zaidi mwaka wa 2009 kuliko mwaka wa 2008. Wizara za afya ziliamimi kuwa ongezeko hili kwa kiwango fulani lilitokana na kuzorota kwa uchumi. Hata hivyo, sababu nyingine ni pamoja na kuboreshwa kwa mchakato wa utambuzi wa magonjwa, na kupunguka kwa unyanyapaa kwa magonjwa ya akili, na dhiki zaidi iliyosababishwa na kuzorota kwa uchumi. Aidha, wasiwasi wa madaktari ni kuwa baadhi ya watu wanaoonyesha dalili kidogo zaidi za mfadhaiko wanaagiziwa dawa zisizohitajika kutokana na ukosefu wa chaguo zingine ikiwa ni pamoja na tiba kwa njia ya kuzungumza, kupata ushauri na tabia ya utambuzi wa tabia. Kipengele kimoja kingine ambacho huenda kinaongeza matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko ni kwamba dawa hizi sasa zinatumiwa kutibu magonjwa mengine ikiwa ni pamoja na wasiwasi wa kijamii na dhiki baada ya kiwewe. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2010/jun/11/antidepressant-prescriptions-rise-nhs-recession| title=Antidepressant Use Rises as Recession Feeds Wave of Worry|date=2010-06-11|accessdate= 2010-07-01 | location=London | work=The Guardian | first=Rowenna | last=Davis}}</ref> Matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko nchini Marekani yameongezeka mara dufu katika mwongo mmoja, kutoka mwaka wa 1996 hadi 2005. Dawamfadhaiko ziliagizwa kwa watu milioni 13 katika mwaka wa 1996 na kwa watu milioni 27 kufikia mwaka wa 2005. Katika mwaka wa 2008, zaidi ya maagizo milioni 164 yaliandikwa. Katika kipindi hiki, kulikuwa na uwezekano wa chini zaidi kwa wagonjwa kupitia matibabu ya kisaikolojia. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE5725E720090804| title=Antidepressant Use Doubles in U.S., Study Finds|date=2009-08-04|accessdate= 2010-07-01 | work=Reuters}}</ref> === Dawamfadhaiko zilizoagizwa zaidi === [[Picha:Escitalopram2DACS.svg|thumb|right|Fomula ya muundo wa eskitalopramu ya SSRI, katika hali yake ya msingi ya bure.]] Dawamfadhaiko zilizoagizwa zaidi katika soko la Marekani katika mwaka wa 2007 <ref>Idadi ya maagizo ilikadiriwa kama jumla ya maagizo kwa madawa yanayolingana ya mwigo na asilia kwa kutumia data kutoka kwa chati kwa majina ya madawa ya mwigo na asilidawa brand-generiska. {{cite web | title = Top 200 generic drugs by units in 2007. | work = Drug Topics, 18 Februari 2008 | url = http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/Top200Drugs/ArticleStandard/article/detail/491194 | accessdate = 2008-10-23 | archivedate = 2009-07-18 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090718184023/http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/Top200Drugs/ArticleStandard/article/detail/491194 }} {{cite web | title = Top 200 brand drugs by units in 2007. | work = Drug Topics, 18 Februari 2008 | url = http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/PharmacyFactsAndFigures/ArticleStandard/article/detail/491210 | accessdate = 2008-10-23 }}</ref> zilikuwa: {| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" |- ! Dawa ! Chapa ya dawa ! Kategoria ! Maagizo ya mwaka wa 2007 (kwa milioni) |- | Satralini | Zoloft | SSRI | 29.652 |- | Eskitalopramu | Lexapro | SSRI | 27.023 |- | Fluksetini | Prozac | SSRI | 22.266 |- | Bupropioni | Wellbutrin | NDRI | 20.184 |- | Paroksetini | Paxili | SSRI | 18.141 |- | Venlafaksini | Effexor | SNRI | 17.200 |- | Sitalopramu | Celexa | SSRI | 16.246 |- | Trazodoni | Desyrel | SARI | 15.473 |- | Amitriptailini | Elavil | TCA | 13.462 |- | Duloksetini | Cymbalta | SNRI | 12.551 |- | Mitazapini | Remeron | TCA | 5.129 |- | Nortriptailini | Pamelor | TCA | 3.105 |- | Imipramini | Tofranil | TCA | 1.524 |} Dawamfadhaiko zilizoagizwa zaidi nchini Ujerumani zinaripotiwa kuwa ni (minyopoo kolezi ya) hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort). <ref>{{cite book|last=Tyler|first=VE|editor=Janick J|title=Perspectives on New Crops and New Uses|url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/|accessdate=2009-05-29|year=1999|publisher=ASHS Press|isbn=978-0-9615027-0-6|pages=528|chapter=Herbs Affecting the Central Nervous System|chapterurl=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1999/v4-442.html}}</ref> Nchini Uholanzi, paroksetini, inayouzwa kama Seroxat kati ya dawa zisizo asilia, ndiyo dawamfadhaiko inayoagizwa zaidi, ikifuatiwa na dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki inayoitwa amitriptailini, Sitalopramu na venlafaksini. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gipdatabank.nl/index.asp?scherm=tabellenFrameSet&infoType=g&tabel=01-basis&item=N06AB |title=GIPdatabank |publisher=Gipdatabank.nl |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206123718/http://www.gipdatabank.nl/index.asp?scherm=tabellenFrameSet&infoType=g&tabel=01-basis&item=N06AB |archivedate=2008-12-06 |https://web.archive.org/web/20081206123718/http://www.gipdatabank.nl/index.asp?scherm=tabellenFrameSet&infoType=g&tabel=01-basis&item=N06AB |=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206123718/http://www.gipdatabank.nl/index.asp?scherm=tabellenFrameSet&infoType=g&tabel=01-basis&item=N06AB }}</ref> === Utaratibu wa utendakazi === Athari za matibabu za dawamfadhaiko zinaaminika kuwa zinasababishwa na madhara kwa nyurotransmita na upitishaji wa msukumo. Nadharia tete ya Monoamini ni nadharia ya bayolojia inayosema kuwa mfadhaiko unasababishwa na kiwango cha chini cha utendaji wa monoamini katika ubongo, kama vile dopamini, serotonini, na norepinefrini. Katika miaka ya 1950, vizuizi vya oksidesi ya monoamini (MAOIs) na madawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya tricyclic ziligunduliwa kimakosa kuwa na ufanisi katika matibabu ya mfadhaiko. Matokeo haya na ushahidi mwingine egemezi yalimfanya Joseph Schildkraut achapishe makala yake yanayoitwa "The Catecholamine Hypothesis of Affective Disorders" katika mwaka wa 1965. Schildkraut alihusisha viwango vya chini ya nyurotransmita na mfadhaiko. Utafiti kuhusu magonjwa mengine ya akili kama vile skizofrenia pia yalitambua kuwa kiwango cha chini cha shughuli za kifisiolojia za baadhi ya nyurotransmita zilihusishwa na matatizo hayo. Nadharia tete hii imelengwa sana katika utafiti wa ngazi za pathofisiolojia na kutibu magonjwa kwa utumia dawa kwa zaidi ya miaka 25. Vizuizi vya oksidesi ya monoamini (MAOIs) huzuia uvunjaji wa nyurotransmita za monoamini serotonini, norepinefrini, na dopamini kwa kuzuia [[kimeng'enya]] oksidesi ya monoamini, na hivyo kusababisha kuongezeka kwa ukolezi wa nyurotransmita hizi katika ubongo na kuongezeka kwa upitishaji wa msukumo. Dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki (TCAs) huzuia ufyonyaji upya wa nyurotransmita mbalimbali, ikiwa ni pamoja na serotonini norepinefrini, na kwa kiwango kidogo zaidi dopamini. Siku hizi dawamfadhaiko zinazotumiwa zaidi ni kizuizi cha uchukuzi wa serotonini kinachochagua (SSRIs), ambazo huzuia ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini (na hivyo kuongeza kiwango cha serotonini inayofanya kazi katika sinepsi ya ubongo). Dawamfadhaiko zingine zinaathiri ufyonyaji upya wa norepinefrini, au vipokezi vingine kwenye seli ya neva. Wakati MAOIs, TCAs na SSRIs zinaongeza viwango vya serotonini, zingine huzuia serotonini kushikana na vipokezi vya 5-HT _2A, na hivyo kupendekeza kuwa ni fikra sahili sana kusema kuwa serotonini ni homoni ya furaha. Kwa kweli, wakati dawamfadhaiko za awali hukusanyika kwenye mfumo wa damu na kiwango cha serotonini ikaongezeka, ni kawaida kwa mgonjwa kuhisi ni kama anazidiwa katika wiki za kwanza za matibabu. Mojawapo ya maelezo ya jambo hili ni kuwa vipokezi vya 5-HT_2A viligeuka kama ishara ya uloweshwaji (watu wanaotumia vipinzani vya 5-HT_2A mara nyingi huongeza uzito), na hivyo kumwambia mnyama aache kutafuta chakula, mwenzi, n.k., na aanze kutafuta wanyama wanaowawinda wanyama wengine. Katika hali ya hatari ni jambo la manufaa kwa mnyama kutohisi njaa hata kama anahitaji chakula. Mchangamsho wa vipokezi vya 5-HT_2A utawezesha jambo hili kufanyika. Lakini ikiwa ni tishio la kudumu, mnyama anahitaji kuanza kula na kujamiiana tena - na ukweli kuwa aliponea kifo inaonyesha kuwa tishio halikuwa la kiwango cha hatari kama mnyama huyo alihisi. Kwa hivyo idadi ya vipokezi vya 5-HT_2A hupungua kupitia mchakato unaojulikana kama urekebishaji kwa njia ya kupunguza na mnyama anarudia tabia yake ya kawaida. Hii inaashiria kwamba kuna njia mbili za kukabiliana na wasiwasi kwa binadamu na serotonergic: dawa za kuzuia kusisimua wa-HT _2A receptors 5 au kwa kuwasisimua kupita kiasi mpaka upungufu kupitia kuvumiliana. Kusisimua au kuzuia wa vipokezi tofauti juu ya kiini na huathiri maumbile usemi wake. Matokeo ya karibuni yameonyesha kuwa nyurojenesi, na hivyo, mabadiliko katika mofojenesi ya ubongo, hupatanisha athari za madawa ya dawamfadhaiko. <ref name="pmid16425236">{{cite journal |author=Warner-Schmidt JL, Duman RS |title=Hippocampal neurogenesis: opposing effects of stress and antidepressant treatment |journal=Hippocampus |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=239–49 |year=2006 |pmid=16425236 |doi=10.1002/hipo.20156 |url=}}</ref> Nadharia tete nyingine ni kuwa huenda dawamfadhaiko zikawa na athari za muda mrefu kutokana na ukuzaji wa nyurojenesi katika hipokampasi, athari ambayo inapatikana kwa panya. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Malberg|first=JE|date=15 Desemba 200|title=Chronic antidepressant treatment increases neurogenesis in adult rat hippocampus|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=20|issue=24|pages=9104–10|publisher=Society for Neuroscience|pmid=11124987|url=http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/20/24/9104|accessdate=2009-05-29|author2=E|author3=N|author4=D}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Manev|first=H|year=2001|month=Mei|title=Antidepressants alter cell proliferation in the adult brain in vivo and in neural cultures in vitro|journal=European Journal of Pharmacology|volume=411|issue=1-2|pages=67–70|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=11137860|doi=10.1016/S0014-2999(00)00904-3|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Uz|first2=T|last3=Smalheiser|first3=NR|last4=Manev|first4=R}}</ref> Utafiti wa wanyama wengine unaonyesha kuwa dawamfadhaiko zinaweza kuathiri ukamuaji wa jeni katika seli za ubongo, kwa kuathiri "jeni inayofinyanza protini zinazodhibiti mzunguko wa utendakazi wa mambo mbalimbali mwilini".<ref>{{cite journal|last=Uz|first=T|year=2005|title=Effect of fluoxetine and cocaine on the expression of clock genes in the mouse hippocampus and striatum|journal=Neuroscience|volume=134|issue=4|pages=1309–16|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=15994025|doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.003|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Ahmed|first2=R|last3=Akhisaroglu|first3=M|last4=Kurtuncu|first4=M|last5=Imbesi|first5=M|last6=Dirim Arslan|first6=A|last7=Manev|first7=H}}</ref> Utafiti mwingine unaonyesha kuwa kucheleweshwa kwa mwanzo wa athari zinazotokana na dawamfadhaiko kunaonyesha kuwepo kwa uwezo wa kubadilika kwa athari za dawamfadhaiko. Utafiti wa wanyama wagugunaji kila mara umeonyesha kuongezeka kwa kasi ya mfumo ya 3, 5-adenosini ya fosfeti moja wenye mzunguko (cAMP), ikisababishwa na aina tofauti za matibabu sugu lakini yasiyo kali ya dawamfadhaiko, ikiwa ni pamoja na serotonini na vizuizi vya ufyonyaji wa norepinefrini,vizuia oksidesi vya monoamini, dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya tricyclic, lithiamu na matibabu ya mtukutiko meme. cAMP inasanisiwa kutoka kwa trifosfati 5-ya adenosini (ATP) na saiklesi ya adenilili na kufanyiwa umetaboli na mizunguko ya vivunja viungo vya fosfodi nyukleotidi (PDEs). <ref>{{cite journal|last=Zang|first=HT|date=12 Julai 2005|title=Interaction between the antidepressant-like behavioral effects of beta adrenergic agonists and the cyclic AMP PDE inhibitor rolipram in rats |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychopharmacology_2005-10_182_1/page/104|journal=Psychopharmacology|volume=182|issue=1|pages=104–115|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin|doi=10.1007/s00213-005-0055-y|pmid=16010541|accessdate=2009-05-28|last2=Huang|first2=Y|last3=Mishler|first3=K|last4=Roerig|first4=SC|last5=O'Donnell|first5=JM}}</ref> Takwimu pia zinaonyesha kwamba dawamfadhaiko zinaweza kurekebisha kunyumbuka kwa mfumo wa neva yakitumiwa kwa muda mrefu. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Carboni|first=L|year=2006|month=Oktoba|title=Proteomic analysis of rat hippocampus and frontal cortex after chronic treatment with fluoxetine or putative novel antidepressants: CRF1 and NK1 receptor antagonists|journal=European Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=16|issue=7|pages=521–537|publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2006.01.007|pmid=16517129|accessdate=2009-05-28|last2=Vighini|first2=M|last3=Piubelli|first3=C|last4=Castelletti|first4=L|last5=Milli|first5=A|last6=Domenici|first6=E}}</ref> Nadharia moja kuhusu chanzo cha mfadhaiko ni kwamba ina sifa ya utendaji wa kupita kiasi wa jira ya adrena ya hypothalamiki-tezi (jira ya HPA ) ambayo inafanana na mwitikio wa mfumo wa neva na mwili kwa dhiki. Hali hii ya jira za HPA zisizo za kawaida hushiriki katika kuendeleza ya dalili za mfadhaiko na dawamfadhaiko humtumika kudhibiti utendakazi wa jira ya HPA. <ref>Carmine M. Pariante kazi, Taasisi ya Taaluma ya tiba ya Psychiatry Mfalme wa Chuo cha London [http://www.neuroendo.org.uk/content/view/31/11/ unyogovu, stress och Adrenal axis ya.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.neuroendo.org.uk/content/view/31/11/ |date=20080706035853 }} Jamii ya Uingereza ya Niuroendokrinolojia, 2003.</ref> === Ulinganishaji === Dawamfadhaiko kadhaa zimelinganishwa hapa chini: <ref name="pmid9537821">{{cite journal | author = Tatsumi M, Groshan K, Blakely RD, Richelson E. | title = Pharmacological profile of antidepressants and related compounds at human monoamine transporters. | journal = Eur J Pharmacol. | volume = 340 | issue = 2-3 | pages = 249–258 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9537821 | doi = 10.1016/S0014-2999(97)01393-9 }}</ref> <ref name="pmid9400006">{{cite journal | author = Owens MJ, Morgan WN, Plott SJ, Nemeroff CB. | title = Neurotransmitter receptor and transporter binding profile of antidepressants and their metabolites. | journal = J Pharmacol Exp Ther. | volume = 283 | issue = 3 | pages = 1305–1322 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9400006 }}</ref> <ref name="pmid7855217">{{cite journal | author = Cusack B, Nelson A, Richelson E. | title = Binding of antidepressants to human brain receptors: focus on newer generation compounds. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychopharmacology_1994-05_114_4/page/559 | journal = Psychopharmacology (Berl). | volume = 114 | issue = 4 | pages = 559–565 | year = 1994 | pmid = 7855217 | doi = 10.1007/BF02244985 }}</ref> <ref name="bookEssentials of clinical psychopharmacology">{{cite book | author = Alan F. Schatzberg, Charles B. | title = Essentials of clinical psychopharmacology | publisher = American Psychiatric Pub | year = 2006 | page = 7 | isbn = 1585622435, 9781585622436 }}</ref> <!-- table seems broken {| kategoria="sortable wikitable" | ''' Mchanganyiko ''' || '''[[Kisafirisha-Serotonini|SERT]]''' || '''[[Kisafirisha-Norepinefrini|NET]]''' || '''[[Kisafirisha-Dopamini|DAT]]''' || '''[[Kipokezi cha Histamine H1|H₁]]''' || '''[[Kipokezi cha asetilikolini ya Muskarini|M_1-5]]''' || '''[[Kipokezi cha andrenaji Alfa-1|α₁]]''' || '''[[Kipokezi cha andrenaji Alpha-2|α₂]]''' || '''[[5-HT1A|5-HT_1A]]''' || '''[[5-HT2|5-HT₂]]''' || '''[[Kipokezi cha D2|D₂]]''' |- | [[Agomelatini]] || ? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | | 270 | |? | - | [[Amitriptailini]] | | 4.3 | | 35 | | 3250 | | 0.95 | | 9.6 | | 24 | | 690 | | 450 | | 18 | | 1460 | - | [[Amoksapini]] | | 58 | | 16 | | 4310 | | 25 | | 1000 | | 50 | | 2600 | |? | |? | |? | - | [[Atomoksetini]] | | 8.9 | | 2.03 | | 1080 | | 5500 | | 2060 | | 3800 | | 8800 | | 10900 | | 940 | | 35,000 + | - | [[Bupropioni]] | | 45026 | | 1389 | | 2784 | | 11800 | | 35,000 + | | 4200 | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | - | Buspironi | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | | 138 | |? | | 5.7 | | 174 | | 362 | - | Butriptailini | | 1360 | | 5100 | | 3940 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Sitalopramu | | 1.16 | | 4070 | | 28100 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Klomipramini | | 0.28 | | 38 | | 2190 | | 31 | | 37 | | 38 | | 3200 | |? | |? | |? | - | Desipramini | | 17.6 | | 0.83 | | 3190 | | 60 | | 66 | | 100 | | 5500 | | 6400 | | 350 | | 3500 | - | Dosulepini | | 8.6 | | 46 | | 5310 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Doksepini | | 68 | | 29.5 | | 12100 | | 0.17 | | 23 | | 23.5 | | 1270 | | 276 | | 27 | | 360 | - | Duloksetini | | 0.8 | | 7.5 | | 240 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Etoperidoni | | 890 | | 20000 | | 52000 | | 3100 | | 35,000 + | | 38 | | 570 | | 85 | | 36 | | 2300 | - | Femoksetini | | 11 | | | 760 | 2050 | | 4200 | | 184 | | 650 | | 1970 | | 2285 | | 130 | | 590 | - | Fluoksetini | | 0.81 | | 240 | | 3600 | | 5400 | | 590 | | 3800 | | 13900 | | 32400 | | 280 | | 12000 | - | Fluvoksamini | | 0.81 | | 240 | | 3600 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Imipramini | | 1.4 | | 37 | | 8500 | | 37 | | 46 | | 32 | | 3100 | | 5800 | | 150 | | 620 | - | Lofepramini | | 70 | | 5.4 | | 18000 | | 360 | | 67 | | 100 | | 2700 | | 4600 | | 200 | | 2000 | - | Maprotilini | | 5800 | | 11.1 | | 1000 | | 2 | | 570 | | 90 | | 9400 | |? | |? | |? | - | | Mazindoli | 100 | | 1.4 | | 11 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Mianserini | | 4000 | | 71 | | 9400 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Milnasiprani | | 123 | | 200 | | 10,000 + | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Mirtazapini | | 1500 + | | ~ 1250 | | 1500 + | | 1 ~ | | ~ 1000 | | 500 ~ | | 100 ~ | | 1500 + | | 10 ~ | | 1,500 + | - | Nefazodoni | | 200 | | 360 | | 360 | | 24000 | | 11000 | | 48 | | 640 | | 80 | | 26 | | 910 | - | Nisoksetini | | 383 | | 5.1 | | 477 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Nomifensini | | 1010 | | 15.6 | | 56 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Nortriptailini | | 18 | | 4.37 | | 1140 | | 6.3 | | 37 | | 55 | | 2030 | | 294 | | 41 | | 2570 | - | Oksaprotilini | | 3900 | | 4.9 | | 4340 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Paroksetini | | 0.13 | | 40 | | 490 | | 22000 | | 108 | | 4600 | | 17000 | | 35,000 + | | 19000 | | 32000 | - | Protriptailini | | 19.6 | | 1.41 | | 2100 | | 25 | | 25 | | 130 | | 6600 | |? | |? | |? | - | Reboksetini | | 720 | | 11 | | 10,000 + | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Satralini | | 0.29 | | 420 | | 25 | | 24000 | | 630 | | 380 | | 4100 | | 35,000 + | | 9900 | | 10700 | - | Trazodoni | | 160 | | 8500 | | 7400 | | 1100 | | 35,000 + | | 42 | | 320 | | 96 | | 25.0 | | 35,000 + | - | Trimipramini | | 149 | | 2450 | | 3780 | | 0.27 | | 58 | | 24 | | 680 | |? | |? | |? | - | Venlafaksini | | 82 | | 2480 | | 7647 | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | | 35,000 + | - | Viloksazini | | 17300 | | 155 | | 100,000 + | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | - | Zimelidini | | 152 | | 9400 | | 11700 | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? | |? |) --> Nambari zilizo hapo juu zimeandikwa kama nambari zisizobadilika za ulinganifu tenganishi. Unapaswa kukumbuka kuwa kidogo ni zaidi. SERT, NET, na DAT zinalingana na uwezo wa michanganyiko wa kuzuia ufyonyaji upya wa serotonini, norepinefrini, na dopamini, mtawalia. Hizo thamani zingine zinalingana na mvuto wao kwa vipokezi mbalimbali. === Kuzuia uvimbe na kuathiri kinga ya mwili === Utafiti wa karibuni unaonyesha kuwa michakato ya saikotini inayosababisha uvimbe hutendeka wakati wa mfadhaiko wa kimawazo, wazimu, na maradhi ya hisia mseto, na inawezekana kuwa dalili ya hali hizi hupunguzwa na athari za dawa ya dawamfadhaiko kwenye mfumo wa kinga. <ref>{{cite journal|last=O'Brien|first=SM|year=2006|month=Februari|title=Cytokine profiles in bipolar affective disorder: focus on acutely ill patients|journal=Journal of Affective Disorders|volume=90|issue=2-3|pages=263–7|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=16410025|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2005.11.015|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Scully|first2=P|last3=Scott|first3=LV|last4=Dinan|first4=TG}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Obuchowicz|first=E|year=2005|month=Sep-OCt|title=Antidepressants and cytokines--clinical and experimental studies|journal=Neurol Neurochir Psychiatr Pol|volume=39|issue=5|pages=921–36|pmid=16358592|oclc=11190611|language=Polish|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Marcinowska|first2=A|last3=Herman|first3=ZS}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Hong|first=C-J|year=2005|month=Novemba|title=Interleukin-6 Genetic Polymorphism and Chinese Major Depression|journal=Neuropsychobiology|volume=52|issue=4|pages=202–5|publisher=Karger AG|location=Basel|pmid=16244501|doi=10.1159/000089003|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Yu|first2=YW|last3=Chen|first3=TJ|last4=Tsai|first4=SJ}}</ref> <ref name="Elen">{{cite journal|last=Elenkov|first=IJ|year=2005|month=Septemba|title=Cytokine dysregulation, inflammation and well-being|journal=NeuroImmunoModulation|volume=12|issue=5|pages=225–69|publisher=Karger AG|location=Basel|pmid=16166805|doi=10.1159/000087104|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Iezzoni|first2=DG|last3=Daly|first3=A|last4=Harris|first4=AG|last5=Chrousos|first5=GP}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Kubera|first=M|date=30 Aprili 2005|title=Effects of serotonin and serotonergic agonists and antagonists on the production of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6|journal=Psychiatry Research|volume=134|issue=3|pages=251–8|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=15892984|doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2004.01.014|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Maes|first2=M|last3=Kenis|first3=G|last4=Kim|first4=YK|last5=Lasoń|first5=W}}</ref> Tafiti pia zimeonyesha kuwa utoaji wa kuselelea wa homoni za dhiki kutokana na ugonjwa, ikiwa ni pamoja na maambukizi ya viungo au dalili za kingamwilinafsi, unaweza kupunguza athari za nyurotransmita au vipokezi vingine katika ubongo kupitia njia zilizopatanishwa na seli zinazosababisha uvimbe, na hivyo kusababisha ya udibiti mbaya wa homoni za mfumo wa neva. <ref name="Elen" /> SSRIs, SNRIs na dawamfadhaiko{/3 aina ya {2}tricyclic zinazotenda kazi kwenye vipokezi vya serotonini, norepinefrini na dopamini vimetambuliwa kuwa dhahiri kuwa za kuathiri kinga ya mwili na kuzuia uvimbe dhidi ya michakato ya [[saitokini]], hasa kwa udhibiti wa [[Intaferoni ya gama]] (IFN-gamma) na [[Intaleukini-10]] (IL-10), pamoja na [[TNF-alfa]] na [[Intaleukini-6]] (IL-6). Imetambulika pia kuwa dawamfadhaiko huzuia kuongezeka kwa kasi ya mfumo wa TH1. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Diamond|first=M|year=2006|month=Oktoba|title=Antidepressants suppress production of the Th1 cytokine interferon-gamma, independent of monoamine transporter blockade|journal=European Neuropsychopharmacology|volume=16|issue=7|pages=481–90|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=16388933|doi=10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.11.011|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Kelly|first2=JP|last3=Connor|first3=TJ}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Kubera|first=M|year=2001|month=Aprili|title=Anti-Inflammatory effects of antidepressants through suppression of the interferon-gamma/interleukin-10 production ratio|journal=Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology|volume=21|issue=2|pages=199–206|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|pmid=11270917|doi=10.1097/00004714-200104000-00012|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Lin|first2=AH|last3=Kenis|first3=G|last4=Bosmans|first4=E|last5=Van Bockstaele|first5=D|last6=Maes|first6=M}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Maes|first=M|year=2001|month=Januari|title=The immunoregulatory effects of antidepressants|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_human-psychopharmacology_2001-01_16_1/page/95|journal=Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental|volume=16|issue=1|pages=95–103|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|pmid=12404604|doi=10.1002/hup.191|accessdate=2009-05-29}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Maes|first=M|year=2005|month=Machi|title=The negative immunoregulatory effects of fluoxetine in relation to the cAMP-dependent PKA pathway|journal=International Immunopharmacology|volume=5|issue=3|pages=609–18|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=15683856|doi=10.1016/j.intimp.2004.11.008|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Kenis|first2=G|last3=Kubera|first3=M|last4=De Baets|first4=M|last5=Steinbusch|first5=H|last6=Bosmans|first6=E}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Brustolim D|first=D|year=2006|month=Juni|title=A new chapter opens in anti-inflammatory treatments: the antidepressant bupropion lowers production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma in mice|journal=International Immunopharmacology|volume=6|issue=6|pages=903–7|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=16644475|doi=10.1016/j.intimp.2005.12.007|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Ribeiro-Dos-Santos|first2=R|last3=Kast|first3=RE|last4=Altschuler|first4=EL|last5=Soares|first5=MB}}</ref> Dawamfadhaiko, hasa TCAs na SNRIs (mchanganyiko wa SSRIna NRI), pia zimeonyesha tabia za kutuliza maumivu. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Moulin|first=DE|year=2007|month=Spring|title=Pharmacological management of chronic neuropathic pain - consensus statement and guidelines from the Canadian Pain Society|journal=Pain Research & Management|volume=12|issue=1|pages=13–21|publisher=Pulsus Group|pmid=17372630|pmc=2670721|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Clark|first2=AJ|last3=Gilron|first3=I|last4=Ware|first4=MA|last5=Watson|first5=CP|last6=Sessle|first6=BJ|last7=Coderre|first7=T|last8=Morley-Forster|first8=PK|last9=Stinson|first9=J}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Jones|first=CK|year=2006|month=Desemba|title=Analgesic effects of serotonergic, noradrenergic or dual reuptake inhibitors in the carrageenan test in rats: Evidence for synergism between serotonergic and noradrenergic reuptake inhibition|journal=Neuropharmacology|volume=51|issue=7-8|pages=1172–1180|publisher=Elsevier|pmid=17045620|doi=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2006.08.005|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Eastwood|first2=BJ|last3=Need|first3=AB|last4=Shannon|first4=HE}}</ref> Tafiti hizi zinatoa kibali cha kuchunguza dawamfadhaiko kwa matumizi kwa magonjwa ya akili na yale yasiyo ya akili na kuwa huenda mkabala wa mwingiliano kati ya michakato ya kisaikolojia na mifumo ya neva na kinga utahitajika ili kufikia upeo wa kutibu magonjwa kwa dawa.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kulmatycki|first=KM|year=2006|month=Oktoba|title=Drug disease interactions: role of inflammatory mediators in depression and variability in antidepressant drug response|journal=Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=9|issue=3|pages=292–306|publisher=Canadian Society for Pharmaceutical Sciences|pmid=17207413|url=http://www.ualberta.ca/~csps/JPPS9_3/Kulmatycki/Kul_Jam.htm|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Jamali|first2=F}}</ref> Huenda dawamfadhaiko za baadaye zitaundwa ili kulenga hasa mfumo wa kinga iwe kwa kuzuia utendaji wa saikotini zinazosababisha uvimbe au kwa kuongeza uzalishaji wa saikotini zinazozuia uvimbe. <ref>{{cite journal|last=O'Brien|first=SM|year=2004|month=Agosti|title=Cytokines: abnormalities in major depression and implications for pharmacological treatment|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_human-psychopharmacology_2004-08_19_6/page/397|journal=Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental|volume=19|issue=6|pages=397–403|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|pmid=15303243|doi=10.1002/hup.609|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Scott|first2=LV|last3=Dinan|first3=TG}}</ref> == Ufanifu wa matibabu == Utafiti mwingi umefanywa ili kutathmini uwezekano wa athari za matibabu za dawamfadhaiko, iwe ni kupitia uchunguzi wa utendakazi katika hali ya majaribio (ikiwa ni pamoja na utafiti wa kiafya bila utaratibu maalumu) au kupitia uchunguzi wa ufanisi katika "hali halisi." ''Mwitikio'' unaofaa kwa dawa mara nyingi hufafanuliwa kama kupunguzwa kwa angalau 50% ya dalili zilizoripotiwa na mgonjwa binafsi au zinazoonekana, huku ''sehemu ya majibu'' ikifafanuliwa kama kupunguza angalau 25% ya dalili hizo. Neno ''kupungua'' linarejelea uondoaji wa kweli lakini usio bayana wa dalili za dawamfadhaiko, lakini wenye hatari ya ''kurudi'' kwa dalili au ''kuugua tena'' na ugonjwa wa mfadhaiko. Kupunguka kabisa au ''kupona'' kunaashiria kurudi kabisa kwa hali ya "kawaida" ya saikolojia ikiandamana na utendakazi kamili. === Ukaguzi wa tafiti === Ukaguzi wa tafiti za kimatibabu za hivi karibuni ni pamoja na: * Kulinganisha uhusiano wa utendakazi wa kategoria mbalimbali za dawamfadhaiko<ref>{{cite journal |author=Anderson IM |title=Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors versus tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis of efficacy and tolerability |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-affective-disorders_2000-04_58_1/page/19 |journal=J Affect Disord |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=19–36 |year=2000 |month=Aprili |pmid=10760555 |doi=10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00092-0 }}</ref> katika mazingira tofauti <ref>MacGillivray, S., Arroll, B., Hatcher, S., Ogston, S., Reid, I., Sullivan, F., Williams, B., Crombie, I. (2003) [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=154760 Utendakazi na uvumilivu wa vizuizi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini vinavyochagua ikilinganishwa na dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya tricyclic kwa mfadhaiko uliotibiwa katika unyogovu kutibiwa katika huduma: ukaguzi wa hatua kwa hatua na uchambuzi wa matokeo ya tafiti kadhaa] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130801115652/http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=154760 |date=2013-08-01 }} ''BMJ.'' 10 Mei 326 (7397): 1014.</ref> na kwa aina mbalimbali za mfadhaiko<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.4088/JCP.v62n0209 |author=Parker G, Roy K, Wilhelm K, Mitchell P |title=Assessing the comparative effectiveness of antidepressant therapies: a prospective clinical practice study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_2001-02_62_2/page/117 |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=117–25 |year=2001 |month=Februari |pmid=11247097 |doi_brokendate=2010-08-28 }}</ref> * Utathmini wa dawamfadhaiko ikilinganishwa na "kipozaungo hai" <ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" /> * Utathmini wa aina mpya zaidi za ya kategoria ya MAOI <ref> Lotufo-Neto, F., Trivedi, M., &amp; Thase, M.E (1999) [http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v20/n3/full/1395258a.html Uchambuzi wa matokeo ya tafiti kadhaa kuhusu ddI yanaweza kupunguzwa Inhibitors Aina ya Oxidase Monoamine A Moclobemide na Brofaromine kwa ajili ya matibabu ya unyogovu] ''Neuropsychopharmacology'' 20 226-247.10.1038</ref> * Uchambuzi wa matokeo ya majaribio kadhaa ya St John's Wort<ref>{{cite journal |author=Linde K, Mulrow CD, Berner M, Egger M |title=St John's wort for depression |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=2 |pages=CD000448 |year=2005 |pmid=15846605 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000448.pub2 }}</ref> yaliyochaguliwa bila utaratibu maalumu * Ukaguzi wa matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko kwa kutibu mfadhaiko kwa watoto<ref> Jureidini JN, CJ Doecke, Mansfield PR, Haby MM, Menkes DB, AL Tonkin. (2004) [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/328/7444/879?ijkey=4f893b9f91cb92fde9abb867c1dd21fb35b7b9d3&amp;keytype2=tf_ipsecsha Utendakazi na usalama wa dawamfadhaiko kwa watoto na vijana.] BMJ. 2004 10 Aprili, 328 (7444) :879-83.</ref> <ref> Lakhan SE, Hagger-Johnson G. [http://www.cpementalhealth.com/content/3/1/21 Matokeo ya maagizo ya vitatiza akili kwa vijana]. ''Mazoezi ya kimatibabu na Epidemolojia katika Uzima wa Akili'' 2007; 3 (21).</ref> *Ukaguzi wa majaribio yote kuhusu dawamfadhaiko yaliyowasilishwa kwa Usimamizi wa Vyakula na Dawa nchini Marekani (FDA) kutoka mwaka wa 1987 hadi 2004 umeonyesha kuwa karibu nusu ya majaribio hayo yalishindwa kuonyesha faida yoyote ikilinganishwa na kipozaungo. Matokeo yote ya majaribio yaliyofanikiwa ila moja yalichapishwa katika majarida ya kisayansi, huku karibu majaribio yote yaliyofeli ama hayakuchapishwa au yalitolewa kwa njia ya kuwapotosha watu kama matokeo chanya (ikilinganishwa na tathmini ya FDA ya data hiyo). Jambo hili lilitokea kwa kuwa ingawa uchunguzi unahitajika kabla ya kupata idhini ya kimatibabu, uchunguzi unaoonyesha matokeo mengi si lazima yachapishwe au (kama yakichapishwa) yapewe kipaumbele sawa. Kwa hivyo, ingawa vitabu vya utafiti vilionyesha kwamba asilimia 94 ya majaribio yalikuwa na matokeo mazuri, katika data halisi iliyowasilishwa kwa Usimamizi wa Vyakula na Dawa, ni asilimia 51 pekee iliyokuwa na matokeo mazuri. Upendeleo huu katika uchapishaji ulipandisha athari dhairi ya takwimu za kila dawamfadhaiko iliyochunguzwa kwa kati ya 11% na 69%. <ref name="Turner EH, Matthews AM, Linardatos E, Tell RA, Rosenthal R 2008 252–60" /> * Uchambuzi wa matokeo ya majaribio kadhaa uliofanywa na watafiti kutoka Uingereza, Marekani na Kanada na kuchapishwa mwaka wa 2008 ulitafiti majaribio ya madawa yaliyodhaminiwa na kampuni za dawa ili kutambua dawamfadhaiko sita kuu za kizazi kipya zilizoagizwa zaidi na kuwasilishwa kwa idhini ya FDA kati ya mwaka wa 1987 na 1999. Matokeo, kulingana na uchambuzi wa matokeo ya majaribio ya awali, yalionyesha kuwa tofauti katika utendakazi kati ya dawamfadhaiko na kipozaungo ulikuwa mdogo, lakini kuwa uliongezeka kutoka kiwango cha kutokuwa na tofauti hadi kiwango cha wastani cha mfadhaiko wa hadi tofauti ndogo kwa wagonjwa wenye mfadhaiko mkali. Tofauti hii ilifikia kigezo cha kawaida cha matibabu kwa wagonjwa waliokuwa upande wa juu wa kategoria ya walioathirika zaidi na mfadhaiko, kutokana na kupungua kwa utendakazi wa kipozaungo. <ref name="pmid18303940">{{cite journal |author=Kirsch I, Deacon BJ, Huedo-Medina TB, Scoboria A, Moore TJ, Johnson BT |title=Initial severity and antidepressant benefits: a meta-analysis of data submitted to the Food and Drug Administration |journal=PLoS Med. |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=e45 |year=2008 |pmid=18303940 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050045 |pmc=2253608}}</ref> Utafiti ulienea katika vyombo vya habari katika baadhi ya nchi, lakini ulikosolewa na jamii ya wataalamu. <ref>[170] ^ K. Eisele, MD Je, dawamfadhaiko hufanya kazi? Ukaguzi wa mapitio. Tovuti ya Doctors Lounge. Inapatikana kwa: http://www.doctorslounge.com/index.php/articles/page/152 {{Wayback|url=http://www.doctorslounge.com/index.php/articles/page/152 |date=20100303180328 }}. Accessed 21 Septemba 2009.</ref> Eli Lilly na wenzake walijibu kwa kusisitiza kuwa utafiti haukuzingatia uchunguzi wa karibuni zaidi wa bidhaa yake, Prozac, na kuwa inajivunia tofauti iliyoletwa na Prozac kwa mamilioni ya watu. GlaxoSmithKline ilionya kuwa utafiti huu mmoja haupaswi kutumiwa kuwapa wasiwasi na kuwatisha wagonjwa. Wyeth alisema kuwa data hiyo ilitosha kwa FDA kuwapa idhini ya kutumia dawa hizo. <ref>Blue, L. (2008) [http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1717306,00.html Dawamfadhaiko hazisaidii pakubwa] {{Wayback|url=http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1717306,00.html |date=20110211013701 }} Time magazine, Jumanne 26 Februari</ref> Wataalamu wawili maarufu wa magonjwa ya akili/ wataalamu wa dawa, wenye uhusiano wa kifedha na kitaalamu na makampuni ya dawa, walisema kuwa majaribio ya muda mfupi hayafai katika kutathmini ufanisi, na kuwa yale ambayo hayajachapishwa ni duni zaidi. Pia walisema kuwa waandishi wa uchambuzi wa matokeo ya majaribio walitumia misingi ya kisaikolojia badala ya ile ya upimaji wa dawa, na kuwa vyombo vya habari na "vipengele vya jumuia ya kisayansi na tiba havijishughulishi na maswala kuhusu dawamfadhaiko" na kuwa vyombo vya habari havifahamu uzito wa ugonjwa wa mfadhaiko na badala yake vinawashutumu wanaougua kwa njia yenye misingi ya mitazamo ya kidini ya enzi za kati. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Nutt DJ, Malizia AL |title=Why does the world have such a 'down' on antidepressants? |journal=J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford) |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=223–6 |year=2008 |month=Mei |pmid=18541622 |doi=10.1177/0269881108091877 }}</ref> *Makala katika The Washington Post ya tarehe 7 Mei 2002 yenye kichwa "Against Depression, a Sugar Pill Is Hard to Beat" yalisema kuwa "Uchambuzi mpya umetambua kuwa katika nyingi ya majaribio yaliofanywa na makampuni ya dawa katika miongo ya hivi karibuni, vidonge vya sukari vimeleta matokeo bora yaliyo sawa na -au wakati mwingine bora zaidi ya- dawamfadhaiko. Makampuni yamepaswa kufanya majaribio kadhaa ili yaweze kupata mbili ambazo zinaonyesha matokeo mazuri, jambo ambalo ni hitaji la msingi kwa kupata idhini ya Usimamizi wa Vyakula na Dawa. Isitoshe, vidonge vya sukari, vipozaungo, kusababisha mabadiliko makubwa katika maeneo yaleyale ya ubongo yaliyoathirika na dawa, kulingana na utafiti iliochapishwa wiki iliyopita ... ya watengenezaji wa Prozac walipaswa kufanya majaribio matano ili kupata mawili chanya, na watengenezaji wa Paxil na Zoloft walipaswa hata kufanya majaribio mengi zaidi ... Leuchter alipolinganisha mabadiliko kwenye bongo za wagonjwa waliopewa vipozaungo, alishangaa kutambua kuwa wengi wao walikuwa na mabadiliko katika sehemu sawa za ubongo zinazodhaniwa kuwa hudhibiti vijisehemu muhimu vya hisia ... Baada ya jaribio hilo kuisha na wagonjwa waliopewa vipozaungo kufahamishwa, hali yao ilizorota mara kwa haraka. Imani ya watu kwa nguvu za dawamfadhaiko inaweza kueleza sababu za wagonjwa kufanya vizuri wakipewa vipozaungo... " <ref>[http://www.chelationtherapyonline.com/technical/p58.htm Dhidi ya Mfadhaiko, ni vigumu kushindana na kidonge cha sukari] {{Wayback|url=http://www.chelationtherapyonline.com/technical/p58.htm |date=20100925021110 }} , The Washington Post, 7 Mei 2002</ref> === Miongozo ya matibabu === Mwongozo wa mwaka wa 2000 wa Ushirikiano wa Marekani wa kuchunguza magonjwa ya akili wa kutibu wagonjwa wenye mfadhaiko mkuu<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guidelines.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=2605&nbr=1831 |title=Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with major depressive disorder |publisher=Guidelines.gov |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028165751/http://www.guidelines.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=2605&nbr=1831 |archivedate=2008-10-28 |https://web.archive.org/web/20081028165751/http://www.guidelines.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=2605&nbr=1831 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028165751/http://www.guidelines.gov/summary/summary.aspx?doc_id=2605&nbr=1831 }}</ref> unaonyesha kuwa ikipendelewa zaidi na mgonjwa, dawamfadhaiko inaweza kutolewa kama matibabu msingi ya awali kwa ugonjwa wa mfadhaiko mkuu wa kiwango cha chini; dawamfadhaiko inapaswa kutumika tu kwa viwango wastani hadi vikuu vya mfadhaiko isipokuwa kama matibabu ya mtukutiko meme yamepangwa; na mchanganyiko wa dawa za kuzuia magonjwa ya akili na dawamfadhaiko au ya ya mtukutiko meme zinafaa kutumika kwa kutibu mfadhaiko wa kichaa. Inasema kuwa utendakazi unaweza kulinganishwa kwa ujumla kati ya kategoria na ndani ya kategoria na kuwa uteuzi wa awali utategemea pakubwa msingi ya athari zinazotarajiwa kwa mgonjwa binafsi, mapendeleo ya mgonjwa, wingi na ubora wa data ya utafiti wa kiafya kuhusu dawa, na gharama yake. Miongozo ya mwaka wa 2004 wa Taasisi ya Taifa ya Ubora wa Matibabu nchini Uingereza (NICE) inaonyesha kuwa dawamfadhaiko hazipaswi kutumiwa kwa matibabu ya awali ya mfadhaiko wa kiwango cha chini, kwa kuwa uwiano kati ya hatari na manufaa ni wa chini; kwa ule wa mfadhaiko wa kiwango cha wastani hadi kali, dawa aina ya SSRI ina uwezekano mkuu zaidi wa kuvumiliwa kuliko ile ya tricyclic; na kuwa dawamfadhaiko za mfadhaiko mkuu zinafaa kujumuishwa na matibabu ya kisaikolojia kama vile Tiba ya Utambuzi wa Kitabia. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG23 |title=Depression |publisher=Nice.org.uk |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> === Upungufu wa ufanifu na mikakati === Kati ya 30% na 50% ya watu waliotibiwa na dawamfadhaiko maalumu hawaonyeshi mwitikio kwa dawa. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Baghai TC, Möller HJ, Rupprecht R |title=Recent progress in pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment options of major depression |journal=Curr. Pharm. Des. |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=503–15 |year=2006 |pmid=16472142 |doi=10.2174/138161206775474422 }}</ref> <ref name="SSRIswitch">{{cite journal |author=Ruhé HG, Huyser J, Swinkels JA, Schene AH |title=Switching antidepressants after a first selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in major depressive disorder: a systematic review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_2006-12_67_12/page/1836 |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=1836–55 |year=2006 |month=Desemba |pmid=17194261 |doi=10.4088/JCP.v67n1203 }}</ref> Hata pale ambapo kumekuwa na mwitikio mzuri, ni kawaida kupata kuwa mfadhaiko na utendakazi mbaya huendelea, na viwango vya kuugua tena ni vya juu kwa kati ya mara 3 hadi 6 zaidi katika matukio hayo. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Tranter R, O'Donovan C, Chandarana P, Kennedy S |title=Prevalence and outcome of partial remission in depression |journal=J Psychiatry Neurosci |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=241–7 |year=2002 |month=Julai |pmid=12174733 |pmc=161658 }}</ref> Aidha, dawamfadhaiko huelekea kupoteza utendakazi katika kipindi cha matibabu. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Byrne SE, Rothschild AJ |title=Loss of antidepressant efficacy during maintenance therapy: possible mechanisms and treatments |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_1998-06_59_6/page/279 |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=279–88 |year=1998 |month=Juni |pmid=9671339 }}</ref> Idadi kubwa ya mikakati hutumika katika matibabu ili kujaribu kushinda vikomo na tofauti hizi. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Mischoulon D, Nierenberg AA, Kizilbash L, Rosenbaum JF, Fava M |title=Strategies for managing depression refractory to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment: a survey of clinicians |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-psychiatry_2000-06_45_5/page/476 |journal=Can J Psychiatry |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=476–81 |year=2000 |month=Juni |pmid=10900529 }}</ref> ==== Ubadilishaji wa kubahatisha ==== Mwongozo wa mwaka wa 2000 wa Ushirikiano wa Marekani wa kuchunguza magonjwa ya akili unashauri kuwa pale ambapo hakuna mwitikio baada ya kati ya wiki sita na nane ya matibabu kwa kutumia dawamfadhaiko maalumu, unafaa kubadili dawa na utumie dawamfadhaiko nyingine katika kategoria hiyo, kisha baadaye utumie dawamfadhaiko kutoka kategoria tofauti. Ukaguzi wa matokeo ya majaribio ya hivi karibuni ulitambua tofauti kubwa katika matokeo ya tafiti za awali; kwa wagonjwa waliokosa kutibiwa na dawamfadhaiko aina ya SSRI, kati ya 12% na 86% walionyesha mwitikio kwa dawa mpya, huku kati ya 5% na 39% wakisimamisha matibabu kutokana na athari mbaya. Mgonjwa ambaye tayari amejaribu aina kadhaa za dawamfadhaiko ana uwezekano mdogo zaidi wa kunufaika kutokana na jaribio jipya la dawamfadhaiko. <ref name="SSRIswitch"/> ==== Ukuzaji na uambatanishaji ==== Kuhusu mwitikio wa kiasi, miongozo ya Ushirikiano wa Marekani kuhusu magonjwa ya akili inashauri kuongeza aina mbalimbali za vikolezo vya dawa kwenye dawamfadhaiko. Utafiti unaonyesha kuwa wagonjwa wengi hushindwa kufikia kiwango cha kupunguza tibamfadhiko, na mikakati ya kuongeza inayotimika katika matibabu ni pamoja na matumizi ya [[Lithi|lithiamu]] na kuongezwa kwa homoni ya kikoromeo, lakini hakuna misingi bora ya ushahidi kwa mbinu hizi au kwa mikakati mipya zaidi kama vile kutumia antagonisti za dopamini, steroidi za ngono, NRI, vikolezo maalum vya glukokotikoidi, au vizuiakifafa <ref name="augment">{{cite journal |author=DeBattista C, Lembke A |title=Update on augmentation of antidepressant response in resistant depression |journal=Curr Psychiatry Rep |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=435–40 |year=2005 |month=Desemba |pmid=16318821 |doi=10.1007/s11920-005-0064-x }}</ref> Mkakati wa kuchanganya unahusisha kuongeza dawamfadhaiko moja au zaidi ya ziada, kwa kawaida kutoka kategoria tofauti ili kuleta athari mbalimbali kwenye mfumo wa neva. Ingawa hili linaweza kutumika katika matibabu, kuna ushahidi mdogo kuhusu uhusiano wa utendakazi au athari mbaya za mkakati huu. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Lam RW, Wan DD, Cohen NL, Kennedy SH |title=Combining antidepressants for treatment-resistant depression: a review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_2002-08_63_8/page/685 |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=63 |issue=8 |pages=685–93 |year=2002 |month=Agosti |pmid=12197448 }}</ref> ==== Matumizi ya muda mrefu ==== Athari za matibabu ya dawamfadhaiko kwa kawaida hayaendelei kufanya kazi mara tu madawa yanapokomeshwa, na hivyo kusababisha kiwango cha juu cha kuugua tena. Uchambuzi wa karibuni wa matokeo ya majaribio 31 ya dawamfadhaiko yaliyodhibitiwa na vipozaungo, hasa yanayohusu utafiti uliofanywa kwa kipindi cha mwaka mmoja, yalionyesha 18% ya wagonjwa walioitikia dawamfadhaiko waliugua tena wakiwa wangali wanyatumia, ikilinganishwa na 41% ambao tiba zao zilibadilishwa na kupewa vipozaungo. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Geddes JR, Carney SM, Davies C |title=Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders: a systematic review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2003-02-22_361_9358/page/652 |journal=Lancet |volume=361 |issue=9358 |pages=653–61 |year=2003 |month=Februari |pmid=12606176 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12599-8 }}</ref> Miongozo ya Ushirikiano wa Marekani kuhusu magonjwa ya akili inashauri kuendelezwa kwa matibabu ya dawamfadhaiko kwa kati ya miezi nne hadi sita kufuatia kumalizika kwa dalili. Kwa wagonjwa wenye historia ya matukio ya mfadhaiko, Miongozo ya Shirika la Uingereza la taaluma ya athari za dawa za magonjwa ya akili ya mwaka wa 2000 ya kutibu magonjwa ya mfadhaiko kwa kutumia dawamfadhaiko yanashauri mgonjwa aendelee kutumia dawamfadhaiko kwa angalau miezi sita na kwa muda wa hadi miaka mitano au milele. Iwapo mtu ataugua tena au la baada ya kuacha kutumia dawamfadhaiko haionekani kuhusiana na muda wa matibabu ya awali, hata hivyo, na kupotezwa polepole kwa faida za matibabu pia hutokea wakati huo huo. Mkakati unaohusisha kutibu magonjwa kwa dawa kwa kutibu magonjwa makali, ukifuatiwa na matibabu ya kisaikolojia katika awamu ya mabaki, yamependekezwa na tafiti fulani. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Fava GA, Park SK, Sonino N |title=Treatment of recurrent depression |journal=Expert Rev Neurother |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=1735–40 |year=2006 |month=Novemba |pmid=17144786 |doi=10.1586/14737175.6.11.1735 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Petersen TJ |title=Enhancing the efficacy of antidepressants with psychotherapy |journal=J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford) |volume=20 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=19–28 |year=2006 |month=Mei |pmid=16644768 |doi=10.1177/1359786806064314 }}</ref> === Kutofaulu kwa matibabu === Takriban 30% ya wagonjwa hupungukiwa na mfadhaiko baada ya kutumia dawa. <ref name="pmid16390886">{{cite journal |author=Trivedi MH, Rush AJ, Wisniewski SR |title=Evaluation of outcomes with citalopram for depression using measurement-based care in STAR*D: implications for clinical practice |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2006-01_163_1/page/28 |journal=The American journal of psychiatry |volume=163 |issue=1 |pages=28–40 |year=2006 |pmid=16390886 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.28}}</ref> Kwa wagonjwa wasio na mwitikio wa kutosha, ama kuendelea kuongeza bupropioni (awali {{nowrap|200 mg}} ichukuliwe {{nowrap|100 mg}} kila siku na baadaye kuongezwa hadi jumla ya {{nowrap|400 mg}} kwa siku) au buspironi (hadi {{nowrap|60 mg}} kwa siku) ya kuongezwa kama dawa ya pili inaweza kusababisha kupunguka kwa karibu 30% ya wagonjwa, <ref name="pmid16554526">{{cite journal |author=Trivedi MH, Fava M, Wisniewski SR |title=Medication augmentation after the failure of SSRIs for depression |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2006-03-23_354_12/page/n55 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=354 |issue=12 |pages=1243–52 |year=2006 |pmid=16554526 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa052964}}</ref> huku kubadilisha madawa kunaweza kupunguza mfadhaiko kwa karibu 25% ya wagonjwa. <ref name="pmid16554525">{{cite journal |author=Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR |title=Bupropion-SR, sertraline, or venlafaxine-XR after failure of SSRIs for depression |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2006-03-23_354_12/page/n43 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=354 |issue=12 |pages=1231–42 |year=2006 |pmid=16554525 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa052963}}</ref> ==== Kwa sababu ya mimba ==== Hakuna uhakika ikiwa mimba huchangia kutofaulu kwa dawa, kwa kuwa ripoti ya pekee hadi sasa imekumbwa na utata mwingi: Katika mwaka wa 2006, utafiti maarufu sana uliochapishwa katika jarida la ''Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA)'' ulipinga dhana kuwa mabadiliko ya homoni wakati wa ujauzito huwalindwa mama wajawazito dhidi ya mfadhaiko, na kutambua kuwa kutoendelea na matibabu dhidi ya mfadhaiko wakati wa ujauzito husababisha zaidi kuugua tena. <ref>{{cite journal | last = Cohen, MD | first =Lee S. | title = Relapse of Major Depression During Pregnancy in Women Who Maintain or Discontinue Antidepressant Treatment | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume =295 | issue = 5 | pages = 499–507 | publisher = American Medical Association | date= 1 Februari 2006 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/295/5/499 | accessdate = 2007-06-14 | doi = 10.1001/jama.295.5.499 | pmid = 16449615 | last2 = Altshuler | first2 = LL | last3 = Harlow | first3 = BL | last4 = Nonacs | first4 = R | last5 = Newport | first5 = DJ | last6 = Viguera | first6 = AC | last7 = Suri | first7 = R | last8 = Burt | first8 = VK | last9 = Hendrick | first9 = V}}</ref> Makala ya ''JAMA'' hayakufichua kuwa baadhi ya waandishi walikuwa na uhusiano wa kifedha na makampuni ya dawa yanayotengezeza dawamfadhaiko. ''JAMA'' baadaye ilichapisha makala rekebishi ili kubainisha uhusiano huo <ref>{{cite journal | title = Relapse of Major Depression During Pregnancy in Women Who Maintain or Discontinue Antidepressant Treatment—Correction | journal = JAMA | volume = 296 | issue = 2 | page = 170 | date = 12 Julai 2006 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/jama;296/2/170 | accessdate = 2007-06-14 | doi = 10.1001/jama.296.2.170 | archive-date = 2007-09-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929122051/http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/jama%3B296/2/170 | dead-url = yes }}</ref> na waandishi walisisitiza kuwa mahusiano hayo hayaathiri kwa vyovyote kazi yao ya utafiti. Daktari wa uzazi na afya ya mama na mtoto Adam Urato aliliambia jarida la ''Wall Street'' kuwa wagonjwa na wataalamu wa matibabu wanahitaji ushauri bila ushawishi wa viwanda. <ref>David Armstrong, "Mwingiliano wa Madawa: Mahusiano ya kifedha na Viwanda yanazingira utafiti mkuu kuhusu mfadhaiko kuhusu: Ikiwa ni salama kwa wanawake wajawazito kuendelea kutumia madawa - JAMA inawauliza Waandishi waeleze zaidi." Wall Street Journal. 11 Julai 2006 ( [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06192/705022-114.stm nakala] {{Wayback|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06192/705022-114.stm |date=20111125085721 }} iliyochapishwa kwenye post gazette.com-)</ref> == Dalili za kuacha matumizi == Dawa ya SSRI ikimomeshwa ghafla, inaweza kusababisha dalili za kuacha za kimwili na za kisaikolojia, jambo linalojulikana kama "Dalili za kuacha za SSRI" (Tamam & Ozpoyraz, 2002). Wakati uamuzi wa kuacha kutumia dawamfadhaiko unapofanywa, ni jambo la kawaida "kujiachisha" kwa kupunguza kipimo polepole kwa muda wa wiki kadhaa. Kesi nyingi za dalili za kuachishwa huendelea kwa kati ya wiki mmoja na nne. Uteuzi wa dawamfadhaiko na kipimo kinachofaa kwa tukio fulani na mtu fulani ni mchakato mrefu na wenye utata, unaohitaji maarifa ya mtaalamu. Baadhi ya dawamfadhaiko yanaweza kutibua mfadhaiko katika siku za awali, yanaweza kusababisha wasiwasi, au wanaweza kumfanya mgonjwa awe na fujo, dhiki au ahisi sana kujiua. Katika matukio chache, dawamfadhaiko inaweza kusababisha kubadilika kutoka mfadhaiko hadi wazimu au haipomania. == Athari == Dawamfadhaiko mara nyingi husababisha athari mbaya, na ugumu wa kuvumilia athari hizi ndiyo sababu kuu ya kutoendelea na dawa yenye ufanisi mkuu. Athari za SSRIs ni pamoja na: kichefuchefu, kuendesha, fadhaa, kuumwa na kichwa. Athari kwa ngono pia ni kawaida kwa SSRI, kama vile kupotea kwa hamu ya kufanya mapenzi, kushindwa kufikia mshindo na shida ya kusimika. Dalili za ugonjwa wa serotonini pia ni hali inayoleta wasiwasi inayohusishwa na matumizi ya SSRI. Usimamizi wa Vyakula na Dawa unahitaji SSRI zote ziweke onyo la Pakiti Nyeusi (Black Box), inayosema kuwa zinaongeza mara dufu kiwango cha kujiua (kutoka 2 kati ya 1000 hadi 4 kati ya 1000) kwa watoto na vijana. <ref>{{cite journal | last = Lenzer | first = Jeanne | title = Antidepressants double suicidality in children, says FDA | journal = BMJ | volume = 332 | page = 626 | year = 2006 | url = http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/332/7542/626-c | doi = 10.1136/bmj.332.7542.626-c | accessdate = 2008-04-14}}</ref> Hatari iliyoongezeka kwa kutaka kujiua na tabia ya kujiua kati ya watu wazima chini ya umri wa miaka 25 ambayo yanaonekana kwa kuonekana kwa watoto na vijana. <ref> BMJ: [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/339/aug11_2/b2880?maxtoshow=&amp;HITS=10&amp;hits=10&amp;RESULTFORMAT=&amp;fulltext=suicide&amp;searchid=1&amp;FIRSTINDEX=0&amp;sortspec=date&amp;resourcetype=HWCIT Hatari ya kujiua katika majaribio ya kliniki ya dawamfadhaiko kwa watu wazima] . 11 Agosti 2009.</ref> Madhara ya TCAs (dawamfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki): Athari zinazojitokeza sana ni pamoja na kinywa kikavu, kiwaa, kusinzia, kizunguzungu, kutetemeka, matatizo ya ngono, ugonjwa wa ngozi, na kupata uzito au hasara. Madhara ya MAOI (vizuizi vya oksidesi ya monoamini): Athari zisizo za kawaida za MAOIs kama fenilzini (Nardil) na tranilsaipromini (Parnate) ni pamoja na homa ya manjano, mshtuko wa moyo, [[Kiharusi|kiharusi]], na kifafa. Ugonjwa wa serotonini ni athari ya MAOIs ukiwekwa pamoja na madawa fulani. === Kujiua === Wagonjwa wa mfadhaiko ndio wenye hatari kubwa zaidi ya [[Jiua|kujiua]] mara tu baada ya kuanza kwa matibabu, kwa kuwa dawamfadhaiko zinaweza kupunguza dalili za mfadhaiko kama vile kudumaa kwa mwendo kunakohusishwa na michakato ya akili au ukosefu wa motisha kabla ya halihisi ya moyo kuanza kuwa bora. Ingawa jambo hili linaonekana kuwa kweli kinzani, uchunguzi unaonyesha kuwa uundaji wa mawazo ya kujiua ni kawaida wakati wa kuanza matibabu kwa dawamfadhaiko, na huenda likawa jambo la kawaida kwa wagonjwa wenye umri mdogo zaidi kama vile watoto walio karibu kubalehe na vijana. Watengenezaji wa madawa na madaktari mara nyingi huwapendekeza familia na wapendwa kufuatilia tabia ya mgonjwa mdogo kwa ishara zozote za mawazo ya kujiua au tabia, hasa katika kipindi cha wiki nane za kwanza za matibabu. Kabla ya onyo za pakiti nyeusi kwa madawa haya kutolewa na FDA na mashirika yaliyo sawa katika mataifa mengine, athari na kuzionya familia kuhusu hatari zilipuuzwa na kuchukuliwa kwa urahisi sana na watengenezaji wa madawa na wauguzi. Huenda jambo hili lilisababisha vifo kadhaa kupitia kujiua ingawa ushahidi wa moja kwa moja unaohusiana na matukio hayo hauna misingi dhabiti ya kisheria. Kuongezeka kwa taarifa kuhusu mawazo ya kujiua katika tafiti kadhaa kumevuta nadhari na kuibua uangalifu zaidi kuhusu namna ambavyo dawa hizi zinavyotumika. Watu wenye umri ulio chini ya miaka 24 wanaougua kutokana na mfadhaiko wanatahadharishwa kuwa matumizi ya dawamfadhaiko huenda yakaongeza hatari ya fikira na tabia ya kujiua. Maafisa wa afya ya ushirikisho walifungua [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930023930/http://www.ecanadanow.com/science/health/2006/12/13/fda-antidepressants-increase-suicidal-risk-for -young-adults/proposed changes] kwenye maandiko juu ya madawa ya dawamfadhaiko mnamo Desemba 2006 ili kuwaonya watu kuhusu hatari hii. FDA inasema kuwa Paxil inafaa kuepukwa kwa watoto na vijana na kuwa katika matukio ya matibabu ambapo watoto wanaugua kutokana na mfadhaiko, dawamfadhaiko inayopaswa kutumika ni Prozac. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://antidepressantseffects.com/depression/|title=Depression Antidepressants in Teenagers and Children|date=|accessdate=2010-07-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520234355/http://antidepressantseffects.com/depression/|archivedate=2013-05-20}}</ref> Tarehe 6 Septemba 2007, na Vituo vya Kdhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa viliripoti kuwa kiwango cha kujiua kati ya vijana nchini Marekani, (hasa wasichana, wenye umri wa kati ya miaka 10-24), kiliongezeka kwa 8% (mwaka wa 2003 hadi 2004), ongezeko kubwa zaidi katika muda wa miaka 15, <ref name="NYTimes"> [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/07/health/07suicide.html Visa vya kujiua vinaongezeka kati ya Vijana; Mjadala kuhusu dawamfadhaiko unaendelea] , Carey Benedict, New York Times, 7 Septemba 2007</ref> hadi kesi 4599 za kuiua kwa Waamerika wenye umri wa miaka 10 hadi 24 mwaka wa 2004, kutoka 4,232 mwaka wa 2003, hivyo kuifanya kiwango cha kujiua kiwe 7.32 kwa kila watu 100,000 wenye umri huo. Awali kiwango hicho kilikuwa kimeshuka hadi 6.78 kwa kila watu 100,000 katika mwaka wa 2003 kutoka 9.48 kwa kila watu 100,000 katika mwaka wa 1990. Baadhi ya wataalamu wa magonjwa ya akili wametambua kuwa ongezeko hili linatokana na kushuka kwa idadi ya maagizo ya dawamfadhaiko kama vile Prozac kwa vijana tangu mwaka wa 2003, na visa vingi zaidi vya mfadhaiko vimebaki bila kutibiwa. Katika utafiti wa Desemba 2006, jarida la The American Journal of Psychiatry lilisema kuwa kupungua kwa maagizo ya dawamfadhaiko kwa watoto kwa pointi chache tu za asilimia kulilingana na ongezeko la asilimia 14 ya waliojiua nchini Marekani; nchini [[Uholanzi]], kiwango cha kujiua kilipanda kwa 50% baada ya kupunguzwa kwa maagizo ya dawamfadhaiko. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Simon GE, Savarino J, Operskalski B, Wang PS |title=Suicide risk during antidepressant treatment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2006-01_163_1/page/41 |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=163 |issue=1 |pages=41–7 |year=2006 |pmid=16390887 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.41}}</ref> Wahakiki kadhaa wa utafiti huu wanasema kuwa takwimu za kujiua za mwaka wa 2004 nchini Marekani zililinganishwa kwa njia sahili sana na mwaka uliopita, badala ya kuchunguza mabadiliko katika mwenendo kwa miaka kadhaa". <ref name="pmid18056248">{{cite journal |author=Jureidini J |title=The black box warning: decreased prescriptions and increased youth suicide? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2007-12_164_12/page/1907 |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=164 |issue=12 |page=1907 |year=2007 |pmid=18056248 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07091463}}</ref> Shida ya jitihada kama hizo za kuamua mwelekeo kwa kutumia pointi mbili tu za data (miaka ya 2003 na 2004) zimedhihirishwa zaidi kutokana na ukweli kwamba, kwa mujibu wa data mpya ya uambukizaji na udhibiti wa magonjwa, kiwango cha kujiua katika mwaka wa 2005 kwa watoto na vijana kilipungua licha ya kuzidi kupungua kwa maagizo ya SSRI. "Ni hatari kufanya uamuzi kutokana na uchambuzi mdogo na finyu ya visa vichache vya mwaka hadi mwaka vya kupanda na kushuka kwa maagizo ya dawamfadhaiko na kujiua. Njia moja nzuri inayohusu uambukizaji na udhibiti wa magonjwa ni kuchunguza uhusiano kati ya mienendo katika matumizi ya dawa za akili na kujiua kwa muda katika maeneo mengi madogo ya kijiografia. Hadi pale ambapo matokeo ya kina ya uchambuzi yatakapofahamika, ni jambo la busara kuhairisha maoni kuhusu athari za onyo la FDA kwa afya ya umma". <ref name="pmid18056247">{{cite journal |author=Olfson M, Shaffer D |title=SSRI Prescriptions and the Rate of Suicide |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_2007-12_164_12/page/1907 |journal=Am J Psychiatry |volume=164 |issue=12 |pages=1907–1908 |year=2007 |pmid=18056247 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07091467}}</ref> <ref name="titleN C H S - Health E Stats - Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2005">{{cite web |url=http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/prelimdeaths05/prelimdeaths05.htm |title=N C H S - Health E Stats - Deaths: Preliminary Data for 2005 |accessdate=2007-12-12 |author=Kung HC, Hoyert DL, Xu J, Murphy SL |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=National Center for Health Statistics |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=}}</ref> Chunguzi za kufuatilia zilizofanywa baadaye zimeunga mkono nadharia tete kuwa dawa za dawamfadhaiko hupunguza hatari ya kujiua. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Bridge JA, Iyengar S, Salary CB |title=Clinical response and risk for reported suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in pediatric antidepressant treatment: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2007-04-18_297_15/page/n68 |journal=JAMA |volume=297 |issue=15 |pages=1683–96 |year=2007 |pmid=17440145 |doi=10.1001/jama.297.15.1683}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |author=Beasley CM, Ball SG, Nilsson ME |title=Fluoxetine and Adult Suicidality Revisited: An Updated Meta-Analysis Using Expanded Data Sources From Placebo-Controlled Trials |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychopharmacology_2007-12_27_6/page/682 |journal=J Clin Psychopharmacol |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=682–686 |year=2007 |pmid=18004137 |doi=10.1097/jcp.0b013e31815abf21 }}</ref> Hata hivyo, uamuzi kuwa kushuka kwa kiwango cha kujiua katika jamii kunatokana na dawa kuagizwa kwa dawamfadhaiko ni antidepressant haiwezi kuaminika kutokana na wingi wa vigeugeu vinavyofadhaisha. === Ngono === Matatizo ya ngono ni athari ya kawaida sana, hasa kwa dawa za SSRI. Athari zinazohusiana na ngono ni pamoja na matatizo na hamu ya ngono, kutovutiwa na ngono, na anogasmia (shida kupata mshindo). <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/sexinfo/question/antidepressants-and-anorgasmia |title=UCSB's SexInfo |publisher=Soc.ucsb.edu |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06 |archivedate=2009-05-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520055421/http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/sexinfo/question/antidepressants-and-anorgasmia }}</ref> Ingawa zinaweza kupona, athari hizi za ngono zinaweza, katika visa vichache, kuendelea kwa miezi au miaka baada ya kuacha kabisa kutumia dawa. Hii inajulikana kama Utendakazi mbaya wa Kimapenzi baada ya matumizi ya SSRI. Utendakazi mbaya wa ngono uliosababishwa na SSRI huathiri 30% hadi 50% au zaidi ya watu wanaotumia dawa hizi kutibu mfadhaiko. Utaratibu wa kibiokemia unaosemekana kuwa wa kusababisha ni pamoja na kuongezeka kwa serotonini, hasa kunakoathiri vipokezi vya 5HT2 na 5HT3; kupungua kwa dopamini; kupungua kwa norepinefrini; uzuaji wa vipokezi vya kolinjeri na adrenaji alpha-1; kuzuiliwa kwa sinthetesi ya oksidi nitriki; na kupanda kwa viwango vya prolaktini. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Keltner NL, McAfee KM, Taylor CL |title=Mechanisms and treatments of SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_perspectives-in-psychiatric-care_july-september-2002_38_3/page/111 |journal=Perspectives in Psychiatric Care |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=111–6 |year=2002 |pmid=12385082 |doi=10.1111/j.1744-6163.2002.tb00665.x}}</ref> Bupropioni, kizuizi cha mara mbili (NE na DA) cha ufyonyaji upya, mara nyingi husababisha ongezeko la wastani la hamu ya kufanya mapenzi kutokana na kuongezeka kwa utendakazi wa dopamini. Athari hii pia hudhihirika kwa vizuizi vya ufyonyaji upya wa dopamini, vichangamsha CNS na agonisti za dopamini, na hutokana na kuongezeka kwa uzalishaji wa testosteroni (kutokana na kuzuiliwa kwa prolaktini) na usanisi wa oksidi nitriki. Mirtazapini (Remeron) imeripotiwa kuwa na athari chache zaidi, pengine kwa sababu inakinza vipokezi vya 5-HT2 na 5-HT3. Mitazapini, katika matukio fulani, inaweza kuondoa utendakazi mbaya wa ngono unaosababishwa na SSRI, ambayo pia kuna uwezekano kuwa unatokana na ukinzani wake na vipokezi vya 5-HT2 na 5-HT3<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ozmenler NK, Karlidere T, Bozkurt A |title=Mirtazapine augmentation in depressed patients with sexual dysfunction due to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_human-psychopharmacology_2008-06_23_4/page/321 |journal=Human Psychopharmacology |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=321–6 |year=2008 |month=Juni |pmid=18278806 |doi=10.1002/hup.929}}</ref> Apomofini, nefazodoni na baruti kali zimeonyeshwa kuwa na uwezo wa kuondoa baadhi ya utendakazi mbaya wa ngono kupitia kuongezeka kwa utendakazi wa nitriki oksidi. MAOI zinaripotiwa kuwa na athari hasi chache zaidi kwa utendakazi wa ngono na hamu ya kufanya mapenzi, hasa moklobemidi kwa kiwango cha 1.9% ya matukio yote. Bethanekoli imeripotiwa kubadili utendakazi mbaya wa ngono unaosababishwa na MAOI kupitia sifa zake za agonisti za kolineji. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Gross MD |title=Reversal by bethanechol of sexual dysfunction caused by anticholinergic antidepressants |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=139 |issue=9 |pages=1193–4 |year=1982 |month=Septemba |pmid=7114318 |doi= |url=http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7114318}}</ref> === Mapenzi === Wanasaikolojia wengi wanaamini kuwamba dawamfadhaiko zinaathiri uwezo wa kupenda au kupokea upendo. Watumiaji wengi wa dawamfadhaiko pia wameripoti kuwa uwezo wao wa kupenda ulipunguzwa na dawamfadhaiko. Madawa ya dawamfadhaiko pia yanaweza kuzuia hisia za kimsingi za binadamu za upendo na mahaba. "Kuna sababu zinazofaa za kufikiri kuwa SSRI hupunguza uwezo wako wa kupenda na kubaki katika upendo," alisema Helen Fisher, mwana anthropolojia kutoka chuo kikuu cha Rutgers aliyeanzisha sayansi ya kisasa ya upendo. Dawamfadhaiko za SSRI hufanya kazi kwa kuongeza viwango vya mzunguko wa serotonini, nyurotransmita inayodhibiti halihisi ya moyo na pia inadhibiti tamaa. Madawa hayo pia hupunguza dopamini, nyurotransmita inayohusika katika michakato mbalimbali ya utambuzi na tabia, ikiwa ni pamoja na hamu na mwamsho. Utafiti mpya unaonyesha kuwa dopamini huenda pia ikawa na jukumu katika mahaba. Wakati wa kufanya mapenzi, mchanganyiko wa homoni hutolewa na unaonekana kuwa na majukumu muhimu katika kukuza uambatishaji wa kimapenzi ndani ya ubongo. Ukiondoa ngono, mapenzi ya kimahaba yanaweza kufifia. Lakini hii ni sehemu tu ya tatizo, anasema Fisher na mtaalamu wa saikolojia wa Chuo Kikuu cha Virginia James Thomson. Wakati wapenzi wanapopendana kwa dhati, kuonana tu kunasababisha kupanda kwa shughuli za ubongo zinazohusiana na dopamini. Wakiweza kuendelea kupendana, na hisia za awali ziweze kukua hadi ziwe mapenzi ya muda mrefu, kwa mvuto wa awali kukua hadi mapenzi ya muda mrefu, ruwaza za ubongo hubaki hai. Kupungua kwa viwango vya dopamini, hata hivyo, ni athari isiyoweza kuepukika ya SSRI. Ukipunguza dopamini, wanasema Fisher na Thomson, uwezekano wa upendo wenyewe ni utapunguka. <ref> http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2009/02/antidepressants/</ref> Watu wapweke wanaotumia dawamfadhaiko huenda wakaona ugumu zaidi kukutana na watu, kwa kuwa mwitikio wao wa asili wa ngono umepunguka. Baadhi ya watafiti wanaamini kuwa hamu ilitengenezwa ili kuwasaidia watu kuchagua wenzi wanaowafaa kijenetiki. Cheche zinazowaka unapokutana na mtu kwa mara ya kwanza zinakuambia kitu: Huenda huyu ndiye mwenzi wako. Wakati ishara hizo hazijitokezi, uwezekano wako wa kupata mwenzi anayefaa hupungua. <ref> http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200704/sex-love-and-ssris</ref> Kuna tafiti kadhaa kuhusu athari za dawamfadhaiko kwa vipengele mbalimbali vya upendo zaidi ya ashiki na utendaji wa kingono. Lakini katika majaribio ya kuvutia, mwanasaikolojia mmoja wa Kanada, Maryanne Fisher (hana uhusiano na Helen), aliripoti ushahidi katika utafiti mdogo mwaka wa 2004 ya kile alichokiita "kukufisha ganzi uchumba" kwa wanawake wanaotumia dawamfadhaiko. Walipoulizwa wakague uvutivu wa nyuso za wanaume, wanawake wanaotumia madawa hayo walikagua wanaume hao vibaya zaidi, na walizipitia picha kwa haraka zaidi kuliko wanawake wasiotumia dawamfadhaiko. === Thaimoanesthesia === Wenye uhusiano wa karibu na madhara ya ngono ni dhana ya kukufisha hisia ganzi, au ganzi ya halihisi. Watumiaji wengi wa SSRI hulalamika kuhusu hali ya kutojali, ukosefu wa motisha, kuganda hisia, hisia ya kutengwa, na kutojihusisha na mazingira. Wanaweza kueleza jambo hili kama hisia ya "kutojali tena kuhusu kitu chochote." SSRI, SNRI, na TCA za kutoa serotonini zote zinaweza kusababisha tofauti hizi zinazobadilika, hasa vikiwa kwa viwango vya juu. <ref> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9184611</ref> === Kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi === Madawa yote makuu ya dawamfadhaiko, isipokuwa trimipramini, mirtazapini na nefazodoni huzuia kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi, na imependekezwa kuwa utendakazi wa kiafya wa madawa haya unatokana kwa kiasi kikubwa na athari zao za kuzuia kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi. Kategoria tatu kuu za madawa ya dawamfadhaiko, vizuizi vya oksidesi ya monoamini (MAOIs), dawa dhidi ya mfadhaiko aina ya trisaikliki (TCAs) na vizuizi vya uchukuzi wa serotonini vinavyochagua (SSRIs), huzuia pakubwa kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi. <ref>{{cite journal |first=Robert P. |last=Vertes |year=2000 |title=The case against memory consolidation in REM sleep |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-and-brain-sciences_2000-12_23_6/page/n82 |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=867–876 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X00004003 |pmid=11515146 |last2=Eastman |first2=KE}}</ref> Mirtazapini ama haina athari kwa kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi au huiongeza kwa kiwango kidogo. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pslgroup.com/dg/2030e2.htm |title=ISP: Mirtazapine Regulates Stress Hormones, Improves Sleep In Depressed Patients |accessdate=2010-10-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304235031/http://www.pslgroup.com/dg/2030e2.htm |archivedate=2012-03-04 }}</ref> Dawa za aina ya MAOI huzuia kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi karibu kabisa, huku dawa aina za TCA na SSRI zimetambuliwa kuwa zinazalisha mara moja (40-85%) na kwa kuendelezwa (30-50%) upungukaji wa kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi. Athari hii mara nyingi huongeza uchovu kwa wagonjwa wanaotumia vipimo vikubwa vya dawamfadhaiko kwa muda mrefu. Uchovu kama huo mara kwa mara unaweza kukatiza shughuli za mgonjwa za kila siku. Ukomeshaji wa ghafla wa MAOI unaweza kusababisha tukio la muda linalojulikana kama "kurudi tena kwa kipindi cha usingizi ambapo macho huzunguka kwa kasi" ambapo mgonjwa huota ndoto dhairi sana na jinamizi. === Kuongeza Uzito === Dawamfadhaiko nyingi huhusishwa na kuongeza uzito kwa kawaida katika kiwango cha {{Convert|5|–|25|kg|lb|abbr=on}} lakini mara chache kwenda juu hadi {{Convert|50|kg|lb|abbr=on}} . Chanzo maalum haijulikani, lakini dawamfadhaiko huhusishwa na kuongezeka kwa kutamani vitu, na kutokuwa na uwezo wa kuhisi kama umeshiba licha ya kuingiza kalori za kutosha, viwango vya chini vya nguvu na kuongezeka kwa usingizi wa mchana, ambao unaweza kusababisha kukula kupindukia na ukosefu wa hamu ya kufanya mazoezi, na kinywa kikavu, ambayo inaweza kusababisha unywaji wa vinywaji vyenye kalori nyingi. Sifa za kumaliza kemikali za mzio za dawamfadhaiko kadhaa za kategoria ya TCA na TeCA zimetambulika kuwa zinachangia na upande wa athari wa kuongezeka kwa hamu ya chakula na kuongeza uzito unaohusiana na kategoria hizi za madawa. Ulaji wa asusa za kabohaidreti zenye kiwango cha chini cha mafuta na protini na dhifa zenye kabohaidreti nyingi unaruhusu ubongo kuzalisha serotonini inayodhibiti hamu ya chakula na kusawazisha halihisi ya moyo. Kwa hivyo, kabohaidreti ikiliwa kama sehemu ya chakula bora, kwa mujibu wa athari zao kwa kiwango cha serotonini kwenye ubongo, zinaweza kusaidia kupoteza uzito katika muktadha wa kuongezeka uzito kutokana na dawamfadhaiko. <ref>{{cite book|last=Wurtman|first=JJ|coauthors=Marquis NF|title=The serotonin power diet : use your brain's natural chemistry to cut cravings, curb emotional overeating, and lose weight|url=https://archive.org/details/serotoninpowerdi0000wurt_o1j2|accessdate=2009-05-29|year=c2006|publisher=Rodale|location=Emmaus, Penn|isbn=978-1-59486-346-2|pages=290}}</ref> == Ubishani == Tafiti kadhaa zimeibua shaka kuhusu ufanisi wa dawamfadhaiko. Utafiti uliofanywa mwaka wa 2002 ulionyesha kuwa tofauti kati ya dawamfadhaiko na vipozaungo ni mdogo sana. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Kirsch|first=I|year=2002|month=Julai|title=The emperor's new drugs: An analysis of antidepressant medication data submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration|journal=Prevention & Treatment|volume=5|issue=1|publisher=American Psychological Association|doi=10.1037/1522-3736.5.1.523a|accessdate=2009-05-29|last2=Moore|first2=Thomas J.|last3=Scoboria|first3=Alan|last4=Nicholls|first4=Sarah S.}}</ref> Kupitia ombi la Sheria ya uhuru wa kupata habari, wanasaikolojia wawili walipata tafiti 47 zilizotumiwa na FDA kuidhinisha dawamfadhaiko sita zilizoagizwa sana kati ya mwaka wa 1987 na mwaka wa 1999. Kwa ujumla, vidonge vya dawamfadhaiko vilitenda kazi vizuri zaidi kwa 18% kuliko vipozaungo, kitakwimu inayoleta tofauti kuu, lakini isiyo na maana kwa watu walio katika mazingira ya kliniki ", anasema Irving Kirsch, mwanasaikolojia wa Chuo Kikuu cha Connecticut. Yeye pamoja na mwandishi mwenzake Thomas Moore walitoa matokeo yao kuhusu "Kinga na Tiba", jarida la elektroniki la Shirika la Kisaikolojia la Marekani. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/drugs/2002-07-08-antidepressants.htm |title= Study: Antidepressant barely better than placebo |publisher=Usatoday.com |date=2002-07-07&nbsp;-&nbsp;Updated&nbsp;11:47 PM&nbsp;ET |accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> Utafiti mwingine uliofanywa na wanasaikolojia wa Chuo Kikuu cha Pennsylvania, Chuo Kikuu cha Vanderbilt, Chuo Kikuu cha Colorado, na Chuo Kikuu cha New Mexico ulitambua kuwa ni vigumu kwa dawamfadhaiko kuwa na athari bora zaidi kuliko zile za vipozaungo katika visa vya mfadhaiko wa kiwango cha chini au wastani. Utafiti huo ulichapishwa katika jarida la Shirika la Marekani la Uuguzi. Utafiti huo ulilenga Paxili kutoka GlaxoSmithKline na imipramini. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/2010/01/05/antidepressant-paxil-placebo-business-healthcare-depression.html|title=Study Undermines Case for Antidepressants|date=|accessdate=2010-07-01|archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121208170044/http://www.forbes.com/2010/01/05/antidepressant-paxil-placebo-business-healthcare-depression.html|archivedate=2012-12-08}}</ref> Katika mwaka wa 2005, dawamfadhaiko ilikuwa ndio dawa iliyoagizwa zaidi nchini Marekani, na hivyo kusababisha mjadala zaidi kuhusu swala hilo. Baadhi ya madaktari wanaamini kuwa hii ni ishara nzuri kuwa watu hatimaye wanatafuta msaada kwa ajili ya matatizo yao. Wengine hawakubaliani, huku wakisema kuwa hii inaonyesha kwamba watu wanaendelea kutegemea dawamfadhaiko sana. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/07/09/antidepressants/index.html |title=CDC: Antidepressants most prescribed drugs in U.S. |date= 2007-07-09|accessdate=2008-11-06 | work=CNN}}</ref> == Dawa == Mara nyingi watengenezaji wa dawa za SSRI wameficha habari kutoka kwa FDA na umma ili wachukulie kwa urahisi hatari na athari mbaya zinazohusishwa na SSRI. Hii ilisababisha ubishi dhidi ya watengenezaji wengi wa madawa ya kupambana na mfadhaiko ya SSRI katika visa vinavyohusiana na kujiua, kuachishwa kwa SSRI na kasoro kuzaliwa kwa watoto wachanga kutoka kwa mama wanaonyonyesha wanaotumia SSRI. Kwa moja kati ya kesi tatu pekee zilizowahi kufikishwa mahakamani kuhusu uwezekano kuwa SSRI huchangia kujiua, Eli Lilly na wenzake walishikwa wakiingilia mchakato wa kimahakama kwa kusikilizana na wakili wa mdai kutupa kesi hiyo, kwa sehemu kwa kutotoa ushahidi utakaowaletea hasara mbele ya mahakama. Kesi hiyo, inayojulikana kama Kesi ya Fentress ilihusisha mwanaume mmoja kutoka Kentucky, Joseph Wesbecker, kuhusu Prozac, aliyeenda mahali pake pa kazi na kuanza mashambulio kwa bunduki na kuwaua watu 8 (ikiwa ni pamoja na Fentress), na kuwajeruhi wengine 12 kabla ya kujiua mwenyewe kwa bastola. Juri ilitoa uamuzi wa 9-kwa-3 uliompendelea Lilly. Hakimu, mwishowe aliihamisha kesi hiyo hadi Mahakama Makuu ya Kentucky, iliyoamua kuwa "kulikuwa na ukosefu mkubwa wa uwazi kwa upande wa mahakama na huenda kulikuwa na udanganyifu, mwenendo ulioongozwa na imani mbaya, matumizi mabaya ya mchakato wa kimahakama na, pengine hata udanganyifu. "Hakimu baadaye alibatilisha uamuzi huo na badala yake, akasema kesi hiyo imefungwa. Thamani ya makubaliano ya mpango huo wa siri haujawahi kufichuliwa, lakini iliripotiwa kuwa ni "kubwa". <ref>[http://www.judicialaccountability.org/articles/hideandseek.htm ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.judicialaccountability.org/articles/hideandseek.htm |date=20100610031049 }} kutoka kwa Richard Zitrin &amp; Carol M. Langford. "Hide and Secrets in Louisville" kutoka "The Moral Compass of the American Lawyer". Vitabu vya Ballantine, 1999</ref> Tarehe 22 Desemba 2006, mahakama moja ya Marekani iliamua kuhusu Hoorman, na wenzake. dhidi ya SmithKline Beecham Corp. kuwa watu walionunua Paxil(R) au Paxil CR(TM) (paroksetini) kwa mtoto mdogo huenda wakastahiki kupata ruzuku chini ya maafikiano yaliyopendekezwa ya $ 63,800,000. Daawa lilishinda madai kuwa kampuni ya kutengeneza dawa za GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) ilikampenia uagizaji wa Paxil(R) au Paxil CR(TM) kwa watoto na vijana huku ikikatalia na kuficha habari muhimu kuhusu usalama na ufanisi wa dawa hizo kwa watoto. <ref>[http://www.ahrp.org/risks/SSRI0204/GSKpaxil/pg1.html ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ahrp.org/risks/SSRI0204/GSKpaxil/pg1.html |date=20110614100740 }} Oktoba 1998 Kumbukumbu ya GSK: Mikakati ya ufichuzi</ref> Daawa hilo lilitokana na maandamano ya kutetea watumiaji dhidi ya GSK, watengenezaji wa Paroxetine. Tangu FDA iidhinishe paroxetine mwaka wa 1992, takriban raia 5,000 wa Marekani - na maelfu ya watu wengine duniani - wameishtaki GSK. Wengi wa watu hawa wanaona kuwa hawakuonywa inavyopaswa mapema kuhusu madhara ya dawa hii na sifa zake za utegemezi. Kulingana na [http://www.paxilprotest.com/ tovuti ya upingaji wa Paxil] {{Wayback|url=http://www.paxilprotest.com/ |date=20180307152504 }}, mamia ya daawa zaidi ziliwasilishwa dhidi ya GSK. Tovuti ya upingaji wa Paxil ilizinduliwa mnamo 8 Agosti 2005 ili kutoa taarifa kuhusu upingaji na habari juu ya Paxil ambayo awali haikupatikana kwa umma. Wiki tatu tu baada ya uzinduzi wake, tovuti hiyo ilitembelewa na zaidi ya watu robo milioni. Tovuti asili ya upingaji wa Paxil haipatikani tena. Inaeleweka kuwa hatua ya kuondoa tovuti hiyo kutoka kwenye mtandao ilichukuliwa kama sehemu ya makubaliano kuhusu usiri au 'amri ya kunyamazisha' ambayo mmiliki tovuti aliingilia kama sehemu ya maafikiano kwa hatua yake dhidi ya GlaxoSmithKline. (Hata hivyo, mnamo Machi 2007, tovuti ya Seroxat Secrets <ref>{{cite web|url=http://seroxatsecrets.wordpress.com/2007/03/03/the-paxil-protest-time-machine/ |title=The Paxil Protest time machine « seroxat secrets… |publisher=Seroxatsecrets.wordpress.com |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> iligundua kuwa nyaraka za tovuti ya upingaji wa Paxil<ref>{{cite web|url=http://paxilprotest.com/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060519170044/http://paxilprotest.com/|archivedate=2006-05-19|title=The Paxil Protest I Welcome<!-- Bot generated title -->|publisher=Web.archive.org|date=|accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> bado inapatikana kwenye mtandao kupitia Archive.org). Amri zakunyamazisha ni kawaida kwa kesi kama hizo na zinaweza kuhusisha hata hati ambazo washtakiwa wangependelea yaendeleaa kufichwa kwa umma. Hata hivyo, katika hali fulani, hati hizo zinaweza kutolewa kwa umma baadaye, kama zile zilizotolewa kwa umma na Peter Breggin mnamo Februari 2006. Toleo la habari kutoka kwa Dkt Breggin linaweza kuonekana hapa: <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.breggin.com/courtfiling.pbreggin.2006.html |title=Suppressed Paxil Suicide Data Released |publisher=Breggin.com |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021042112/http://www.breggin.com/courtfiling.pbreggin.2006.html |archivedate=2008-10-21 }}</ref> Mnamo Januari 2007, kulingana na tovuti ya Seroxat Secrets, <ref>{{cite web|url=http://seroxatsecrets.wordpress.com |title=seroxat secrets… |publisher=Seroxatsecrets.wordpress.com |date= |accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> daawa ya kikundi cha kitaifa dhidi ya GlaxoSmithKline plc [[Ufalme wa Muungano|nchini Uingereza]], kwa niaba ya watu mia kadhaa ambao wanadai wamepata athari za kuachishwa baada ya kutumia dawa ya Seroxat, walichukua hatua ya karibu zaidi hadi Mahakama Kuu ya [[London]], na thibitisho kuwa fedha za umma zilirejeshwa kufuatia uamuzi wa Jopo la Rufaa kuhusu Maslahi ya Umma. Swala kuu kuhusiana na kitendo hiki linadai kuwa Seroxat ni dawa yenye kasoro kwa kuwa ina mwelekeo wa kusababisha mjibizo wa kuachishwa. Mawakili wa Hugh James wanathibitisha habari hii katika tovuti yao <ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.hughjames.com/lifestyle/groupactions/seroxt.html |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2007-02-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222131722/http://www.hughjames.com/lifestyle/groupactions/seroxt.html |archivedate=2007-02-22 }}</ref> Tarehe 29 Januari 2007, shirika la BBC nchini Uingereza ilirushwa hewani filamu ya nne ionyeshayo hali halisi katika mfululizo wake unaoitwa 'Panorama' <ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/5346938.stm |title=BBC NEWS &#124; Programmes &#124; Panorama &#124; Seroxat update |publisher=News.bbc.co.uk |date=Last Updated: |accessdate=2008-11-06}}</ref> kuhusu dawa ya kulevya Seroxat ya. Kipindi hiki, kinachoitwa Siri za Majaribio ya Dawa, kinahusu majaribio matatu ya kiafya yaliyofanywa na GSK kwa watoto na vijana wenye mfadhaiko. == Marejeo == {{Reflist|2}} == Kusoma zaidi == * {{cite book |author=Healy, David |title=The antidepressant era |url=https://archive.org/details/antidepressanter00heal |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1997 |isbn=0-674-03958-0 }} * {{cite book |author=Kramer, Peter D. |title=Listening to Prozac |url=https://archive.org/details/listeningtoproz000kram |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=0-14-026671-2 }} * {{cite book |author=Baumel, Syd |title=Natural Antidepressants |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=0-87983-900-7 }} * {{cite book |author=Stahl, Stephen M. |title=Psychopharmacology of Antidepressants |publisher=Informa Healthcare |year=1997 |isbn=1-85317-513-7 }} * {{cite journal |author=Pacher P, Kecskemeti V |title=Trends in the development of new antidepressants. Is there a light at the end of the tunnel? |journal=Curr. Med. Chem. |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=925–43 |year=2004 |month=Aprili |pmid=15078174 |pmc=2495050 |doi=10.2174/0929867043455594 }} * {{cite journal |author=Pacher P, Kohegyi E, Kecskemeti V, Furst S |title=Current trends in the development of new antidepressants |journal=Curr. Med. Chem. |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=89–100 |year=2001 |month=Februari |pmid=11172668 }} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Antidepressants}} {{Wiktionary|antidepressant}} * [http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/aug2003/nimh-07.htm Uumbaji wa Niuroni Mpya zilizo muhimu kwa Utendakazi wa Dawamfadhaiko kwenye Panya] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/aug2003/nimh-07.htm |date=20121010122000 }} * [http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_final.pdf Jopo la Wataalamu la NIH kuhusu elimu juu ya asili na athari za sumu katika Prozac (Fluoxetine) kwa uzazi na kukua] {{Wayback|url=http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_final.pdf |date=20090923193919 }} * [http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_monograph.pdf Monografu ya NIH juu ya athari za Prozac (Fluoxetine) zinazoweza kujitokeza kwa uzazi na ukuaji wa binadamu] {{Wayback|url=http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_monograph.pdf |date=20100527103308 }} * [http://www.psych.org/psych_pract/treatg/pg/MDD.watch.pdf Mwongozo wa Matibabu wa mwaka wa 1995 wa Ushirika wa Marekani wa Magonjwa ya Akili kwa ajili ya matibabu ya wagonjwa wenye ugonjwa wa Mfadhaiko mkuu] * [http://childadvocate.net/childpresentations/child_medication.htm Watoto na Madawa - wasilisho linalotumia mbinu nyingi] {{Wayback|url=http://childadvocate.net/childpresentations/child_medication.htm |date=20140810061955 }} * [http://www.bap.org.uk/consensus/antidepressant.pdf Shirika la Uingereza la Taaluma ya athari za dawa za magonjwa ya akili 2000 Miongozo inayozingatia ushahidi kwa kutibu magonjwa ya mfadhaiko kwa kutumia dawamfadhaiko] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bap.org.uk/consensus/antidepressant.pdf |date=20061012221324 }} * [http://biopsychiatry.com/index.html Mwongozo wa Madawa Mazuri: dawa mpya za kuboresha halihisi ya moyo na dawamfadhaiko] * [http://www.yoism.org/?q=node/234 Video ya Loren Mosher, MD] (Mkuu wa kwanza wa tafiti kuhusu Skizofrenia NIMH na mhariri mwanzilishi wa ''Bulletin dhiki)'' * [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/330/7488/420 Joanna Moncrieff: Msingi wa ushahidi kuhusu dawamfadhaiko za awali ni dhaifu pia.] BMJ 2005;330:420 (19 Februari) * [http://www.healyprozac.com/Book/Introduction.pdf Utangulizi kwa ''Let Them Eat Prozac'' na David Healy] {{Wayback|url=http://www.healyprozac.com/Book/Introduction.pdf |date=20101226101007 }} * [http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/mentalhealthinformation/mentalhealthproblems/depression/antidepressants.aspx Ukurasa wenye habari kutoka Chuo cha Royal College of Psychiatrists] * Barry Yeoman, [http://www.barryyeoman.com/articles/courtroom.html Putting Science in the Dock, ] , The Nation * [http://ahp.yorku.ca/?p=60 Bibliografia kuhusu dawamfadhaiko katika historia ya saikolojia] * [http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/cb/Volume/2009/7/recognising_antidepressants.asp Ufahamu ya haraka] unaoonyesha jinsi mabadiliko madogo katika dawamfadhaiko yanaweza kubadilisha kwa kasi lengo lake katika ubongo. Kutoka kwa Royal Society of Chemistry * [http://www.ssristories.com/ Mkusanyiko wa habari 3100 na zaidi pamoja na makala kamili yanayopatikana, hasa kuhusu uhalifu, ambapo dawamfadhaiko zinatajwa.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ssristories.com/ |date=20131212204756 }} * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8304782.stm Dawamfadhaiko hufanya kazi mara moja - Habari za BBC News] [[Jamii:madawa]] 1mztyjp7caqrozpvpp6dahyd74ffbfn 0 55550 1580085 1578211 2026-07-17T23:57:01Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580085 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Medroxyprogesterone_acetate.svg|thumb|Depo-Provera]] [[Picha:Medroxyprogesterone_acetate_molecule_ball.png|thumb|Depo-Provera]] {{Infobox Birth control |name = Depo-Provera |image = |width = |caption = |bc_type = Hormonal |date_first_use = 1967 |rate_type = Failure |perfect_failure% = 0.3 |typical_failure% = 3 |duration_effect = 3 months<br>(12–14 weeks) |reversibility = 3–18 months |user_reminders = Maximum interval is just under 3 months |clinic_interval = 12 weeks |STD_protection_YesNo = no |periods_advantage = Usually no periods from 2nd injection |benefits = Especially good if poor pill compliance.<br>Reduced endometrial cancer risk. |periods_disadvantage = Especially in 1st injection may be frequent spotting |weight_gain_loss = +5-10 lbs average |risks = Reduced bone density, which may reverse after discontinuation |medical_notes = For those intending to start family, suggest switch 6 months prior to alternative method (eg [[Progestogen only pill|POP]]) allowing more reliable return fertility. }} '''Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA)''' ni njia ya [[homoni]] ya kuzuia [[mimba]] iliyo na [[projesteroni]] pekee inayodumu kwa muda mrefu na huweza kuondolewa mwilini, ambayo hudungwa kila baada ya miezi 3. Ni mchanganyiko mzito wa sindano ya depoti ya pregnane 17α-hydroxyprogesteroni- iliyotolewa kwa progestini ya ''medroksiprogesteroni acetate.'' ==Bidhaa za biashara== ''Depo-subQ Provera 104,'' ambayo pia hutengenezwa na PFIZER, ni jina la kibiashara la mg 104 ya mchanganyiko mzito wa medroxyprogesterone acetate. Inajumuisha asilimia 69 ya homoni inayopatikana katika sindano ya Depo Provera asili. Inatumiwa kwa kudunga sindano chini ya ngozi, ambayo huweza kusababisha maumivu kidogo. Dawa hiyo lazima idungwe ndani ya paja au kwenye tumbo mara nne kwa mwaka na hutoa kinga ya haraka dhidi ya kupata mimba kuanzia wakati inapodungwa mara ya kwanza. Iliidhinishwa nchini Marekani na FDA kwa ajili ya matumizi ya kuzuia mimba mnamo 17 Desemba mwaka wa 2004, na kwa ajili ya kudhibiti maumivu yanayohusiana na endometriosisi4} tarehe 25 Machi mwaka wa 2005. ==Utaratibu wa utendakazi== Utaratibu wa utekelezaji wa dawa za kupanga uzazi zilizo na progosteroni pekee hutegemea shughuli za progestogeni na kipimo. Dozi ya juu ya dawa kukinga mimba mimba zilizo na progesteroni pekee kama vile sindano ya DMPA, huzuia kukua kwa unyweleo na kuzuia kukua kwa yai /1} kama mfumo wao msingi wa utendajikazi.<ref name="glasier">{{cite book |last=Glasier |first=Anna |editor=DeGroot, Leslie J.; Jameson, J. Larry (eds.) |title=Endocrinology |edition=5th |year=2006 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-7216-0376-9 |pages=2993–3003 |chapter=Contraception}}</ref><ref name="loose">{{cite book |author=Loose, Davis S.; Stancel, George M. |editor=Brunton, Laurence L.; Lazo, John S.; Parker, Keith L. (eds.) |year=2006 |chapter=Estrogens and Progestins |title=Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics |url=https://archive.org/details/goodmangilmansph2006good |edition=11th |pages=[https://archive.org/details/goodmangilmansph2006good/page/1541 1541]–1571 |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=0-07-142280-3}}</ref> Progestogeni hupunguza kupigapiga moyo mara kwa mara ya homoni inayotoa gonadotropini -(GnRH) inayotolewa na hipothalamasi, ambayo hupunguza kutolewa kwa [[homoni ya kusisimua kinyweleo (FSH) na [[homoni ya kulutenaizi]]]] (LH)inayotolewa na pituitari ya nje. Viwango vilivyoshuka vya FSH huzuia maendeleo ya kinyweleo, kuzuia kuongezeka kwa viwango vya estradioli. Majibu hasi ya progesteroni na ukosefu wa matokeo chanya ya estrogeni juu ya kutolewa kwa LH huzuia kuongezeka kwa LH. Udhibiti dhidi ya ukuaji wa kinyweleo na ukosefu wa kuongezeka kwa LH huzuia utoaji na ukuaji wa mbegu ya mwanamke.<ref name="hatcher">{{cite book |author=Hatcher, Robert A. |year=2004 |chapter=Depo-Provera Injections, Implants, and Progestin-Only Pills (Minipills) |editor=Hatcher, Robert A.; Trussell, James; Stewart, Felicia H.; Nelson, Anita L.; Cates Jr., Willard; Guest, Felicia; Kowal, Deborah |title=Contraceptive Technology |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9790966490229 |edition=18th rev. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9790966490229/page/460 461]–494 |location=New York |publisher=Ardent Media |isbn=0-9664902-5-8}}</ref><ref name="speroff">{{cite book |author=Speroff, Leon; Darney, Philip D. |year=2005 |chapter=Injectable Contraception |title=A Clinical Guide for Contraception |url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalguidefor0000sper |edition=4th |pages=201–220 |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=0-7817-6488-2}}</ref> Kitendo cha sekondari cha utendakazi wa dawa za kukinga mimba zilizo na progestogeni ni kuzuia manii kupita kutokana na mabadiliko kwenye makamasi ya seviksi. Uzuiaji wa utendakazi wa yai la kike wakati wa matumizi ya DMPA husababisha endometriamu kuwa nyembamba na atropiki. Mabadiliko haya katika endometriamu yanaweza kinadharia, kuzuia uwezo wa kupata mimba. Hata hivyo, kwa vile DMPA ina ufanisi mkubwa katika kuzuia utoaji wa yai la kike na kupenya kwa manii, uwezekano wa kupata mimba ni mdogo zaidi. Hakuna data inayopatikana inayochangia kutopata kwa mimba kama mfumo wa utekelezaji wa DMPA. ==Ufanisi== Matokeo ya mwaka wa kwanza ya viwango vya kutofaulu kwa matumizi ya Depo- Provera kwa wanawake 8,183 katika majaribio saba mtawalia ya kliniki saba yalikuwa: 0%, 0%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.2%, 0.3%, na 0.7%, na kiwango cha wastani cha 0.3%.<ref name="trussell 2004a">{{cite book |author=Trussell, James |year=2004 |chapter=Contraceptive Efficacy |editor=Hatcher, Robert A.; Trussell, James; Stewart, Felicia H.; Nelson, Anita L.; Cates Jr., Willard; Guest, Felicia; Kowal, Deborah |title=Contraceptive Technology |url=https://archive.org/details/contraceptivetec0018unse |edition=18th rev. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/contraceptivetec0018unse/page/773 773]–845 |location=New York |publisher=Ardent Media |isbn=0-9664902-5-8}}</ref> Matokeo ya viwango vya kutofaulu kwa mwaka wa kwanza ya kipimo cha Pearl ya wanawake 2,042 waliotumia depo- subQ 104 katika majaribioa matatu ya kiliniki yalikuwa ni: 0%,0%, na 0%, na kipimo cha wastani cha 0%. Kiwango cha kutofaulu cha mwaka wa kwanza kwa wanawake 209 waliotumia Depo-Provera katika uchunguzi mmoja uliofuata kilikuwa ni: 2.6%.<ref name="fu 1999">{{cite journal |author=Fu H, Darroch JE, Haas T, Ranjit N |year=1999 |title=Contraceptive failure rates: new estimates from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth |journal=Fam Plann Perspect |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=56–63 |pmid=10224543 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3105699.pdf |format=PDF|doi=10.2307/2991640 |jstor=2991640}}</ref><ref name="trussell 1999">{{cite journal |author=Trussell J, Vaughan B |year=1999 |title=Contraceptive failure, method-related discontinuation and resumption of use: results from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth |journal=Fam Plann Perspect |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=64–72,93 |pmid=10224544 |url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/3106499.pdf |format=PDF|doi=10.2307/2991641 |jstor=2991641}}</ref> * Uchunguzi wa kitaifa wa ukuaji wa familia wa (NSFG) wa mwaka wa 1995 - utafiti uliofuta ulijikita katika uwezo wa mwanamke kukumbuka katika mahojiano ya 90, kuhusu matumizi yake ya dawa za kukinga mimba mwezi baada ya mwezi katika kipindi cha miaka 4 hadi 5 iliyotangulia. ===Matumizi sahihi=== Kiwango cha matokeo cha matumizi sahihi cha Trussell cha kutofaulu kwa mwaka wa kwanza kwa Depo-Provera ni kipimo cha wastani cha kutofaulu katika majaribio saba ya kliniki: 0.3%.<ref name="trussell 2004a"></ref><ref name="trussell 2004b">{{cite journal |author=Trussell J |year=2004 |title=Contraceptive failure in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_2004-08_70_2/page/89 |journal=Contraception |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=89–96 |pmid=15288211 |doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2004.03.009}}</ref> * imezingatiwa kama matumizi sahihi kwa sababu majaribio hayo yalipima usahihi wakati wa matumizi halisi ya Depo-Provera ** kufafanuliwa kama isiyo zaidi ya wiki 14 ama 15 baada ya sindano kudungwa (yaani, isipungue zaidi ya wiki 1 au 2 kabla haujadungwa sindano inayofuata) ===Matumizi ya kawaida=== Kabla ya mwaka wa 2004, kiwango cha Trusell cha kutofaulu cha matumizi ya kawaida cha Depo- Provera kilikuwa sawa na kile chake cha kutofaulu cha matumizi sahihi 0.3%.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Trussell J, Hatcher RA, Cates W Jr, Stewart FH, Kost K |year=1990 |title=A guide to interpreting contraceptive efficacy studies |journal=Obstet Gynecol |volume=76 |issue=3 Pt 2 |pages=558–67 |pmid=2199875}}</ref> * makadirio ya matumizi ya kawaida ya Depo- Provera kutofaulu mwaka wa kwanza ni 0.3% katika: ** '''' Teknolojia ya dawa kukinga mimba (Contraceptive Technology, 1994),toleo jipya la 16 (1994) ** '''' Teknolojia ya dawa za kukinga mimba (Contracepive Technology 1998)toleeo jipya la 17 (1998) *** yaliyozingatiwa na FDA mwaka wa 1998 kwa mathumuni ya usawazishaji wa sasa wa mwongozo wa kutaja dawa za kukinga mimba. Katika mwaka wa 2004, akitumia kiwango cha kutofaulu cha mwaka wa 1995 cha NSFG, Trussell aliongeza (kwa mara 10) kiwango chake cha kutofaulu cha matumizi ya kawaida ya Depo- Provera kutoka 0.3% hadi 3%.<ref name="trussell 2004a"></ref><ref name="trussell 2004b"></ref> * makadirio ya matumizi ya kawaida ya Depo-Provera kutofaulu mwaka wa kwanza ni 3% katika: ** ''Teknolojia ya dawa za kukinga mimba (Cotraceptive Technology),toleo jipya la 18 (2004)<ref name="trussell 2004a"></ref>'' ** ''Teknolojia ya dawa za kukinga mimba (Contraceptive Technology),toleo jipya la 19 (2007)<ref name="trussell 2007">{{cite book |author=Trussell, James |year=2007 |chapter=Contraceptive Efficacy |editor=Hatcher, Robert A.; Trussell, James; Nelson, Anita L.; Cates Jr., Willard; Stewart, Felicia H.; Kowal, Deborah |title=Contraceptive Technology |edition=19th rev. |location=New York |publisher=Ardent Media |url=http://www.contraceptivetechnology.com/table.html |accessdate=2007-06-21 |archive-date=2008-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531095926/http://www.contraceptivetechnology.com/table.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref>'' Trussell hakutumia viwango vya kutofaulu vya NSFG vya mwaka wa 1995 kwa dawa zingine mbili mpya zilizopatikana za muda mrefu za kukinga mimba zilizokuwa zimevumbiliwa, kibandiko cha Norplant (2.3%) na shaba ya T ya ParaGard 380A IUD (3.7%), ambazo zilikuwa (kama Depo -Provera) zenye amri ya kiwango cha juu kuliko katika majaribio ya kliniki. kwa vile Norplant na ParaGard haikubali wigo kwa makosa ya mtumizi, viwango vyao vya juu zaidi vya kutofaulu vya mwaka wa 1995 vya NSFG vilichangiwa na Trussell kwa kutoa habari zaidi wakati wa kupata mimba hivyo kuelekea kuzaa.<ref name="trussell 2004a"></ref><ref name="trussell 1999"></ref><ref name="trussell 2004b"></ref> ==Faida== Depo-Provera ina faida kadhaa:<ref name="hatcher"></ref><ref name="speroff"></ref><ref name="westhoff">{{cite journal |author=Westhoff C |year=2003 |title=Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate injection (Depo-Provera): a highly effective contraceptive option with proven long-term safety |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_2003-08_68_2/page/n10 |journal=Contraception |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=75–87 |pmid=12954518 |doi=10.1016/S0010-7824(03)00136-7}}</ref><ref name="mishell">{{cite book |author= Mishell Jr., Daniel R. |year=2004 |editor= Strauss, Jerome F. III; Barbieri, Robert L. (eds.) |title=Yen and Jaffe's Reproductive Endocrinology |url= https://archive.org/details/yenjaffesreprodu0000unse |edition=5th |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-7216-9546-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/yenjaffesreprodu0000unse/page/899 899]–938 |chapter=Contraception}}</ref> * Ina ufanisi mkubwa katika kuzuia mimba. * Hudungwa kila baada ya wiki 12. kitendo cha pekee ni kuendeleza kupanga kufuatilia sindano zingine kila baada ya wiki kumi na mbili, na kuchunguza madhara yake kuhakikisha kwamba hauhitaji ushauri wa daktari. * Hakuna estrogeni Hakuna kuongezeka kwa hatari ya ugonjwa wa thrombosisi ya veni za ndani (DVT), na embolizimu ya mapafu (PE), ugonjw wa pigo ya mwoyo au maambukizi ya miyokadiali. * Mwingiliano mdogo na madawa (ikilinganishwa na dawa nyingine za kikinga mimba zenye homoni). * Inapunguza hatari ya saratani ya endometriali. Depo-Provera hupunguza hatari ya kansa ya endometriali kwa 80%.<ref name="Kaunitz">{{cite journal |author=Kaunitz AM |title=Current options for injectable contraception in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_seminars-in-reproductive-medicine_2001-12_19_4/page/331 |journal=Semin Reprod Med |year=2001 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=331–7 |pmid=11727175 |doi=10.1055/s-2001-18641}}</ref><ref name="BrJFP_Bigrigg1999">{{cite journal |author=Bigrigg A, Evans M, Gbolade B, Newton J, Pollard L, Szarewski A, Thomas C, Walling M |title=Depo Provera. Position paper on clinical use, effectiveness and side effects | journal = Br J Fam Plann | volume = 25 | issue = 2 |pages=69–76 |year=1999 | pmid = 10454658}}</ref><ref name="WHO DMPA EC">{{cite journal |author=WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives |title=Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) and risk of endometrial cancer |journal=Int J Cancer |year=1991 |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=186–90 |pmid=1831802}}</ref> kupunguzwa kwa hatari ya kansa ya endometriali katika watumiaji wa Depo-Provera imedhaniwa kuwa ni kutokana na sababu mbili ambazo ni athari ya uhusiano wa moja kwa moja usiokuwa mzuri wa progestogeni kwa endometriumu na uhusiano usio wa moja kwa moja wa kupunguza viwango vya estrogeni kwa kupunguza ukuaji wa kinyweleo katika ovari.<ref name="Santen">{{cite book |author= Santen, Richard J. |editor=Strauss, Jerome F. III; Barbieri, Robert L. (eds.) |title=Yen and Jaffe's Reproductive Endocrinology |url= https://archive.org/details/yenjaffesreprodu0000unse |edition=5th |year=2004 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |location=Philadelphia |isbn=0-7216-9546-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/yenjaffesreprodu0000unse/page/787 787]–809 |chapter=Endocrinology of Breast and Endometrial Cancer}}</ref> * Hupunguza hatari ya ugonjwa wa pungufu wa damu mwilini unaosababishwa na ukosefu wa madini ya chuma,ugonjwa wa kuwasha kwa mfupa wa nyonga (PID), mimba wa kubandikwa kwa kuta za uterasi , na uvimbe wa uterasi. * Hupunguza dalili za ugonjwa wa endometriosisi. * Hupunguza matukio ya kutukwa na damu mingi maumivu wakati wa kutoa yai, na vifuko vyenye maji vinavyofanya kazi katika ovari. * Hupunguza matukio ya mishtuko ya moyo katika wanawake walio na ugonjwa wa kifaduro. Zaidi ya hayo, tofauti na dawa nyingine za kukinga mimba zilizo na homoni, ufanisi wa utendakazi wa Depo-Provera hauathiriki na madawa ya yasiyo ya kifaduro yanayoshurutisha matukio cha kienizime. * Hupunguza matukio ya mabaya ya kiini mundu katika 0} wanawake wenye chembechembe za ugonjwa wa kiini mundu.<ref name="westhoff"></ref> Idara ya Afya Uingereza imechangia kikamilifu kukuzwa kwa matumizi ya dawa za kukinga mimba zenye kugeuzwa za kudumu kwa muda mrefu tangu mwaka wa 2008,hasa kwa vijana, kutokana na mwongoza bora wa Oktoba mwaka wa taasisi ya National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence guidelines.<ref>{{cite web |title=CG30 Long-acting reversible contraception: quick reference guide |url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg030quickrefguide.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence |accessdate=2009-06-19 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920091647/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg030quickrefguide.pdf |archivedate=2009-09-20 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920091647/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg030quickrefguide.pdf }}</ref> Kutoa ushauri juu ya njia hizi za kuzuia mimba imewekwa kuwa katika {0 mfumo wa ubora na matokeo mwaka wa 2009 "matendo mema" kwa ajili ya afya ya kimsingi.{1/} ==Ujauzito na kunyonyesha== Depo Provera-inaweza kutumiwa na mama wanaonyonyesha. Kutokwa na damu nyingi inawezekana kama amepewa kipindi kinachofuata tu baada ya kuzaa na ni bora kuchelewa hadi wiki ya sita baada ya kuzaa. Inaweza kutumika katika siku tano kama hakuna kunyonyesha. utafiti ulionyesha "hakuna tofauti kubwa katika uzito wa kuzaliwa au matukio ya kasoro za kuzaliwa" na "hakuna ubadilishaji muhimu wa kinga mwili kwa magonjwa ya kuambukiza yanayosabibishwa na maziwa ya matiti yaliyo na DMPA", kikundi kidogo cha watoto ambao mama wao walianza kutumia Depo-Provera siku mbili baada ya kuzaa walikuwa na kiwango cha 75% juu cha kwenda kwa daktari kwa ajili ya magonjwa ya kuambukiza wakati wa mwaka wa kwanza wa maisha yao.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dahlberg K |title=Some effects of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA): observations in the nursing infant and in the long-term user |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-gynecology-obstetrics_1982-02_20_1/page/43 | journal = Int J Gynaecol Obstet | volume = 20 | issue = 1 |pages=43–8 |year=1982 | pmid = 6126406 | doi = 10.1016/0020-7292(82)90044-3}}</ref> Utafiti mkubwa wa muda mrefu na kufuatilia ulihitimisha kuwa "matumizi ya DMPA wakati wa ujauzito au kunyonyesha hayana athari kubwa kwa ukuaji wa muda mrefu na maendeleo ya watoto." Utafiti huu pia ulibainisha kuwa "watoto wenye mfiduo wa DMPA wakati wa ujauzito na kunyonyeshwa walikuwa na hatari ya uwezekano wa kupata urefu mdogo usio wa kawaida," lakini hiyo "baada ya marekebisho kwa sababu za kijamii na kiuchumi zinazosababishwa na kupunguka kwa mitindo mbalimbali, hakukuwa na kuongeza kwa hatari ya ukuaji wa utendaji miongoni mwa watoto ambao wamepapishwa kwa DMPA-. " Utafiti huo pia ulibainisha kuwa madhara ya mfiduo kwa DMPA wakati wa kubalehe yanahitaji utafiti zaidi, kwa hivyo watoto wachache wa umri wa miaka zaidi ya 10 walichunguzwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pardthaisong T, Yenchit C, Gray R |title=The long-term growth and development of children exposed to Depo-Provera during pregnancy or lactation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_1992-04_45_4/page/313 | journal = Contraception | volume = 45 | issue = 4 |pages=313–24 |year=1992 | pmid = 1387602 | doi = 10.1016/0010-7824(92)90053-V}}</ref> == Sababu za kutotumia == [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] (WHO) ''Vigezo vya matumizi ya dawa za kukinga mimba'' na RCOG Kitivo cha kupanga Uzazi na Afya ya Uzazi (FFPRHC) '' Uingereza udaktari kriteria na vigezo vya matumizi ya dawa za kukinga mimba inaorodhesha zifauatazo kama hali pale ambapo matumizi ya Depo-Provera hayapendekezwi au hayapaswi kutumiwa kwa sababu ya hatari za kiafya zisizokublika au kwa sababu hatari haijaonyeshwa.<ref name="who mec">{{cite book |author=[[World Health Organization|WHO]] |year=2004 |chapter=Progestogen-only contraceptives |title=Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use |edition=3rd |location=Geneva |publisher=Reproductive Health and Research, WHO |isbn=92-4-156266-8 |chapterurl=http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/publications/mec/pocs.html}}</ref><ref name="ffprhc mec">{{cite web |author=[[Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists|FFPRHC]] |year=2006 |title=The UK Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use (2005/2006) |url=http://www.ffprhc.org.uk/admin/uploads/UKMEC200506.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-01-11 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325034855/http://www.ffprhc.org.uk/admin/uploads/UKMEC200506.pdf |archivedate=2009-03-25 }}</ref> Hali ambazo hatari za kinadharia au zilizoshuhudiwa kwa kawaida huwa na manufaa zaidi kuliko matumizi ya Depo-Provera: * Hatari nyingi za ugonjwa wa mishipa ya ateri za moyo. * Hali ya sasa ya thrombosisi ya vena za ndani(DVT) au embolosi ya mapafu (PE) * Kuumwa kwa kichwa kwa uchungu sana na [[aura]] wakati wa matumizi ya Depo-Provera * Kabla ya tathmini isiyoeleweka ya uke kuvuja damu ambayo hushukiwa kuwa hali yenye hatari. * Historia ya Zamani ya kansa ya matiti na hakuna ushahidi wa sasa wa ugonjwa kwa muda wa miaka * Ugonjwa wa ini (hepatitisi ya virusi, sirosisisi kali ya kuoza, [[benigni]] au {4uvimbe wa ini wa kudhuru. * Hali ya wasiwasi ya athari za estrogeni ya kiwango cha juu na kupunguzwa kwa viwango vya HDL kinadharia kuongeza hatari ya majonjwa ya mishipa ya moyo: ** Presha na ugonjwa wa vaskula ** historia ya sasa na ya zamani ya }ugonjwa wa moyo iwa iskemiki ** Historia ya [[Kiharusi|ugonjwa wa pigo]] ** Ugonjwa wa kisukari kwa miaka 20 au mwenye neforopathi / retinopathi / neuropathi au ugonjwa wa mishipa} Hali ambazo zinawasilisha madhara ya kiafya yasiyokubalika kama depo provera ina tumika: * Hali ya sasa au ya hivi karibuni ya saratani ya matiti (uvimbe nyeti unaosisimuliwa na homoni) Hali ambazo matumizi ya Depo-Provera hayajaonyeshwa na ni lazima yasianzishwe: * Ujauzito == Hasara na madhara == ===Maonyo na tahadhari=== * Inachukua wiki mbili kuleta athari kama itachukuliwa baada ya siku za kwanza tano za mzunguko wa kipindi. Ufanisi mara moja kama inachukuliwa wakati wa siku tano za kwanza za mzunguko wa kipindi. * Haitoi kinga dhidi ya magonjwa ya [[Maradhi ya zinaa]] (STD). * Depo-Provera unaweza kuathiri uhedhi wa damu. Baada ya mwaka wa matumizi, 55% ya wanawake hupata amenorrhoea, baada ya miaka 2, kiwango huongezeka kwa 68%. Katika miezi ya kwanza ya matumizi "kutoka damu au madoadoa ya ya damu ambayo si ya kawaida na yasiyotabirika, au mara chache, au kutokwa na damu nyingi huendelea" iliripotiwa.<ref name="depo us patient info">{{cite web |author=[[Pfizer]] |month=Oktoba |year=2004 |title=Depo-Provera Contraceptive Injection, US patient labeling |url=http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/ppi_depo_provera_contraceptive.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-02-21 |archivedate=2007-02-06 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206044043/http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/ppi_depo_provera_contraceptive.pdf |=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206044043/http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/ppi_depo_provera_contraceptive.pdf }}</ref> * Kuchelewa kurudi kwa uzazi. kiwango wastani cha kurudi kwa uzazi ni miezi 9-10 baada ya kudungwa sindano mara ya mwisho. Kwa muda wa miezi 18 baada ya kudungwa sindano ya mwisho, uzazi ni sawa na ile ya watumiaji wa zamani wa njia nyingine za kukinga mimba.<ref name="hatcher"></ref><ref name="speroff"></ref> * Masomo ya muda mrefu ya watumiaji wa Depo-Provera yamegundua athari ndogo au hakuna hakuna kuongeza hatari ya saratani ya matiti kwa ujumla. Hata hivyo, idadi ya watu walioshiriki katika utafiti ilionyesha kuongezeka kwa hatari ya saratani ya matiti kidogo kwa watumiaji wa hivi karibuni (matumizi ya Depo katika miaka minne iliyopita) chini ya miaka 35, sawa na ile iliyoonekana kwa matumizi ya pamoja ya kunywa vidonge kama njia ya kukinga mimba.<ref name="depo us patient info"></ref> * Utafiti wa mimba isiyotarajiwa miongoni mwa wanawake ,askini wa Thailand ulipata kwamba watoto ambao walikuwa namfiduo ya Depo-Provera wakati wa ujauzito walikuwa na hatari kubwa ya uzito wa chini wa kuzaliwa na 80% nafasi ya zaidi-kuliko-kawaida kufa katika mwaka wa kwanza wa maisha.<ref>{{cite journal |author=|title=Exposure to DMPA in pregnancy may cause low birth weight | journal = Prog Hum Reprod Res | volume = | issue =23 |pages=2–3 | year=1992 | pmid = 12286194}}</ref> ==== Onyo muhimu ==== Ingawa kwa muda mrefu imekujulikana kuwa Depo-Provera husababisha upoteaji mifupa, hivi karibuni imegunduliwa kwamba athari za osteoporotiki ya sindano hukua zaidi kwa muda mrefu wakati Depo Provera inatumiwa kwa muda mrefu, inaweza kukaa kwa muda mrefu baada ya sindano kusimamishwa, au inaweza pia kutorudi katika hali ya awali. Kwa sababu hizi, tarehe 17 Novemba 2004 shirika la utawala la Marekani la Chakula na Dawa na PFIZER walikubaliana kuweka onyo muhimu juu ya label ya Provera.<ref name="FDA2004-Warning">{{cite web | author=FDA | authorlink = Food and Drug Administration |year=2004 | month =17 Novemba | url =http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2004/ANS01325.html | title =Black Box Warning Added Concerning Long-Term Use of Depo-Provera Contraceptive Injection | accessdate =2006-05-12}}</ref> Hata hivyo, [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Shirika]] la [[Shirika la Afya Duniani|Afya Duniani]] (WHO)linashauri kwamba matumizi ya Depo-Provera hayapaswi kukatazwa.<ref name="WHO2005">{{cite web | author=World Health Organization | authorlink =World Health Organization |year=2005 | month =Septemba | url =http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/family_planning/bone_health.html | title =Hormonal contraception and bone health | work =Family Planning | accessdate =2006-05-12}}</ref><ref name="Contraception2006-Curtis">{{cite journal | author=Curtis KM, Martins SL | title=Progestogen-only contraception and bone mineral density: a systematic review | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_2006-05_73_5/page/470 | journal=Contraception | year=2006 | pages=470–87 | volume=73 | issue=5 | pmid=16627031 | doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2005.12.010}}</ref> Haijulikani wazi iwapo kupoteza kwa uzitolinganifu wa mfupa unahusishwa na matumizi ya Depo-Provera unaweza kurudishwa katika hali ya kawaida, na kama ndivyo, kiasi gani hasa. Uchunguzi tatu umependekeza kuwa hasara ya mfupa yaweza kurekebishwa baada ya kukomesha matumizi ya Depo-Provera.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cundy T, Cornish J, Evans M, Roberts H, Reid I |title=Recovery of bone density in women who stop using medroxyprogesterone acetate | journal = BMJ | volume = 308 | issue = 6923 |pages=247–8 |year=1994 | pmid = 8111260 |pmc=2539337}}</ref><ref name="Scholes2002">{{cite journal | author=Scholes D, LaCroix AZ, Ichikawa LE, Barlow WE, Ott SM | title=Injectable hormone contraception and bone density: results from a prospective study | journal=Epidemiology | year=2002 | pages=581–7 | volume=13 | issue=5 | pmid=12192229 | doi=10.1097/00001648-200209000-00015}}</ref><ref name="Scholes2005">{{cite journal | author=Scholes D, LaCroix AZ, Ichikawa LE, Barlow WE, Ott SM | title=Change in bone mineral density among adolescent women using and discontinuing depot medroxyprogesterone acetate contraception | journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med | year=2005 | pages=139–44 | volume=159 | issue=2 | pmid=15699307 | doi=10.1001/archpedi.159.2.139}}</ref> Uchunguzi mwingine umependekeza kuwa athari za matumizi ya miaka ya mwakamke aliyeacha kuzaa hasa upoteaji wa uzitolinganifu wa mfupa ni ndogo,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Orr-Walker B, Evans M, Ames R, Clearwater J, Cundy T, Reid I |title=The effect of past use of the injectable contraceptive depot medroxyprogesterone acetate on bone mineral density in normal post-menopausal women |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-endocrinology_1998-11_49_5/page/615 | journal = Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) | volume = 49 | issue = 5 |pages=615–8 |year=1998 | pmid = 10197077 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2265.1998.00582.x}}</ref> labda kwa sababu watumiaji wa Depo hudhihirisha hasara ya chini ya mfupa katika miaka yao ikiwa wamemaliza kuzaa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cundy T, Cornish J, Roberts H, Reid I |title=Menopausal bone loss in long-term users of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate contraception |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-obstetrics-and-gynecology_2002-05_186_5/page/978 | journal = Am J Obstet Gynecol | volume = 186 | issue = 5 |pages=978–83 |year=2002 | pmid = 12015524 | doi = 10.1067/mob.2002.122420}}</ref> Matumizi baada ya kilele cha molekuli wa mifupa huhusishwa na kuongeza kwa matokeo ya mifupa lakini hakuna upungufu katika wiani wa madini ya mifupa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Walsh JS, Eastell R, Peel NF |title=Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate use after peak bone mass is associated with increased bone turnover but no decrease in bone mineral density |journal=Fertil. Steril. |volume= 93|issue= 3|pages= 697–701|year=2008 |month=Novemba |pmid=19013564 |doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.004 |url=}}</ref> Hata hivyo, kufikia mwaka wa 2006, hakuna utafiti ambao umechunguza hatari ya mifupa ya ndani moja kwa moja kwa wanawake ambao wamemaliza umri wa kuzaa ambao wametumia Depo-Provera, kwa hiyo, hatari haijulikani. PFIZER na FDA wamependekeza kwamba Depo-Provera isitumiwe kwa zaidi ya miaka miwili, isipokuwa kama hakuna njia mbadala ya kupanga uzazi, kutokana na wasiwasi juu ya kupoteza mifupa.<ref name="FDA2004-Warning"></ref> Hata hivyo, Kamati ya mwaka wa 2008 kuhusu pendekezo kutoka kwa Kamati ya Madaktari wa Ukunga na Magonjwa ya Wanawake ya Marekani (ACOG) walishauri watoa huduma ya afya kuhusu kupoteza kwa wiani wa madini madini wiani lazima au komesha kupewa au muendelezo wa depo Provera-zaidi ya miaka 2 ya kutumia.<ref name="pmid18757687">{{Cite pmid|18757687}}</ref> ===Madhara=== Katika majaribio makubwa ya kimatibabu ya Depo-Provera, madhara yenye athari sana yaliyoripotiwa mara nyingi (ambayo yanaweza au ikutoweza kuhusishwa na matumizi ya Depo-Provera) yalikuwa: kutokuwa na mpangilio mwafaka kuhusu hedhi (damu au kukosa hedhi kabisa- amenorrhea), maumivu au usumbufu wa tumbo , mabadiliko ya uzito, kuumwa na kichwa, asthenia (udhaifu au uchovu), na woga. Mengine, madahara yenye athari ndogo ambayo hayakuripotiwa mara kwa mara yameanishwa katika karatasi ya maelezo ya mtumizi na daktari habari kwa ajili ya Depo-Provera.<ref name="depo us patient info"></ref><ref name="depo us physician info">{{cite web |author=[[Pfizer]] |month=Novemba |year=2004 |title=Depo-Provera Contraceptive Injection, US physician information |url=http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/uspi_depo_provera_contraceptive.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-02-21 |archivedate=2007-02-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208112513/http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/uspi_depo_provera_contraceptive.pdf }}</ref> ===Tafiti zinazohusiana=== * Utafiti wa wanawake 819 katika mji mmoja uligundua uhusiano baina ya matumizi ya Depo-Provera na matukio ya juu ya [[Klamidia]] na [[Kisonono|ugonjwa wa kisonono.]]<ref name="SexTransmDis2004-Morrison">{{cite journal | author=Morrison CS, Bright P, Wong EL, Kwok C, Yacobson I, Gaydos CA, Tucker HT, Blumenthal PD | title=Hormonal contraceptive use, cervical ectopy, and the acquisition of cervical infections | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_sexually-transmitted-diseases_2004-09_31_9/page/561 | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year=2004 | pages=561–7 | volume=31 | issue=9 | pmid=15480119 | doi=10.1097/01.olq.0000137904.56037.70}}</ref> Uchunguzi wa pili ulotazamiwa katika wanawake 948 nchini Kenya ulitambua matumizi ya Depo-Provera yalihusishwa na viwango vikubwa vya maambukizi klamadia, lakini viwango vya chini vya ugonjwa wa kuwasha wa mfupa wa kifandugu, ikilinganishwa na wanawake ambao hawatumii njia za kupanga wa uzazi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Baeten J, Nyange P, Richardson B, Lavreys L, Chohan B, Martin H, Mandaliya K, Ndinya-Achola J, Bwayo J, Kreiss J |title=Hormonal contraception and risk of sexually transmitted disease acquisition: results from a prospective study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-obstetrics-and-gynecology_2001-08_185_2/page/380 | journal = Am J Obstet Gynecol | volume = 185 | issue = 2 |pages=380–5 |year=2001 | pmid = 11518896 | doi = 10.1067/mob.2001.115862}}</ref> * Masomo ya wanyama wenye familia ya wanyama ya medroxyprogesterone yamapendekeza inaweza kuongeza hatari ya maambukizi ya virusi vya simian (SIV), mfano wa HIV YA wanyama<ref>{{cite journal |author=Preston A. Marx, ''et al.'' |title=Progesterone implants enhance SIV vaginal transmission and early virus load | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 2| issue =10 |pages=1084–9 | year=1996 | pmid = 8837605 | doi = 10.1038/nm1096-1084}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Trunova N et al.|title=Progestin-based contraceptive suppresses cellular immune responses in SHIV-infected rhesus macaques|journal=Virology|year=2006|volume=352|issue=1|page=169–77|pmid=16730772|pages=169|doi=10.1016/j.virol.2006.04.004}}</ref> Angalau uchunguzi mmoja katika binadamu umependekeza kiwango cha juu cha ongezeko la virusi vya ukimwi katika watumiaji wa Depo-Provera,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Martin H, Nyange P, Richardson B, Lavreys L, Mandaliya K, Jackson D, Ndinya-Achola J, Kreiss J |title=Hormonal contraception, sexually transmitted diseases, and risk of heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-infectious-diseases_1998-10_178_4/page/1053 | journal = J Infect Dis | volume = 178 | issue = 4 |pages=1053–9 |year=1998 | pmid = 9806034 | doi = 10.1086/515654}}</ref> huku idadi nyingine ya masomo imetambua kwamba hakuna uhusiano kama huu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bulterys M, Chao A, Habimana P, Dushimimana A, Nawrocki P, Saah A |title=Incident HIV-1 infection in a cohort of young women in Butare, Rwanda | journal = AIDS | volume = 8 | issue = 11 |pages=1585–91 |year=1994 | pmid = 7848595 | doi = 10.1097/00002030-199411000-00010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kiddugavu M, Makumbi F, Wawer M, Serwadda D, Sewankambo N, Wabwire-Mangen F, Lutalo T, Meehan M, Gray R |title=Hormonal contraceptive use and HIV-1 infection in a population-based cohort in Rakai, Uganda | journal = AIDS | volume = 17 | issue = 2 |pages=233–40 |year=2003 | pmid = 12545084 | doi = 10.1097/00002030-200301240-00014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=|title=Prospective study of hormonal contraception and women's risk of HIV infection in South Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-epidemiology_2007-02_36_1/page/166| journal = Int J Epidemiol | volume = 36| issue = 1|pages=166–74|year=2007| pmid = 17175547 |last1=Myer |first1=L |last2=Denny |first2=L |last3=Wright |first3=TC |last4=Kuhn |first4=L |doi=10.1093/ije/dyl251}}</ref> Idadi kubwa ya majaribio ya klinki yaliyotarajiwa kushughulikia swala hili la Depo-Provera na uwezekana wa kupata HIV yanaendelea sasa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Morrison C, Richardson B, Celentano D, Chipato T, Mmiro F, Mugerwa R, [[Nancy Padian|Padian N]], Rugpao S, Salata R |title=Prospective clinical trials designed to assess the use of hormonal contraceptives and risk of HIV acquisition | journal = J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr | volume = 38 Suppl 1 | issue = |pages=S17–8 |year=2005| pmid = 15867602}}</ref> == Matumizi mengine == Depo Provera- pia hutumiwa na wahalifu wa kingono wa kiume kama aina ya kutoa mapumbu ya kemikali kwani ina athari ya kubwa kabisa kupunguza ari ya miongoni mwa wanaume.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/03/01/castration/ | title = The chemical knife | accessdate = 2009-01-22 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090107134347/http://archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/03/01/castration/ | archivedate = 2009-01-07 | = https://web.archive.org/web/20090107134347/http://archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/03/01/castration/ }}</ref> ==Utata juu ya idhini ya Depo-Provera nchini Marekani== Kulikuwa kwa muda mrefu, historia ya utata kuhusu idhini ya Depo-Provera na shirika tawala la Chakula na Dawa Marekani. Mtengenezaji asilia, Upjohn, aliandika mara kadhaa ili kupata idhini. Kamati ya ushauri ya FDA kwa umoja ilipendekeza kupitishwa katika 1973, 1975 na 1992, kama walivyofanya wafanyikazi wenye taaluma ya udaktari wa FDA, lakini FDA iliendelea kukataa kutoa kibali. Hatimaye, tarehe 29 Oktoba 1992,FDA ilipitisha Depo-Provera, ambayo ilikuwa kwisha tumiwa na wanawake zaidi ya milioni 30 tangu mwaka wa 1969 iliidhinishawa na ilikuwa natumiwa na karibu ya milioni 9 karibu katika nchi zaidi ya 90, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[Ufalme wa Muungano]], [[Ufaransa]], [[Ujerumani]], [[Uswisi]], [[Uthai]], [[New Zealand]] na [[Indonesia]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Leary, Warren E. |month=30 Oktoba, |year=1992 |title=U.S. Approves Injectable Drug As Birth Control |journal=[[The New York Times]] |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9E0CE1DD123BF933A05753C1A964958260 |pmid=11646958 | pages=A.1}}</ref> Sehemu za utata zilijumuisha: * wanyama waliopimwa kwa kasinogeni Depo-Provera ilisababisha uvimbe wa saratani ya matiti katika mbwa. Wakosoaji wa utafiti huo walidai kuwa mbwa huhisi zaidi kwa progestoroni ya kuumbwa au bandia, na kwamba vipimo vilikuwa juu sana kwa kupewa kwa binadamu. FDA ilisema kuwa kila dutu zenye kasinogeni kwa binadamu ni zenye kasinogeni kwa wanyama pia, na kama kitu si chenye kasinogeni haijiandikisha kama kasinojeni kwa viwango vya juu. Viwango vya Depo-Provera ambayo vilisababishwa uvimbe vya mbaya kwenye sehemu za kunyonyesha katika mbwa vilikuwa sawa kufikia mara 25kiwango cha kawaida cha awamu ya luteali kiwango cha progesteroni kwa ajili ya mbwa. (Ambayo ni kiwango cha chini zaidi kuliko kiwango cha chunu cha mimba cha projesteroni kwa ajili ya mbwa, na ni aina maalum.)[http://www.inchem.org/documents/iarc/suppl7/progestins.html ]<br>Depo-Provera inasababishwa saratani ya endometriali katika nyani -2 ya tumbili 12 walifanyiwa majaribio,kisa cha kwanza cha kanza ya endometriali kilikuwa katika aina ya nyani inayojulkana kama nyani aina ya Rhesus<ref name="MM_Goodman1985">{{Rejea jarida | author=Amy Goodman | title=The Case Against Depo-Provera - Problems in the U.S | journal=Multinational Monitor | year=1985 | month=Februari/Machi | volume=Volume 6 | issue=Numbers 2 & 3 | url=http://www.multinationalmonitor.org/hyper/issues/1985/02/problems-us.html | archive-date=2006-10-03 | access-date=2010-11-06 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003000448/http://www.multinationalmonitor.org/hyper/issues/1985/02/problems-us.html | url-status=dead }}</ref> Hata hivyo, utafiti uliofuata umeonyesha kwamba katika binadamu, Depo-Provera kweli ''hupunguza'' hatari ya kansa ya endometriali kwa karibu 80%.<ref name="Kaunitz"></ref><ref name="BrJFP_Bigrigg1999"></ref><ref name="WHO DMPA EC"></ref><br>Akizungumza katika kulinganisha suala kuhusu masomo ya wanyama ya kasinogeni kwa madawa, mwanachama wa Ofisi ya FDA idara ya alitoa ushahidi katika shirika la Depo, "...data ya wanyama kuhusu dawa hii inatia wasiwasi mno kuliko dawa nyingine yoyote tunajua kupewa kwa watu wenye afya nzuri. " * Saratani ya seviksi katika uchunguzi wa Upjohn /na NCI. Saratani ya seviksi ikana kuongezeka zaidi juu kama 9- katika utafiti wa binadamu wa kwanza ilirekodiwa na mtengenezaji na Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Saratani <ref>{{cite journal |author=|title=Controversy over Depo-Provera | journal = Wash Drug Device Lett | volume = 9 | issue = 1 |pages=2 |year=1977 | pmid = 12335988}}</ref> Hata hivyo, tafiti mbalimbali kubwa iliyofuata umeonyesha kuwa matumizi ya Depo-Provera haingezi hatari ya kansa ya kizazi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Thomas D, Ye Z, Ray R |title=Cervical carcinoma in situ and use of depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA). WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_1995-01_51_1/page/25 | journal = Contraception | volume = 51 | issue = 1 |pages=25–31 |year=1995 | pmid = 7750280 | doi = 10.1016/0010-7824(94)00007-J}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=The Who Collaborative Study Of Neop,|title=Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) and risk of invasive squamous cell cervical cancer. The WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_1992-04_45_4/page/299| journal = Contraception | volume = 45 | issue = 4 |pages=299–312 |year=1992 | pmid = 1387601 | doi = 10.1016/0010-7824(92)90052-U}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Thomas D, Ray R |title=Depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) and risk of invasive adenocarcinomas and adenosquamous carcinomas of the uterine cervix. WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_1995-11_52_5/page/307 | journal = Contraception | volume = 52 | issue = 5 |pages=307–12 |year=1995 | pmid = 8585888 | doi = 10.1016/0010-7824(95)00215-V}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Shapiro S, Rosenberg L, Hoffman M, Kelly J, Cooper D, Carrara H, Denny L, du Toit G, Allan B, Stander I, Williamson A |title=Risk of invasive cancer of the cervix in relation to the use of injectable progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen/progestogen oral contraceptives (South Africa) | journal = Cancer Causes Control | volume = 14 | issue = 5 |pages=485–95 |year=2003 | pmid = 12946044 | doi = 10.1023/A:1024910808307}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Kaunitz A |title=Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate contraception and the risk of breast and gynecologic cancer | journal = J Reprod Med | volume = 41 | issue = 5 Suppl |pages=419–27 |year=1996 | pmid = 8725705}}</ref> * Kutumia nguvu na ukosefu wa kibali cha kutoa habari. Kupima matumizi / ya Depo yalishughulikiwa kwa wanawake pekee katika nchi zinazoendelea na wanawake maskini nchini Marekani,<ref name="albion">{{cite web|author=Karen Hawkins, Jeff Elliott|title=Seeking Approval|publisher=Albion Monitor|date=1996-05-05|accessdate=2006-11-20|url=http://www.monitor.net/monitor/controlled/bc-depohearing.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121180041/http://www.monitor.net/monitor/controlled/bc-depohearing.html|archivedate=2015-11-21|=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121180041/http://www.monitor.net/monitor/controlled/bc-depohearing.html}}</ref> iliibua maswali makubwa juu ya kutumia nguvu na ukosefu wa kukubali habari, hasa kwa kwa wale ambao hawajui hawajui kusoma na kuandika<ref>{{cite journal |author=|title=Sterilization of minors leads to controversy | journal = JOICFP Rev | volume = 2 | issue = 4 |pages=77–8 |year=1973 | pmid = 12257656}}</ref> na kwa wale wenye changamoto za kiakili, ambao waliripoti kuwa walipewa Depo kwa muda mrefu kwa sababu ya "usafi wa hedhi"", licha ya ukweli kwamba hawakuwa washiriki tendi katika ngono.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Egan T, Siegert R, Fairley N |title=Use of hormonal contraceptives in an institutional setting: reasons for use, consent and safety in women with psychiatric and intellectual disabilities | journal = N Z Med J | volume = 106 | issue = 961 |pages=338–41 |year=1993 | pmid = 8341476}}</ref> * Uchunguzi wa Atlanta / Grady. Upjohn alichunguza athari ya Depo kwa miaka kumi na moja huko Atlanta, hasa kwa wanawake wenye asili ya Kiafrika waliokuwa wakipata msaada wa umma, lakini hakuweka rekodi zozote za ufuatilizi zilizohitajika na FDA. hatimaye Wachunguzi ambao walitembelea eneo hilo walibainisha kuwa tafiti zikosa mpangilio. "Waligundua kwamba ukusanyaji wa data ulikuwa na dosari, fomu za kukubali na itifaki hazikuwepo vilevile isitoshe kwa vale wanawake ambao walikubali kuchunguzwa hawakuelezwa athari zinazoweza kutokea. Wanawake ambao hali zao aya zilionyesha kwamba matumizi ya Depo yangehatarisha afya zao walidungwa sindano hii. wanawake kadhaa katika uchunguzi huo walifariki, wengine kutokana na saratani lakini wengine kutokana na sababu zingine kama vile kujinyonga kutoka na unyogovu. Zaidi ya nusu ya wanawake elfu 13 katika uchunguzi hawkuweza kufuatiliwa kutokana na uwekaji rekodi dhaifu." Hivyo, hakuna data katika uchunguzi huu iliyoweza kutumika. * Tahakiki ya Shirika la Afya Duniani WHO. Katika mwaka wa 1992, shirika la WHO liliwasilisha tahakiki za Depo katika nchi nne zinazoendelea kwa FDA. Shirika la Kitaifa la Afya ya Wanawake pamoja na mashirika mengine ya wanwake yalitoa ushahidi katika mkutano huo kwamba Shirika la WHO halikuwa na uyakini, Kwani tayari lilikuwa limesambaza Depo-Provera katika nchi zinazoendelea. Depo ilipitishwa kwa matumizi Marekani sababu ikiwa ni kutokana na tahakiki ya Shirika la WHO ambalo liliwasilisha ushahidi wa awali kutoka nchi kama vile Thailandi, ushahidi ambayo FDA ilidhamiria kwamba haukutosheleza na haukuwa umepangangwa kwa ajili ya tathmini ya hatari kansa ya saa katika mkutano huo wa awali.Taasisi ya Alan Guttmacher inadhania kwamba kuidhinisha kwa Marekani kwa Depo kunaweza kuongeza kupatikana na kukubalika kwake katika nchini zinazoendelea.[http://www.monitor.net/monitor/controlled/bc-depohearing.html ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.monitor.net/monitor/controlled/bc-depohearing.html |date=20151121180041 }}<ref>{{cite journal |author=Singh S |title=Adolescent knowledge and use of injectable contraceptives in developing countries |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-adolescent-health_1995-05_16_5/page/396 | journal = J Adolesc Health | volume = 16 | issue = 5 |pages=396–404 |year=1995 | pmid = 7662691 | doi = 10.1016/S1054-139X(94)00060-R}}</ref> ===Matokeo ya baadaye=== * Mnamo Mwaka wa 1995, makundi kadhaa ya afya ya wanawake yaliomba FDA kusimamisha kwa muda matumizi ya Depo-Provera, na kuanzisha fomu zilizosawazishwa za kuomba idhini ya uchunguzi. * Mmoja kwa vijana watano wenye asili ya Kiafrika wanaotumia njia za kupanga uzazi Marekani wanatumia Depo-Provera, kiwango cha juu cha matumizi kuliko vijana wenye asili ya kizungu. Mwanaharakati mmoja, Dorothy Roberts, anadai kuwa sababu ni kwamba vijana wenye asili ya Kiafrika wanalengwa kwa namna isiyo sawa kwa njia zisizo salama za kupanga uzazi. ==Mgogoro nje ya Marekani== * Katika mwaka wa 1994, wakati Depo iliidhinishwa huko India, Gazeti la India la Economic and Political Weekly liliripoti kwamba "FDA hatimaye iliidhinisha Depo Provera kutokana na wasiwasi wa idadi ya juu ya watu katika mataifa yanayoendelea na kutotaka kwa serikali za nchi zinazoendelea kutoa leseni kwa dawa ambayo haijakubalika katika nchi ilipotengenezewa." <ref>{{cite journal|title=Contraceptives. Case for public enquiry|url=https://archive.org/details/economic-political-weekly_1994-04-09_29_15/page/825|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|year=1994|volume=29|issue=15|id=Popline database document number 096527|pages=825–6}}</ref> Baadhi ya wanasayansi na wa makundi ya wanawake huko India yanaendelea kupinga matumizi ya Depo-Provera. Mnamo mwaka wa 2002, Depo iliondolewa katika itifaki ya dawa za kupanga uzazi kule India. * Muungano wa Kanada kuhusu Depo-Provera, yaani muungano wa wataalamu wa afya ya wanawake na makundi ya utetezi, yalipinga kuidhinishwa kwa matumizi ya Depo-Provera nchini humo. Tangu kuidhinishwa kwa Depo nchini Kanada mwaka wa 1997, kesi ya dola milioni$700 ilipelekwa kortini dhidi PFIZER na watumiaji wa Depo ambao walanza kuwa na ugonjwa wa mifupa kuwa nyepesi na kuvunjika kwa urahisi osteoporosisi. PFIZER ilijibu kwamba alikuwa imetimiza matakwa yake kwa kufichua na kueleza athari za matumizi ya Depo-Provera na Jamii ya Wauguzi wa Canada. ==Marejeo == * {{Marejeo|colwidth=30em}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.depoprovera.com Tovuti rasmi ya PFIZER ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.depoprovera.com/ |date=20120307131939 }} * [http://www.fhi.org/en/topics/injectables Utafiti juu ya njia za kupanga uzazi za kudungwa sindano] - Shirika la kimataifa la Afya ya Familia Family Health International kweli maelezo kuhusu kudungwa sindano ikiwemo Depo-Provera. [[Category:uzazi]] [[Category:Madawa]] 43zzg2d3rtbdpu6dql59xvsq2xu628q 0 55562 1580314 1086123 2026-07-18T08:39:14Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580314 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Ale vapen.svg|thumb|200px|]] [[Picha:Ale Municipality in Västra Götaland County.png|thumb|200px|]] '''Ale''' ni manispaa mji nchini [[Uswidi]] katika mkoa wa [[Västra Götaland]]. Kuna wakazi 27,467 (mwaka 2005). == Jiografia == Eneo lake ni 333.25 [[km²]]. == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.ale.se/ www.ale.se] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ale.se/ |date=20210524153956 }} {{Mbegu-jio-Uswidi}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Uswidi]] rykt089eibzll8e8qjbsy4zsbtbqwov 0 55725 1580221 1578081 2026-07-18T01:28:32Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580221 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} [[Picha:AminoAcidball.svg|thumbnail|200px|Mfumo wa jumla wa asidi amino alfa.]] [[Picha:Molecular_structures_of_the_21_proteinogenic_amino_acids.svg|thumb|right|upright=2.0|alt=Table of Amino Acids.|Asidi amino zinazopatikana katika yukaryoti, ambazo zimepangwa kulingana na 'pKa za minyororo yao ya upande na chaji katika pH 7.4 ya kimwili]] '''Asidi amino''' ni [[molekyuli]] zilizo na kikundi cha amaini, kikundi cha asidi ya kaboksili na mnyororo wa upande ambao unatofautiana katika asidi amino mbalimbali. Molekyuli hizi zina vipengele muhimu vya [[kaboni]], [[hidrojeni]], [[oksijeni]] na [[nitrojeni]]. Molekyuli hizi ni muhimu sana hasa katika [[biokemia]], ambapo neno hili kwa kawaida huashiria asidi amino alfa zilizo na [[fomula]] ya jumla H₂NCHRCOOH, ambapo R ni kibadala cha kiogani.<ref> Prolini inakinzana na fomula hii ya ujumla. Inakosa kundi la NH ₂ kwa sababu ya mzunguko wa mnyororo wa upande na kujulikana kama imino asidi; huwa chini ya kikundi cha muundo wa asidi amino maalum.</ref> Katika asidi amino alfa, kikundi cha amino kimeunganishwa na atomu ya [[kaboni]] kinachopakana na kikundi cha kaboksili (kaboni ya α), lakini kumbuka kwamba aina nyingine za asidi amino huwepo wakati kikundi cha amino kimeunganishwa kwa atomu nyingine ya kaboni (kwa mfano, katika asidi za amino za gama kama vile asidi amino butireti ya gama atomu ya kaboni ambapo kikundi cha amino hujiunga hujitenga kutoka kwa kikundi cha kaboksili na atomu zingine mbili). Amino asisi za alfa zinatofautiana katika upande ambao mnyororo (kikundi R) unapounganishwa na kaboni yao ya alfa na hizi zinaweza kutofautiana kwa ukubwa kutoka kwa atomu moja tu [[hidrojeni]] katika glaisini au kikundi cha methili katika alanini, hadi kwa kundi kubwa la heterosaikliki katika triptofani. Asidi amino ni muhimu kwa [[uhai]], na huwa na majukumu mengi katika [[umetaboli]]. Kazi muhimu hasa ni kutumika kama miundo msingi ya ujenzi wa [[protini]], ambayo ni minyororo tu ya asidi amino. Kila protini hufafanuliwa kikemikali kwa mpangilio wa mabaki ya asidi amino, muundo msingi na hii, kwa upande wake, huamua muundo wao wa sekondari (kwa mfano sifa zilizoelezewa vizuri kama vile helisi alfa au [[karatasi beta za mkunjo]]), mfumo wa tatu (umbo la protini binafsi, kwa mfano umbo la tufe kama katika [[kimeng'enya]] au kama safu katika kolajeni) au muundo wa nne (sura jumla ya changamano ya protini iwapo monoma zimepangwa kwa pamoja, kama katika mchangamo wahimoglobini, ambayo inajumuisha monoma nne ambazo zimeshikiliwa pamoja na vifungo vya hidrojeni ambavyo vina uwezo wa kuja pamoja wakati moja au zaidi yazo inapoifunga molekuli nyingine kwa mfano [[oksijeni]] ). Kama vile herufi za alfabeti zinaweza kuwekwa pamoja na kuunda orodha isyo na mwisho ya maneno, asidi amino inaweza kuunganishwa pamoja kwa utaratibu tofauti na kuunda aina nyingi ya protini.<ref name="NIGMS">{{cite web | url = http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/structlife/chapter1.html | title = The Structures of Life | publisher = National Institute of General Medical Sciences | accessdate = 2008-05-20 | archivedate = 2014-06-07 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20140607084902/http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/structlife/chapter1.html }}</ref> Asidi amino ni muhimu pia katika molekuli nyingine nyingi za bayolojia , kwa mfano huwa na majukumu muhimu katika vimeng'enya mwenza kama vile S adenosilmethionini. Kutokana na majukumu yao muhimu katika biokemi, asidi amino ni muhimu sana katika [[lishe]] na ni kawaida kutumiwa katika teknolojia ya chakula na viwanda. Kwa mfano, monosodiamu glutamati ni kiimarisha ladha cha kawaida ambacho hupatia vyakula ladha iitwayo ''umami.'' Pia hutumika katika sekta ya viwanda ambapo matumizi ni pamoja na uzalishaji wa plastiki bayochungulika, [[madawa ya kulevya]] na vichocheo vya chirali. == Historia == Asidi amino za kwanza ziligunduliwa mapema miaka ya 1800. Katika 1806, na wanakemia wa Kifaransa Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin na Pierre Jean Robiquet waliutenga mchanganyiko katika asparaga ambayo ilipatikana kuwa asparagini, na kuwa asidi amino ya kwanza kugunduliwa.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The discovery of a new plant principle in Asparagus sativus |author=Vauquelin LN, Robiquet PJ |journal=Annales de Chimie |year=1806 |volume=57 |pages=88–93}}</ref><ref name="Anfinsen">{{cite book |title=Advances in Protein Chemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/advancesinprotei26anfi |author=Anfinsen CB, Edsall JT, Richards FM |date=1972 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/advancesinprotei26anfi/page/99 99], 103 |publisher=Academic Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-12-034226-6}}</ref> Asidi amino nyingine iliyogunduliwa mapema karne ya 19 ilikuwa sistini, katika 1810,<ref>{{cite journal |title=On cystic oxide, a new species of urinary calculus |author=Wollaston WH |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |year=1810 |volume=100 |pages=223–30 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1810.0015}}</ref> ingawa monoma yake, sisteini, ilikuja kugunduliwa miaka mingi baadaye, katika 1884.<ref name="Anfinsen"/><ref>{{cite journal |title=Über cystin und cystein |author=Baumann E |journal=Z Physiol Chemie |year=1884 |volume=8 |pages=299}}</ref> Leucine Glycine na pia ziligunduliwa katika wakati huu, katika 1820.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sur la conversion des matières animales en nouvelles substances par le moyen de l'acide sulfurique |author=Braconnot HM |journal=Ann Chim Phys Ser 2 |year=1820 |volume=13 |pages=113–25}}</ref> Matumizi ya neno "amino acid" katika lugha ya Kiingereza ni kutoka [[1898]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=amino | publisher = www.etymonline.com | title = etymonline.com entry for ''amino'' | accessdate = 2010-07-19 | archivedate = 2012-10-20 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20121020154535/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=amino }}</ref>. == Muundo jumla == [[Picha:Lysine fisher struct num.png|thumb|right|Lysine with the carbon atoms in the side chain labeled|Alt = Lisini ina atomi dioksidi sita. Atomi ya kati ya dioksidi iliyounganishwa na makundi ya amino na kaboksili na imelezewa kwa ishara alfa. Atomi nne za dioksidi katika mlolongo wake wa laini wa upande umepewa majina kutoka beta (karibu na dioksidi ya kati), gama, delta, hadi kwa dioksidi Epsilon mwisho wa mnyororo na mbali kutoka dioksidi ya kati.]] Katika muundo ulioonyeshwa katika sehemu ya juu ya ukurasa, '''R''' inawakilisha upande wa mnyororo maalum kwa kila asidi amino. Atomu [[Kaboni|ya kaboni]] karibu na kikundi cha kabonili inaitwa α-kaboni na asidi amino na mnyororo upande bonded na dioksidi hii inajulikana kama ''asidi amino alpha.'' Hii ndio miundo inayopatikana sana katika maumbile. Katika asidi amino ya alfa, kaboni-α ni atomu ya kaboni chirali , isipokuwa ile ya glaisini.<ref name="Creighton">{{cite book |last=Creighton |first=Thomas H. |title=Proteins: structures and molecular properties |url=https://archive.org/details/proteinsstructur0000crei |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=San Francisco |year=1993 |chapter=Chapter 1 |isbn=978-0-7167-7030-5 |pages=}}</ref> Katika asidi amino ambazo zina mnyororo wa kaboni iliyoshikana na kaboni-α (kama vile laisini, imeonyesha kulia) kaboni zimepewa majina yafuatavyo α, β, γ; δ, na kadhalika.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html | title = Nomenclature and Symbolism for Amino Acids and Peptides | publisher = IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature | year = 1983 | accessdate = 2008-11-17}}</ref> Katika asidi amino fulani, kikundi cha amino kimeshikana na β au γ-kaboni, na hizi kwa hiyo zinajulikana kama asidi amino za ''beta'' au ''gamma .'' Asidi amino ni kwa kawaida zimegawanishwa kwa asili mnyororo yao ya upande katika makundi manne. Mnyororo wa upande unaweza kufanya asidi amino iwe asidi dhaifu au besi dhaifu, na iwe hidrofili kama mnyororo wa upande ni ncha au hidrofobi kama si ncha.<ref name="Creighton"/> Mifumo ya kemikali ishirini na mbili za asidi amino za kawaida, pamoja na sifa zao za kemikali, zimeelezewa zaidi katika makala ya asidi amino za proteinojeniki. Maneno ya "asidi amino yenye matawi" au BCAA yanahusu asidi amino yenye minyororo upande alifatiki usio kwenye laini , hizi ni liusini, isolusini, na valini. Prolini ni asidi amino ya proteinojeniki tu ambayo kundi lake la kando limeungana na kikundi cha amino-α, hivyo, pia ni asidi amino ya proteinojeniki ambayo ina amino ya pili katika nafasi hii.<ref name="Creighton"/> Kemikali, proline basi ni asidi imino kwani inakosa kikundi cha amino ya msingi,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1021/ja01414a033 | volume = 48 | issue = 3 | pages = 751–753 | last = Jodidi | first = S. L. | title = The Formol Titration of Certain Amino Acids | journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society | accessdate = 2009-08-20 | date = 1926-03-01 }}</ref> ingawa bado inaorodhwashwa kama asidi amino utaratibu wa majina wa sasa, <ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Claude |editor1-last=Liebecq |title=Biochemical Nomenclature and Related Documents |url=https://archive.org/details/biochemicalnomen0000unse |edition=2nd |publisher=Portland Press |year=1992 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biochemicalnomen0000unse/page/39 39]–69 |isbn=978-1-85578-005-7}}</ref> na pia inaweza kuitwa "asidi amino alfa yenye alikali-N".<ref>{{cite book |first=Anthony D. |last=Smith |title=Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_e9s4 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1997 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_e9s4/page/535 535] |isbn=978-0-19-854768-6 |oclc=37616711}}</ref> [[Picha:D+L-Alanine.gif|thumb|left|alt=Animation of two mirror image molecules rotating around a central axis. |Isoma mbili za kuonekana za alanini, D-Alanini na L-Alanini]] === Waisoma === Kwa asidi amino-α za kawaida, zote ila glaisini zinaweza kuwepo kwa aidha ya isoma zionekanazo mbili, ziitwazo asidi amino <small>L</small> au <small>D</small> , ambazo ni zinafanana kama shilingi kwa ya pili ''(tazama pia Chirality).'' Wakati asidi <small>L-amino</small> zinawakilisha asidi amino zote zinazopatikana kwa [[protini]] ya wakati wa tafsiri ya ribosomu, asidi amino <small>D</small> ni protini ambazo hupatikana katika baadhi ya protini zilizotayarishwa na vimeng'enya wakati baada ya kutafsiriwa kimuundo baada ya kutafsiriwa na kuchukuliwa na hadi kwa endoplasmu retikulamu kama katika viumbe wa baharini wa kipekee kama vile konokono koni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pisarewicz K, Mora D, Pflueger FC, Fields GB, Marí F |title=Polypeptide chains containing D-gamma-hydroxyvaline |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=127 |issue=17 |pages=6207–15 |year=2005 |month=Mei |pmid=15853325 |doi=10.1021/ja050088m}}</ref> Pia ni sehemu nyingi za ukuta wa seli wa peptidoglikani za [[Bakteria|bakteria.]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=van Heijenoort J |title=Formation of the glycan chains in the synthesis of bacterial peptidoglycan |journal=Glycobiology |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=25R–36R |year=2001 |month=Machi |pmid=11320055 |doi=10.1093/glycob/11.3.25R}}</ref> na <small>serini-D</small> huweza kutendakazi kama nyurotransmita katika ubongo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wolosker H, Dumin E, Balan L, Foltyn VN |title=D-amino acids in the brain: D-serine in neurotransmission and neurodegeneration |journal=The FEBS Journal |volume=275 |issue=14 |pages=3514–26 |year=2008 |month=Julai |pmid=18564180 |doi=10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06515.x}}</ref> Mpangilio wa <small>L</small> na <small>D</small> kwa muundo wa asidi amino hairejelei jinsi asidi inavyoonekana, bali kwa kuzunguka kwa macho kwa aisoma ya gliseralidehidi ambayo asidi amino ambayo inaweza kinadharia kutengezwa kutoka kwayo<small>(gliseraldehidi-D</small> ni deksitrorotari, <small>L</small> - glyceraldehidi ni levorotari). Vinginevyo, viashiria vya ''(S)'' na ''R)'' ''(hutumiwa'' kuonyesha stereokemia kamili. Takriban asidi amino zote katika protini ni ''(S)'' katika kaboni α, huku sistini ikiwa ''(R)'' na glisini siyo chirali.<ref>{{cite web | last = Hatem | first = Salama Mohamed Ali | year = 2006 | url = http://geb.uni-giessen.de/geb/volltexte/2006/3038/index.html | title = Gas chromatographic determination of Amino Acid Enantiomers in tobacco and bottled wines | publisher = University of Giessen | accessdate = 2008-11-17}}</ref> Sistini si ya kawaida kwani ina chembe ya [[sulfuri]] katika nafasi ya kwanza katika mnyororo wake wa upande, ambayo ina uzani mkubwa wa [[Uzani atomia|atomia]] kuliko makundi yaliyoshikana na kaboni α katika asidi nyingine, hivyo ''(R)'' badala ya ''(S ).'' === Zwiterioni === Asidi amino inaamaini naasidi ya kaboksili vikundi vya kazi na kwa hiyo wote ni [[asidi]] na besi wakati huo huo.<ref name="Creighton"/> Katika baadhi ya [[Thamani pH|pH]] inayojulikana kama ncha ya isoelektriki na asidi kwa ujumla haina chaji, kwa vile idadi ya vikundi vya amonia vilivyo na protoni (chaji chanya) na vikundi vya kaboksili zisizo na protoni(bila chaji chanya) ni sawa.<ref>{{cite book |title=Food Chemistry |edition=3rd |author=Fennema OR |year=1996 |pages=327–8 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=0-8247-9691-8}}</ref> Asidi amino zote zina ncha tofauti za ki-isoelektriki. Ayoni zinazozalishwa katika ncha ya isoelektriki huwa na chaji chanya na chaji hasi na hujulikana kama ''zwitterioni,'' ambayo huja kutoka neno la Kijerumani ''Zwitter'' maana "huntha" au "mchanganyiko".<ref>{{cite book |author=Simmons, William J.; Gerhard Meisenberg |title=Principles of medical biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofmedi0000meis |publisher=Mosby Elsevier |location= |year=2006 |pages= |isbn=0-323-02942-6 |oclc= |page=[https://archive.org/details/principlesofmedi0000meis/page/19 19]}}</ref> Asidi amino inaweza kupatikana kama zwiterioni katika mango na ufumbuzi kama vile maji, lakini si katika awamu ya gesi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Remko M, Rode BM |title=Effect of metal ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, and Zn2+) and water coordination on the structure of glycine and zwitterionic glycine |journal=The journal of physical chemistry. A |volume=110 |issue=5 |pages=1960–7 |year=2006 |month=Februari |pmid=16451030 |doi=10.1021/jp054119b}}</ref> Zwiterioni huwa na umumunyifu mdogo katika ncha yake ya kielektriki na asidi amino na inawezakutengwa kwa kutumia kutuama kutoka kwa maji kwa kubadilisha PH yake hadi kwa ncha yake hasa ya elektriki. == Matukio na kazi katika bayokemia == [[Picha:Protein primary structure.svg|thumb|300px|right|alt=A protein depicted as a long unbranched string of linked circles each representing amino acids. One circle is magnified, to show the general structure of an amino acid. This is a simplified model of the repeating structure of protein, illustrating how amino acids are joined together in these molecules. | Polipeptidi ni mnyororo ambao hauna matawi ya asidi amino.]] === Asidi amino za kawaida === Asidi amino ni viungo msingi vya kutengeneza protini. Hujiunga pamoja na kuunda minyororo mifupi ya polima ziitwazo peptidi au minyororo mirefu iitwayo aidha polipeptidi au [[protini]]. Polima hizi ni zenye matawi na za mistari, na kila asidi amino ndani ya mnyororo imeshikana na asidi amino mbili jirani. Mchakato wa kutengeneza protini huitwa ''tafsiri'' na unahusu kuongezwa hatua kwa hatua kwa aidha asidi amino kwa mnyororo unaokuwa wa protini na ribozaimu iitwayo ribosomu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rodnina MV, Beringer M, Wintermeyer W |title=How ribosomes make peptide bonds |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-biochemical-sciences_2007-01_32_1/page/20 |journal=Trends in Biochemical Sciences |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=20–6 |year=2007 |month=Januari |pmid=17157507 |doi=10.1016/j.tibs.2006.11.007}}</ref> Utaratibu ambao asidi amino zinaongezwa nao unasomwa kutoka kwa programu ya maumbile kutoka kwa programu ya jeni ya mRNA, ambayo ni nakala ya RNA ya jeni ya moja ya kiumbe. Asidi amino ishirini na mbili kiasili zimejumuishwa katika polipeptidi na huitwa proteinojeniki au asidi amino za kawaida.<ref name="Creighton"/> Kati ya hizi 22 ishirini, ishirini zimejumuishwa moja kwa moja na kanuni kuu ya maumbile. Zilizosalia mbili, selenosistini na pirolisini, hujumuishwa katika protini kwa utaratibu kusanisi wa kipekee. Selenosistini hujumuishwa wakati mRNA inapokuwa ikitafsiriwa ikiwa na kipengele SECIS, ambayo husababisha kodoni ya UGA kuweka Selenosistini badala ya kodoni ya kusimama.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Driscoll DM, Copeland PR |title=Mechanism and regulation of selenoprotein synthesis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-nutrition_2003_23/page/17 |journal=Annual Review of Nutrition |volume=23 |issue= |pages=17–40 |year=2003 |pmid=12524431 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.23.011702.073318}}</ref> Pirolisini hutumiwa na baadhi methanojeni [[Archaea|echea]] katika vimeng'enya vinavyotumika kuzalisha methani. Imewekwa kwa kanuni pamoja na kodoni ya UAG, ambayo kwa kawaida huwa ni kodoni ya kusimama katika viumbe wengine.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Krzycki JA |title=The direct genetic encoding of pyrrolysine |journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=706–12 |year=2005 |month=Desemba |pmid=16256420 |doi=10.1016/j.mib.2005.10.009}}</ref> [[Picha:L-selenocysteine-2D-skeletal.png|thumb|left|alt=The structure of selenocysteine, this differs from the lead image by having the R group (the side chain) replaced by a carbon atom with two hydrogen and a selenium attached.|Asidi amino selenosisteini]] === Asidi amino zisizo za kawaida === Mbali na asidi amino za msingi ishirini na mbili, kuna idadi kubwa ya "asidi amino zisizo za kawaida". Hizi asidi amino zisizo za kawaida zinazopatikana kwa protini huundwa kwa mabadiliko baada ya kutafsiriwa, ambayo ni kubadilishwa baada ya tafsiri katika protini ya awali. Mabadiliko haya mara nyingi ni muhimu kwa ajili ya utendajikazi au udhibiti wa protini, kwa mfano, ukabsilishaji wa glutamati unaruhusu kushikilia vizuri kwa kashoni za kalsiamu,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vermeer C |title=Gamma-carboxyglutamate-containing proteins and the vitamin K-dependent carboxylase |journal=The Biochemical Journal |volume=266 |issue=3 |pages=625–36 |year=1990 |month=Machi |pmid=2183788 |pmc=1131186}}</ref> na hidroksilesheni ya prolini ni muhimu kwa ajili ya kudumisha tishu zilizoshikana.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bhattacharjee A, Bansal M |title=Collagen structure: the Madras triple helix and the current scenario |journal=IUBMB Life |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=161–72 |year=2005 |month=Machi |pmid=16036578 |doi=10.1080/15216540500090710}}</ref> Mfano mwingine ni uundaji wa hipusini katika kuanzishwa kwa kipengele tafsiri cha EIF5A, kwa kubadilishwa kwa mabaki ya laisini.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Park MH |title=The post-translational synthesis of a polyamine-derived amino acid, hypusine, in the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5A (eIF5A) |journal=Journal of Biochemistry |volume=139 |issue=2 |pages=161–9 |year=2006 |month=Februari |pmid=16452303 |pmc=2494880 |doi=10.1093/jb/mvj034}}</ref> Mabadiliko kama hayo yanaweza pia kuamua ujanibishaji wa protini, kwa mfano, nyongeza ya makundi marefu ya kukwepamaji kunaweza kusababisha protini kujifunga kwa utando wa fosfolidi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Blenis J, Resh MD |title=Subcellular localization specified by protein acylation and phosphorylation |url=https://archive.org/details/current-opinion-in-cell-biology_1993_5_6/page/984 |journal=Current Opinion in Cell Biology |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=984–9 |year=1993 |month=Desemba |pmid=8129952 |doi=10.1016/0955-0674(93)90081-Z}}</ref> [[Picha:Beta alanine comparison.png|thumb|250px|right|alt=Comparison of the structures of alanine and beta alanine. In alanine the side chain is a methyl group, in beta alanine the side chain contains a methylene group connected to an amino group and the alpha carbon lacks an amino group. The two amino acids therefore have the same formulae but different structures.| β-alanini na isoma yake α-alanini]] Mifano ya asidi amino zisizo za kawaida na hazipatikani kwa protini ni pamoja na [[lanthionini,asidi-aminoisobutiri 2]] , dehidroalanini na nyurotransmita asidi ya gama-aminobutiriki. Asidi amino zisizo za kawaida mara nyingi hutokea baina ya njia za metaboli kwa asidi amino za kawaida- kwa mfano orinithini na sitrulini hutokea katika mzunguko wa urea, sehemu ya ukataboli wa asidi amino (angalia hapo chini).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Curis E, Nicolis I, Moinard C, ''et al.'' |title=Almost all about citrulline in mammals |journal=Amino Acids |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=177–205 |year=2005 |month=Novemba |pmid=16082501 |doi=10.1007/s00726-005-0235-4}}</ref> Tofauti ya nadra kwa kutawala kwa asidi amino α katika biolojia ni asidi amino β beta alanini (asidi aminopropanu 3), ambayo hutumiwa na mimea na vidubini katika uundaji wa asidi pantotheni (vitamini B _5), sehemu ya kimeng'enya pacha A.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Coxon KM, Chakauya E, Ottenhof HH, ''et al.'' |title=Pantothenate biosynthesis in higher plants |journal=Biochemical Society Transactions |volume=33 |issue=Pt 4 |pages=743–6 |year=2005 |month=Agosti |pmid=16042590 |doi=10.1042/BST0330743}}</ref> === Katika lishe ya binadamu === Baada ya kupelekwa katika mwili wa binadamu kutoka kwa chakula, aina 22 za asidi amino hutumiwa kutengeza protini na bayomolekuli nyingine au huoksidishwa na kuwa urea na kaboni dioksidi kama chanzo cha nishati.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sakami W, Harrington H |title=Amino acid metabolism |journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry |volume=32 |issue= |pages=355–98 |year=1963 |pmid=14144484 |doi=10.1146/annurev.bi.32.070163.002035}}</ref> Njia ya uoksidishaji huanza na kuondolewa kwa kikundi cha amino na transaminasi, kundi la amino basi huongezwa katika mzunguko wa urea. Bidhaa nyingine za transamidesheni ni asidi keto ambayo inaingia mzunguko wa asidi sitriki.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brosnan JT |title=Glutamate, at the interface between amino acid and carbohydrate metabolism |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=130 |issue=4S Suppl |pages=988S–90S |year=2000 |month=Aprili |pmid=10736367 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10736367}}</ref> Asidi amino Glukojeniki pia inaweza kugeuzwa kuwa glukosi, kupitia glukoneojenesi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Young VR, Ajami AM |title=Glutamine: the emperor or his clothes? |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=131 |issue=9 Suppl |pages=2449S–59S; discussion 2486S–7S |year=2001 |month=Septemba |pmid=11533293 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11533293}}</ref> Pirolisini bainishi iko kwa vijiumbe maradhi kadhaa, na kiumbe kimoja tu kina Pyl na Sec. Kati ya asidi amino ishirini na mbili, nane huitwa asidi amino muhimu kwa sababu mwili wa binadamu hauwezi kuzitengeza kutoka [[Kampaundi|misombo]] mingine katika ngazi inayohitajika kwa ajili ya ukuaji wa kawaida, hivyo ni lazima zipatikane kutoka kwa vyakula.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Young VR |title=Adult amino acid requirements: the case for a major revision in current recommendations |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=124 |issue=8 Suppl |pages=1517S–1523S |year=1994 |month=Agosti |pmid=8064412 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8064412}}</ref> Hata hivyo, hali ni ya kuchanganya kwani sistini, taurini, tirosini, histidini na arginini ni asidi amino muhimu kiasi kwa watoto, kwa sababu njia za metaboli za kutengeza asidi amino hizi hazijaumbika kikamilifu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Imura K, Okada A |title=Amino acid metabolism in pediatric patients |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nutrition_1998-01_14_1/page/143 |journal=Nutrition |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=143–8 |year=1998 |month=Januari |pmid=9437700 |doi=10.1016/S0899-9007(97)00230-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Lourenço R, Camilo ME |title=Taurine: a conditionally essential amino acid in humans? An overview in health and disease |journal=Nutrición Hospitalaria |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=262–70 |year=2002 |pmid=12514918}}</ref> Kiasi kinachohitajika pia hutegemea umri na afya ya mtu binafsi, hivyo ni vigumu kutoa taarifa ya jumla kuhusu mahitaji ya malazi ya baadhi ya asidi amino. {| class="wikitable" ! Muhimu ! Zisizo Muhimu |- | Isoleusini | Alanini |- | Leusini | Asparajini |- | Lisini | Asidi Aspariti |- | Methionini | Sisteini * |- | fenilalanini | Asidi Glutamiki |- | Threonini | Glutamini * |- | Triptofani | Glisini * |- | Valini | Prolini * |- | | Selenosistini * |- | | Serini * |- | | Tirosini * |- | | Arginini * |- | | Histidini * |- | | Ornithini * |- | | Taurini * |} (*) Muhimu katika kesi fulani tu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fürst P, Stehle P |title=What are the essential elements needed for the determination of amino acid requirements in humans? |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=134 |issue=6 Suppl |pages=1558S–1565S |year=2004 |month=Juni |pmid=15173430 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15173430}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Reeds PJ |title=Dispensable and indispensable amino acids for humans |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=130 |issue=7 |pages=1835S–40S |year=2000 |month=Julai |pmid=10867060 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10867060}}</ref> === Kazi zisizo za protini === Kwa binadamu, asidi amino zisizo protini pia zina majukumu muhimu kama viungo vya kati vya metaboli, kama vile katika biosanisi ya nyeurotransmita ya asidi gama aminobutiriki. Asidi amino nyingi hutumiwa katika usanisi wa molekuli nyingine, kwa mfano: * Triptofani ni mtangulizi wa nyeurotransmita serotonini.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Savelieva KV, Zhao S, Pogorelov VM, ''et al.'' |title=Genetic disruption of both tryptophan hydroxylase genes dramatically reduces serotonin and affects behavior in models sensitive to antidepressants |journal=PloS ONE |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=e3301 |year=2008 |pmid=18923670 |pmc=2565062 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0003301}}</ref> * Glisini ni mtangulizi wa porifirini kama vile heme.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The biological utilization of glycine for the synthesis of the protoporphyrin of hemoglobin |author=Shemin D, Rittenberg D |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |date=1 Desemba 1946 |volume=166 |issue=2 |page=621 |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/166/2/621 |pages=621–5 |pmid=20276176}}</ref> * Arginini ni mtangulizi wa oksidi nitriki.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tejero J, Biswas A, Wang ZQ, ''et al.'' |title=Stabilization and characterization of a heme-oxy reaction intermediate in inducible nitric-oxide synthase |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=283 |issue=48 |pages=33498–507 |year=2008 |month=Novemba |pmid=18815130 |pmc=2586280 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M806122200}}</ref> * Ornithini na S-adenosilmethionini ni tangulizi kwa poliamini.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rodríguez-Caso C, Montañez R, Cascante M, Sánchez-Jiménez F, Medina MA |title=Mathematical modeling of polyamine metabolism in mammals |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-biological-chemistry_2006-08-04_281_31/page/n236 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=281 |issue=31 |pages=21799–812 |year=2006 |month=Agosti |pmid=16709566 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M602756200}}</ref> * Aspartate, glisini na glutamini ni tangulizi kwa nukleotidi.<ref>{{cite book |author=Stryer, Lubert; Berg, Jeremy Mark; Tymoczko, John L. |title=Biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/biochemistry200100jere |publisher=W.H. Freeman |location=San Francisco |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biochemistry200100jere/page/695 693]–8 |isbn=0-7167-4684-0}}</ref> * Fenilalanini ni mtangulizi wa Fenipropanoidi mbalimbali ambayo ni muhimu katika metaboli ya mimea. Hata hivyo, si kazi zote za asidi amino nyingi zisizo za kawaida zinajulikana, kwa mfano taurini ni asidi amino kubwa katika misuli na tishu ya ubongo, lakini ingawa kazi nyingi zimependekezwa, wajibu wake hasa katika mwili bado haujatambuliwa.<ref name="Brosnan"/> Baadhi ya asidi amino zisizo za kawaida hutumika katika mimea kama kinga dhidi ya wanyama walao mimea.<ref name="Hylin1969">{{Cite journal |last=Hylin |first=John W. |year=1969 |title=Toxic peptides and amino acids in foods and feeds |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=492–6 |doi=10.1021/jf60163a003}}</ref> Kwa mfano kanavanini ni mfano wa argininiambayo hupatikana katika mimea ya jamii ya [[Jamii kunde|kunde]],<ref name="Turner1967">{{Cite journal |last1=Turner |first1=B. L. |last2=Harborne |first2=J. B. |year=1967 |title=Distribution of canavanine in the plant kingdom |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_phytochemistry_1967_6/page/863 |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=6 |pages=863–66 |doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(00)86033-1}}</ref> na kwa kiasi kikubwa hasa katika ''Kanavalia gladiata'' (maharage upanga ).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ekanayake S, Skog K, Asp NG |title=Canavanine content in sword beans (Canavalia gladiata): analysis and effect of processing |journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=797–803 |year=2007 |month=Mei |pmid=17187914 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2006.10.030}}</ref> Hii asidi amino hulinda mimea kutoka waporaji kama vile [[wadudu]] na inaweza kusababisha ugonjwa kwa watu kama aina fulani ya kunde ni kuliwa bila ya usindikaji.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosenthal GA |title=L-Canavanine: a higher plant insecticidal allelochemical |journal=Amino Acids |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=319–30 |year=2001 |pmid=11764412 |doi=10.1007/s007260170017}}</ref> Asidi amino isiyo protini mimosini hupatikana katika aina nyingine ya kunde, hasa ''Leucaena leucocephala.'' Mchanganyiko huu ni mfano wa tairosini na inaweza kuwa sumu kwa wanyama wanaolishwa na mimea hiyo. == Matumizi katika teknolojia == Asidi amino hutumika kwa njia nyingi tofauti viwandani lakini matumizi yao makuu ni kama viziada vyachakula cha mifugo. Hii ni muhimu kwani sehemu kuu ya vyakula hivi, kama vile [[Soya|soya]], aidha ina viwango vya chini au hukosa baadhi ya asidi amino muhimu: lisini, methionini, threonini, na triptofani ni muhimu katika uzalishaji wa vyakula hivi.<ref name="Leuchtenberger2005">{{cite journal |author=Leuchtenberger W, Huthmacher K, Drauz K |title=Biotechnological production of amino acids and derivatives: current status and prospects |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |year=2005 |month=Novemba |pmid=16195792 |doi=10.1007/s00253-005-0155-y}}</ref> Sekta ya chakula pia ni mtumizi mkubwa wa asidi amino, hasa asidi glutamiki, ambayo hutumiwa kama kiongeza ladha,<ref name="Garattini">{{cite journal |author=Garattini S |title=Glutamic acid, twenty years later |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=130 |issue=4S Suppl |pages=901S–9S |year=2000 |month=Aprili |pmid=10736350 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10736350}}</ref> na Aspartami (aspartili-fanilalanini-1-methili esta) kama kiongeza tamu bandia cha kalori kidogo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Stegink LD |title=The aspartame story: a model for the clinical testing of a food additive |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=46 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=204–15 |year=1987 |month=Julai |pmid=3300262 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3300262}}</ref> Uzalishaji uliosalia wa asidi amino hutumika katika usanisi wa madawa na vipodozi.<ref name="Leuchtenberger2005"/> {| class="wikitable" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto" !Minyambuliko ya asidi Amino !Matumizi ya Dawa |- | align="center"|5-HTP (5-hidroksitriptofani) | align="center"|Majaribio ya matibabu ya unyogovu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Turner EH, Loftis JM, Blackwell AD |title=Serotonin a la carte: supplementation with the serotonin precursor 5-hydroxytryptophan |journal=Pharmacology & Therapeutics |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=325–38 |year=2006 |month=Machi |pmid=16023217 |doi=10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.06.004}}</ref> |- | align="center"|L-dopa (L-dihidroksifenilalanini) | align="center"|Matibabu kwa Pakinsoni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kostrzewa RM, Nowak P, Kostrzewa JP, Kostrzewa RA, Brus R |title=Peculiarities of L: -DOPA treatment of Parkinson's disease |journal=Amino Acids |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=157–64 |year=2005 |month=Machi |pmid=15750845 |doi=10.1007/s00726-005-0162-4}}</ref> |- | align="center"|Eflornithini | align="center"|Dawa inayozuia dekaboksilasi ya ornithini na hutumiwa katika matibabu ya ugonjwa<ref>{{cite journal |author=Heby O, Persson L, Rentala M |title=Targeting the polyamine biosynthetic enzymes: a promising approach to therapy of African sleeping sickness, Chagas' disease, and leishmaniasis |journal=Amino Acids |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=359–66 |year=2007 |month=Agosti |pmid=17610127 |doi=10.1007/s00726-007-0537-9}}</ref> wa [[kulala]]. |- |} === Maumbile jeni yaliyopanuliwa === Tangu mwaka wa 2001, asidi amino 40 zisizo za kiasili zimeongezwa kwa protini kwa kujenga kodoni ya kipekee (kubadilisha) na uhamisho unaombatana wa jozi ya RNA: aminoacyl - tRNA-sinthetesi jozi kwa usimbaji wa mwili na kemikali tofauti na tabia ya kibayolojia ili kutumika kama chombo cha kuchunguza mfumo wa protini na kazi au kutengeneza mkusanyiko wa protini zilzoimarishwa.<ref name="pmid16260173">{{cite journal | author = Xie J, Schultz PG | title = Adding amino acids to the genetic repertoire | journal = Curr Opin Chem Biol | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 548–54 | year = 2005 | month = Desemba | pmid = 16260173 | doi = 10.1016/j.cbpa.2005.10.011 | url = | issn = }}</ref><ref name="pmid19318213">{{cite journal | author = Wang Q, Parrish AR, Wang L | title = Expanding the genetic code for biological studies | journal = Chem. Biol. | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–36 | year = 2009 | month = Machi | pmid = 19318213 | doi = 10.1016/j.chembiol.2009.03.001 | url = | issn = | pmc = 2696486 }}</ref> === Miundo msingi ya kemikali === Asidi amino ni muhimu kama viambajengo vya gharama ya chini. Misombo hii inatumika katika bwawa la chirali husaidia kujenga miundo mbinu yenye molekuli zenye [[chirali]].<ref name="Hanessian1993">{{Cite journal |last=Hanessian |first=S. |year=1993 |title=Reflections on the total synthesis of natural products: Art, craft, logic, and the chiron approach |journal=Pure and Applied Chemistry |volume=65 |pages=1189–204 |doi=10.1351/pac199365061189}}</ref> Asidi amino zimechunguzwa kama kitangulizi cha kichocheo chirali, kwa mfano kwa mrundikano wa atomu zisopacha katika hidrojenesheni, ingawa hakuna matumizi yaliyomo kwa sasa.<ref name="Blaser1992">{{Cite journal |last=Blaser |first=Hans Ulrich |year=1992 |title=The chiral pool as a source of enantioselective catalysts and auxiliaries |journal=Chemical Reviews |volume=92 |issue=5 |pages=935–52 |doi=10.1021/cr00013a009}}</ref> === Plastiki zinazoweza kuvundishwa === Asidi amino zinaundwa kama sehemu ya polima nyingi zinazoweza kuvundishwa. Vifaa na maombi kama zisizo na madhara ya ufungaji wa mazingira na madawa katika utoaji wa madawa na ujenzi wa uwekaji wa viungo bandia. Polima hizi ni pamoja na polipeptidi poliamidi, poliesta, polisulfuri na polietheni amabzo zina asidi asidi amino kama sehemu ya minyororo yao kuu au imeshikana kama minyororo ya upande. Mabadiliko haya hugeuza maumbile ya polima hizi pamoja na mrundikano wao wa atomu.<ref name="Sanda1999">{{Cite journal |last1=Sanda |first1=Fumio |last2=Endo |first2=Takeshi |year=1999 |title=Feature Article Syntheses and functions of polymers based on amino acids |journal=Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics |volume=200 |pages=2651–61 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-3935(19991201)200:12<2651::AID-MACP2651>3.0.CO;2-P}}</ref> Mfano mzuri wa nyenzo hizi ni poliaspartati, polima ambayo inaweza kuyeyuka kwa maji na pia inaweza kuvundishwa na bakteria na inaweza kutumika katika utengezaji wa nepi za kutupwa na kilimo.<ref name="Gross2002">{{Cite journal | last1 = Gross | first1 = R. A. | last2 = Kalra | first2 = B. | year = 2002 | title = Biodegradable Polymers for the Environment | journal = Science | volume = 297 | issue = 5582 | pages = 803–807 | doi = 10.1126/science.297.5582.803 | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/297/5582/803 | pmid = 12161646}}</ref> Kutokana na umumunyifu wake na uwezo wa kushikana na molekuli zaidi ya moja za metali, poliaspartati pia hutumika kama ajenti inayoweza kuvundishwa na ya kuzuia ubambuzi.<ref>{{cite book |title= Commercial poly(aspartic acid) and Its Uses |last = Low | first = K. C. | coauthors = Wheeler, A. P.; Koskan, L. P. |series= Advances in Chemistry Series |volume= 248 |publisher= [[American Chemical Society]] |location= Washington, D.C. |year= 1996}}</ref><ref name="Thombre2005">{{Cite journal | last1 = Thombre | first1 = S.M. | last2 = Sarwade | first2 = B.D. | year = 2005 | title = Synthesis and Biodegradability of Polyaspartic Acid: A Critical Review | journal = Journal of Macromolecular Science, Part A | volume = 42 | issue = 9 | pages = 1299–1315 | url = http://www.informaworld.com/index/718581646.pdf | doi = 10.1080/10601320500189604}}</ref> Aidha, asidi amino ya kunukia tirosini inaundwa kama iweze kuwa badala ya kwa fenoli zenye sumu kama vile bisfenoli A katika utengenezaji wa polikaboni.<ref name="Bourke2003">{{Cite journal | last1 = Bourke | first1 = S. L. | last2 = Kohn | first2 = J. | year = 2003 | title = Polymers derived from the amino acid l-tyrosine: polycarbonates, polyarylates and copolymers with poly(ethylene glycol) | journal = Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews | volume = 55 | issue = 4 | pages = 447–466 | doi = 10.1016/S0169-409X(03)00038-3 | url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169409X03000383 | pmid = 12706045}}</ref> == Miitikio == Kwa kuwa asidi amino ina kikundi cha msingi cha kaboksili na amino, hizi kemikali zinaweza kuwa na athari zinazohusiana na makundi hayo. Hizi ni pamoja na kuongeza nukleofiliki, kutengeza kiunganishi cha amaidi na kutengezwa kwa imini kwa kikundi cha amaini na uundaji wa esterasi, uundaji wa kiunganishi cha amaidi na udikaboksishaji kwa kikundi cha asidi ya kaboksili.<ref>{{cite book |author=Elmore, Donald Trevor; Barrett, G. C. |title=Amino acids and peptides |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1998 |pages=48–60 |isbn=0-521-46827-2}}</ref> Minyororo mingi ya upande ya asidi amino inaweza pia kuwa na miitikio ya kemikali.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gutteridge A, Thornton JM |title=Understanding nature's catalytic toolkit |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-biochemical-sciences_2005-11_30_11/page/622 |journal=Trends in Biochemical Sciences |volume=30 |issue=11 |pages=622–9 |year=2005 |month=Novemba |pmid=16214343 |doi=10.1016/j.tibs.2005.09.006}}</ref> Aina ya hizi athari huamuliwa na kwa makundi haya kwenye minyororo ya upande na kwa hivyo ni tofauti kati ya aina mbalimbali za asidi amino. [[Picha:Strecker Amino Acid Synthesis Scheme.png|thumb|400px|left|The Strecker amino acid synthesis|Alt = kwa hatua katika mmenyuko, angalia maandishi.]] === Usanisi wa kemikali === Mbinu kadhaa zipo za kusanisi asidi amino. Moja ya mbinu kongwe, huanza na kuongezwa kwa bromidikatika kaboni-α ya asidi ya kaboksili. Kubadilisha niuklofili na [[amonia]] nayo hubadilisha alkili bromidi kuwa asidi amino.<ref>{{cite book |last=McMurry |first=John |title=Organic chemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry0000mcmu_t5f0 |publisher=Brooks/Cole |location=Pacific Grove, CA, USA |year=1996 |page=[https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry0000mcmu_t5f0/page/1064 1064] |isbn=0-534-23832-7}}</ref> Vinginevyo, usanisi wa asidi amino Strecker unahusisha matibabu ya alidehaidi na potasiamu sianidi na amonia, hii hutoa amino nitrili α kama cha kati. Hidrolisisi ya nitrili katika asidi hutoa asidi amino α.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Adolph |last1=Strecker |authorlink1=Adolph Strecker |title=Ueber die künstliche Bildung der Milchsäure und einen neuen, dem Glycocoll homologen Körper |journal=Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie |year=1850 |volume=75 |issue=1 |doi=10.1002/jlac.18500750103 |pages=27–45}}</ref> Kutumia amonia au chumvi za amonia katika mmenyuko huu inatoa asidi amino ambazo hazikubadilishana, wakati kubadilisha amini za msingi na upili kutatoa asidi amino zilizobadilishwa.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Adolph |last1=Strecker |authorlink1=Adolph Strecker |title=Ueber einen neuen aus Aldehyd - Ammoniak und Blausäure entstehenden Körper |journal=Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie |year=1854 |volume=91 |issue=3 |doi=10.1002/jlac.18540910309 |pages=349–51}}</ref> Kadhalika, kutumia ketoni, badala ya aldehidi, inatoa α, asidi amino α zilizobadilishwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Masumoto S, Usuda H, Suzuki M, Kanai M, Shibasaki M |title=Catalytic enantioselective Strecker reaction of ketoimines |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=125 |issue=19 |pages=5634–5 |year=2003 |month=Mei |pmid=12733893 |doi=10.1021/ja034980}}</ref> Usanisi wa awali unatoa mchanganyiko rasimu wa asidi amino α kama mavuno, lakini taratibu kadhaa mbadala kwa kutumia mbinu saidizi zisopacha <ref>{{cite journal |last=Davis |first=F. A. |journal=[[Tetrahedron Letters]] |year=1994 |volume=35 |page=9351}}</ref> au vichocheo visopacha <ref>{{cite journal |first1=Haruro |last1=Ishitani |first2=Susumu |last2=Komiyama |first3=Yoshiki |last3=Hasegawa |first4=Shū |last4=Kobayashi |title=Catalytic Asymmetric Strecker Synthesis. Preparation of Enantiomerically Pure α-Amino Acid Derivatives from Aldimines and Tributyltin Cyanide or Achiral Aldehydes, Amines, and Hydrogen Cyanide Using a Chiral Zirconium Catalyst |journal= Journal of the American Chemical Society |year=2000 |volume=122 |issue=5 |pages=762–6 |doi=10.1021/ja9935207}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Jinkun |last1=Huang |first2=E. J. |last2=Corey |title=A New Chiral Catalyst for the Enantioselective Strecker Synthesis of α-Amino Acids |journal=Orgic Letters |year=2004 |volume=62 |issue=6 |pages=5027–9 |doi=10.1021/ol047698w |pmid=15606127}}</ref>vimeundwa.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Rudolf O. |last1=Duthaler |journal=Tetrahedron |year=1994 |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=1539–1650 |doi=10.1016/S0040-4020(01)80840-1 |title=Recent developments in the stereoselective synthesis of α-aminoacids|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_tetrahedron_1994-02-07_50_6/page/n11 }}</ref> Kwa sasa njia inayotumika sana ni usanisi kwa kutumia mashine iliyo na nguzo imara (km shanga za polistirini), kwa kutumia makundi ya kulinda la (kwa mfano, t-Boc) na Fmoc na vikundi viamilishaji (mfano DCC na DIC). === Kuundwa kwa kiunganishi cha Peptidi === [[Picha:Peptidformationball.svg|thumbnail|right|400px|The condensation of two amino acids to form a peptide bond|Alt = asidi amino mbili zimeonyeshwa karibu na kila mmoja. Moja hupoteza hidrojeni na oksijeni kutoka kwa kundi lake la kaboksili (COOH) na nyingine hupoteza hidrojeni kutoka kwa kundi lake la amino (NH2). Mmenyuko huu hutoa molekuli ya maji (h2o) na asidi amino mbili zilizounganishwa na kiunganishi peptidi (-CO-NH-). Asidi amino mbili zilizojiunga huitwa dipeptidi.]] Kwa kuwa vikundi vyote viwili vya asidi ya kaboksili na amaini vya asidi amino vinaweza kuathiriwa na kuunda viunganishi vya amaidi, molekuli moja ya asidi amino inaweza kuathiriwa na nyingine na kujiunga nayo na kuunda muungano wa amaidi. Huu upolimishaji wa asidi amino ni ndio unaounda protini. Huu mtonesho wa kutonesha unazaa kiunganishi cha peptidi na molekuli ya maji. Katika seli, mwitikio huu hautokei moja kwa moja, badala yake asidi amino kwanza huchochewa kwa kufungiliwa kwa molekuli hamishi yaRNA kupitia kwa kiunganishi cha esta. Hii aminoasili tRNA huzalishwa katika mwitikio unaotegemea ATP unaofanywa na asidi amino tRNA sanisifu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ibba M, Söll D |title=The renaissance of aminoacyl-tRNA synthesis |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=382–7 |year=2001 |month=Mei |pmid=11375928 |pmc=1083889 |doi=10.1093/embo-reports/kve095 |doi_brokendate=2010-02-18 |url=http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v2/n5/full/embor420.html}}</ref> Aminoasili-tRNA hii huwa tena ni sabstreti ya ribosomu, ambayo huchochea ya mashambulizi ya kundi la amino la kurefusha mnyororo wa protini kwa kiunganishi cha esta.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lengyel P, Söll D |title=Mechanism of protein biosynthesis |journal=Bacteriological Reviews |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=264–301 |year=1969 |month=Juni |pmid=4896351 |pmc=378322 |url=http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=4896351}}</ref> Kutokana na utaratibu huu, protini zote zinazotengezwa na ribosomu husanisiwa kuanzia kituo chao cha N na kusonga kuelekea kituo chao cha C. Hata hivyo, si viunganishi vyote hutengenezwa kwa njia hii. Katika kesi chache, peptidi husanisiwa na vimeng'enya maalum. Kwa mfano, glutathioni tripeptidi ni sehemu muhimu ya ulinzi wa seli dhidi ya dhiki ya uoksidishaji. Peptidi huundwa kutoka katika asidi amino huru kwa hatua mbili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wu G, Fang YZ, Yang S, Lupton JR, Turner ND |title=Glutathione metabolism and its implications for health |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=134 |issue=3 |pages=489–92 |year=2004 |month=Machi |pmid=14988435 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=14988435}}</ref> Katika hatua ya kwanza gamma-glutamilisistini sinthetesi hutonesha sistini na asidi ya glutamiki kupitia kwa kiunganishi cha peptidi kilichoundwa kati ya mnyororo wa upande wa kaboksili wa glutameti(kaboni ya gama ya mnyororo huu) na kundi la amino la sistini. Dipeptidi hii basi hutoneshwa na glisini na sinthetesi glutathioni kuunda glutathioni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Meister A |title=Glutathione metabolism and its selective modification |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=263 |issue=33 |pages=17205–8 |year=1988 |month=Novemba |pmid=3053703 |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3053703 |access-date=2010-11-30 |archive-date=2020-06-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610200802/https://www.jbc.org/content/263/33/17205.long |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Katika kemia, peptidi husanisiwa kupitia m mbalimbali. Moja kati ya sanisi za peptidi za awamu-mango zinazotumika sana, ambayo inatumia vitu vinavyotokana na oksime ya kunukia ya asidi amino kama vipande vilivyooamilishwa. Hizi huongezwa kwa mlolongo unaokua kwenye mnyororo wa peptidi, ambayo imeshikanishwa na utomvu imara.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Louis A. |last1=Carpino |year=1992 |title=1-Hydroxy-7-azabenzotriazole. An efficient peptide coupling additive |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=115 |pages=4397–8 |doi=10.1021/ja00063a082 |issue=10}}</ref> Uwezo wa kusanisi idadi kubwa ya peptidi tofauti kwa kubadilisha aina tofauti na utaratibu wa asidi amino (kutumia kemia ya kuunganisha) imefanya usanisi wa peptidi kuwa muhimu katika kujenga maktaba ya peptidi kwa matumizi ya ugunduzi wa madawa kwa njia ya uchunguzi hali ya juu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Marasco D, Perretta G, Sabatella M, Ruvo M |title=Past and future perspectives of synthetic peptide libraries |journal=Current Protein & Peptide Science |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=447–67 |year=2008 |month=Oktoba |pmid=18855697 |doi=10.2174/138920308785915209}}</ref> === Biosanisi na ukataboli === Katika mimea, nitrojeni kwanza hulishizwa kwenda kwa misombo ya kikaboni katika mfumo wa glutemeti, hutengenezwa kutoka kwa alfa-ketoglutareti na amonia katika mitokondria. Ili kuunda asidi amino nyingine, mmea hutumia transaminasi kusongesha kikundi cha amino kwenda kwa asidi alfa-keto kaboksili nyingine. Kwa mfano, aminotransferasi aspartati hubadilisha glutameti na oksaloasetati kuwa alfa-ketoglutareti na asparteti.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jones, Russell Celyn; Buchanan, Bob B.; Gruissem, Wilhelm |title=Biochemistry & molecular biology of plants |publisher=American Society of Plant Physiologists |location=Rockville, Md |year=2000 |pages=371–2 |isbn=0-943088-39-9}}</ref> Viumbe wengine hutumia transaminasi kwa usanisi wa asidi amino pia. Transaminasi pia hushiriki katika kuvunja asidi amino. Udhalilishaji wa asidi amino mara nyingi unahusisha kusongesha kundi lake la amino kwenda kwa alfa-ketoglutareti na kutengeneza glutameti. Katika wanyama wenye uti wa mgongo wengi, kikundi cha amino kisha huondolewa kwa njia ya mzunguko wa urea na kisha kuondolewa mwlilini kwa fomu ya urea. Hata hivyo, uharibifu wa asidi amino unaweza kutoa asidi mkojo au amonia badala yake. Kwa mfano, kiondoa-oksijeni serini hubadilisha serini kuwa piruvati na amonia.<ref>{{cite book |author=Stryer, Lubert; Berg, Jeremy Mark; Tymoczko, John L. |title=Biochemistry |url=https://archive.org/details/biochemistry200100jere |publisher=W.H. Freeman |location=San Francisco |year=2002 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/biochemistry200100jere/page/641 639]–49 |isbn=0-7167-4684-0}}</ref> Asidi amino zisizo za kawaida hutengenezwa kwa kubadilishwa kwa asidi amino za kawaida. Kwa mfano, homosisteini hutengezwa kwa kusongeshwa njia ya sulfuri kwa njia ya kutolewa kwa methili kutoka kwa methionini kupitia kwa kimetaboli kati S-adenosili methionini,<ref name="Brosnan">{{cite journal |author=Brosnan JT, Brosnan ME |title=The sulfur-containing amino acids: an overview |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=136 |issue=6 Suppl |pages=1636S–1640S |year=2006 |month=Juni |pmid=16702333 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16702333}}</ref> wakati hidroksiprolini hutengezwa na kubadilishwa kwa [[proline]] baada ya kutafsiriwa ya <ref>{{cite journal |author=Kivirikko KI, Pihlajaniemi T |title=Collagen hydroxylases and the protein disulfide isomerase subunit of prolyl 4-hydroxylases |journal=Advances in Enzymology and Related Areas of Molecular Biology |volume=72 |issue= |pages=325–98 |year=1998 |pmid=9559057}}</ref> Vidubini na mimea inaweza kusanisi asidi amino nyingi zisizo za kawaida. Kwa mfano, baadhi ya vijiumbe maradhi hutengeza asidi amino sobutiriki-2 na lanthionini, ambayo imetokana na sulfidi ya alanini. Asidi amino hizi zote mbili zinapatikana katika lantibiotiki peptidi kama vile alamethisini.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Whitmore L, Wallace BA |title=Analysis of peptaibol sequence composition: implications for in vivo synthesis and channel formation |journal=European Biophysics Journal |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=233–7 |year=2004 |month=Mei |pmid=14534753 |doi=10.1007/s00249-003-0348-1}}</ref> Ilihali katika mimea, asidi amino saiklopropani-1-kaboksili ni asidi ndogo iliyobadilishwa ya asidi amino ya mzunguko, ambayo ni muhimu katika uzalishaji homoni kati ya mmea ya ethilini.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Alexander L, Grierson D |title=Ethylene biosynthesis and action in tomato: a model for climacteric fruit ripening |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-experimental-botany_2002-10_53_377/page/2039 |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |volume=53 |issue=377 |pages=2039–55 |year=2002 |month=Oktoba |pmid=12324528 |doi=10.1093/jxb/erf072}}</ref> == Sifa za kemikali za asidi amino == Asidi amino 20 zinazopatikana kiasili zinaweza kugawanywa katika makundi mbalimbali kulingana na sifa zao. Sababu muhimu ni chaji, kiwango cha kupenda maji au kukwepa maji, ukubwa na vikundi vya kazi <ref name="Creighton"/> . Hizi sifa ni muhimu kwa mfumo wa protini mwingiliano wa protini na protini. Protini mumunyifu kwa maji zinaelekea kuwa na mabaki yao ya kukwepamaji (Leu, Ile, Val, Phe na Trp) kuzikwa katikati ya protini, ilhali minyororo ya kupendamaji hufunuliwa kwa kiyeyusho cha majimaji. Utando wa muhimu wa protini mara nyingi huwa na pete za asidi amino za kukwepamaji iliyoonyeshwa wazi ambazo huzitia nanga katika rusu mbili ya lipidi ya. Katika sehemu ya kesi kati ya njia mbili tofauti sana, baadhi ya tando za protini za pembeni huwa na kiraka cha asidi amino za kukwepamaji juu ya uso wao ambacho hushikilia kwa utando. Vile vile, protini ambazo hufaa kushikilia kwa molekuli zenye chaji chanya huwa na asidi amino zenye chaji hasi kwenye nyuso zao kama vile glutameti na aspartati, wakati protini zinazofaa kushikilia kwa molekuli zenye chaji hasi huwa na nyuso zenye minyororo chaji chanya kama vile lisini na ajinini. Kuna mizani tofauti ya kukwepamaji ya mabaki ya asidi amino.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Dan W. |last1=Urry |title=The change in Gibbs free energy for hydrophobic association: Derivation and evaluation by means of inverse temperature transitions |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chemical-physics-letters_2004-11-21_399_1-3/page/177 |journal=Chemical Physics Letters |volume=399 |issue=1–3 |pages=177–83 |year=2004 |doi=10.1016/S0009-2614(04)01565-9}}</ref> Baadhi ya asidi amino huwa na sifa za kipekee kama vile seistini, ambayo huweza kutengeneza kiunganishi chenye kugawanyika cha sulfudi na mabaki mengine ya seistini, prolini ambayo inaunda mzunguko kwa uti wa mgongo wa polipeptidi, na glisini ambayo ni rahisi kubadilika zaidi kuliko asidi amino nyingine. Protini nyingi hupitia mabadliko mengi ya muundo baada ya kutafsiriwa, wakati makundi ya ziada ya kemikali yanaposhikanishwa na asidi amino katika protini. Baadhi ya mabadiliko yanaweza kuzalisha lipoprotini za kukwepamaji,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Magee T, Seabra MC |title=Fatty acylation and prenylation of proteins: what's hot in fat |journal=Current Opinion in Cell Biology |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=190–6 |year=2005 |month=Aprili |pmid=15780596 |doi=10.1016/j.ceb.2005.02.003}}</ref> au glikoprotini za kupendamaji.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pilobello KT, Mahal LK |title=Deciphering the glycocode: the complexity and analytical challenge of glycomics |journal=Current Opinion in Chemical Biology |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=300–5 |year=2007 |month=Juni |pmid=17500024 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.05.002}}</ref> Mabadiliko ya aina hii yaruhusu kulenga kunakoweza kurejeshwa kwa protini kwa utando. Kwa mfano, kuongezwa na kuondolewa kwa asidi yenye mafuta ya asidi ya kiganja kwa mabaki ya seistini katika protini fulani za kuashiria husababisha protini kujiambatanisha na kisha kujitenga kutoka katika utando wa seli.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Smotrys JE, Linder ME |title=Palmitoylation of intracellular signaling proteins: regulation and function |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-biochemistry_2004_73/page/559 |journal=Annual Review of Biochemistry |volume=73 |issue= |pages=559–87 |year=2004 |pmid=15189153 |doi=10.1146/annurev.biochem.73.011303.073954}}</ref> === Orodha ya vifupisho na sifa za asidi amino za kawaida === {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Asidi amino ! 3-Herufi<ref name="Hausman"/> ! Herufi-1<ref name="Hausman"/> ! Mnyororo wa upande:Upola <ref name="Hausman">{{cite book |author=Hausman, Robert E.; Cooper, Geoffrey M. |title=The cell: a molecular approach |publisher=ASM Press |location=Washington, D.C |year=2004 |page=51 |isbn=0-87893-214-3}}</ref> ! Chaji ya Mnyororo wa upande (pH 7.4)<ref name="Hausman"/> ! Kielelezo cha Hidropatiki<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kyte J, Doolittle RF |title=A simple method for displaying the hydropathic character of a protein |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-molecular-biology_1982-05-05_157_1/page/105 |journal=Journal of Molecular Biology |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=105–32 |year=1982 |month=Mei |pmid=7108955 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(82)90515-0}}</ref> ! Λ Uwezo wa Kufyonza _juu(nm)<ref name="Freifelder"/> ! ε katikaλ _juu (X10 ^-3 M^-1cm^-1)<ref name="Freifelder">{{cite book | title=Physical Biochemistry| url=https://archive.org/details/physicalbiochemi0000frei| edition=2nd| author = Freifelder, D.| publisher=W. H. Freeman and Company| isbn=0-7167-1315-2 | year=1983}}{{pn}}</ref> |- align="center" | Alanini | Ala | A. | iso pola | sio na sifa zinazobainika | 1.8 | | |- align="center" | Arginini | Arg | R | pola | chanya | -4.5 | | |- align="center" | Asparagini | Asn | N | pola | sio na sifa zinazobainika | -3.5 | | |- align="center" | Asidi Aspartiki | ASP | D | pola | hasi | -3.5 | | |- align="center" | Sisteini | Cys | C | iso pola | sio na sifa zinazobainika | 2.5 | 250 | 0.3 |- align="center" | Asidi ya glutamiki | Glu | E | pola | hasi | -3.5 | | |- align="center" | Glutamini | Gln | Q | pola | sio na sifa zinazobainika | -3.5 | | |- align="center" | Glisini | Gly | G | iso pola | sio na sifa zinazobainika | -0.4 | | |- align="center" | Histidini | His | H | pola | chanya (10%) zisizobainika (90%) | -3.2 | 211 | 5.9 | | |- align="center" | Isoleusini | Ile | I | iso pola | sio na sifa zinazobainika | 4.5 | | |- align="center" | Leusini | Leu | L | iso pola | sio na sifa zinazobainika | 3.8 | | |- align="center" | Lisini | Lys | K | pola | chanya | -3.9 | | |- align="center" | Methionini | Met | M | iso pola | sio na sifa zinazobainika | 1.9 | | |- align="center" | Fenilalanini | Phe | F | Iso pola | sio na sifa zinazobainika | 2.8 | 257, 206, 188 | 0.2, 9.3, 60.0 | | - align="center" | Prolini Pro | P | iso pola sio na sifa zinazobainika | -1.6 | | - align="center" | Serini Ser | S pola sio na sifa zinazobainika | -0.8 | | - align="center" | Threonini | Thr | T pola sio na sifa zinazobainika | -0.7 | | - align="center" | Triptofani | Trp W | iso pola sio na sifa zinazobainika | -0.9 | 280, 219 | 5.6, 47.0 | | - align="center" | Tirosini | Tyr | Y pola sio na sifa zinazobainika | −1.3 | 274, 222, 193 | 1.4, 8.0, 48.0 | | - align="center" | Valini | Val | V | iso pola sio na sifa zinazobainika | 4.2 | | |) |} Zaidi ya hayo, kuna asidi amino mbili za ziada ambazo zinajumuishwa kwa kutotilia manaani kodoni za kuacha: {| class="wikitable" ! asidi amino ya 21 na 22 ! Herufi-3 ! Herufi-1 |- align="center" | Selenosisteini | Sec | U |- align="center" | Pirolisini | Pyl | O |} Mbali na mfumo maalum za asidi amino, vishikilia sehemu hutumika katika kesi ambapo uchambuzi wa kemikali au wa chembechembe za peptidi au wa protini hauwezi kuamua kikamilifu utambulisho wa mabaki. {| class="wikitable" ! Asidi amino zenye utata ! Herufi-3 ! Herufi-1 |- align="center" | Asparagini au asidi aspartiki | Asx | B |- align="center" | Glutamini au asidi glutamiki | Glx | Z |- align="center" | Leusini au Isoleusini | Xle | J |- align="center" | Isoelezewa au asidi amino isojulikana | Xaa | X |} '''Unk''' wakati mwingine hutumiwa badala ya '''Xaa,''' lakini si kawaida. Zaidi ya hayo, nyingi zisizo za kawa asidi amino kuwa na mfumo maalum. Kwa mfano, dawa kadhaa za peptidi, kama vile Bortezomibi au MG132 ni zimesanisiwa kibandia na uhifadhi vikundi vyao vya kulinda, ambavyo vina mfumo maalum. Bortezomibi ni Pyz-Phe-boroLeu na MG132 ni Z-Leu-Leu-Leu-al. Zaidi ya hayo, ili kusaidia katika uchambuzi wa mfumo wa protini, mifano ya kuunganisha kwa asidi amino inapatikana. Hizi ni pamoja na fotoleusini '''(pLeu)''' na fotomethionini '''(pMet).''' <ref>{{cite journal |author=Suchanek M, Radzikowska A, Thiele C |title=Photo-leucine and photo-methionine allow identification of protein-protein interactions in living cells |journal=Nature Methods |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=261–7 |year=2005 |month=Aprili |pmid=15782218 |doi=10.1038/nmeth752}}</ref> == Tanbihi == {{Marejeo|colwidth=30em}} == Marejeo == * Doolittle, RF (1989) Vitu visivyohitajika katika Utaratibu wa protini. Katika ''utabiri wa Muundo wa protini na Kanuni za kuwiana kwa protini'' (Fasman, G.D ed) Plenum Press, New York, uk 599-623. * David L. Nelson na Michael M. Cox, ''Kanuni za Biokemia chake Lehninger ,'' toleo la 3, 2000, Worth Publishers, ISBN 1-57259-153-6 * Meierhenrich, UJ: ''Asidi amino na kutokuwa pacha kwa maisha,'' Springer-Verlag, Berlin, New York, 2008. ISBN 978-3-540-76885-2 * Morelli, Robert J. "Mafunzo ya kufyonzwa kwa asidi amino kutoka utumbo mdogo. " San Francisco: Morelli, 1952. == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.aminoacidsguide.com/ Muhtasari wa asidi amino] sifa za kimaumbile-kemia , miundo ya 3D, nk * [http://www.unc.edu/~bzafer/aminoacids/ Orodha ya asidi amino za kawaida] {{Wayback|url=http://www.unc.edu/~bzafer/aminoacids/ |date=20101110124343 }} Orodha ya undani ya PDF ya asidi amino za kawaida (ikiwa ni pamoja na picha za 3D) * [http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/ Mfano kwa majina na picha ya asidi amino na Peptidi] IUPAC-IUB Tume ya Pamoja ya majina ya Bayokeia (JCBN) * [http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/aminoacids/index.html Maelezo ya Masi: Ukusanyaji wa Asidi Amino] - Ina taarifa za kina na picha za darubini za asidi amino. * [http://www.russell.embl.de/aas/ Sifa za Asidi amino] {{Wayback|url=http://www.russell.embl.de/aas/ |date=20070927001521 }} - Sifa za asidi amino (chombo kinachowalenga wanasayansi wa jeni za molekuli wanaojaribu kuelewa maana ya mabadiliko) * [http://www.organic-chemistry.org/synthesis/C1C/nitrogen/alpha-amino-acids2.shtm Usanisi wa asidi amino na minyambuliko yao] * [http://www.mathiasbader.de/studium/biology/index.php?lng=en Jifunze juu ya asidi amino proteinojeniki 20 kwa mtandao] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mathiasbader.de/studium/biology/index.php?lng=en |date=20101029232236 }} * [http://www.biology.arizona.edu/biochemistry/problem_sets/aa/Dayhoff.html Asili ya mfumo wa herufi moja ya asidi ya amino] * [http://www2.iq.usp.br/docente/gutz/Curtipot_.html PH ya mchanganyiko wa Asidi amino, kuchanganya kwa kemikali na hesabu ya ncha ya isoelektriki ] {{Wayback|url=http://www2.iq.usp.br/docente/gutz/Curtipot_.html |date=20190126143238 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Asidi amino}} [[Jamii:Kemia]] 3y9axqzawkvbb40v63retkixw1ik9d7 0 55727 1580146 1578162 2026-07-18T00:34:46Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580146 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|bongo za kila aina ya wanyama, hata binadamu|maelezo kuhusu ubongo wa binadamu|Ubongo wa binadamu|}} [[Picha:Chimp Brain in a jar.jpg|thumb|250px|alt=A brain floating in a liquid-filled glass jar. Yellowing of the handwritten labels on the jar give the object an antique appearance.|Ubongo wa sokwe.]] [[Picha:Brain Anatomy.png|alt=|thumb|250x250px|Ubongo wa binadamu.]] [[Picha:Brain-anatomy.jpg|thumb|Mgawanyo wa ubongo.]] '''Ubongo''' ndio kiini cha [[mfumo wa neva]] katika [[wanyama]] wote wenye [[ugwemgongo]], na wengi wa wanyama wasio na ugwemgongo.<ref name="Shepard"> Shepherd, ''Neurobiology'' </ref> Baadhi ya wanyama wasiositawi, kama vile [[konyeza]] na kiti cha [[pweza]], wana mfumo wa [[neva]] uliogatuliwa bila ubongo, huku [[tipwatipwa]] wa [[bahari]] wakikosa mfumo wa neva kabisa. Katika wanyama wenye ugwemgongo, ubongo umo katika [[kichwa]] ukilindwa na [[mifupa]] ya [[fuvu]] na ukiwa karibu na viungo vya [[hisia]] za msingi yaani kuona, kusikia, kugusa, [[ladha]] na [[harufu]]. Ubongo unaweza kuwa changamani sana. [[Gamba la ubongo]] wa [[binadamu]] lina takribani [[neuroni]] [[bilioni]] 15-33, labda zaidi, kutegemea [[jinsia]] na [[umri]],<ref> Pelvig et al., 2008</ref> zilizounganishwa na takribani miunganiko ya [[sinapsi]] 10,000 kila mmoja. Kila milimita ya kizio cha ukubwa wa gamba la ubongo lina takribani sinapsi bilioni moja.<ref> AlonsoNanclares et al., 2008</ref> Neuroni hizi huwasiliana na nyingine kwa njia ya fumwele ndefu za protoplazimu ziitwazo akzoni, ambazo hubeba mifuatano ya mipigo ya vichocheo vitwavyo matendo tarajiwa kuelekea sehemu mbali za ubongo au mwili na kulenga seli maalumu itakazovipokea. Ubongo hudhibiti mifumo mingine ya viungo vingine vya mwili, iwe kwa kusisimua [[misuli]] au kwa kusababisha kutolewa kwa kemikali kama vile [[homoni]] ambayo ni homoni ya [[pituitari]]. Udhibiti huu kutoka mahali moja unaruhusu majibu ya haraka na yaliyoratibiwa kwa mabadiliko katika mazingira. Baadhi ya mwitikio wa kimsingi inawezekana bila ubongo: hata viumbe walio na chembe moja wanaweza kufasiri yaliyo katika mazingira na kutenda kulingana na mabadiliko hayo.<ref> Gehring, 2005</ref> Tipwatipwa wa bahari, wasio na mfumo mkuu wa neva, wanaweza kujikunyata na hata kusonga kwa namana iliyotibiwa.<ref> Nickel, 2002</ref> Katika wauti, uti wa mgongo wenyewe una viungo vya neva vinavyoweza kuanzisha tendohiaria pamoja na kuelekeza mifumo rahisi ya kusonga kama vile kuogelea au kutembea.<ref> Grillner &amp; Wallén, 2002</ref> Hata hivyo, udhibiti changamani wa tabia kwa msingi ya mchango wa hisia tete unahitaji uwezo-unganishaji wa ubongo wa kati. Licha ya maendeleo ya kasi ya sayansi, mengi kuhusu jinsi ubongo unavyofanya kazi bado ni siri. Majukumu ya neva na sinapsi zikiwa pekee sasa inaeleweka kwa undani makubwa, lakini jinsi yanavyoshirikiana katika majumuia ya maelfu au mamilioni imekuwa vigumu sana fumbua. Mbinu za uchunguzi kama vile unakili wa EEG na upigaji picha ubongo unaofanya kazi umetuambia kwamba utendaji wa ubongo unatendeka kwa utaratibu sana, huku kunakili kitengo kimoja kukiweza kufichua shughuli za neva moja, jinsi chembe moja inavyo inavyochangia michakato changamani haijulikani.<ref> Sejnowski, ''23 Problems in Systems Neuroscience'' </ref> == Muundo Hadubini == Ubongo ndio umbile la kibayolojia changamani zaidi inayojulikana,<ref> Shepherd, ''Neurobiology,'' uk. 3</ref> na kulinganisha bongo za spishi mbalimbali kwa msingi wa jinsi zinavyoonekana aghalabu ni vigumu. Hata hivyo, kuna kanuni za kawaida ya muundo wa ubongo zinazotumika kote katika spishi mbalimbali. Hizi huwekwa wazi hasa kwa njia tatu. Mbinu ya mageuko inamaanisha kulinganisha miundo ua bongo za spishi mbalimbali, na kwa kutumia kanuni kwamba mionekano inayopatikana katika matawi yote ambayo alipokelewa kutoka kwa muundo fulani wa kale na kwamba pengine ilikuwa katika watangulizi. Mbinu ya ukuaji ina maananisha kuchunguza jinsi umbo la ubongo unavyobadiliko ya wakati wa ukuaji kutoka kipindi cha kiinitete hadi utu uzima. Mbinu ya kijenetiki ina maanisha kuchunguza jeni zinazopatikana katika maeneo mbalimbali ya ubongo miongoni mwa spishi anuwai. Kila mbinu hukamilisha nyingine na huchangia hayo mengine mawili. === Wenzipacha === [[Picha:Bilaterian-plan.svg|thumb|right|alt=A rod-shaped body contains a digestive system running from the mouth at one end to the anus at the other. Alongside the digestive system is a nerve cord with a brain at the end, near to the mouth. |Mfumo wa neva wa mnyama mwenye uenzipacha, katika mfumo wa kamba ya neva na vivimbe vya vipingili, na "ubongo" ukiwa mbele]] Isipokuwa aina chache za tipwatipwa na konyeza wasiostawi, wanyama wote wenye uhai wana wenzipacha, kumaanisha wanyama walio na maumbo ya miili iliyo linganifu (yaani, pande za kushoto na kulia ni karibu taswira akisi ya kila moja).<ref name="Urbilateria"/> Wenzipacha wote wanadhaniwa kuwa walitokana na mhenga mmoja aliyeishi mapema katika kipindi cha Kambria, miaka milioni 550-600 iliyopita.<ref name="Urbilateria"> Balavoine &amp; Adoutte, 2003</ref> Mhenga huyo alikuwa na umbo neli la mnyoo sahili mwenye mwili uliokuwa na mikato, katika kiwango cha kidhahania, umbo hilo kama la mnyoo unaendelea kujitokeza katika mwili na mfumo wa neva wa wanyama wenzipacha wa kisasa, ikiwa ni pamoja na binadamu.<ref> Schmidt-Rhaesa, ''Evolution of Organ Systems,'' uk. 110</ref> Umbo la kimsingi la mwili enzipacha ni neli iliyo na kijishimo wazi cha utumbu kinachotoka mdomoni hadi kwenye mkundu, na ukano wa neva ulio na uvimbe (''ganglioni'') kwa kila sehemu ya mwili, huku kukiwa na ganglioni mahsusi kubwa mbele, iitwayo ''ubongo''. === wasouti === [[Picha:Drosophila melanogaster - side (aka).jpg|thumb|right|alt=A fly resting on a reflective surface. A large, red eye faces the camera. The body appears transparent, apart from black pigment at the end of its abdomen. |Drosofila]] Kwa wasouti (k.m, wadudu, konokono, minyoo, n.k) sehemu za ubongo hutofautiana sana na muundo wa wauti hivi kwamba ni vigumu kufanya ulinganishi wowote wa maana isipokuwa kwa misingi ya jenetiki. Makundi mawili ya wasouti hasa yana bongo changamani: [[Arithropodi|athropoda]] ([[Wadudu|wadudu]], krasteshia, [[Arakinida|araknida]], na wengine), na sefalopoda ( pweza, ngisi, na moluska )wengine kama hao.<ref name="butler"> Butler, 2000</ref> Ubongo wa athropoda na sefalopoda huchimbuka kutoka katika kano mbili sambamba za neva zinazosambaa kote katika mwili wa mnyama. Athropoda wana ubongo mmoja kuu ulio na tabaka tatu na ''ndewe za macho'' kubwa nyuma ya kila [[jicho]] kwa uchakataji maono.<ref name="butler"/> Sefalopoda wana bongo kubwa zaidi kati ya wasouti wote. Ubongo wa pweza hasa umesitawi sana, unalinganika kwa uchangamano na ubongo wa baadhi ya wauti. Kuna <span class="goog-gtc-fnr-highlight">wasouti</span> wachache sana ambao bongo zao zimetafitiwa kwa makini. Babaje mkubwa wa bahari wa ''Aplisia'' alichaguliwa na mshinda wa Tuzo Nobel mwanafiziolojia Eric Kandel, kwa sababu ya usahili na upatikanaji wa mfumo wake wa neva, kama mfano wa kutafiti chembe kama msingi wa kujifunza na kumbukumbu, na ukafanyiwa mamia ya majaribio.<ref> Kandel, ''In Search of Memory'' </ref> Bongo za wasouti zilizotafitiwa kwa undani zaidi, hata hivyo, ni za nzi-tunda ''Drosofila'' na minyoo wadogo sana ''Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans).'' Kwa sababu ya aina nyingi ya mbinu za kutafiti jenetiki zao, nzi-tunda wamekuwa watafitiwa asili katika majukumu ya kutafiti jeni na ukuaji wa ubongo.<ref> Flybrain web site</ref> Inashangaza kuwa, vipengele vingi vya nyurojenetiki ya ''Drosofila'' yametambuliwa kuwa muhimu kwa binadamu. Jeni za kwanza za majira ya kibayolojoa, kwa mfano, yalitambuliwa kwa kuchunguza ''Drosofila'' zilizobadilika zilioonyesha kuvurugwa kwa mpangilio wa shughuli za kila siku.<ref> Konopka &amp; Benzer, 1971</ref> Uchunguzi katika jinomu za wauti uligundua jozi linganifu za jeni, zilizopatikana kutekeleza majukumu sawa katika majira ya kibayolojia ya panya-na hiyo kwa uhakika wa kiwango kikubwa katika majira ya kibayolojia ya binadamu pia.<ref> Shin et al., 1985</ref> Sawa na ''Drosofila,'' mnyoo nematoda ''C. elegans'' umechunguzwa kwa kiasi kikubwa kwa sababu ya umuhimu wake katika jenetiki.<ref> WormBook mtandao</ref> Mapema miaka ya 1970, Sydney Brenner aliuchagua kama mfano elekezi kwa kuchunguzia jinsi jeni hudhibiti ukuaji. Moja ya faida za kufanya kazi na mnyoo huu ni kwamba mpangilio wa mwili wake ni wa kawaida: mfumo wa neva wenye umbo huntha una neuroni 302 kamili, neuroni kila mara huwa katika sehemu sawa, na hufanya miungano yakufanana ya sinapsi katika kila mnyoo.<ref> Hobert, ''WormBook'' </ref> Katika mradi wa kishujaa, kikosi cha Brenner kilimpasua mnyoo kuwa maelfu ya sehemu nyembamba zaidi na kupiga picha kila sehemu ya chini ya hadubini meme, kisha kwa kutazama akalinganisha fumwele kutoka sehemu moja na sehemu nyingi, ili kuonyesha kila neuroni na sinapsi katika mwili mzima.<ref> White et al,. 1986</ref> Hakuna kinachokaribia ngazi hii ya utondoti kuhusu viumbe wengine wowote, na ujumbe huo umetumika kuwezesha tafiti kadhaa ambayo haingewezekana bila utafiti huo. === wauti === [[Picha:Shark brain.png|thumb|right|alt=A T-shaped object is made up of the cord at the bottom which feeds into a lower central mass. This is topped by a larger central mass with an arm extending from either side. |Ubongo wa papa]] Bongo za wauti zimeundwa kwa tishu laini sana, ikiwa na na texture ambao imelinganishwa na Jell-O.<ref>[21] ^ ''Principles of neural science,'' Sur. 17</ref> Tishu ya ubongo hai ni ya rangi waridi kwa nje na nyeupe kwa wingi ndani, huku kukia na mabadiliko utofauti mdogo wa rangi. Bongo za wauti zimezungukwa kwa mfumo wa tandu za tishu unganishi ziitwazo meninji zinazo tofautisha fuvu na ubongo.<ref name="CarpenterCh1"> ''Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy,'' Sur. 1</ref> Kifuniko hiki chenye safu tatu kinajumuisha (kutoka nje) dura mama ("mama mgumu"), mama araknoida ("mama mwembamba"), na mama pia ("mama laini "). Araknoida na pia zimeshikana kimaumbo na hivyo huchukuliwa kuwa safu moja, ya pia-araknoida. Chini ya araknoida kuna nafasi ya araknoida ndogo ambayo ina ugiligili wa ubongo na uti wa mgongo (CSF), ambayo huzunguka katika nafasi nyembamba kati ya chembechembe na penyu ziitwazo ventrikali, jukumu lake ni kurutubisha, kukimu, na kulinda tishu za ubongo. Mishipa ya damu huingia mfumo mkuu wa neva kupitia nafasi isiyo na mishipa juu ya mama pia. Chembe katika kuta za mishipa ya damu zimeshikana kwa nguvu sana, na hivyo kuunda mpaka wa damu na ubongo ambayo huilinda ubongo dhidi ya sumu inayoweza kuingia kupitia damu. wauti wa kwanza walionekana zaidi ya miaka milioni 500 iliyopita (mmi ), katika kipindi cha Kambri, na huenda walifanana kwa kiasi fulani na umbo la kisasa la samaki balika (hagfish).<ref> Shu et al., 2003</ref> Papa walionekana takribani miaka milioni 450 iliyopita, amfibia yapata miaka milioni 400 iliyopita, reptilia yapata miaka milioni 350 iliyopita, na mamalia yapata miaka milioni 200 iliyopita. Hakuna spishi ya kisasa inayoweza kuelezewa kuwa "isiyositawi" zaidi ikilinganishwa na nyingine, kwa kuwa zote zina historia ndefu ya mageuko, lakini bongo za samaki balika wa kisasa, mikunga, papa, amfibia, reptilia na mamalia huonyesha tofauti katika ukubwa na uchangamani ambayo kwa kiasi fulani hufuata utaratibu wa mageuko.<ref> Striedter, ''Principles of Brain Evolution'' </ref> Bongo hizo zote zina mkusanyiko sawa wa vipengele muhimu vya kianatomia, lakini nyingi hazijakamilika katika balika, ambapo katika mamalia sehemu za kwanza kabisa zimesitawika na kupanuka sana. Bongo zote za wauti huwa na umbo moja la kimsingi, ambayo inaweza kuelewekwa kwa urahisi zaidi kwa kuchunguza jinsi zilivyokua.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science,'' uk. 1019</ref> Dalili ya kwanza ya mfumo wa neva hujitokeza kama utepe mwembamba wa tishu unaoonekana katika mgongo wa kiinitete. Utepe huo hunenepa na kisha kujikunja kuunda neli tupu. Upande wa mbele wa neli hiyo hukua kuwa ubongo. Katika muumdo wake wa kwanza, ubongo huonekana kama vivimbe vitatu, ambayo hatimaye huwa ubongombele, ubongokati, na ubongonyuma. Katika aina nyingi za wauti sehemu hizi tatu hubakia sawa kwa ukubwa katika mnyama mzima, lakini katika mamalia ubongombele hukua kubwa zaidi kuliko sehemu nyingine, na ubongokati mdogo kabisa. Uhusiano kati ya ukubwa wa ubongo, ukubwa wa mwili na vipengee vingine vya kubadilika vimetafitiwa miongoni mwa aina mbalimbali za wauti. Ukubwa wa ubongo huongezeka na ongezeko la ukubwa wa mwili lakini si kwa uwiano. Ikifanyiwa wastani katika aina zote za mamalia, inafuata sheria ya kipeo, ikiwa na kipeo cha takribani 0.75.<ref> Armstrong, 1983</ref> Fomyula hii inatumika katika bongo wastani ya mamalia lakini kila jamii hujitofautisha kutokana nayo, kuonyesha tabia zao changamno.<ref> Jerison, ''Evolution ya Brain and Intelligence'' </ref> Kwa mfano, jamii ya nyani ina bongo zilizo mara 5-10 kubwa zaidi ya jinsi fomyula inavyotabiri. Wanyama wa kuwinda aghalabu huwa na bongo kubwa. Wakati ubongo wa mamalia unapoongezeka kwa ukubwa, si sehemu zote zinazoongezeka kwa kiwango sawa. Kadri ubongo wa spishi unavyokuwa mkubwa, ndivyo gamba la ubongo linavyokuwa na jukumu kubwa.<ref name="Finlay"> Finlay et al., 2001</ref> ==== Sehemu za ubongo wa wauti ==== Wana-anatomia wa neva kawaida huchukulia ubongo kuwa na sehemu sita kuu: gamba-nje la ubongo (vizio vya ubongo), gamba-ndani la ubongo (thelamasi na haipothelamasi), gamba-kati la ubongo (ubongokati), ubongonyuma, ponsi, na medula oblongata.<ref> Principles of Neural Science, Sur. 17</ref> Kila moja ya sehemu hizi vilevile zina muundo changamani ndani. Baadhi ya sehemu, kama vile gamba na ubongonyuma, huwa na safu, zilizokunjwa au zilizoviringishwa kutoshea katika nafasi iliyopo. Sehemu zingine huwa na mikusanyiko ya viini vingi vidogo. Ikiwa utofautishaji wa kina ungefanywa kwa msingi wa muundo wa neva, kemia, na miunganiko, maelfu ya maeneo tofauti yanaweza kutambuliwa ndani ya ubongo wa wauti. Baadhi ya matawi ya mageuzi ya wauti yameleta mabadiliko makubwa katika sura za ubongo, hasa katika ubongombele. Ubongo wa papa unaonyesha sehemu za kimsingi katika njia ya moja kwa moja, lakini katika samaki wenye mifupa (wengi wa kisana ni wa aina hii), ubongombele "umepiduliwa", kama soksi imepinduliwa ndani nje. Katika ndege, pia kuna mabadiliko makubwa katika umbo.<ref> Northcutt, 2008</ref> Moja ya miundo mikuu katika ubongombele wa nedege, kigongo cha ventrikali ya nyuma, kwa muda mrefu kilidhaniwa kulingana na ganglia ya msingi kwa wanyama, lakini sasa inadhaniwa kulingana na zaidi na gamba la nje.<ref> Reiner et al,. 2005</ref> [[Picha:Vertebrate-brain-regions.png|thumb|left|alt=Corresponding regions of human and shark brain are shown. The shark brain is splayed out, while the human brain is more compact. The shark brain starts with the medulla, which is surrounded by various structures, and ends with the telencephalon. The cross-section of the human brain shows the medulla at the bottom surrounded by the same structures, with the telencephalon thickly coating the top of the brain. |Sehemu kuu kianatomia za ubongo wa wauti]] Sehemu kadhaa za ubongo zimehifadhiwa maumbo zao katika aina zote za wauti, kutoka kwa balika hadi kwa binadamu.<ref name="Shepard"/> Hii ni orodha ya baadhi ya sehemu muhimu, pamoja na maelezo mafupi sana ya kazi zao jinsi inavyoeleweka sasa (lakini kumbuka kuwa kazi za nyingi yazo bado zina utata kwa kiasi fulani): * Medula, pamoja na uti wa mgongo, ina viini vingi vodogo vinavyohusika katika aina nyingi za hisia na usogevu wa misuli.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 44, 45</ref> * Haipothelamasi ni eneo dogo katika shina la ubongombele, ambao uchangamani na umuhimu wake haulingani na ukubwa wake. Inajumuisha viini vingi vidogo, kila mmoja ikiwa na viunganisha tofauti na nyurokemia tofauti. Haipothelamasi ndio kituo kuu cha kudhibiti mzunguko wa usingizi/kuamka, udhibiti wa kula na kunywa, udhibiti wa kutolewa kwa homoni, na majukumu mengine mengi muhimu ya kibayolojia.<ref> Swaab et al., ''The Hypothalamus Binadamu'' </ref> * Sawa na haipothelamasi, thelamasi ni mkusanyiko wa viini vilivyo na kazi mbalimbali. Baadhi yavyo vinahusika katika kupitisha habari kutoka na kuelekea vizio vya ubongo. Vingine vinashiriki katika kutia motisha. Eneo lilo chini ya thelamasi (zona insarta) inaonekana kuwa na mifumo ya kuzalisha utendaji wa aina mbalimbali za tabia "kamilishi", ikiwa ni pamoja na kula, kunywa, kunya, na kujamiiana.<ref> Jones, ''The Thalamus'' </ref> * Ubongonyuma unadhibiti utendaji wa mifumo mingine ya ubongo ili kuzifanya sahihi zaidi. Kuondolewa kwa ubongonyuma hakumzuii mnyama kufanya kitu chochote hasa, lakini hufanya matendo kuchelewa na isiyo elekevu. Usahihi huu si wa kuzaliwa, bali ni wa kujifunza kwa majaribio na makosa. Kujifunza jinsi ya kuendesha baiskeli ni mfano wa aina ya unyumbufu wa neva unaoweza kufanyika kwa kiasi kikubwa ndani ya ubongonyuma.<ref name="refprinciples"> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 42</ref> * Tektama, mara nyingi huitwa "ganda la uonaji", unaruhusu vitendo kuelekezwa katika meneo hewani. Katika mamalia inaitwa "kolikyulasi kuu", na kazi yake iliyotafitiwa sana ni kuelekeza mielekeo ya macho. Pia anaongoza mielekeo ya kufikia vitu pia. Hupoke vichangamshi vikuu vya kuonekana, pia hupokea vichangamshi kutoka katika hisi nyigine ambayo ni muhimu katika kuongoza vitendo, kama vile vichangamshi vya kusikia katika bundi, vichangamshi kutoka katika viungo vya kutambua joto katika nyoka, n.k katika baadhi ya samaki, kama vile mkunga, ndio sehemu kubwa ya ubongo.<ref> Saitoh et al., 2007</ref> * Paliamu ni safu ya dutu kijivu unao kaa juu ya ubongombele. Katika reptilia na mamalia inaitwa gamba. Paliamu hushiriki katika kazi mbalimbali, ikiwa ni pamoja na unusaji na kumbukumbu ya anga. Katika mamalia, inapo anza kutawala ubongo, hujumuisha majukumu kutoka katika maeneo yaliyo chini ya gamba la ubongo.<ref> Puelles, 2001</ref> * Hipokampasi, kwa hakika, inapatikana kwa mamalia tu. Hata hivyo, sehemu ambapo inatoka, paliamu ya kati, ipo katika wauti wote. Kuna ushahidi kwamba sehemu hii ya ubongo hushiriki katika kumbukumbu za masuala yasiyoshikika na uongozaji katika samaki, ndege, reptilia, na mamalia.<ref> Salas et al., 2003</ref> * Ganglia ya chini ni kundi la viungo vinayoshikana katika ubongombele, ambavyo uelewa wetu kuvihusu umeongezeka pakubwa sana zaidi katika miaka michache iliyopita. Jukumu la msingi ganglia ya chini inaonekana kuwa uteuzi wa vitendo. Ganglia ya chini hutuma onyo zuizi kwa sehemu zote za ubongo zinazoweza kuanzisha utendaji, na katika hali ya nzuri inaweza kuzuia tendo lenyewe, hivyi kwamba mifumo ya kuanzisha utendaji viweze kushughulikia majukumu mengine. Utuzaji na adhabu hutekeleza zaidi athari zao muhimu katika neva ndani ganglia ya chini.<ref> Grillner et al., 2005</ref> * Kivimbe cha unusaji ni kiungo maalum kinachochakata hisia kutoka katika hisi za unusaji, na kuelekeza matokeo yake katka sehemu ya paliamu inayohusika na hisi harufu. Ni sehemu kubwa ya ubongo katika wauti wengi, lakini imepunguzwa sana katika jamii ya nyani.<ref> Northcutt, 1981</ref> === Mamalia === Gamba la ubongondio ni sehemu ya ubongo inayotofautisha tofauti kati ya mamalia na wauti wengine, jamii ya nyani kutoka kwa wanyama wengine, na binadamu na wanyama wengine wa jamii ya nyani. Ubongonyuma na ubongokati wa mamalia kijumla huwa sawa na yale ya wauti wengine, lakini tofauti kubwa hutokea katika ubongombele, ambao haujakuwa kwa ukubwa tu, bali pia umebadilika katika umbo.<ref> Barton &amp; Harvey, 2000</ref> Miongoni mwa wauti wasio mamalia , sehemu ya juu ya ubongonyuma imefunikwa kwa safu zisizo tete kwa ulinganisho ziitwazo paliamu.<ref> Aboitiz et al., 2003</ref> Katika mamalia, paliamu hugeuka na kuwa katika muundo moja changamani wa safu 6 iitwaye gamba-jipya au ''gamba-sawa.'' Katika jamii ya nyani, gamba-jipya imekuwa kubwa sana, hasa sehemu iitwayo ndewe ya mbele. Kwa binadamu, upanukaji huu wa ndewe ya mbele hukithiri, na sehemu nyingine za gamba pia huwa kubwa kabisa na changamani. Haipokampasi ya mamalia pia ina muundo tofauti. Kwa bahati mbaya, historia ya mabadiliko ya sehemu hizi katika mamalia, hasa gamba lenye safu sita, ni vigumu kufuatilia.<ref> Aboitiz, 2004</ref> Hii kwa kiasi kikubwa ni kutokana na tatizo la kukosa kiungo. Wahenga wa mamalia, waitwao sinapsidi, waligawanyika kutoka kwa wahenga wa wanyama watambaao na ndege wa kisasa yapata miaka milioni 350 iliyopita. Hata hivyo, mgawanyiko wa hivi karibuni ulio na mabadiliko dhahiri miongoni mwa mamalia ulikuwa mgawanyiko kati ya monotrimata (kinyamadege na ekidna), wambeleko (panya opusu, kangaruu, n.k) na wanyamakondo (wengi mamalia wanaoishi), ambayo ilifanyika takribani miaka milioni 120 iliyopita. Bongo za monotrimata na wambeleko ni tofauti na zile za wanyamakondo kwa namna fulani, lakini zina gamba na haipokampasi zenye umbo la kimamali. Kwa hivyo, maumbo haya lazima yaligeuka kati ya miaka milioni 350 na 120 iliyopita, kipindi ambacho hakijaacha ushahidi wowote ila visukuku ambavyo havihifadi tishu laini kama ubongo. === Jamaa ya nyani === Bongo za binadamu na jamaa wengine wa nyani huwa na miundo sawa na bongo za mamalia wengine, lakini ni kubwa ikilinganishwa na ukubwa wa mwili.<ref name="Finlay"/> Wingi wa ukubwa huu hutokana na upaukaji mkubwa wa gamba, ukilenga hasa katika maeneo yanayohudumia kuona na mawazo ya awali.<ref> Calvin, ''How Brains Think'' </ref> Mtandao wa mchakato wa kuona katika jamaa ya nyani ni chanagamano sana, ikijumuisha angalau maeneo 30 yanayoweza kutofautika, ikiwa na miunganiko ya mitandao ya kuajabia. Haya yote yakichukuliwa pamoja, uchakataji wa hisi za kuona hutumia zaidi ya nusu ya gamba-jipya ya wanyama jamaa ya nyani.<ref name="Sereno1995"> "Zaidi ya nusu ya gamba-jipya katika wanyama wajamii ya nyani wasio wanadamu huchukuliwa na maeneo ya kuona. Angalau zaidi ya maeneo 25 ya kuona zaidi ya gamba la msingi la kuona (V1) zimetambuliwa kwa mchanganyiko wa uchoraji ramani kwa vijielekrodi, vitafutio sindano, rangi za kihistolojia, na utafiti akisi (1). "tazama: {{cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.7754376 | last1 = Sereno |first1 = MI | last2 = Dale | first2 = AM | last3 = Reppas | first3 = AM | last4 = Kwong | first4 = KK | last5 = Belliveau | first5 = JW | last6 = Brady | first6 = TJ | last7 = Rosen | first7 = BR | last8 = Tootell |first8 = RBH | year = 1995 | title = Borders of multiple visual areas in human revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging | journal = Science | publisher = AAAS | volume = 268 | issue = 5212 | pages = 889–893 | url = http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~sereno/papers/HumanRetin95.pdf | pmid = 7754376}} na marejeo yaliyomo humo</ref> Sehemu nyingine ya ubongo ambayo imekuwa kubwa zaidi ni gamba-mbele ya ubongombele, ambayo kazi ni vigumu kueleza kwa maneno machache, lakini inayohusika na upangaji, kumbukumbu inayotumika, motisha, tahadhari, na udhibiti utendaji. == Muundo hadubini == [[Picha:Neuron with oligodendrocyte and myelin sheath.svg|thumb|right|250 px|alt=At the top, an irregular roundish blue object is labeled "Oligodendrocyte", with a darker blue center labeled "Nucleus". Below it is a long red tubular object terminating at the right in a group of branches. From the oligodendrocyte extend a series of blue wrappings around the red tube; these wrappings are labeled "Myelin Sheath" while the red spaces between each of them are labeled "Node of Ranvier". At the bottom, an insert shows one myelin sheath enlarged and partly cut open to show how the blue sheath consists of concentric layers. In the insert, the red tubular object is labeled "Axon", with thin yellow stripes running lengthwise inside the axon labeled "Microfilament" and a slightly thicker orange stripe labeled "Microtubule".|Olijodendrosaiti ni daraja la chembe za glia zinazounda miyelini inayozunguka akzoni ya neuroni.]] Ubongo unajumuisha aina mbili kuu za chembechembe: neuroni na glia.<ref> ''Principles of '' Neural Science uk. 20</ref> Aina hizi mbili kijumla ni nyingi katika ubongo, ingawa chembe glia zinazidi neuroni kwa uwiano wa 4 kwa 1 katika gamba la ubongo.<ref> Azevedo ''et al.,'' 2009</ref> Glia huwa katika aina mbalimbali, ambazo hufanya kazi kadhaa muhimu, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuhimili mwili, kudhibiti metaboli kudhibiti halijoto, na uongozaji wa kukua. Kipengee kinachofanya neuroni kuwa muhimu sana ni kwamba, tofauti na glia, zina uwezo wa kutuma vichocheo kwa nyingine zilizo hatua ya mbali.<ref> Principles of Neural Science, uk. 21</ref> Glia hutuma vichocheo hizi kwa njia ya akzoni, fumwele nyembamba ya protoplazimu inayotoka katika mwili wa chembe na kuelekea, kwa kawaida ikiwa na matawi kadhaa, maeneo mengine, wakati mwingine ya karibu na wakati mwingine katika sehemu mbali ya ubongo au mwili. Umbali ambao akzoni inaweza kwenda ni ya kustaajabisha: kwa mfano, ikiwa chembechembe yenye umbo haram za gamba-jipya zikikuzwa ili mwili wa chembe hiyo iwe sawa kwa ukubwa na binadamu, akzoni yake, ikikuzwa kwa kiwango sawa, inaweza kuwa kebo yenye sentimita kadhaa katika kipenyo wenye urefu wa zaidi ya kilomita. Akzoni hizi husambaza vichacheo katika umbo la mipigo ya kemikali-meme aitwaye vtendo tarajiwa, vinayodumu muda usiozidi kipande kimoja cha mmoja juu ya sehemu moja ya sekunde na kusafiri katika akzon katika kasi ya kati ya mita 1-100 kwa sekunde. Baadhi neuroni huzua vitendo tarajiwa kila wakati, katika viwango vya 10-100 kwa kiala sekunde, kwa kawaida katika mifumo isiyotabirika na isiyo ya kudumu; neuroni nyingine huwa tulivu wakati mwingi, lakini mara chache kwa ghafla huzua vitendo tarajiwa ya uwezo. [[Picha:Pyramidal hippocampal neuron 40x.jpg|thumb|left|250 px|alt=A triangular black cell is seen against a gray background, with long, highly branched, black processes extending out from it in multiple directions.|Aghalabu neuroni huwa na mitandao ya dendraiti, ambayo hupokea miunganiko ya sinapsi. Inavyoonekana hapa ni pichahadubini ya neuroni ya lenye umbo haram kutoka haipokampasi ya binadamu, iliyopakwa rangi kwa mtindo wa Golgi.]] Akzoni huelekeza vichocheo kwa neuroni nyingine, au kwa chembe nyingine zisizo za neuroni, kwa njia ya makutano maalumu yaitwayo sinapsi.<ref> Principles of Neural Science Sur. 10</ref> Akzoni moja inaweza kuwa na mikutano ya sinapsi elfu kadhaa. Wakati kitendo tarajiwa, kinachosafiri kupitia akzoni, kinapofika katika sinapsi, kinasababisha kutolewa kwa kemikali itwayo niurotransmita. Niurotransmita hujifungamanisha katika molekyuli pokezi iliyo katika utando wa chembe inayolengwa. Baadhi ya neuroni pokeza ni ''sisimuzi,'' kumaanisha kwamba zinaongeza kiwango cha vitendo tarajiwa katika chembe inayolengwa; vipokezi vingine ni ''zuizi,'' kumaanisha kwamba vinapunguza viwango vya vitendo tarajiwa, vingine vina athari changamano ya udhibiti. Kwa kweli akzoni huchukua nafasi kubwa katika ubongo.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 2</ref> Mara nyingi makundi makubwa hukusanyika pamoja katika kile ni kinachoitwaye ''viungo fumwele vya neva.'' Akzoni nyingi zimefunikwa katika vifuniko vyenye maki nene ya mafuta iitwayo miyelini, ambazo huchangia kuongeza kasi ya msukumo kwa vitendo tarajiwa. Miyelin ni nyeupe, hivyo sehemu za ubongo zilizojazwa kwa fumwele za neva huonekana kama ''dutu'' ''nyeupe,'' tofauti na ''dutu ya kijivu'' vinazoonyesha maeneo yaliyo na idadi kubwa ya miili ya chembe za neuroni. Urefu wa jumla wa akzoni iliyo na miyelini katika ubongo wa mwanadamu mzima wastani ni zaidi ya {{convert|100000|km}}.<ref name="Marner"> Marner ''et al.,'' 2003</ref> == Ukuaji == [[Picha:EmbryonicBrain.svg|thumb|right|alt=The nervous system is shown as a rod with protrusions along its length. The spinal cord at the bottom connects to the hindbrain which widens out before narrowing again. This is connected to the midbrain, which again bulges, and which finally connects to the forebrain which has two large protrusions. |Mchoro huu inaonyesha vijisehemu vikuu vya ubongo kiinitete cha mwauti. Sehemu hizi baadaye zinatajitofauti kuwa ubongombele, ubongokati na ubongonyuma.]] ubongo haukui tu, bali hustawi kwa njia changamani inayofuata mipangilio ya hatua.<ref name="PurvesLichtmanCh1">[58] ^ ''Principles of Neural Development,'' Sur. 1</ref> Neuroni nyingi hutengenezwa katika kanda maalum zilizo na chembe tete, na kisha kuhamia kupitia tishu ili kufikia yanapohitajika.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Development,'' Sur. 4</ref> Katika gamba, kwa mfano, hatua ya kwanza ya ustawi ni kuundwa kwa "dungu" na kundi maalum la chembe za glia, ziitwazo glia ya miali, ambazo huelekeza fumwele kiwima katika gamba. Neuroni mpya za gamba hutengenezwa chini ya gamba, na kisha "hupanda" kupitia fumwele-miali mpaka zifike katika safu ambamo zinafaa kukaa katika utu uzima. Katika wauti, hatua za kwanza za ustawi wa neuroni ni sawa kwa spishi zote.<ref name="PurvesLichtmanCh1"/> Kadri kiini tete kinavyobadilika kutoka kibonge mviringo cha chembechembe na kuwa na umbo kama la mnyoo, utepe mwembamba wa ngozi ya nje unaoenea katikati ya mgongo inasababishwa kuwa bamba la neuroni, mtangulizi wa mfumo wa neva. Bamba la neuroni hujikunja na kuunda mfuo wa neuroni, na kisha mikunjo inayofunika mfuo huungana na kufunika neli ya neuroni, mkanda wazi wa chembe ulio na ventrikali uliojaa umajimaji katikakati. Katika ncha ya mbele, ventrikali na mkanda hufura kuunda vilengelenge vitatu ambavyo ndivyo mwanzo wa ubongombele, ubongokati, na ubongonyuma.<ref name="PurvesLichtmanCh1"/> Katika hatua nyingine, ubongombele hugawanyika katika vilengelenge viwili viitwavyo ubongomwisho (ambayo ina gamba la ubongo, ganglia ya msingi, na viungo vinavyohusiana navyo) na diencephalon (ambayo ina thalamasi na haipothalamasi). Karibu wakati huo huo, ubongokando hugawanyika kuwa ubongometeni (ambayo ina ubongonyuma na ponsi) na ubongomyeleni (ambayo ina medula oblongata). Kila moja ya maeneo haya yana sehemu za usambaaji ambapo chembe za neuroni na glia huzalishwa; chembechembe zinazopatikana kisha huhama, wakati mwingine kuelekea mbali sana, kufikia sehemu zao ya mwisho. Mara tu neuroni inapofika mahali pake, inaanza kueneza dendraiti na akzoni kuelekea eneo linaloizingira.<ref>[62] ^ ''Principles of Neural Development,'' Sur. 5, 7</ref> Kwa sababu kawaida akzoni huenea mbali sana kutoka katika mwili wa chembe na huhitaji kuungana na viungo maalum, hua zinakua kwa njia changamani. Ncha ya akzoni inayokua huwa na kibonge cha protoplazimu iitwayo "sonobari ya ukuaji", iliyofungwa kwa vipokezi vya kemikali. Vipokezi hivi huhisi mazingira ya karibu, na kusababisha sonobari ya ukuaji kuvutiwa au kukataliwa na viungo mbalimbali vya chembe, na hivyo kuvutwa kuelekea upande mmoja maalum katika kila njia yake. Matokeo ya makakati huu wa utafutaji njia ni kwamba sonobari ya ukuaji hujipenyeza kupitia ubongo mpaka ifikie mahali pake pa mwisho, ambapo viashiria vingine vya kikemikali huifanya kuanza kukuza sinapsi. Kwa kuzingatia ubongo mzima, maelfu kadhaa ya jeni huzalisha protini zinazoathiri utafutaji wa njia kwa akzoni. Mtandao wa sinapsi ambayo hatimaye hujitokeza huathiriwa kwa kiwango tu na jeni. Katika maeneo mengi ya ubongo, akzoni huanza kwa "kukua kupita kiasi", na kisha "kupunguzwa" kwa utaratibu unaotegemea shughuli za kiniuro.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Development,'' Sur. 12</ref> Kwa mfano, katika kuelekeza kutoka machoni hadi ubongokati, , mfumo ulio miongoni mwa watu wazima una ramani sahihi sana, unaounganisha kila sehemu katika uso wa retina na sehemu husika katika safu ya ubongokati. Katika hatua za kwanza za ukuaji, kila akzoni kutoka retina huelekezwa katika eneo jirani la kijumla katika ubongokati na viashiria kemikali, lakini hupinduka sana na kugusana kwa awali na rundo pana la neuroni za ubongokati. Kabla ya kuzaliwa, retina huwa na taratibu maalum zinazoifanya kuzalisha mawimbi ya shughuli zinazotokea kwa wakati moja na kisha kujiendeleza polepole kote katika safu ya retina.<ref name="Wong"> Wong, 1999</ref> Mawimbi haya ni muhimu kwa sababu husababisha neuroni jirani kufanya kazi kwa wakati mmoja: yaani, zinazalisha mifumo ya shughuli za niuro zilizo na taarifa kuhusu mpangilio wa kieneo wa niuro. Taarifa hii hutumika katika ubongo kati kwa utaratibu ambao husababisha sinapsi kulegea, na hatimaye kutoweka, ikiwa shughuli katika akzoni haifuatiwa na shughuli katika chembe iliyo lengwa. Matokeo ya utaratibu huu changamani ni uonishaji kitaratibu na imarishaji wa ramani, ili hatimaye kuiacha katika hali yake halisi ya utu uzima. Vitu sawa na hivyo hufanyika katika maeneo mengine ya ubongo: matriki awali ya sinapsi huzalishwa kutokana na mwongozo wa kikemikali unaoamuliwa kijenetiki, lakini baadaye hatua kwa hatua huboreshwa kwa utaratibu unaotegemea utendaji, kwa kiwango inayotegemea mabadiliko ya kindani, kwa kiwango fulani michango ya nje ya kihisia. Katika hali zingine, kwa mfumo katika mifumo ya retina-ubongokati, mipangilio ya matukio hutegemea taratibu zinazotokea tu katika bongo zinazostawi, na yamkini huwepo kwa madhumuni ya kuongoza ustawi pekee.<ref name="Wong"/> Katika binadamu na mamali wengine wengi, neuroni mpya hutengenezwa mara nyingi kabla ya kuzaliwa, na ubongo wa mtoto mchanga kwa hakika huwa na neuroni zaidi kuliko ya ubongo wa watu wazima.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Development,'' Sur. 6</ref> Hata hivyo, kuna maeneo machache ambapo neuroni mpya huendelea mwezi kuzalishwa katika maisha yote. Maeneo mawili ambapo hili limejidhihirisha kikamilifu ni katika ya kilenge cha kunusa, ambacho kinahusika katika hisia za harufu, na jairasi yenye menomeno ya hipokampasi, ambapo kuna ushahidi kwamba neuroni mpya hutekeleza jukumu katika kuhifadhi kumbukumbu mpya zinazopatika. Kando na hali hizi tofauti, hata hivyo, idadi ya neuroni iliyopo mapema utotoni, ndio hiyo hiyo inayopatikana katika maisha yote. Chembe za glia ni tofauti, kama na aina nyingi za chembe mwilini, hizi huzalishwa katika kipindi chote cha maisha. Ingawa mkusanyiko wa neuroni huwa kwa kiwango kikubwa zipo za ktosha kufikia wakati wa kuzaliwa, miunganiko ya akzoni huendelea kukua kwa muda mrefu baadaye. Katika binadamu, ukuaji kamili wa neva hukamiliki wakati wa kubaleghe.<ref> Paus et al., 2001</ref> Kumekuwa na majadala wa muda mrefu kuhusu ikiwa ubora wa akili, hulka na uwerevu kwa kiwango kikubwa huhusishwa na urathi au malezi; mjadala wa maumbile dhidi ya malezi.<ref> Ridley, ''Nature vs Nurture'' </ref> Huu si suala falsafa tu: una umuhimu mkubwa wa kuvitendo kwa wazazi na waalimu. Ingawa maelezo mengi hayajakamilishwa, wanaelimu neva wanaonyesha waziwazi kwamba sababu zote mbili ni muhimu. Jeni huamua hali ya kijumla ya ubongo, na jeni huamua jinsi ubongo unavyoitikia uzoefu. Uzoefu, hata hivyo, unahitajika kuboresha matriksi ya miunganiko ya sinapsi. Wakati mwingine huwa kwa suala la kuwepo au kutokuwepo kwa uzoefu katika vipindi muhimu vya ukuaji.<ref> Wiesel, 1982</ref> Wakati mwingine, wingi na ubora wa uzoefu unaweza kuwa muhimu zaidi; kwa mfano, kuna ushahidi mkubwa kuwa wanyama waliokua katika mazingira mazuri huwa na magamba manene, kuonyesha idadi kubwa ya miungano ya sinapsi, kuliko wanyama ambao viwango vyao vya kusisimka ni mdogo.<ref> van Praag et al., 2000</ref> == Majukumu == Kwa mtazamo wa kiviumbe, kazi ya msingi ya ubongo ni kudhibiti utendaji wa mnyama.<ref> Carew, ''Behavioral Neurobiology,'' Sur. 1</ref> Ili kufanya hivyo, huwa inachuja taarifa muhimu za kutosha kutoka katika viungo vya hisi ili kuboresha vitendo. Vichocheo vya hisia vinaweza kuamsha majibu ya papo kwa papo kwa mfano wakati mfumo wa kunusa wa kulungu unaponusa harufu ya mbwa mwitu; pia zinaweza kudhibiti tendo linaloendelea kwa mfano katika athari ya mzunguko wa mwanga-giza kwa tabia ya kulala na kuamka kwa viumbe, au taarifa zao zinaweza kuhifadhiwa kwa madhumuni ya umuhimu baadaye. Ubongo husimamia kazi zake changamani kwa kuanzisha mifumo ya utendaji, ambazo zinaweza kuanishwa katika njia nne: kimaubile, kikemikali, na kiutendakazi. === Mifumo tendakazi === Njia rahisi zaidi ya kuainisha sehemu za ubongo ni kuzingatia maumbile, lakini pia kuna njia kadhaa kuianisha zaidi kutegemea utendakazi. Moja wa njia muhimu zaidi kati ya hizo ni kutegemea kemikali za nyurotransmita zinazotumiwa na neuroni kuwasiliana na kila moja. Nyingine ni katika namna eneo ubongo huchangia uchakataji ujume: maeneo ya hisia huleta taarifa ubongoni na kurekebisha umumbo lake; vichochezi vya matendo ya mwili hutuma ujumbe nje ya ubongo ili kudhibiti misuli na tezi, mifumo sisimuzi hudhibiti utendaji wa ubongo kulingana na muda wa siku na mambo mengine. ==== Mifumo ya nyurotramsita ==== Isipokuwa katika hali chache, kila neuroni katika ubongo huendelea kutoa kemikali za niurohamishi, isiyobadilika au mchanganyiko wa niurohamishi, katika miunganiko yoyote ya sinapsi inayofanya na neuroni nyingine, kanuni hii inajulikana kama kanuni ya Dale.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science,'' Sur. 15</ref> Kwa hivyo, niuron anaweza kuainishwa kutegemea niurohamisho iinayotoa. Niurohamishi mbili zinazoomekana mara nyingi zaidi ni glutamati, ambayo aghalabu huwa sisimuzi, na sidi ya gama-aminobutri (GABA), ambayo aghalabu huwa pingamizi. Neuroni zinazotumia transmita hizi zinaweza kupatikana katika karibu kila sehemu ya ubongo, zikibuni asilimia kubwa ya mkusanyiko wa sinapsi za ubongo.<ref> McGeer and McGeer, ''Basic Neurochemistry,'' uk. 311-332.</ref> Hata hivyo, idadi kubwa ya madawa yanayoathiri ubongo huelekeza athari zao kwa kubadili mfumo wa niurohamishi zisizohusiana moja kwa moja na glutamati au uhamishaji wa GABA.<ref> Cooper et al., ''Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology'' </ref> Madawa kama vile kafeini, nikotini, heroini, kokeini, Prozac, Thorazine, ''n.k,'' huathiri neiurohamishi nyingine. Nyingi ya transmita hizi hutoka katika neuroni ambazo zinakaa katika sehemu fulani ya ubongo. Serotonini, kwa mfano- lengo la msingi la madawa ya kulevya ya kinza huzuni na viamsha hamu-huja kimahsusi kutoka eneo dogo la shina la ubongo iitwayo kiini Rafe. Norepainifrini, ambayo hushiriki katika usisimuzi, hutoka kimahsusi kutoka eneo dogo karibu liitwalo lokasi serulesi. Histamini, kama niurohamishi, hutoka katika sehemu ndogo ya hypothelamasi iitwayo kiini tubaromamilari (histamini pia ina kazi zisizo za mfumo kuu wa neva, lakini kjukumu la niurohamishi ndio sababu kwa kinzahisatami kuwa na athari za kutuliza). Niurohamishi nyingine kama vile asetilkolini na dopamini huwa na vyanzo mbalimbali katika ubongo, lakini hazijasambazwa kwa wingi kama glutamati na GABA. ==== Mifumo ya hisi ==== Moja ya majukumu ya kimsingi ya ubongo ni kudondoa ujumbe muhimu kutoka katika viungo vya hisia.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 21</ref> Hata katika ubongo wa binadamu, mifumo ya hisi huwa nyingi zaidi ya hisi tano za kawaida zinazojulikana za maono, sauti, ladha, mguso, na harufu: bongo zetu hupokea taarifa kuhusu joto, usawa, mkao wa miguu na mikono, na vijenzi kemikali vya mfumo wa damu, kati ya mambo mengine. Hali hizi zote hutambuliwa na viungo maalum vya hisi vinavyoelekeza vichoche ndani ya ubongo. Katika wanyama wengine, milango zaidi ya hisi vinaweza kuwepo, kama vile hisi ya miale ya joto isiyoonekana miongoni mwa wanyama wanaoishi shimoni kama nyoka, au "hisi za kawaida" zinaweza kutumika katika njia isiyo ya kawaida, kama jinsi usikiaji unavyotumiwa na katika popo ''sona''. Haya hapa kanuni chache zinazotumika katika mifumo nyingi ya hisi, ikitumia mfumo sikizi katika mifano maalum. Kila mfumo wa hisi huanza kwa chembechembe mahsusi za "vipokea hisia". Hizi ni neuroni, lakini tofauti na neuroni nyingi, hazijadhibitiwa na mchango wa sinapsi kutoka katika neuroni nyingine: badala yake zinaamilishwa na vipokezi vilivyofungamana na zinazohisi baadhi ya hisi za mguso, kama vile mwanga, joto, au mikazo ya kimwili. Akzoni za chembe pokezi-hisia husafiri katika utiwa mgomgo au ubongo. Kwa hisia ya kusikia, vipokezi viko katika sikio la ndani, katika konokono la sikio, na huamilishwa na mtikiso.<ref name="hearing">[78] ^ ''Principles of Neural Science,'' Sur. 21, 30</ref> Kwa hisi nyingi, kuna " kiini cha msingi" au seti ya viini, vilivyo katika shina la ubongo, zinazokusanya vichocheo kutoka katika chembe pokezi. Katika hisia sikizi, hizi ni viini vya konokono la sikio.<ref name="hearing"/> Mara nyingi, kuna maeneo ya mengine yaliyo chini ya ubongo ambayo hudondoa habari maalum ya aina fulani. Kwa hisi ya kusikia, eneo bora la unusaji na eneo hafifu ya kalikulusi hushiriki katika kulinganisha vichocheo kutoka katika masikio mawili kudondoa kuhusu ujumbe kuhusu mwelekeo wa chanzo cha sauti, miongoni mwa kazi nyingine.<ref name="hearing"/> Kila mfumo wa hisi pia ina sehemu maalum ya thelamasi iliyotengwa kwayo, ambayo huhudumu kama kiunganishi na gamba la ubongo. Katika hisi ya kusikiliza, hii ni kiini kati chenye umbo la goti.<ref name="hearing"/> Kwa kila mfumo wa hisi, kuna eneo "msingi" la gamba la ubongo linalopokea ujumbe moja kwa moja kutoka eneo la thelamasi linalopokea na kutuma ujumbe. Katika mfumo wa kusikia, huu ni gamba msingi la usikizi, ulio katika sehemu ya juu ya ndewe la ubongo.<ref name="hearing"/> Kawaida pia huwa kuna seti ya maeneo ya gemba yenye hisi za "ngazi ya juu", zinazochanganua ujumbe wa hisi zinazoingai kwa njia maalum. Kwa mfumo wa usikiaji, kuna maeneo ambayo huchambua ubora wa sauti, mahadhi, na mielekeo ya mabadiliko kwa muda, miongoni mwa sifa nyingine.<ref name="hearing"/> Mwisho, kuna maeneo ya ''hali nyingi'' yanayochanganya jumbe kutoka hisi mbalimbali, kwa mfano kusikia na kuona. Katika hatua hii, vichocheo huwa vimefikia sehemu za ubongo zinazoweza kuelezeka vizuri kuwa ''jumuishi'' wala si ''hisishi '' hasa.<ref name="hearing"/> Kanuni hizi zote zina ukiushi. Kwa mfano, hisi ya mguso (ambayo kwa kweli ni mkusanyiko wa angalau nusu dazeni ya hisi tendi mbalimbali), kichocheo cha hisi kinachoingia humalizika hasa katika uti wa mgongo, katika neuroni ambazo kisha huzielekeza katika shina la ubongo.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 23</ref> Kwa hisi ya harufu, hakuna mawasiliano katika thelamasi; badala yake kichocheo huenda moja kwa moja kutoka eneo msingi la ubongo-kibonge cha kunusa-hadi kwenye gamba.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 32</ref> ==== Mifumo ya mwendo ==== Mifumo ya mwendo ni maeneo ya ubongo ambayo kwa njia moja au nyingine yanahusika moja kwa moja katika kuanzisha mienendo ya mwili, yaani, katika amilisha misuli. Isipokuwa misuli inayodhibiti macho, misuli yote inayofanya kihiari<ref> Angalia misuli</ref>katika mwili imeunganishwa moja kwa moja na neva za mwendo katika uti wa mgongo, ambayo ndiyo njia ya mwisho ya pamoja kwa mfumo wa kuzalisha uendaji.<ref>[89] ^ ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 34</ref> Neva za uti wa mgongo zinadhibitiwa na saketi za neva asili za uti wa mgongo, na kwa michango inayoteremka kutoka ubongoni. Sakati asili za uti wa mgongo hutekeleza majukumu mengi ya tendohiari na pia huwa na mifumo ya kuanzisha miendo kama vile kutembea au kuogelea.<ref>''Principles of Neural Science,'' Sur. 36, 37</ref> Miunganiko inayoshuka kutokana ubongoni hufanikisha udhibiti changamano zaidi . Ubongo una baadhi ya maeneo ambayo huwasiliana moja kwa moja na uti wamgongo.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 33</ref> Katika ngazi ya chini kabisa ni maeneo ya mienendo katika medula na ponsi. Katika ngazi za juu ni maeneo ya ubongokati, kama vile viini vyekundu, ambayo inawajibikia kuratibu usogezaji mikono na miguu. Katika ngazi ya juu zaidi ambayo ni gamba msingi la mwendo, utepe wa tishu ulioupande wa nyuma wa ndewe la mbele ya ubongo. Gamba msingi la mwendo hituma ujumbe katika ameneo chini ya gamba yanayohusika na mwendo, lakini pia hutuma jumbe kubwa moja kwa moja katika uti wa mgongo, kupitia kinachojulikana kama njia piramidi. Uelekezaji huu wa moja kwa moja kati ya gamba na uti wa mgongo huruhusu udhibiti sahihi wa hiari wa miendo. Maeneo mengine ya "upili" ya ubongo yanayohusiana na mwendo hayawasiliani moja kwa moja na uti wa mgongo, na badala yake hugusa maeneo ya mwendo katika gamba au maeneo ya msingi chini ya gamba. Miongoni mwa maeneo muhimu ya upili ni gamba linaloshughulikia mwendo, ganglia ya msingi, na ubongonyuma: * Gamba-awali ya mwendo (ambayo kwa kweli ni maeneo kubwa changamani) inakaribiana na gamba msingi la mwendo, na kuielekeza. Huku vitengo vya gamba msingi ya mwendo hulingana na sehemu maalum ya mwili, vitengo vya gamba-awali ya mwendo mara nyingi hushirikishwa katika usogezwaji wa sehemu nyingi za mwili kwa wakati moja.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 38</ref> * Ganglia ya msingi ni mkusanyiko wa viungo vya chini ya ubongembele zinazoelekeza katika maeneo mengine yanayohusiana na mwendo.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 43</ref> Kazi zao imekuwa vigumu kuelewa, lakini mmoja ya nadharia maarufu ya sasa ni kuwa yanatekeleza jukumu muhimu uteuzi wa utendaji.<ref> Gurney et al., 2004</ref> Mara nyingi, huwa zinazuia vitendo kwa kutumamara k wa mara vichochezi vizuizi kwa mifumo ya kuzalisha mwendo, lakini katika hali nzuri, huwa zinatoa vizuizi hivyo na kuruhusu maeneo yaliyolengwa kudhibiti tabia. * Ubongonyuma una muundo tofauti sana na upo katika sehemu ya nyuma ya ubongo.<ref name="refprinciples"/> Haidhibiti au kuanzisha tabia, bali huzalisha vichocheo rekebishi kufanya miendo iwe sahihi zaidi. Watu walio na bongonyuma zilizo haribika hawapoozi kwa njia yoyote, bali miili yao huwa na miendo isiyokuwa na uhakika na isiyo ratibika. Pamoja na hayo yote hapo juu, ubongo na uti wa mgongo zina mitandao pana ya kudhibiti mfumo wa neva wa kujiendesha, ambayo hufanya kazi kwa kunyunyiza homoni na kwa kurekebisha " misuli laini" ya tumbo.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 49</ref> Mfumo wa neva wa kujiendesha huathiri mipigo ya moyo, mmeng'enyo;, kiwango cha kupumua, kutoa mate, jasho; kukojoa, na hisia za ngono japo majukumu yake mengi hayako chini ya udhibiti wa hiari moja kwa moja. ==== Mifumo ya kusisimua ==== Labda kipengele cha wazi zaidi cha tabia ya mnyama yoyote yule ni mzunguko wa kila siku kati ya kulala na kuamka. Usisimuaji na utahadhari pia huongozwa kwa kiwango sahishi zaidi cha muda, ingawa, kwa mtandao mkubwa wa maeneo ya ubongo.<ref name="Principles45"> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 45</ref> Sehemu muhimu ya mifumo ya kusisimua ni kiini suprakiasmatiki (SCN), sehemu ndogo ya haipothelamasi iliyo juu ya sehemu ambapo neva ya kuona kutoka macho mawili inapopitia.<ref> Antle &amp; Silver, 2005</ref> SCN ina majira kuu ya kibayolojia ya mwili. Neuroni hapa huonyesha kupanda na kushuka kwa viwango vya shughuli katika kipindi cha saa 24, mipigo ya moyo: mabadiliko katika shughuli hizi yanaendeshwa na mabadiliko ya kiurari katika maelezo kwa mkusanyiko wa ''jeni za saa". SCN huendelea kupima saa hata ikikatwa kutoka ubongoni na kuwekwa katika bakuli lililo na myeyusho wa madini fuvutende, hata hivyo kwa kawaida huwa inapokea ujumbe kutoka katika neva ya kuona, kupitia njia ya retinohaipothelamiki (RHT), ambayo huruhusu mzunguko wa kila siku wa mwanga-giza kunakiliwa katika saa hiyo. SCN huwasiliana na seti ya maeneo katika haipothelamasi, na shina la ubongo, na ubongokati zinazohusika katika utekelezaji wa mzunguko usingizi- na kuamka. Kiungo muhimu katika mfumo huo ni kile kinachoitwa muundo menomeno, kundi la neva zilizosambazwa kwa usawa kote katika shina la ubongochini.<ref name="Principles45"/> Neva menomeno hutuma vichocheo kwa thelamasi, ambayo kwa upande wake hutuma vichocheo vya ngazi ya kudhibiti kwa kila sehemu ya gamba la ubongo. Kuharibika kwa muundo menomeno kunaweza kusababisha hali ya kudumu ya kukosa fahamu. Usingizi huhusisha mabadiliko makubwa katika utendakazi wa ubongo.<ref> ''Principles of Neural Science'' Sur. 47</ref> Hadi miaka 1950 iliaminika kijumla kwamba ubongo kimsingi huacha kufanya kazi wakati wa kulala<ref> Kleitman, 1938</ref>, lakini hii sasa inajulikana kuwa si kweli: shughuli huendelea lakini mwelekeo huwa tofauti sana. Kwa hakika, kuna aina mbili ya usingizi, ''usingizi REM'' (ulio na ndoto) na usingizi ''NREM'' (usio-REM, kwa kawaida bila ndoto), ambao hujirudia katika mifumo tofauti kidogo katika kipindi chote cha kulala. Aina tatu tofauti za mwelekeo mpana wa shughuli za ubongo zinaweza kupimika: REM, NREM nyepesi na NREM nzito. Wakati wa usingizi mzito wa NREM, ambao pia hujulikana kama usingizi wenye wimbi pole, shughuli katika gamba huchukua mfumo wa mawimbi makubwa yenye urari, ambapo katika hali ya kuamka huwa na kelele na bila urari. Viwango vya niurohamishi norepainefrini na serotonini hupungua wakati wa usingizi wenye wimbi pole, hupungua hadi kukaribia sufuri wakati wa usingizi wa REM; viwango vya asetilikolini huonyesha mfumo ulio kinyume na huu. === Utumiaji nishati kwa ubongo === [[Picha:PET-image.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A flat oval object is surrounded by blue. The object is largely green-yellow, but contains a dark red patch at one end and a number of blue patches. |Taswira ya PET ya ubongo wa binadamu ikionyesha matumizi ya nishati]] Ingawa ubongo wa binadamu unawakilisha 2% tu ya uzito wa mwili, unapokea 15% cha kinachozalishwa na moyo, 20% ya jumla ya matumizi ya oksijeni mwilini, na 25% ya jumla ya matumizi ya glukosi mwilini.<ref> Clark &amp; Sokoloff, 1999</ref> Haja ya kupunguza uzito wa mwili ili, kwa mfano, kuweza kuruka, imesababisha uamuzi wa kupunguza ukubwa wa ubongo katika spishi fulani, kama vile popo.<ref> Safi et al., 2005</ref> Ubongo sanasana hutumia glukosi kupata nguvu, na kuinyima glukosi, kama inavyoweza kutokea katika haipoglukemia, unaweza kusababisha kupoteza fahamu. Matumizi ya nishati katika ubongo haubadiliki sana katika muda, lakini maeneo ya gamba yanayofanya kazi hutumia nishati zaidi kuliko maeneo yasiyoshughulika: ukweli huu ndio msingi wa mbinu za upigaji picha akisi wa ubongo kama vile PET na fMRI.<ref> Raichle &amp; Gusnard, 2002</ref> Hizi ni mbinu za matibabu nyuklia ya upigaji picha zinazotoa picha zenye pande olwa tatu kwa shughuli za kimetaboli. {{Clear}} == Ubongo na akili == Kuelewa uhusiano kati ya ubongo na akili ni changamoto inayotatiza kifalsafa na kisayansi.<ref> Churchland, ''Neurophilosophy'' </ref> Ushahidi wa kisayansi wa moja kwa moja kwamba kuna uhusiano kati ya kiungo ubongo na akili ni kiwango cha athari kinachojidhihirisha baada ya ubongo kubadilishwa, kama vile maumivi ya ubongo yanayosababisha kiwewe na matumizi ya madawa yanayoathiri ubongo.<ref> Boake na Diller, 2005</ref> Tatizo la uhusiano wa akili-mwili ni moja kati masuala ya ndani ya historia ya [[falsafa]],<ref> ''Neurophilosophy,'' Sur. 7</ref> inayotuliza kufikiria ikiwa ubongo na akili ni kitu kimoja, kinachotofautiana kidogo, au kinachohusiana kwa njia fulani isiyojulikana. Kuna mitazamo mitatu mikubwa tatu kuhusu jibu hili: uwili, uyakinifu, na udhanifu. Uwili unashikilia kwamba akili inajisimami kivyake bila kutegemea ubongo,<ref> Hart, 1996</ref> uyakinifu unashikilia kwamba matukio ya akili yanafanana na matukio la neva<ref name="DicPhil"> Lacey, 1996</ref> na udhanifu unashikilia kwamba matukio ya akili tu ndio zipo.<ref name="DicPhil"/> Pamoja na maswali ya kifalsafa, uhusiano kati ya akili na ubongo unahusisha idadi kubwa ya maswali ya kisayansi, ikiwa ni pamoja na uelewa wa uhusiano kati ya shughuli za kiakili na shughuli ubongo, taratibu kamili ambazo kwazo dawa huathiri ufahamu, na mahusiano ya neva kwa dhamira. Katika kipindi kingi cha historia wanafalsafa waliliona jambo la kutofikirika kwamba ufahamu unaweza kutekelezwa na kitu dutu ye umbile kama vile tishu ya ubongo (yaani neuroni na sinapsi).<ref> ''Neurophilosophy,'' Sur. 6</ref> Wanafalsafa kama vile Patricia Churchland wanadai kuwa mwingiliano wa akili na dawa ni dalili ya uhusiano wa karibu sana kati ya ubongo na akili, si kwamba hivi viwili ni kitu kimoja.<ref> ''Neurophilosophy,'' Sur. 8</ref> Descartes, aliyewazia sana kuhusu uhusiano wa ubongo-akili, aliweza kuelezea matendohiari na tabia nyingine sahili katika mtazamo wa kimekaniki, ingawa hakuamini kuwa mawazo tata, na hasa lugha, inaweza kuelezwa kwa rejelea za umbo la ubongo pekee.<ref> Descartes, ''Description of the human body'' </ref> == Utafiti == Fani ya taaluma ya elimuneva inajumuisha mbinu zote zinazotafuta kuelewa ubongo na mifumo nyinginezo za neva. [[Elimunafsia]] hutaka kuelewa akili na tabia, na nyurorojia ni fani ya matibabu inayotibu magonjwa ya mfumo wa neva. Ubongo pia ni kiungo muhimu sana kinachotafitiwa na tiba-akili, tawi la matibabu inayofanya kazi ya kutafiti, kuzuia na kutibu magonjwa ya akili.<ref> Storrow, ''Outline of Clinical Psychiatry'' </ref> Sayansi ya ufahamu hutaka kuunganisha elimuneva na elimunafsia pamoja na fani nyingine zinazojuhusisha na ubongo, kama vile sayansi ya tarakilishi (akili ya kuundwa na mwanadamu na mashamba sawa) na [[falsafa]]. Mbinu kongwe kabisa ya kuutafiti ubongo ni kianatomial, na hadi katikati ya karne ya 20, sehemu kubwa ya maendeleo katika elimuneva ilitokana na kutengenezwa kwa rangi bora na hadibuni bora -mwana elimuveva Floyd Bloomni maarufu kwa kutania kuwa "ufanisi katika utafiti wa ubongo unategemea zaidi rangi."<ref> ''Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain,'' Sur. 2</ref> Wana-anatomia wa elimuneva hutafiti muundo wa ubongo kwa kiwango pamoja na muundo wake wa kimaikroskopu wa neuroni na vijenzi vyao, hasa sinapsi. Pamoja na zana nyingine, wao hutumia rangi nyingi sana zinazodhihirisha muundo wa neva, kemia, na miunganisho. Katika miaka ya hivi karibuni, ukuaji katika mbinu za elimu kingamaradhi inayotumia rangi imeruhusiwa kutiwa rangi kwa neuroni zinazoonyesha aina fulani maalum ya jeni. Pia, ''uchunguzi amilifu wa neva'' unatumia mbinu za upigaji picha wa kimatibabu kuhusisha tofauti katika muundo wa ubongo wa binadamu na tofauti katika ufahamu au tabia. Wanafiziolojia hutafiti vipengee vya kemikali, famakolojia, na mienendo ya meme ya ubongo: zana zao za msingi ni dawa na vifaa vya kunakili. Maelfu nyingi ya dawa za zilizoundwa kimajaribio huathiri mfumo wa neva, baadhi ya njia ya juu mahsusi sana. Kurekodi shughuli za ubongo unaweza kufanywa kwa kutumia elektrodi, ikiwa imeshikiliwa kwenye fuvu kama katika uchunguzi wa EEG, au uliodungwa ndani ya bongo za wanyama kwa ajili ya kurekodi nje ya chembe, ambayo inaweza kuchunguza uwezekano wa utendaji unaotokana na kila niurni kibifansi.<ref> Dowling, ''Neurons and Networks,'' kurasa za 15-24</ref> Kwa sababu ubongo hauna vipokezi vya maumivu, inawezekana kutumia mbinu hizi kunakili kutoka katika wanyama walio macho huku wanaendelea na tabia zao kama kawaida bila kuwasababishia kuwasumbua. Mbinu sawa na hiyo zimetumika mara nyingine kuchunguza utendakazi wa ubongo katika wagonjwa binadamu wanaougua na kifafa isoyokamili, katika matukio ambapo kulikuwa na haja ya kimatibabu kuiweka elektrodi ili kubaini eneo la ubongo ulioathirika na kifafa s.<ref> Wyllie et al., ''Treatment of Epilepsy,'' Sur. 77</ref> Pia inawezekana kuchunguza utendaji wa ubongo bila kutumia mbinu za kuingilia binadamu kwa mibu amilifu za kupiga picha kama vile MRI uwanda huu umepanuka sana katika kipindi cha miongo miwili iliyopita. Njia tofauti ya kubaini kazi ya ubongo ni kuchunguza madhara ya kuharibu maeneo maalum ya ubongo. Inagawa umelindwa kwa fuvu na utando ukizungukwa na ugiligili wa ubongo na uti wa mgongo, nakutengwa na mfumo wa damu kwa kizuizi cha kati ya ubongo na damu, ulaini wa ubongo unaufanya kuwa rahisi kuvamiwa na magonjwa mbalimbali na aina tofauti za maumivu. Kwa binadamu, athari za kupooza na aina nyingine ya uharibifu wa ubongo zimekuwa chanzo muhimu cha habari kuhusu majukumu ya ubongo.<ref> Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology, Sur. 1</ref> Kwa sababu hakuna uwezo wa kudhibiti hali ya uharibifu kimajaribio, hata hivyo, habari hii aghalabu huwa vigumu kufafanua. Katika tafiti zinazowahusisha wanyama, kwa kawaida panya, inawezekana kutumia elektrodi au kudunga kemikali katika mahali maalum ili kuleta uharibifu kwa mfumo unaohitajika na kisha kuchunguza matokeo ya tabia. Nyurosayansi ya kitarakilishi inajumuisha njia mbili: kwanza, matumizi ya tarakilishi kuuchunguza ubongo, pili, utafiti wa jinsi ubongo hutarakilisha.<ref name="Abbott"> Abbott &amp; Dayan, ''Theoretical Neuroscience'' </ref> Kwa upande mmoja, inawezekana kuandika programu ya tarakilishi kuigiza kazi ya kundi la neva kwa kutumia mifumo ya milinganyo yanayoeleza shunguli zao kielektrokemikali; miigizo kama hiyo hujulikana kama ''mitandao ya neuroni amilifu kibayalojia.'' Kwa upande mwingine, inawezekana kuchunguza algorithimi ili kukokotoa neva kwa uigizaji, au kuchanganua kihesisabati, utendakazi wa '' vitengo'' vilivyosahilishwa vilivyo na baadhi ya sifa za neuroni lakini vimetoa nyingi ya uchangamani wao wa kibayolojia. Majukumu ya ukokotooaji wa ubongo huchunguzwa na wanaelimuneva na wanasayansi wa tarakilishi. Miaka ya hivi karibuni imeshuhudia utumizi wa kwanza wa mbinu za uhandisi wa kijenetiki kutafitia ubongo.<ref> Tonegawa et al., 2003</ref> Utafiti mwingi kwa kawaida hufanywa kwa panya, kwa sababu zana za kiufundi zimeimarika zaidi kwa spishi hawa zaidi ya wengine wowote. Sasa inawezekana kwa urahisi wa kiwango cha haja "kuchambua" au kugeuza aina mbalimbali za jeni, na kisha kuchunguza athari katika utendakazi wa ubongo. Mbinu changamani zaidi pia zina anza kutumika: kwa mfano, kutumia mbinu ya uchanganyishaji upya wa Cre-Lox inawezekana kusisimua au kituliza jeni katika sehemu maalumu ya ubongo, kwa wakati maalumu. == Historia == Maoni ya awali yaligawanyika ikiwa makao makuu ya nafsi yako katika ubongo au moyo. Kwa upande mmoja, ilikuwa vigumu kutoona ukweli kwamba ufahamu unahisiwa kuwa katika kichwa, na kwamba kupigwa kwa kishindo kikubwa katika kichwa kunaweza kusababisha kupoteza fahamu kwa urahisi zaidi kuliko kupigwa kifuani, na kwamba kichwa kutikisa kichwa husababisha kizunguzungu. Kwa upande mwingine, uchunguzi wa juujuu wa ubongo unadhihirisha kiungo ajizi, ukilinganishwa na moyo ambao hupigapiga kila wakati. Kukoma kwa mpigo wa moyo unamaanisha kifo; hisia kali huleta mabadiliko katika mpigo wa moyo, na mara nyingi hisia za huzuni husababisha hisia ya maumivu katika sehemu za moyo ("maumivu ya moyo"). Aristotle alipendelea moyo, na kudhania kwamba kazi ya ubongo ilikuwa tu kupoesha damu. Democritus, mvumbuzi wa nadharia ya atomiki ya dutu, alipendelea nafsi yenye sehemu tatu, akili ikiwa katika kichwa, hisia katika moyo, na tamaa katika sehemu karibu na ini.<ref> Finger, ''Origins of Neuroscience,'' uk. 14</ref> Haipokrates, "baba wa matibabu" , alikuwa aliupendelea ubongo kabisa. Katika ''On the Sacred Disease,'' maelezo yake kuhusu kifafa, aliandika: <blockquote> <p>Wanadamu wanapaswa kujua kwamba furaha, nderemo, kicheko na michezo, masikitiko, utegemezi, na maombolezo hayatoki kwingine ila tu katika ubongo. ... Na kwa kiungo hicho hicho tunakuwa wendawazimu na kupagawa, na woga na hofu kubwa hutuandama, wakati mwingine mchana na wakati mwingine usiku, na ndoto na wasiwasi isiyotarajiwa, na majukumu yasiyo mazuri, na kutojua hali za kisasa, kutoaminika, na kutokuwa na ujuzi. Mambo haya yote tunayavumilia kutoka kwenye ubongo, wakati hauna afya ...</p></blockquote> <p>- [[Hippokrates|Hippocrates]], ''On the Sacred Disease'' <ref> Hippokrates, ''On the Sacred Disease'' </ref></p> Daktari maarufu wa Roma Galen pia alitetea umuhimu wa ubongo, na akatunga dhahania kwa kina kuhusu jinsi inavyo weza kufanya kazi. Hata baada ya madaktari na wanafalsafa kukubaliwa kuhusu ukuu wa ubongo, haidhuru, dhana ya moyo kuwa makao makuu ya ufahamu uliendelea kudumu katika nahau maarufu, kama vile "kujitolea kwa moyo".<ref> ''Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins'' </ref> Galen alifanya kazi kubwa ya kueleza uhusiano wa kianotomi baina ya ubongo, neva na misuli, na kuonyesha kwamba misuli yote katika mwili imeshikana na ubongo kwa njia ya mtandao wa matawi ya neva. Alidai kwamba neva huamsha misuli moja kwa moja, kwa kubeba dutu ya ajabu aliyoita ''pneumata psychikon,'' ambayo kwa kawaida hutafsiriwa kuwa "mazimwi ya wanyama". Mawazo yake yalijulikana pakubwa wakati wa Zama ya Kati, lakini mafanikio mengi zaidi hayakuja hadi katika kipindi cha Mvuvumko, wakati utafiti wa kina wa kianatomia uliporejea, pamoja na makadirio ya kinadharia ya Descartes na wafuasi wake. Descartes, kama Galen, aliwazia mfumo wa neva katika msingi wa kihadroliki. Aliamini kwamba kazi kubwa za kiutambuzi- hasa lugha- hufanywa na viungo visiyoonekana ''res cogitans '' lakini kwamba nyingi ya tabia za binadamu na wanyama zinaweza kuelezeka kwa mambo yanayoshikika. Hatua ya kwanza kuelekea uelewa wa kisasawa kazi wa neva, hata hivyo, ulitokana na uchunguzi wa Luigi Galvani, aliyegundua kwamba wimbi la umeme tuli ukielekezwa katika neva iliyo wazi ya chura aliyekufa inaweza kusababisha mguu wake kujikunja. [[Picha:PurkinjeCell.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=A drawing on yellowing paper with an archiving stamp in the corner. A spidery tree branch structure connects to the top of a mass. A few narrow processes follow away from the bottom of the mass. |Mchora wa Santiago Ramon y Cajal wa aina mbili za neuroni kutoka katika ubongonyuma wa njiwa zilizopakwa kwa Golgi]] Kila uelewa mpana umefuatia moja kwa moja au kidogo kutoka kwa uundwaji wa mbinu mpya ya uchunguzi. Hadi miaka ya mapema ya karne ya 20, maendeleo muhimu zaidi yalitokana na rangi mipya.<ref> Bloom, 1972, uk. 211 </ref> Muhimu hasa ulikuwa uvumbuzi wa rangi Golgi, ambayo (ikitumika kiusahihi) hupaka sehemu ndogo tu, na kwa usahihi bila kubagua, baadhi ya neuroni, huzipaka kikamilifu, ikiwa ni pamoja na mwili wa chembe, dendraiti, na akzoni. Bila rangi kama hiyo, tishu ya ubongo chini ya hadubini huonekana kama mshikamano wa fumwele ya protoplazimu isiyopenyeka, ambayo ni vigumu kubaini muundo wowote. Katika mikono ya [[Camillo Golgi]], na hasa kwa mwana-antomia wa neva wa Kihispania Santiago Ramon y Cajal, rangi hiyo mpya ilifichua mamia ya aina tofauti za neuroni, kila mmoja ikiwa na muundo wa kipekee wa dendriti na mtindo wa mwunganisho. Katika karne ya 20, maendeleo katika uwanda wa elektroniki yaliwezesha uchunguzi wa sifa za kielektroniki za chembe za neva, kilele kilikuwa kazi za Alan Hodgkin, [[Andrew Huxley]], na wengi kuhusu bayofizikia ya tendo tarajiwa, na kazi ya [[Bernard Katz]] na wengine kuhusu uelektrokemia wa sinapsi.<ref> Piccolino, 2002</ref> Chunguzi za awali zilitumia maandalizi maalum, kama vile mfumo wa "mwitikio wa kutorika haraka" wa ngisi, ambayo inahusisha akzoni kubwa wewe unene kama kaa la penseli, na sinapsi kubwa inayoungana na akzoni hii. Maboresho thabiti katika elekrodi na vifaameme viliwezesha umadhubuti wa hali ya juu. Chunguzi hizi zilichangia picha ya kianatomia wa ubongo kukiwa na mtazamo kuwa ubongo ni kiungo kinachobadilika. Akiangazia uelewa mpya, mnamo 1942 [[Charles Sherrington]] alielezea kufanya kazi kwa ubongo katika hatua kwa maelezo ya kushangaza: <blockquote> <p>Sehemu kuu ya juu ya umbo, kwamba sehemu ambapo ni nadra mwanga imewahi kumulika au kugusa, sasa inakuwa sasa kitengo cha uangavu unaorindima kwa urari kukiwa idadi kubwa ya vimulimuli vinavyosafiri hapa na huko. ... Ni kana kwamba Kilimia ilianza kwa namna fulani ya kucheza kwanulimwengu. Kwa haraka kichwa kizima kinakuwa na maliwazo ambapo mamilioni ya vipisha uzi vinashona mtindo usioonekana, kila mara mtindo wenye maana ingawa si wa kudumu; na mwingiliano mtulivu wa vijimiundo.</p> <p>-Sherrington, 1942, ''Man on his Nature'' <ref>[131] ^ Sherrington, ''Man on his Nature'' </ref></p> </blockquote> Miaka ya 1990 ilijulikana katika Marekani kuwa "Muongo wa Ubongo" ili kuadhimisha maendeleo yaliyopigwa katika utafiti wa ubongo, na ili kuendeleza ufadhili kwa ajili ya tafiti kama hizo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.loc.gov/loc/brain/proclaim.html|title= Project on the Decade of the Brain|accessdate=2009-09-30|last=Bush|first=George H.W.|year=1990|month= Julai}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/284/5415/739|first1=Edward G.|last1=Jones|authorlink1=Edward G. Jones|first2=Lorne M.|last2=Mendell|title=Assessing the Decade of the Brain|journal=Science|doi=10.1126/science.284.5415.739|date=30 Aprili 1999|volume=284|issue=5415|page=739|accessdate=2010-04-05|publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]}}</ref> == Maelezo == {{Marejeo|colwidth=20em}} == Marejeo == {{Refbegin|2}} * <cite id="refAbbott">{{cite book | last = Abbott | first = LF | title = Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2001 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=hrZYAAAACAAJ | isbn = 9780262541855 | coauthors = Dayan P }}</cite> * <cite id="refAboitiz">{{cite journal | last = Aboitiz | first = F | title = The evolutionary origin of the mammalian isocortex: Towards an integrated developmental and functional approach | journal = Behav Brain Sci | year = 2003 | volume = 26 | pages = 535–52 | url = http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/Aboitiz/Referees/ | pmid = 15179935 | doi = 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Connors, Michael A. Paradiso | title = Neuroscience | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | location = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | year = 2006 | isbn = 9780781760034 | oclc = 62509134}} * {{cite book | last = Blackmore | first = Susan M. | title = Conversations on Consciousness | url = https://archive.org/details/conversationsonc0000blac | year = 2006 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford; New York | isbn = 9780195179583 | oclc = 62555307}} * {{cite book | last = Buzsaki | first = Gyorgy | title = Rhythms of the Brain | url = https://archive.org/details/rhythmsofbrain0000buzs_h3e9 | year = 2006 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford; New York | isbn = 9780195301069 | oclc = 63279497}} * {{cite book | last = Calvin | first = William H. | title = The River That Flows Uphill: A Journey from the Big Bang to the Big Brain | year = 2001 | publisher = Iuniverse.com | location = Lincoln, Nebraska | isbn = 9780595167005 | oclc = 48962546 }} * {{cite book | last = Della Sala | first = Sergio | title = Mind myths: Exploring popular assumptions about the mind and brain | url = https://archive.org/details/mindmythsexplori0000unse | publisher = J. Wiley & Sons | location = Chichester England; New York | year = 1999 | isbn = 0471983039 | oclc = 39700332}} * {{cite book | last = Restak | first = Richard | title = The Secret Life of the Brain | url = https://archive.org/details/secretlifeofbrai0000rest | publisher = Joseph Henry Press | location = Washington, DC | year = 2001 | isbn = 9780309074353 | oclc = 47863192}} * {{cite book | last = Shepherd | first = Gordon M. | title = The Synaptic Organization of the Brain | url = https://archive.org/details/synapticorganiza0000unse_d1q8_5thed | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford; New York | year = 2004 | edition = Fifth | isbn = 9780195159561 | oclc = 51769076}} Yameandikwa kwa ajili ya watoto wa zaidi ya miaka 8: * {{cite book | last = Simon | first = Seymour | title = The Brain | url = https://archive.org/details/brainournervouss00simo_1 | publisher = Morrow Junior | location = New York | year = 2000 | isbn = 9780688170608 | oclc = 35686089 }} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Brain}} * [http://www.sfn.org The Society for Neuroscience] * [http://www.ibro.org IBRO (Brain Research International Organization)] * [http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html The HOPES Brain Tutorial] {{Wayback|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html |date=20090325101705 }} at [http://hopes.stanford.edu/ hopes.stanford.edu] {{Wayback|url=http://hopes.stanford.edu/ |date=20200827144014 }} * [http://brainmuseum.org/ Comparative Mammalian Brain Collection] * [http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/mind_brain/ Brain Research News from ScienceDaily] * [http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy] * [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience for kids] * [http://www.brainmaps.org/ BrainMaps.org] {{Wayback|url=http://www.brainmaps.org/ |date=20200402002218 }} , atlasi yenye mwingiliano na yenye umadhubuti wa juu wa kidititali wa ubongo ulioundwa kwa msururu wa picha zilochunguliwa za bongo za wanyama wa jamii ya nyani wa wasio wa jamii ya nyani * [http://thebrain.mcgill.ca The Brain from Top to Bottom] * [[v:Topic:Neuroscience|The Department of Neuroscience]] at [[v:|Wikiversity]] * [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/history/index.html The Secret Life of the Brain :] History of the Brain from PBS * [http://www9.biostr.washington.edu/cgi-bin/DA/PageMaster?atlas:Neuroanatomy+ffpathIndex:Splash%5EPage+2 University of Washington ] {{Wayback|url=http://www9.biostr.washington.edu/cgi-bin/DA/PageMaster?atlas:Neuroanatomy+ffpathIndex:Splash%5EPage+2 |date=20180704152239 }} 3D animations of brain regions - click through from "Click for copyright" * [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yZZrhkGbhgw.com 7 circuits of the Brain] * [http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&amp;keyword=brain&amp;event=display&amp;Submit=Go&amp;start=1 Cell Centered Database] [[Jamii:Ubongo]] [[Jamii:Neva]] [[Jamii:Anatomia]] [[Jamii:Kichwa]] flzk8iq0940jm7iqeyc5aoiehj3js2j 0 55731 1580016 1369923 2026-07-17T23:03:02Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580016 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = {{PAGENAME}} | Image = | Caption = | DiseasesDB = | ICD10 = {{ICD10|E|24||e|20}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|255.0}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 000410 | eMedicineSubj = article | eMedicineTopic = 117365 | MeshID = D003480 }} '''Ugonjwa wa Cushing''' (ambao pia unaitwa '''haipaadrenokotisism''' au '''haipakotisism)''' ni ugonjwa wa [[homoni]] (ya mfumo wa mwili) unaosababishwa na viwango vya juu vya kotisoli haipakotisoli katika damu. Hii inaweza kusababishwa na utumizi wa madawa ya glukokortikoidi, au uvimbe unaotoa kotisoli au homoni ya adrenokotikotropiki (ACTH). <ref> Kumar, Abbas, Fausto. ''Msingi wa Patholojia wa Magonjwa wa Robbins na Cotran, toleo la 7.'' Elsevier-Saunders, New York, 2005.</ref> ''Ugonjwa wa Cushing'' unahusu chanzo kimoja maalum, uvimbe (adenoma) katika tezi ya pituitari inayotoa viwango vikubwa vya ACTH, ambayo kwa upande wake huongeza kotisoli. Kwa kawaida unaweza kutibiwa kwa upasuaji. Ulielezwa na Harvey Cushing mwaka wa 1932. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Cushing HW. |title=The basophil adenomas of the pituitary body and their clinical manifestations (pituitary basophilism). |journal=[[Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital]] |volume=50 |issue= |pages=137–95 |year=1932}}</ref> <ref name="obit">{{cite news |author= |coauthors= |title=Dr. Cushing Dead; Brain Surgeon, 70. A Pioneer Who Won Fame as Founder of New School of Neuro-Surgery. Discovered Malady Affecting Pituitary Gland. Was Noted Teacher and Author |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30915F73C5A177A93CAA9178BD95F4D8385F9 |quote=Dr. Harvey Williams Cushing, international authority on brain surgery and neurology, who for his ... |work=[[New York Times]] |date=8 Oktoba 1939 |accessdate=2010-03-21 }}</ref> Dalili za ugonjwa wa Cushing hazipatikani kwa binadamu pekee na bali pia ni hali ya kawaida katika mbwa na farasi waliofugwa. == Ishara na Dalili == Dalili ni pamoja na [[Kunona|kuongeza uzito]] haraka, hasa wa kiwiliwili na uso na ukiacha viungo (unene wa katikati). Ishara ya kawaida ni ukuaji wa pedi za mafuta ubavuni mwa mtulinga na upande wa nyuma wa shingo (nundu ya nyati) na uso wa duara unaojulikana kama "dalili za wekunduuso". Dalili nyingine ni pamoja na haipahaidrosisi (kutoa jasho jingi kupita kiasi), telangiektasia (mpanuko wa mishipa midogo ya damu), kukonda kwa ngozi (ambako husababisha kuvilia kwa urahisi na kukauka, hasa kwa mikono) na tando zingine za ute, striaeza zambarau au nyekundu (kuongeza uzito katika ugonjwa wa Cushing hunyoosha ngozi, ambayo ni nyembamba na dhaifu, na kuisababisha itoke damu) kwenye kiwiliwili, matako, mikono, miguu au matiti, udhaifu wa misuli ya kupakana (nyonga, mabega), na kuwa na nywele kuruwili (ukuaji wa nywele usoni kwa mfano wa wanaume), na upara na/au kusababisha nywele kuwa kavu mno na nyepesi kukatika. Katika kesi nadra, Cushing inaweza kusababisha idadi ya juu ya kalisi katika damu, ambayo inaweza kusababisha nekrosisi ya ngozi. Kotisoli ya ziada inaweza pia kuathiri mifumo mingine ya endokrini na kusababisha, kwa mfano, kukosa usingizi, kibadilisha-androjeni kilichozuiwa, upungufu wa ashiki, uhanithi, kosa-hedhi / hedhi ya nadra na kutokutungisha kutokana na mwongezeko wa androjeni. Mara kwa mara, wagonjwa hupata mivurugiko mbalimbali ya kisaikolojia , kuanzia furaha hadi kichaa. Unyogovu na wasiwasi pia ni ya kawaida. <ref>{{cite book |title=The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences |url=https://archive.org/details/americanpsychiat0000unse_r0m9 |last=Yudofsky |first=Stuart C. |coauthors=Robert E. Hales |edition=5th |year=2007 |publisher=American Psychiatric Pub, Inc. |isbn=1585622397 }}</ref> Mabadiliko mengine ya kuvutia na ya kudhikisha ya ngozi yanayoweza kuonekana kwenye ugonjwa wa Cushing ni pamoja na chunusi ya uso, wepesi wa kuathirika na maambukizi ya kuvu ngozi na malasezia, ya juu juu, na sifa bainifu ya stria ya atrofi juu ya fumbatio. <ref name="Andrews"> James, William, Berger, Timotheo, Elston, Dirk (2005). ''Magonjwa ya Ngozi ya Andrews: Elimu ya ngozi ya kiafya.'' (10 ed).. Saunders. ISBN 0-7216-2921-0.</ref> {{Rp|500}} Ishara nyingine ni pamoja na kupita mkojo kupita kiasi (na kiu kisicho cha kawaida kinachoandamana), shinikizo la damu linaloendelea (kutokana na uimarishaji wa athari za kubana mshipa zaepinefrini na kotisoli) upinzani wa insulini (kawaida hasa katika uzalishaji wa ACTH wa ektopia), na hivyo kusababisha haipaglaikemia ( kiwango cha juu cha sukari katika damu) ambayo inaweza kusababisha [[Kisukari|kisukari melitasi]]. Ugonjwa wa Cushing usipotibiwa unaweza kusababisha ugonjwa wa moyo na [[Mauti|kuongezekakwa]] vifo. Ugonjwa wa Cushing unaotokana na ACTH ya ziada huweza pia kusababisha kiwango cha juu cha pigmenti, kama vile akanthosi nigrikani katika kwapa. Hii ni kutokana na utengenezaji wa Homoni ya Kudhibiti Rangi ya ngozi kama matokeo ya usanisi wa ACTH kutoka kwa Pro-opiomelanokotini (POMC). Kotisoli pia inaweza kuonyesha shughuli za madinikotikoidi katika viwango vya juu, na kutibua shinikizo la damu na kusababisha kiwango cha chini cha ioni za potasi katika damu (kawaida katika utoaji wa ugiligili wa mwili wa ACTH wa ektopia ). Aidha, usumbufu wa utumbo, maambukizi na uponyaji wa jeraha uliodhoofika (kotisoli ni homoni ya dhiki, kwa hivyo inakandamiza majibu ya kinga na kuvimba). Ugonjwa wa mifupa kuwa midogo na myepesi pia ni hoja katika ugonjwa wa Cushing kwa sababu, kama ilivyotajwa mbeleni, kotisoli huleta jibu linalofanana na mfadhaiko. Kwa hiyo, kukimu kwa mwili ya mfupa (na tishu zingine) hufuata matengenezo ya majibu ya uongo ya dhiki. Zaidi ya hayo, Cushing unaweza kusababisha viunga kuuma na kuwa na mchonyoto, hasa katika nyonga, mabega, na mgongo wa chini. == Sababu == Kuna mambo kadhaa yanayoweza kusababisha ugonjwa wa Cushing. === Eksojenasi dhidi ya endojenasi === Homoni kutoka nje ya mwili huitwa eksojenasi, homoni ambazo hutoka ndani ya mwili huitwa endojenasi. Sababu kuu ya ugonjwa wa Cushing ni kutoa ''glukokotikoidi'' , kupitia eksojenesi, zilizoagizwa na tabibu wa huduma ya afya kutibu magonjwa mengine (unaitwa ''ugonjwa wa Cushing wa iatrojeniki).'' Hii inaweza kuwa ni madhara ya matibabu ya steroidi ya maradhi mbalimbali kama vile pumu na ugonjwa wa baridi yabisi, au katika uzuiaji wa mwitikio wa kingamwili baada ya kuhamisha kiungo cha mwili. Kutoa ACTH ya kusanisi pia kunawezekana, lakini ACTH haiagizwi mara nyingi kwa sababu ya gharama na matumizi madogo. Ingawa ni nadra, ugonjwa wa Cushing pia unaweza kutokana na matumizi ya medroksiprojesteroni <ref> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2552887</ref> <ref> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2144198</ref> Ugonjwa wa Cushing wa ''ndani ya mwili'' hutokana na uharibifu fulani wa mfumo wa mwili wa kutoa kotisoli. Kwa kawaida, ACTH hutolewa kwenye tezi ya pituitari inapohitajika kuchochea kutolewa kwa kotisoli kutoka kwa tezi za adrena. * Katika ''Cushing ya pituitari,'' uvimbe hafifu wa pituitari hutoa ACTH. Hii pia hujulikana kama ''ugonjwa wa Cushing'' na unahusika katika 65% ya ugonjwa wa Cushing wa ndani ya mwili. * Katika ''Cushing ya adrena,'' kotisoli hutolewa na uvimbe wa tezi za ''adrena'' , tezi za adrena zenye haipaplasia, au tezi za adrena zenye kivimbe cha haipaplasia cha adrena. * Hatimaye, uvimbe nje ya mfumo wa kawaida wa pituitari-adrenali unaweza kutoa ACTH inayoathiri tezi za adrena. Etiolijia hii ya mwisho inaitwa ''Ugonjwa wa Cushing wa ektopia'' au ''paraneoplastiki'' na huonekana katika magonjwa kama saratani ya mapafu ya seli ndogo. === Ugonjwa wa Cushing wa bandia === Viwango vya juu vya kotisoli jumla vinaweza kusababishwa na estrojini inayopatikana katika dawa za kupanga uzazi zilizo na mchanganyiko wa estrojini na projesteroni. Estrojini inaweza kusababisha ongezeko la kotisoli inayogandisha globulini na hivyo kusababisha jumla ya kiwango cha kotisoli kuongezeka. Hata hivyo, jumla ya kotisoli huria, ambayo ni homoni hai katika mwili, kama ilivyopimwa na mkusanyiko wa mkojo wa masaa 24 kwa kotisoli isio na mkojo, ni kawaida. <ref> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1436049/</ref> == Pathofisiolojia == Haipothalamasi iko katika ubongo na tezi ya pituitari iko chini yake. Kiini kilicho katika ventrikula (PVN) cha haipothalamasi hutoa homoni itoayo tropinigamba (CRH), inayochochea tezi ya pituitari kutoa adrenokotikotropini (ACTH). ACTH husafari kupitia kwenye damu hadi kwa tezi ya adrena, ambapo inachochea kutolewa kwa kotisoli. Kotisoli hutolewa na koteksi ya tezi ya adrena kutoka kwa eneo liitwalo ''zona fasikulata'' kama jibu kwa ACTH. Viwango vya juu vya kotisoli huweka majibu hasi kwenye pituitari, ambayo hupunguza kiasi cha ACTH kinachotolewa kutoka kwa tezi ya pituitari. Kwa kweli, '''dalili za Cushing''' zinahusu kotisoli ya ziada ya etiolojia yoyote. Sababu moja ya dalili za Cushing ni uvimbe unaotoa kotisoli katika koteksi ya tezi ya adrena. Uvimbe husababisha vinwango vya kotisoli katika damu kuwa vya juu sana, na majibu hasi kwenye pituitari kutoka kwa viwango vya juu vya kotisoli husababisha viwango vya ACTH kuwa vya chini sana. '''Ugonjwa wa Cushing''' unahusu tu haipakotisoli inayofuata sekondari katika utoaji wa ziada wa ACTH kutoka kwa uvimbe wa kotikotrofia wa pituitari. Hii husababisha viwango vya ACTH kwenye damu kuongezeka pamoja na kotisoli kutoka kwa tezi ya adrena. Viwango vya ACTH vinasalia vya juu kwa sababu uvimbe huifanya pituitari kutovutiwa na majibu hasi kutoka kwa viwango vya juu vya kotisoli. Ugonjwa wa Cushing pia ulikuwa ugonjwa wa kwanza wa kingamwilinafsi kutambuliwa kwa binadamu. <ref>[13] ^ Historia ya Ugonjwa wa Cushing: hadithi ya utata, JR Soc Med. 1991 Juni, 84 (6): 363-366</ref> == Uaguzi == Wakati dalili za ugonjwa wa Cushing zinatuhumiwa, ama uchunguzi wa ukandamizaji wa deksamethasoni (utoaji wa deksamethasoni na utambuzi wa mara kwa mara wa kotisoli na kiwango cha ACTH), au kipimo cha kotisoli kwenye mkojo kwa masaa 24 hutoa viwango sawa vya ugunduzi. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Raff H, Findling JW |title=A physiologic approach to diagnosis of the Cushing syndrome |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=138 |issue=12 |pages=980–91 |year=2003 |pmid=12809455 |doi= |url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12809455}}</ref> Deksamethasoni ni glukokotikoidi na inaiga madhara ya kotisoli, ikiwa ni pamoja na majibu hasi kwenye tezi ya pituitari. Wakati deksamethasoni inapotolewa na sampuli ya damu inachunguzwa, kotisoli ya juu inaashiria dalili za Cushing kwa sababu kuna chanzo cha ektopia cha kotisoli au ACTH (mfano: uvimbe wa adrena)ambayo haizuiwi na deksamethasoni. Mtazamo mpya, uliokubaliwa hivi karibuni na FDA (Utawala wa Vyakula na Madawa ulio chini ya wizara ya Afya ya Marekani. Jukumu lake ni kulinda na kukuza afya ya umma kwa kuratibisha na kusimamia uslama wa vyakula na madawa) ya Marekani, ni uchunguzi wa kotisoli katika mate kwa masaa 24, ambayo pia inaweza kuwa nyeti, kwa vile viwango vya usiku vya kotisoli ya mate ya wagonjwa wenye Cushing ni vya juu. Viwango vingine vya homoni ya pituitari vitahakikishwa. Uchunguzi wa kimwili kutambua dosari yoyote ya eneo la kuona utahitajika ikiwa kidonda cha pituitari kinatuhumiwa. Kidonda hiki kinaweza kubana mahali ambapo neva za macho hukutana na kusababisha hemianopsia ya kawaida ya macho. Wakati wowote wa ambapo uchunguzi huu ni halisi, skani ya CT ya tezi ya adrena na MRI ya tezi ya pituitari hufanywa kuchunguza kuwepo na uvimbe au insidentaloma (ugunduzi wa dharura wa vidonda visivyo vya kudhuru) ya adreni au pituitari. Sintigrafia ya tezi ya adreni kwa skani ya ayodokolesteroli ni muhimu mara kwa mara. Mara chache sana, kuamua viwango vya kotisoli katika vena mbalimbali katika mwili kwa kupima vena kutumia katheta, ukielekea kwenye pituitari (uchunguzi wa uwazi katika mfupa mwambo)ni lazima. === Nemoniki === '''K''' - unene wa '''K''' katikati, pedi nene za '''K''' kizazi, udhaifu wa unyuzi wa '''K''' olajeni , '''K''' omedoni (chunusi)<br /> '''U''' - Kotisoli isio na mkojo na ongezeko la glukosi <br /> '''S''' - Stria, kinga iliyokandamizwa<br /> '''H''' - Haipakotisoli, Shinikizo la damu, Haipaglaikemia, Kuwepo kwa nywele nyingi kupita kiasi kwenye mwili na uso<br /> '''I''' - Iatrojeniki (Ongezeko la utoaji wa steroidi za bongo)<br /> '''N''' - Noniatrojeniki (Neoplasmi)<br /> '''G''' - Kutostahimili glukosi, Kudumaa kwa ukuaji<br /> == Matibabu == Visa vingi vya ugonjwa wa Cushing vinasababishwa na matibabu ya steroidi (iatrojeniki). Kwa hiyo, wagonjwa wengi hutibiwa kwa ufanisi kwa kupunguza taratibu (na hatimaye kuacha) madawa ambayo husababisha dalili. Kama uvimbe wa adrena utatambuliwa unaweza kuondolewa kwa upasuaji. Uvimbe wa kotikotrofia wa pitituari unaotoa ACTH unapaswa kuondolewa baada ya utambuzi. Bila kutia maanani eneo la uvimbe, wagonjwa wengi watahitaji ubadili wa steroidi baada ya uppasuaji angalau kwa muda kwa sababu ukandamizaji wa muda mrefu wa ACTH ya pituitari na tishu ya kawaida ya adrena hauponi mara moja. Hakika, ikiwa adrena zote mbili zitaondolewa, kuleta haidrokotisoni au prinisolonibadala yake ni muhimu. Kwa wale wagonjwa ambao hawafai au wasiotaka kufanyiwa upasuaji, madawa kadhaa yamepatikana kuzuia usanisi wa kotisoli (km ketokonazoli, metiraponi) lakini ni ya utendakazi mdogo. Kuondolewa kwa adrena pasipo na uvimbe unaojulikana hutekelezwa mara kwa mara ili kuondosha utoaji wa kotisoli ya ziada. Wakati mwingine, hii huondoa majibu hasi kutoka kwa uvimbe wa pituitari uliokuwa umejificha hapo mbeleni, unaoanza kukua kwa haraka na kutoa viwango vikubwa mno vya ACTH, na hivyo kusababisha kiwango cha juu cha pigmenti, hasa kwenye ngozi. Hali hii ya kiafya inajulikana kama ugonjwa wa Nelson. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Nelson DH, Meakin JW, Thorn GW |title=ACTH-producing pituitary tumors following adrenalectomy for Cushing syndrome |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=52 |issue= |pages=560–9 |year=1960 |pmid=14426442 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_1960-03_52_3/page/560}}</ref> == Epidemiolojia == Ugonjwa wa Cushing wa iatrojeniki (unaosababishwa na matibabu kwa kutumia steroidi za bongo) ni aina ya kawaida kupita zote ya ugonjwa wa Cushing. Matukio ya uvimbe wa pituitari yanaweza kuwa mengi, kama vile kwa mtu mmoja kati ya watano, <ref name="pmid15274075">{{cite journal |author=Ezzat S, Asa SL, Couldwell WT, ''et al.'' |title=The prevalence of pituitary adenomas: a systematic review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cancer_2004-08-01_101_3/page/n196 |journal=Cancer |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=613–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15274075 |doi=10.1002/cncr.20412}}</ref> lakini sehemu ndogo tu ndio tenda-kazi na huzalisha homoni nyingi zaidi. Watu wazima wenye ugonjwa huo pia wanaweza kuwa na dalili ya kuongeza uzito kuzidi kiasi, ukuaji wa nywele kupita kiasi kwa wanawake, shinikizo la damu, na matatizo ya ngozi. Aidha, wanaweza kuonyesha: * udhaifu wa misuli na mifupa * usununu, kuwashwa, au unyogovu * kutatizika kwa usingizi * kiwango cha juu cha sukari * maradhi ya hedhi kwa wanawake na upungufu wa uwezo wa kuzaa kwa wanaume * upara * kiwango cha juu cha kolesteroli katika damu == Marejeo == {{Marejeo}} == Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.ercusyn.eu Rejista ya Ulaya ya Ugonjwa wa Cushing] * [http://www.pituitarysociety.org/public/specific/cushing/cushings.pdf Maelezo ya mgonjwa] {{Wayback|url=http://www.pituitarysociety.org/public/specific/cushing/cushings.pdf |date=20081120192605 }} (PDF) * [http://csrf.net/ Shirika la Ufadhili na Utafiti wa Cushing ] * [http://lohmann-birkner.de/ercusyn/wMedia/pdf/brochure/cushingsEN.pdf Brosha ya Madaktari wa huduma za Msingi, kuongeza ufahamu wa ugonjwa wa Cushing] {{Wayback|url=http://lohmann-birkner.de/ercusyn/wMedia/pdf/brochure/cushingsEN.pdf |date=20110719055439 }} [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] oy4knd3x1aktwztp6d4dizbgtm0bqta 0 55745 1580117 1578088 2026-07-18T00:17:06Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580117 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] "Fertility Awareness", kifupi FA) ni elimu inayohusu mbinu zinazotumika kutambua wakati [[mwanamke]] anapoweza kushika [[mimba]] na asipoweza kushika mimba katika mzunguko wa [[hedhi]]. Mbinu hizo zinaweza kutumika ili [[Uzazi wa mpango|kuzuia mimba]] isiyotarajiwa huku ikisaidia pia uwezekano wa kupata mimba iliyotarajiwa. Kadhalika hutumika kama njia ya kusimamia [[afya ya uzazi]] wa mwanamke. Mbinu kadhaa za kubaini siku ambazo mwanamke hawezi kupata mimba zinajulikana tangu zamani, lakini ujuzi wa ki[[sayansi]] uliopatikana katika [[karne ya 20]] umeongeza sana idadi na usahihi wa mbinu hizo. Kutoka mwaka [[1930]] hadi [[1980]], [[utafiti]] na ukuzaji wa uelewa huo wa masuala ya [[uzazi]] ulifanywa hasa na wataalamu wanaohusika na [[Kanisa Katoliki]] kwa lengo la kusaidia kupanga uzazi watu wa [[ndoa]] wanaokataa mbinu za [[teknolojia]] kwa msingi wa [[maadili]] au kwa kuzingatia ma[[dhara]] yake. Kimsingi, njia ya kwanza iliyo rasmi ya kuhesabu kalenda iliundwa mnamo mwaka 1930 na [[John Smulders]], daktari Mkatoliki kutoka [[Uholanzi]]. Kwa kiasi kikubwa mashirika yanayotafuta na kueneza ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba yanaendelea kuongozwa na Wakatoliki, lakini baadhi ya mashirika ya kawaida sasa yapo. Mbinu za ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba hutegemea uchunguzi wa mabadiliko ya ishara za msingi yanayoashiria uwezekano wa kutunga mimba (kama vile [[joto la mwili]], [[ute wa uke]], na [[mkao wa seviksi]]) kwa kufuatilia mzunguko wote wa hedhi na hivyo kubaini wakati ambapo inawezekana kushika mimba. Ishara nyingine pia zinaweza kuzingatiwa: hizo ni pamoja na ulaini wa ma[[titi]] na [[uchungu]] wakati [[kijiyai]] kinapoachiliwa, uchunguzi wa [[mkojo]] kwa vifaa vya kubashiri udondoshwaji wa vijiyai, na uchunguzi wa ki[[hadubini]] wa [[ute]] au [[ugiligili]] wa [[seviksi]] (yaani mlango wa kizazi). Isitoshe, ipo njia ya kufuatilia uwezo wa kushika mimba kwa [[tarakilishi]]. ==Istilahi== Mbinu zinazotegemea dalili zinafuatilia moja au zaidi kati ya ishara tatu za msingi za kuweza kutunga mimba - joto la msingi la mwili, ute wa uke na mkao wa seviksi.<ref name="tcoyf">{{cite book | first=Toni | last=Weschler | year=2002 | title=Taking Charge of Your Fertility | url=https://archive.org/details/takingchargeofyo00toni | pages=[https://archive.org/details/takingchargeofyo00toni/page/52 52] | edition=Revised | publisher=HarperCollins | location=New York | isbn=0-06-093764-5 }}</ref> Mbinu zinazotegemea ute wa uke tu ni pamoja na [[Mbinu ya Billings]] ya Kutambua Kijiyai Kuachiliwa, [http://www.familynfp.com The Ovulation Method] {{Wayback|url=http://www.familynfp.com/ |date=20180528084727 }}, [[Mbinu ya Creighton]], na [[Mbinu ya Siku Mbili]]. Mbinu za dalili ya joto la mwili hujumuisha pia uchunguzi wa joto la msingi la mwili (basal body temperature = BBT), ute wa uke, na wakati mwingine mkao wa seviksi. [[Mbinu zinazotegemea kalenda]] hufuatilia mzunguko wa hedhi ya mwanamke na kwa kuzingatia urefu wa mzunguko wake kutambua anapoweza kupata mimba. Mbinu maarufu zaidi kati ya hizo ni [[Mbinu ya Siku Sanifu]]. [[Mbinu ya Urari-Kalenda]] pia huhesabiwa njia ya kutegemea kalenda, ingawa haijafafanuliwa vizuri na ina maana nyingi tofauti kwa watu tofauti. Mbinu hizo za kupanga uzazi zinaweza kuitwa Mbinu za Uzazi Zinazotegemea Ufahamu (wa uwezo wa kuzaa), <ref name="who">{{Rejea jarida |title=Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use:Fertility awareness-based methods | version = Fourth edition |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2010 |url=http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/family_planning/9789241563888/en/index.html |accessdate=2012-12-11 }}</ref> Jina "Mbinu ya Uelewa wa Uzazi" (kwa Kiingereza Fertility Awareness Method = FAM) linatumika hasa kwa mfumo uliofundishwa na [[Toni Weschler]]. Jina "Mbinu Asili ya Uzazi wa Mpango" (kwa Kiingereza natural family planning = NFP) wakati mwingine hutumiwa kutaja mbinu yoyote inayotegemea Ufahamu wa Uzazi. Hata hivyo, msamiati huo ni mahsusi kuhusu mbinu zile zinazokubaliwa na Kanisa Katoliki: mbali ya uwezekano wa kutopata mimba wakati wa kunyonyesha (kwa Kiingereza Lactational amenorrhea method = LAM), ni kutofanya tendo la ndoa siku ambapo kuna uwezekano wa kupata mimba. Hapo mbinu za FA zinaweza kutumika ili kutambua nyakati hizo zinazoweza kuleta mimba. Wanawake ambao wananyonyesha na wanapenda kukwepa mimba wanaweza kutegemea kukatizwa kwa hedhi wakati wa kunyonyesha. Hiyo ni tofauti na ufahamu wa uzazi, lakini kwa sababu haihusishi vifaa wala kemikali, mara nyingi hutajwa pamoja na FA kama njia asili ya uzazi wa mpango. ==Historia== ===Ukuaji wa mbinu zinazotegemea kalenda=== Haijulikani kwa hakika lini iligunduliwa kwa mara ya kwanza kuwa wanawake wana vipindi vya kutunga mimba na visivyo vya kutunga mimba vinavyoweza kutabirika. Mwaka [[388]] [[Agostino wa Hippo]] aliandika kuhusu kuepuka mara kwa mara tendo la ndoa ili kuzuia mimba akiwalaumu [[Wamani]] kwa kutumia njia hiyo ili kubaki bila watoto.<ref name="augustine">{{cite book |last=Saint |first=Bishop of Hippo Augustine | authorlink = | coauthors = Philip Schaff (Editor) |title=A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Volume IV |publisher=WM. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. |year=1887 |location=Grand Rapids, MI |pages=[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf104.iv.v.xx.html ''On the Morals of the Manichæans'', Chapter 18] }}</ref> Kitabu fulani kinasema kuacha ngono kwa muda kulipendekezwa na "watu wachache wasio wa dini tangu katikati ya karne ya 19",<ref name="wife">{{cite book | first=Marilyn | last=Yalom | year=2001 | title=A History of the Wife | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwife2001yalo | edition=First | publisher=HarperCollins | location=New York | isbn=0-06-019338-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofwife2001yalo/page/297 297]–8, 307}}</ref> lakini katika [[karne ya 20]] ushawishi mkuu uliohamasisha mbinu za ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba ulitoka katika Kanisa Katoliki. Mwaka [[1905]] [[Theodoor Hendrik van de Velde]], [[mwanajinakolojia]] wa [[Uholanzi]], alionyesha kuwa wanawake hutoa kijiyai mara moja tu kila mzunguko wa hedhi.<ref>{{cite web | title=A Brief History of Fertility Charting | work=FertilityFriend.com | url=http://www.fertilityfriend.com/Faqs/A_brief_history_of_fertility_charting.html | accessdate=2006-06-18}}</ref> [[Miaka ya 1920]] [[Kyusaku Ogino]], mwanajinakolojia wa [[Ujapani]], na [[Hermann Knaus]], kutoka [[Austria]], wakifanya kazi bila ushirikiano waligundua kwamba kijiyai hutokea siku kumi na nne hivi kabla ya kipindi cha hedhi kinachofuata.<ref name="singer">{{cite book | first=Katie | last=Singer | year=2004 | title=The Garden of Fertility | url=https://archive.org/details/gardenoffertilit0000sing | publisher=Avery, a member of Penguin Group (USA) | location=New York | isbn=1-58333-182-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gardenoffertilit0000sing/page/226 226]–7}}</ref> Ogino alitumia uvumbuzi wake kutengeneza hesabu ya kuwasaidia wanawake wasiopata mimba kwa kufanya tendo la ndoa kwa wakati mwafaka kupata mimba. Mwaka [[1930]] [[John Smulders]], daktari Mkatoliki kutoka Uholanzi, alitumia uvumbuzi huo kuunda mbinu ya kuepuka mimba. Smulders alichapisha kazi yake chini ya Chama cha Matabibu Wakatoliki wa Uholanzi, na hiyo ilikuwa mbinu sanifu ya kwanza ya kuepuka mimba kwa kuacha kujamiiana kwa kipindi fulani - mbinu ya kalenda.<ref name="singer"></ref> ===Uanzilishi wa mbinu za dalili za joto na ute wa mlango wa uzazi=== Katika miaka ya 1930, [[Wilhelm Hillebrand]], [[padri]] Mkatoliki nchini [[Ujerumani]], alitunga mbinu ya kuzuia mimba kwa kutegemea joto la msingi la mwili.<ref name="puzzle">{{cite journal |last=Hays |first=Charlotte |title=Solving the Puzzle of Natural Family Planning |journal=Holy Spirit Interactive |url=http://www.holyspiritinteractive.net/features/prolife/article_05.asp |accessdate=2012-02-15 |archive-date=2017-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212031741/http://www.holyspiritinteractive.net/features/prolife/article_05.asp |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Mbinu hiyo ya joto ilionekana kuwa na ufanisi mkubwa zaidi katika kuwasaidia wanawake kuzuia mimba kuliko mbinu ya kutegemea kalenda. Katika miongo michache iliyofuata, mbinu hizo mbili zikawa zinatumika sana miongoni mwa wanawake Wakatoliki. Hotuba mbili zilizotolewa na [[Papa Pius XII]] mwaka [[1951]] zilitoa kibali cha hali ya juu kutoka Kanisa Katoliki kwa mbinu hizo kutumiwa na [[mume]] na [[mke]] waliohitaji kuzuia mimba.<ref name="wife"></ref><ref>[18] ^ ''Moral Questions Affecting Married Life:'' [http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P511029.HTM Addresses given October 29, 1951 to the Italian Catholic Union of midwives] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P511029.HTM |date=20101206084012 }} 26 Novemba 1951 to the National Congress of the Family Front and the Association of Large Families, National Catholic Welfare Conference, Washington, DC.</ref> Mwanzo mwa [[miaka ya 1950]], [[John Billings]] aligundua uhusiano kati ya ute wa mlango wa uzazi na uwezekano wa kutunga mimba alipokuwa akifanya kazi katika Shirika Katoliki la Ustawi wa Jamii mjini [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]. Billings na madaktari wengine kadhaa, akiwemo mke wake [[Evelyn Billings|Evelyn]], walifanyia utafiti ishara hiyo kwa miaka kadhaa, na kufikia mwishoni mwa [[miaka ya 1960]] walikuwa wamefanya majaribio ya kitabibu na kuanzisha vituo vya kufundishia mbinu yao duniani kote.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Billings |first=John |authorlink=John Billings |title=THE QUEST&nbsp;— leading to the discovery of the Billings Ovulation Method |journal=Bulletin of Ovulation Method Research and Reference Centre of Australia |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=18–28 |month=Machi |year=2002 |url=http://www.woomb.org/omrrca/bulletin/vol29/no1/thequest.shtml |accessdate=2007-03-18 |archive-date=2007-02-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070219081722/http://www.woomb.org/omrrca/bulletin/vol29/no1/thequest.shtml |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ===Mashirika ya kwanza ya ufundishaji mbinu zilizozingatia dalili=== Japo awali akina Billings walifundisha pamoja mbinu za dalili ya joto na ya ute wa uke, walipata shida katika kufundisha ishara ya joto kwa idadi kubwa ya watu wasiojua kusoma na kuandika katika [[nchi zinazoendelea]]. Hivyo katika [[miaka ya 1970]] walibadilisha mbinu ili kutegemea ute tu.<ref name="puzzle"></ref> Taasisi ya kimataifa iliyoanzishwa na Billings sasa inajulikana kama "Shirika la Kimataifa la Mbinu ya Kudondosha Kijiyai ya Billings" (kwa Kiingereza World Organization Ovulation Method Billings = WOOMB). Shirika la kwanza kufundisha mbinu ya dalili za joto lilianzishwa mwaka [[1971]]. [[John na Sheila Kippley]], [[walei]] Wakatoliki, walijiunga na [[Konald Prem]] katika kufundisha mbinu iliyotegemea dalili zote tatu: joto, ute na mkao wa mlango wa uzazi. Taasisi yao sasa inaitwa "Shirika la Kimataifa la Wanandoa kwa Wanandoa" (kwa Kiingereza "Couple to Couple League International").<ref name="puzzle"></ref> [[Muongo]] uliofuata ulishuhudia kuanzishwa kwa mashirika mengine ya Kikatoliki ambayo sasa ni makubwa - "Familia ya Amerika" (kwa Kiingereza "Family of the Americas") iliyoundwa mwaka [[1977]] na kufundisha mbinu ya Billings,<ref>{{cite web |title=About us |work=Family of the Americas |year=2006 |url=http://www.familyplanning.net/main.php?parent_id=1&id_area=1 |accessdate=2007-03-18 |archivedate=2007-02-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213070450/http://www.familyplanning.net/main.php?parent_id=1&id_area=1 }}</ref> halafu "Taasisi ya [[Papa Paulo VI]]" ([[1985]]), inayofundisha mbinu mpya ya ute pekee iitwayo Creighton Model.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Institute |work=Pope Paul VI Institute |year=2006 |url=http://www.popepaulvi.com/about2.html |accessdate=2012-02-21 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312012943/http://www.popepaulvi.com/about2.html |archivedate=2012-03-12 }}</ref> Hadi [[miaka ya 1980]], habari kuhusu ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba ulipatikana tu kutoka vyanzo vya Kikatoliki.<ref> Singer (2004), p.xxiii</ref> Shirika la kwanza lisilo la kidini la kutolea mafundisho hayo ya uzazi lilikuwa Kituo cha Uelewa wa Uzazi cha New York, lililoanzishwa mwaka [[1981]].<ref>{{cite web |title=About us |work=Fertility Awareness Center |year=2006 |url=http://www.fertaware.com/ |accessdate=2007-03-18 }}</ref> [[Toni Weschler]] alianza kufundisha mwaka [[1982]] na kuchapisha kitabu kilichouzwa sana cha ''Taking Charge of Your Fertility '' mwaka [[1995]].<ref> Weschler (2002)</ref> "Justisse" ilianzishwa mwaka [[1987]] huko [[Edmonton]], [[Kanada]].<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us |work=Justisse |year=2002 |url=http://www.justisse.ca/new/aboutUs.asp |accessdate=2007-03-18 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061116202933/http://www.justisse.ca/new/aboutUs.asp |archivedate=2006-11-16 }}</ref> Mashirika hayo yote yasiyo ya kidini yanafundisha mbinu ya dalili za joto. Ingawa mashirika ya Kikatoliki yanayoeneza uelewa wa uzazi ni makubwa sana kuliko hayo ya [[wanaharakati]] yasiyo ya kidini, walimu wasiotegemea dini wamezidi kuongezeka katika [[miaka ya 1990]] na [[milenia mpya]]. ===Maendeleo ya sasa=== Ustawi wa mbinu za ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba unaendelea. Mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1990, "Taasisi ya [[Afya ya Uzazi]]" katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Georgetown]] ilianzisha mbinu mbili mpya.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Arévalo M, Jennings V, Sinai I |title=Efficacy of a new method of family planning: the Standard Days Method. |journal=Contraception |volume=65 |issue=5 |pages=333–8 |year=2002 |pmid=12057784 |url=http://pdf.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACQ416.pdf |doi=10.1016/S0010-7824(02)00288-3 |format=PDF |access-date=2010-11-30 |archive-date=2019-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907012126/http://pdf.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACQ416.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Jennings V, Sinai I |title=Further analysis of the theoretical effectiveness of the TwoDay method of family planning |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_2001-09_64_3/page/149 |journal=Contraception |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=149–53 |year=2001 |pmid=11704093 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-7824(01)00251-7}}</ref> Mbinu ya Siku Mbili, inayotegemea ute tu, na [[CycleBeads]], ambayo inafuata mbinu ya Siku Sanifu na ina pia toleo la kieletroniki, iCycleBeads), zimeundwa ili kuwa na ufanisi na urahisi mkubwa zaidi katika kufundisha, kujifunza, na kutumia. ==Ishara za uwezo wa kushika mimba== Mizunguko mingi ya hedhi huwa na siku kadhaa za mwanzo ambapo mimba haiwezi kupatikana (muda wa kutoshika mimba kabla ya kudondosha kijiyai), halafu siku ambazo mimba inaweza kutungika, na kisha siku kadhaa tu kabla ya hedhi ambazo mimba haiwezi kutungika ( muda wa kutoshika mimba baada ya kijiyai kudondoshwa). Siku ya kwanza ya kuvuja damu inahesabiwa kuwa siku ya kwanza ya mzunguko wa hedhi. Mbinu mbalimbali za kufahamu uwezo wa kushika mimba huhesabu kwa njia tofauti kidogo kipindi ambapo kuna uwezekano wa kupata mimba, yaani hutumia ishara za msingi za uwezekano huo, historia ya mzunguko, au zote mbili. ===Ishara za msingi za kuweza kupata mimba=== Ishara tatu za msingi za uwezekano wa kushika mimba ni ''joto msingi la mwili'', ''ute wa uke'' na ''mkao wa seviksi.'' Mwanamke anayetumia dalili hizo ili kujua uwezo wake wa kupata mimba anachagua kutumia ishara moja, mbili, au zote tatu pamoja. Wanawake wengi hung'amua pia ishara nyingine za ziada kulingana na mzunguko wa hedhi, kama vile maumivu na uzito tumboni, maumivu mgongoni, ulaini wa matiti na maumivu ya kudondosha kijiyai. ===Joto la msingi la mwili=== '''Joto la msingi la mwili''' ni joto la mwili wa mtu linalopimwa wakati wa kwanza anapoamka asubuhi (au baada ya usingizi wa muda mrefu zaidi katika siku). Miongoni mwa wanawake, kudondoshwa kijiyai husababisha joto kupanda kwa 0.3°C hadi 0.9° C (0.5°F hadi 1.6°F) na kubakia hivyo kipindi chote hadi wakati wa hedhi ijayo. Mabadiliko hayo ya joto yanaweza kutumika kubaini mwanzo wa kipindi cha kutoweza kutungika mimba kabla ya kudodosha kijiyai. ===Ute wa uke=== [[File:cervical mucus1.jpg|thumb|125px|Ute wa uke]] Kuonekana kwa '''ute wa uke''' na [[mwasho]] wake ni ishara zinazoelezwa kwa kawaida pamoja kama njia za kubaini ishara hiyohiyo. Ute wa uke huzalishwa na seviksi, ambayo huunganisha [[mji wa mimba]] na [[mfereji wa uke]]. Ute wa uke wenye uwezo wa kushika mimba hukuza maisha ya manii kwa kupunguza [[uasidi]] wa uke, na husaidia kuongoza manii kupitia seviksi na kuelekea ndani ya mji wa mimba. Uzalishaji wa ute wa uke wenye uwezo wa kupata mimba husababishwa na [[homoni]] ileile ([[istrojeni]]) ambayo huandaa mwili wa mwanamke kwa [[udondoshwaji wa kijiyai]]. Kwa kuangalia ute wa uke wake, na kuzingatia hisia pindi unapopita ukeni, mwanamke anaweza kubaini wakati mwili wake unapojiandaa kudondosha kijiyai, na wakati ambapo udondoshwaji wa kijiyai umepita. Kijiyai kikidondoshwa, uzalishwaji wa istrojeni hupungua na [[projesteroni]] huanza kuongezeka. Kupanda kwa kiwango cha projesteroni husababisha mabadiliko maalumu katika wingi na hali ya ute wa uke.<ref>{{cite web | author=James B. Brown | title=Physiology of Ovulation | year=2005 | work=Ovarian Activity and Fertility and the Billings Ovulation Method | url=http://www.woomb.org/bom/science/physiology.html | publisher=Ovulation Method Research and Reference Centre of Australia | accessdate=2010-11-30 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051224031839/http://www.woomb.org/bom/science/physiology.html | archivedate=2005-12-24 }}</ref> ===Mkao wa seviksi=== Seviksi hubadilisha mkao kutokana na homoni zilezile zinazosababisha ute wa uke kutolewa na kukauka. Wakati mwanamke yuko katika awamu ya kutoshika mimba katika mzunguko wa hedhi, seviksi hushuka chini katika mfereji wa uke, ikiguswa huwa ngumu (kama [[ncha]] ya [[pua]] ya mtu), na [[upenyu]] (mlango wa seviksi) unakuwa mdogo ukilinganishwa na wakati mwingine, au umefungika. Kadiri mwanamke anavyozidi kuwa na uwezo wa kushika mimba ndivyo seviksi inavyopanda juu katika mfereji wa uke, inakuwa laini ikiguswa (kama [[mdomo]] wa mtu), na upenyu unakuwa wazi zaidi. Baada ya kudondoshwa kwa kijiyai, seviksi itarejea mkao wake wa wakati usio wa kushika mimba. ===Historia ya mzunguko=== Mbinu zinazotegemea kalenda hubainisha uwezekano wa kutopata mimba kabla na baada ya kudondosha kijiyai kulingana na historia ya mzunguko. Zinapotumika vizuri kuzuia mimba, mbinu hizo si madhubuti kama mbinu zinazotegemea dalili, hata hivyo umadhubuti wake unalingana na mbinu zuizi kama vile [[kiwambo]] na [[kizibo cha seviksi]]. Mbinu za kuepuka mimba zinazotegemea ute wa uke na joto la mwili kubainisha uwezo wa kutunga mimba baada ya kijiyai kudondoshwa, hushindikana mara chache sana zinapotumika vizuri.<ref>Kippley (2003), uk.121-134, 376-381</ref> Hata hivyo, mbinu hizo huwa na upungufu fulani katika kubaini uwezo wa kutotunga mimba kabla ya kudondosha kijiyai. Rekodi ya joto la mwili pekee haitoi mwongozo kuhusu uwezekano wa mimba kutungwa au kutotungwa kabla ya kijiyai kudondoshwa. Kubaini uwezekano wa kutoshika mimba kabla ya tukio hilo kunaweza kufanywa kwa kuchunguza ute wa uke; hata hivyo, njia hii inafanikiwa kwa kiwango cha chini kuliko ule unaoshuhudiwa katika kipindi baada ya kudondosha kijiyai.<ref>Kippley (2003), uk.114</ref> Kutegemea uchunguzi wa ute pekee pia ina maana kwamba [[tendo la ndoa]] haliruhusiwi wakati wa hedhi, kwa sababu ute wowote hautakuwa dhahiri.<ref>{{cite book |author=Evelyn, Dr. Billings, Ann Westinore, |title=The Billings Method: Controlling Fertility Without Drugs or Devices |url=https://archive.org/details/billingsmethodco0000evel_c2a9 |publisher=Life Cycle Books |location=Toronto |year=1998 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/billingsmethodco0000evel_c2a9/page/47 47] |isbn=0-919225-17-9 }}</ref> Matumizi ya sheria fulani za kalenda katika kutambua urefu wa kipindi cha kutoweza kutunga mimba kabla ya kijiyai kudondoshwa huruhusu siku chache za ngono mwanzoni mwa mzunguko wa hedhi huku kukiwa na kiwango cha chini sana cha uwezekano wa kupata mimba.<ref name="calendar">Kippley (2003), uk.108-113</ref> Kwa kutumia mbinu ya ute pekee, kuna uwezekano wa kukosea kwa kudhani ni hedhi damu inapotoka katikati ya mzunguko wa hedhi au wakati ambapo kijiyai halikudondoshwa. Kuweka [[chati]] sahihi ya joto la msingi la mwili huwezesha utambuzi wa hedhi, wakati ambapo sheria za kalenda kuhusu kipindi kabla ya kudondosha kijiyai zinaweza kutumiwa kwa usahihi.<ref>Kippley (2003), uk.101 sidebar na Weschler (2002), uk.125</ref> Katika mbinu za joto pekee, sheria ya kalenda inaweza kutegemewa pale tu kutambua uwezekano wa kutoshika mimba kabla ya kudondosha kijiyai. Katika mbinu za joto na ishara, sheria ya kalenda huthibitishwa na rekodi za ute: uchunguzi wa ute wa uke unaoashiria uwezo wa kupata mimba unapewa kipaumbele kuliko mbinu yoyote ya kalenda ya kubainisha uwezo wa kushika mimba.<ref name="calendar"></ref> Sheria za kalenda zinaweza kuweka idadi mahsusi ya siku, ikibainisha kwamba (kulingana na urefu wa mizunguzo iliyopita ya hedhi ya mhusika) siku tatu hadi sita za kwanza katika kila mzunguko wa hedhi huchukuliwa kuwa hazina uwezo wa kupata mimba.<ref>Kippley (2003), uk.108-109 na Weschler (2002), uk.125-126</ref> Au, sheria ya kalenda inaweza kuhitaji hesabu, kwa mfano lazima iwe kwamba urefu wa kipindi kisicholeta uzazi kabla ya kudondosha kijiyai ni sawa na urefu wa mzunguko mfupi zaidi wa mwanamke huyo ukiondoa siku ishirini na moja.<ref>Kippley (2003), uk.110-111</ref> Badala ya kutegemea urefu wa mzunguko, sheria ya kalenda inaweza kuhakikishwa kutokana na siku ya mzunguko ambapo mwanamke ameshuhudia badiliko la joto la mwili. Mfumo mmoja unasema urefu wa kipindi cha kutoweza kutunga mimba kabla ya kudondosha kijiyai unalingana na siku ya kwanza ambapo mwanamke alishuhudia kupanda joto la mwili ondoa siku saba.<ref>Kippley (2003), uk.112-113</ref> ===Mbinu nyingine=== Vifaa vya kubashiri udondoshwaji wa kijiyai (kwa Kiingereza Ovulation predictor kits = OPKs) vinaweza kutambua udondoshwaji unaokaribia kutokea kwa kutegemea wingi wa homoni ya kuandaa ukuta wa chupa ya kizazi (kwa Kiingereza "lutenizing hormone" = LH) katika mkojo wa mwanamke. Kwa kawaida ubashiri wa kufana wa undondoshwaji huo hufuatiwa na udondoshwaji ndani ya saa 12-36. Uchunguzi wa mate kwa hadubini, ukifanyika kwa usahihi, unaweza kugundua vijidutu maalum katika mate ambavyo hutangulia udondoshwaji wa kijiyai. Vijidutu hivyo kwa kawaida huonekana siku tatu kabla ya udondoshwaji na kuendelea mpaka udondoshwaji utokee. Katika kipindi hiki, vijidutu hivyo hutokea katika ute wa uke pamoja na mate. Vichunguza uzazi vya kieletroniki vinapatikana kwa majina mbalimbali ya ki[[biashara]]. Vichunguzi hivyo vinaweza kutumia mifumo ya Joto la Msingi la Mwili pekee, au kuchambua vitepe vya kupimia mkojo, au kufuatilia dalili mchanganyiko au kuchunguza ukinzani umeme wa mate na ugiligili wa uke, au kwa pamoja baadhi ya mambo hayo mbalimbali . ==Manufaa na mapungufu== Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba una kiwango fulani cha sifa bainifu: * Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba unaweza kutumika kudhibiti afya ya uzazi. Mabadiliko katika mzunguko wa hedhi yanaweza kumtahadharisha mtumiaji kuhusu kujitokeza kwa matatizo ya kiginakolojia. Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba pia unaweza kutumika kusaidia katika kuagua matatizo yanayojulikana ya kijinakolojia kama vile kutoweza kushika mimba. * Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba ni uwanda mpana: unaweza kutumika kuzuia mimba au kusaidia katika kutunga mimba. * Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba unaweza kutumiwa na wanawake wote katika kipindi chote cha uzazi, bila kujali ikiwa anakaribia kumaliza kuzaa, ananyonyesha, au anapata mzunguko wa hedhi usio wa kawaida kwa sababu zingine. * Matumizi ya ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba unaweza kutoa ufahamu kuhusu jinsi mwili wa mwanamke unavyofanya kazi, na unaweza kuwaruhusu wanawake kuwa na udhibiti mkubwa wa uzazi wao wenyewe. * Aina fulani ya mbinu za ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba zinazotegemea dalili ya uzazi zinahitaji uchunguzi au kugusa ute wa uke, matendo ambayo baadhi ya wanawake hawafurahii. Baadhi ya wahudumu wanapendelea kutumia neno "majimaji ya seviksi" badala ya ute wa uke, katika juhudi ya kuwafanya wanawake kama hao kuhisi huru kidogo. * Baadhi ya dawa, kama vile ya kupunguza kupaliwa mapafuni, yanaweza kubadili ute ya kizazi. Kwa wanawake wanaotumia dawa hizi, ishara ya ute huenda isionyeshe kisahihi uwezo wa kutunga mimba .<ref name="ffh">{{cite web | year =2004 | url =http://www.fertilityfriend.com/HelpCenter/FFBook/ff_fertility_signs.html | title =How to Observe and Record Your Fertility Signs | work =Fertility Friend Handbook | publisher =Tamtris Web Services | accessdate =2005-06-15 | archivedate =2005-05-28 | archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20050528235842/http://www.fertilityfriend.com/HelpCenter/FFBook/ff_fertility_signs.html }}</ref> * Baadhi ya mbinu zinazotegemea dalili huhitaji ufuatiliaji wa joto la kimsingi ya mwili. Kwa sababu usingizi usiokuwa na utaratibu unaweza kuvuruga usahihi wa joto la kimsingi la mwili, wafanyakazi wa kubadilisha zamu na walio na watoto wadogo sana, kwa mfano, huenda wasiweze kutumia mbinu hizo.<ref name="ffh"></ref> ==Kama njia ya kupanga uzazi== Kwa kufanya tendo kamili la ndoa siku zile tu ambapo katika mzunguko wa hedhi mimba haiwezi kutungwa, maharusi wanaweza kuzuia mimba isipatikane. Wakati ambapo katika mzunguko wa hedhi mimba inaweza kutungwa, wanaweza wakaacha ngono ili kuwa na hakika ya kutoitunga. Wengine siku hizo wanatumia mbinu mbadala za kuzuia mimba ingawa pengine hazifai kwa sababu mbalimbali. <ref name="FABM">{{cite journal|last1=Manhart|first1=MD|last2=Daune|first2=M|last3=Lind|first3=A|last4=Sinai|first4=I|last5=Golden-Tevald|first5=J|title=Fertility awareness-based methods of family planning: A review of effectiveness for avoiding pregnancy using SORT.|journal=Osteopathic Family Physician |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=2–8 |date=January–February 2013|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877573X12001542|doi=10.1016/j.osfp.2012.09.002}}</ref> Kinyume chake maharusi wanaweza kulenga uzazi kwa hakika zaidi wakifanya tendo la ndoa kwa kutumia vizuri siku zinazouwezesha. ===Manufaa=== * Katika kutumia ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba hakuna madhara yanayotokana na teknolojia inayotumiwa na mbinu nyingine. Kwa jumla hakuna madhara yoyote ya utumiaji, isipokuwa yanayoweza kutokea kwa kuingiza vidole ndani ya uke ili kuchunguza seviksi (kama inavyopendekezwa na baadhi ya mbinu). * Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba unaweza ukatumika pamoja na vifaa vya kuzuia mimba ili kuendelea kujamiiana katika kipindi ambapo kuna uwezekano wa kupata mimba. Tofauti na utumiaji wa vifaa hivyo bila ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba, ufahamu huo unawezesha kutumia vizuiamimba siku chache tu, na hivyo kupunguza madhara yanayoletwa navyo. * Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba hauna gharama au ni nafuu sana. Watumiaji wanaweza wakahitaji kununua chati, kalenda, [[kipimajoto]], au tarakilishi, au pengine kumlipa [[mkufunzi]]. Kwa vyovyote gharama ni ya chini ikilinganishwa na mbinu nyingine. * Tofauti na mbinu nyingine mbalimbali ambazo zina athari za muda mrefu, ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba unawezesha kubadili mara moja kutoka uamuzi wa kuzuia mimba hadi ule wa kuilenga. ===Mapungufu=== * Wasipotumia vifaa vya kizuia mimba katika kipindi ambapo mimba inaweza kutungwa, wanandoa wanalazimika waache ngono. Ila kupunguza uwezekano wa kupata mimba uwe chini ya 1% kwa mwaka, katika kila mzunguko kuna takriban siku 13 ambapo lazima waache ngono.<ref name="german study">{{cite journal |author=Frank-Herrmann P, Heil J, Gnoth C, ''et al.'' |title=The effectiveness of a fertility awareness based method to avoid pregnancy in relation to a couple's sexual behaviour during the fertile time: a prospective longitudinal study |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_human-reproduction_2007-05_22_5/page/1310 |journal=Hum. Reprod. |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=1310–9 |year=2007 |pmid=17314078 |doi=10.1093/humrep/dem003}}</ref> Kwa wanawake wenye mzunguko unaobadilikabadilika sana - kama ilivyo kawaida wakati wa kunyonyesha, karibu na hedhi kwisha kabisa, au kwa wenye magonjwa ya homoni (kama vile Polycystic ovary syndrome = PCOS) kuacha kujamiiana au kutumia vizuizi kunaweza kuhitajika miezi mfululizo. Wengi hawana [[motisha]] au [[nidhamu]] ya kutosha wafanye hivyo kwa muda mrefu. Wanaposhindwa kufuata masharti, ni rahisi kupata mimba isiyopangwa. * Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba haukingi dhidi ya [[maradhi ya zinaa]].<ref name="uihc">{{cite web | year =2012 | url =http://brown.edu/Student_Services/Health_Services/Health_Education/sexual_health/safer_sex_and_contraceptives/fertility_awareness_method.php#3 | title =Fertility Awareness Method | work =Brown University Health Education Website | publisher =Brown University | accessdate =2012-12-11 | archive-date =2016-01-08 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20160108171131/http://brown.edu/Student_Services/Health_Services/Health_Education/sexual_health/safer_sex_and_contraceptives/fertility_awareness_method.php#3 | url-status =dead }}</ref>Ndiyo maana inafaa zaidi kati ya watu ambao ni waaminifu wao kwa wao, kama watu wa ndoa. ===Ufanisi=== Ufanisi wa ufahamu ya uzazi, kama ulivyo kwa mbinu nyingi za [[uzazi wa mpango]], unaweza kutathminiwa kwa njia mbili zifuatazo. Kwa kawaida mfumo wa Pearl Index hutumika kukokotoa viwango vya ufanisi, lakini baadhi ya tafiti hutumia majedwali ya mapunguzo.<ref>{{cite book | first=John | last=Kippley | coauthors=Sheila Kippley | year=1996 | title=The Art of Natural Family Planning | url=https://archive.org/details/artofnaturalfami0000kipp | edition=4th addition | publisher=The Couple to Couple League | location=Cincinnati, OH | isbn=0-926412-13-2 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/artofnaturalfami0000kipp/page/141 141] }}</ref>Kwa kawaida viwango hupimwa katika mwaka wa kwanza wa matumizi.<ref name="hatcher">{{cite book | first=RA | last=Hatcher | coauthors=Trussel J, Stewart F, et al. | year=2000 | title=Contraceptive Technology | edition=18th | publisher=Ardent Media | location=New York | isbn=0-9664902-6-6 | url=http://www.contraceptivetechnology.com/table.html | access-date=2010-11-30 | archive-date=2008-05-31 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531095926/http://www.contraceptivetechnology.com/table.html | dead-url=yes }}</ref> Viwango vya ''matumizi kamili'' ni kwa wale tu wanaofuata sheria zote, wakitambua kwa usahihi kipindi ambapo kuna uwezekano wa kutunga mimba, na wanaacha ngono isiyo na kinga siku walizotambua kuna uwezekano wa kuitunga. Viwango vya ''matumizi halisi'' au ''matumizi ya kawaida'' ni kwa wale wote wanaotegemea ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba ili kuizuia, wakiwa ni pamoja na wasioweza kutimiza vigezo vya "matumizi kamili". Kiwango cha kufeli kwa ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba hutofautiana pakubwa kulingana na mbinu iliyotumika kubaini uwezekano wa kupata mimba, njia ya mafundisho, na idadi ya wanaotafitiwa. Baadhi ya tafiti zimekuta viwango halisi vya kufeli vya 25% kwa mwaka au zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Wade ME, McCarthy P, Braunstein GD, et al. | title= A randomized prospective study of the use-effectiveness of two methods of natural family planning | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-obstetrics-and-gynecology_1981-10-15_141_4/page/n43 | journal=American journal of obstetrics and gynecology | month=Oktoba | year=1981 | volume=141 | issue=4 | pages=368–376 | pmid=7025639 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Medina JE, Cifuentes A, Abernathy JR, et al. | title= Comparative evaluation of two methods of natural family planning in Colombia | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-obstetrics-and-gynecology_1980-12-15_138_8/page/n57 | journal=American journal of obstetrics and gynecology | month=Desemba | year=1980 | volume=138 | issue=8 | pages=1142–1147 | pmid=7446621 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Marshall J | title= Cervical-mucus and basal body-temperature method of regulating births: field trial | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_1976-08-07_2_7980/page/n14 | journal=Lancet | month=Agosti | year=1976 | volume=2 | issue=7980 | pages=282–283 | pmid=59854 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(76)90732-7 }}</ref> Angalau utafiti mmoja umepata kiwango cha kufeli cha chini ya 1% kwa mwaka kukiwa na mafundisho endelevu na mapitio ya kila mwezi,<ref name="billings"></ref> na tafiti kadhaa zimegundua viwango vya kufeli halisi vya 2-3% kwa mwaka.<ref name="german study" /><ref>{{cite journal | author=Frank-Herrmann P, Freundl G, Baur S, et al. | title= Effectiveness and acceptability of the sympto-thermal method of natural family planning in Germany | journal=American journal of obstetrics and gynecology | month=Desemba | year=1991 | volume=165 | issue=6 Pt 2 | pages=2052–2054 | pmid=1755469 }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference | author=Clubb EM, Pyper CM, Knight J | title=A pilot study on teaching natural family planning (NFP) in general practice | booktitle=Proceedings of the Conference at Georgetown University, Washington, DC | year=1991 | url=http://www.fertilityuk.org/nfps822.html | access-date=2010-11-30 | archivedate=2007-03-23 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070323160200/http://www.fertilityuk.org/nfps822.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author=Frank-Herrmann P, Freundl G, Gnoth C, et al. | title= Natural family planning with and without barrier method use in the fertile phase: efficacy in relation to sexual behavior: a German prospective long-term study | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_advances-in-contraception_june-september-1997_13_2-3/page/179 | journal=Advances in Contraception | date=Juni-Septemba 1997 | volume=13 | issue=2-3 | pages=179–189 | pmid=9288336 | doi= 10.1023/A:1006551921219 }}</ref> Inapotumika kwa usahihi, na kuandamana na mafundisho endelevu ya mara kwa mara, baadhi ya tafiti zimeonyesha kuwa mbinu fulani za ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba huwa na 99% za ufanisi,<ref name="billings">[http://www.woomb.org/omrrca/bulletin/vol27/no4/chinaEvaluation.html Evaluation of the Effectiveness of a Natural Fertility Regulation Programme in China] {{Wayback|url=http://www.woomb.org/omrrca/bulletin/vol27/no4/chinaEvaluation.html |date=20070427204752 }}: Shao-Zhen Qian, et al. Reproduction and Contraception (English edition), in press 2000.</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Ecochard | first1 = R. | last2 = Pinguet | first2 = F. | last3 = Ecochard | first3 = I. | last4 = De Gouvello | first4 = R. | last5 = Guy | first5 = M. | last6 = Huy | first6 = F. | year = 1998 | title = Analysis of natural family planning failures. In 7007 cycles of use | url = | journal = Fertilite Contraception Sexualite | volume = 26 | issue = 4| pages = 291–6 |pmid = 9622963}}</ref><ref name="creighton2">{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Hilgers | first1 = T.W. | last2 = Stanford | first2 = J.B. | year = 1998 | title = Creighton Model NaProEducation Technology for avoiding pregnancy. Use effectiveness | url = | journal = Journal of Reproductive Medicine | volume = 43 | issue = 6| pages = 495–502 | pmid = 9653695 }}</ref><ref name="creighton">{{Rejea jarida | doi = 10.1001/archfami.8.5.391 | last1 = Howard | first1 = M.P. | last2 = Stanford | first2 = J.B. | year = 1999 | title = Pregnancy probabilities during use of the Creighton Model Fertility Care System | url = | journal = Archives of Family Medicine | volume = 8 | issue = 5| pages = 391–402 | pmid = 10500511 }}</ref> Kitabu ''Teknolojia ya Uzazi'' kinaripoti hivi:<ref name="conttech"> James Trussell et al. (2000) "Contraceptive effectiveness rates", ''Contraceptive Technology'' - 18 Edition, New York: Ardent Media. On-press.</ref> * Mbinu za baada ya kudondosha kijiyai (yaani kuacha ngono kuanzia wakati wa hedhi mpaka baada ya kudondoshwa) inafeli kwa 1% kwa mwaka. * Mbinu ya dalili na joto la mwili inafeli kwa 2% kwa mwaka. * Mbinu ya ute wa uke pekee inafeli kwa 3% kwa mwaka. * Mbinu ya urari wa kalenda inafeli kwa 9% kwa mwaka. * Mbinu ya Siku Wastani inafeli kwa 5% kwa mwaka. ===Sababu za ufanisi mdogo katika matumizi ya kawaida=== Sababu kadhaa zinachangia kufanya ufanisi wa matumizi ya kawaida uwe wa chini kuliko ule wa matumizi kamili: * watumiaji kutotii kwa makusudi maelezo (kushiriki ngono bila kinga siku ambapo wanajua mimba inaweza kutungwa): ndiyo sababu ya kawaida zaidi<ref name="german study"></ref><ref name="creighton"></ref> * makosa ya watoa maelezo ya jinsi ya kutumia mbinu (mkufunzi kutoa taarifa isiyo sahihi au isiyo kamili) * makosa ya mtumiaji (kutoelewa sheria, kutunza kumbukumbu vibaya) ==Kama njia ya kupata mimba== Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba unaweza kutumika pia kwa lengo la kupata mimba kwa urahisi zaidi. ===Kupanga wakati wa kujamiiana=== Utafiti uliofanywa na Barrett na Marshall umeonyesha kuwa vitendo vya ngono visivyopangwa huwa na uwezekano wa 24% kutungisha mimba katika mzunguko wa hedhi. Utafiti huo pia uligundua kuwa ngono inayolenga wakati maalumu kulingana na ufahamu unaotokana na mbinu ya joto la msingi la mwili pekee huongeza viwango vya mimba hadi 31% -68%.<!-- I couldn't find this study in a PubMed search, but it is mentioned in the Hilgers study --> Utafiti wa mbinu ya ute wa uke umegundua viwango vya mimba vya 67%-81% katika mzunguko wa kwanza ikiwa kujamiiana kutatokea katika Siku ya Kilele cha ishara za ute.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ryder R |title="Natural family planning": effective birth control supported by the Catholic Church | journal = BMJ | volume = 307 | issue = 6906 |pages=723–6 |year=1993 | pmid = 8401097 |doi=10.1136/bmj.307.6906.723 |pmc=1678728}}</ref><!-- This isn't actually the study that found 67%, but it describes the "WHO study in Australia, India, Ireland, the Philippines, and El Salvador" that did. Hoping someone will find the correct ref and fix this.--><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hilgers T, Daly K, Prebil A, Hilgers S |title=Cumulative pregnancy rates in patients with apparently normal fertility and fertility-focused intercourse | journal = J Reprod Med | volume = 37 | issue = 10 |pages=864–6 |year=1992 | month=Oktoba | pmid = 1479570}}</ref> Kwa sababu ya viwango vya juu vya mimba kutoka mapema sana (25% za mimba hupotea katika wiki sita za kwanza tangu hedhi ya mwisho ya mwanamke), mbinu zinazotumika kuchunguza uwepo wa mimba zinaweza kusababisha upendeleo katika viwango vya utungaji mimba. Mbinu tofauti na hizo zinaweza kuonyesha viwango vya chini kwa sababu tu huwa zinakosa kugundua mimba zilizotoka mapema. Utafiti mmoja nchini China kati ya wanaoshiriki ngono bila mpangilio ili kutungisha mimba ulitumia mbinu bora za kugundua mimba, ikapata kiwango cha 40% cha kutungwa mimba kwa kila mzunguko katika kipindi cha utafiti cha miezi 12.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wang X, Chen C, Wang L, Chen D, Guang W, French J |title=Conception, early pregnancy loss, and time to clinical pregnancy: a population-based prospective study | journal = Fertil Steril | volume = 79 | issue = 3 |pages=577–84 |year=2003 | pmid = 12620443 | doi = 10.1016/S0015-0282(02)04694-0}}</ref> ===Uchunguzi wa tatizo=== Mizunguko ya kawaida ya hedhi wakati mwingine huchukuliwa kuwa ushahidi kwamba mwanamke anadondosha vijiyai kawaida, na mizunguko isiyo ya kawaida kuwa ushahidi kuwa udondoshaji wa kijiyai si wa kawaida.<ref>{{Rejea jarida |contribution=Infertility fact sheet |publisher=womenshealth.gov, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office on Women's Health |url=http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/infertility.cfm#f |accessdate=2012-12-11 |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |journal= |archive-date=2012-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102032112/http://womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/infertility.cfm#f |dead-url=yes }}. ''"Some signs that a woman is not ovulating normally include irregular or absent menstrual periods."''<br> {{Rejea jarida | contribution = Female Infertility | title = Adult Health Advisor | year = 2012 | contribution-url = http://www.ihacares.com/index.cfm/HealthAdvisors/AdultHealthAdvisor/crs-aha-aha_obg_female.infertility/ | access-date = 2014-08-22 | archive-date = 2010-12-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101229161028/http://www.ihacares.com/index.cfm/HealthAdvisors/AdultHealthAdvisor/crs-aha-aha_obg_female.infertility/ | dead-url = yes }}. ''"A woman who is not ovulating normally may have irregular or missed menstrual periods."''<br> {{Rejea jarida | contribution = Is Clomid Right For You? | title = JustMommies.com | year = 2007 | contribution-url = http://www.justmommies.com/articles/clomid-and-ovulation.shtml | access-date = 2014-08-22 | archive-date = 2023-11-30 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231130203350/https://www.justmommies.com/articles/clomid-and-ovulation.shtml | url-status = dead }}. ''"If you have an irregular cycle there is a good chance you are not ovulating normally."''</ref> Hata hivyo, wanawake wengi ambao mizunguko yao si ya kawaida hudondosha vijiyai kama kawaida, na baadhi ya wenye mizunguko ya kawaida kwa kweli hawadondoshi vijiyai au wana matatizo katika utayarishaji wa ukuta wa chupa cha uzazi. Hasa rekodi za joto la msingi la mwili, lakini pia rekodi za ute wa uke na mkao wake, zinaweza kutumika kwa usahihi kung'amua ikiwa mwanamke anadondosha kijiyai, na kama urefu wa kipindi cha baada ya kudondosha kijiyai cha mzunguko wa hedhi unatosha kwa ujauzito. Ute wa uke unaoweza kutunga mimba ni muhimu katika kujenga mazingira ambayo yanaruhusu manii kupiti mlango wa uzazi na katika [[viriba vya falopu]] ambako husubiri kudondoshwa kwa kijiyai.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ellington |first=Joanna |title=Sperm Transport to the Fallopian Tubes |work=Frequently Asked Questions with Dr. E |publisher=INGfertility Inc |year=2004 |url=http://www.preseed.com/FAQs/FAQ3.php#Sperm_Leaking_Out_After_Intercourse-_Lessons_in_Sperm_Transport_Through_the_Cervix_ |accessdate=2008-04-27 |archivedate=2008-08-28 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828025800/http://www.preseed.com/FAQs/FAQ3.php#Sperm_Leaking_Out_After_Intercourse-_Lessons_in_Sperm_Transport_Through_the_Cervix_ }}</ref> Chati za uwezo wa kupata mimba zinaweza kusaidia kugundua ute hasimu kwa mimba kutungwa, ambao ni sababu ya kawaida ya kutopata mimba. Ikiwa hali hii itagunduliwa, baadhi wanapendekeza matumizi ya [[guaifenesini]] katika siku chache kabla ya udondoshwaji wa kijiyai ili kupunguza uzito wa ute.<ref>Weschler (2002), uk. 173.</ref> ===Upimaji mimba na umri wa ujauzito=== [[Vipimo vya ujauzito]] si sahihi mpaka wiki 1-2 baada ya kudondoshwa kijiyai. Kujua tarehe inayokisiwa ambayo kijiyai kitadondoka kunaweza kukamzuia mwanamke asipate matokeo yasiyo sahihi kutokana na upimaji wa mapema mno. Pia, siku 18 mfululizo za joto la juu zinamaanisha mwanamke ni mjamzito karibu bila shaka.<ref>Weschler (2002), uk.316</ref> Makadirio ya tarehe ya kudondosha kijiyai kutokana na chati za uwezo wa kuzaa ni njia sahihi zaidi ya kukadiria umri wa ujauzito kuliko mbinu za jadi za kupima mimba au mbinu ya kuchunguza hedhi ya mwisho katika utaratibu wa kufuatilia hedhi.<ref>Weschler (2002), uk.3-4 ,155-156, Insert p.7</ref> ==Kama njia ya kupanga jinsia ya mimba== Ufahamu wa uwezo wa kushika mimba unaweza kutumika pia kwa lengo la kupata mimba ya jinsia inayotamaniwa zaidi.<ref>{{cite book |author= Ursula Birgitta Schnell OSB |authorlink= Ursula Birgitta Schnell OSB |title=Uimarishaji wa Familia - Mpango wa uzazi kwa njia ya asili Billings Ovulation Method |publisher=Benedictine Publication Ndanda-Peramiho |location=Ndanda, Tanzania |year=2011 |isbn=9976-63-132-4 |edition=15th }}</ref> Maharusi wanaweza kuchagua mtoto wa kiume au wa kike kwa 85% ya hakika wakifanya tendo la ndoa kwa kupanga kulingana na ute wa uke kuwa wa kuvutika na kuteleza au siyo. Ni kwamba jinsia ya mimba inategemea tu kromosomu za mbegu za baba ambazo ni nusunusu: X kwa kuzaa watoto wa kike na Y kwa kuzaa watoto wa kiume. Mbegu zenye kromosomu X ni dhaifu kidogo nazo huogelea polepole, lakini zinaishi muda mrefu. Kumbe zenye kromosomu Y zina nguvu zaidi na kuogelea upesi, lakini hufa upesi. ===Ili kupata mtoto wa kiume=== Kwa kuzingatia tabia hizo mbili tofauti, maharusi wakitaka mtoto wa kiume wanatakiwa kufanya tendo la ndoa siku ya kwanza baada ya kilele (kujisikia kuteleza) na kuendelea kwa miandamo 6 ya hedhi. Kama mwanamke hajapata mimba baada ya miandamo 6, waanze kuonana siku ya kilele na siku inayofuata. Kama mwanamke amekosa siku ya kilele, yaani kama utelezi wa ute unaendelea siku inayofuata, waonane tena siku inayofuata. Kwa njia hiyo mbegu zenye kromosomu Y tu zitafikia kijiyai kilichochopoka, kwa sababu mbegu zenye kromosomu X zinaogelea polepole tu. ===Ili kupata mtoto wa kike=== Kinyume chake, wakitaka mtoto wa kike wanatakiwa kufanya tendo la ndoa siku ya kwanza ya ute wa uzazi. Halafu wapumzike mpaka siku ya nne baada ya kilele. Waendelee hivyo kwa miandamo michache. Kama mwanamke hajapata mimba baada ya miezi michache, wafanye tendo la ndoa siku ya kwanza na ya pili ya ute wa uzazi halafu wapumzike mpaka siku ya nne baada ya kilele. Waendelee hivyo kwa miandamo michache. Kama mwanamke hajapata mimba baada ya miezi michache, wafanye tendo la ndoa pia siku ya tatu ya ute wa uzazi halafu wapumzike mpaka siku ya nne baada ya kilele. Waendelee hivyo kwa miandamo michache. Kwa njia hiyo mbegu zenye kromosomu Y zitakufa kabla ya kuweza kuungana na kijiyai, na hivyo zitabaki zenye kromosomu X kuwa na nafasi hiyo. Siku nzuri ya kupata mtoto wa kike ni kufanya tendo la ndoa siku mbili kabla ya kilele. ==Tazama pia== *[[Uzazi wa mpango]] *[[Uzazi wa mpango kwa njia asilia]] ==Marejeo== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Marejeo mengine== ===Kwa [[Kiswahili]]=== * {{cite book |author= Ursula Birgitta Schnell OSB |authorlink= Ursula Birgitta Schnell OSB |title=Uimarishaji wa Familia - Mpango wa uzazi kwa njia ya asili Billings Ovulation Method |publisher=Benedictine Publication Ndanda-Peramiho |location=Ndanda, Tanzania |year=2011 |isbn=9976-63-132-4 |edition=15th }} ===Kwa [[Kiingereza]]=== * {{cite book |author=Toni Weschler |authorlink=Toni Weschler |title=Taking Charge of Your Fertility |url=https://archive.org/details/takingchargeofy000wesc |publisher=Collins |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=0-06-088190-9 |edition=10th Anniversary}} * {{cite book |author=John F. Kippley and Sheila K. Kippley |title=The Art of Natural Family Planning |url=https://archive.org/details/artofnaturalfami0000kipp |publisher=Couple to Couple League International |location=Cincinnati, OH |year=1996 |isbn=0-926412-13-2 |edition=Fourth}} * {{cite book |author= Léonie McSweeney |title= Love & Life, Billings Method of Natural Family Planning |publisher= African Universities Press |location=Ibadan, Nigeria |year=2006 |isbn=978-148-092-0 |edition=Ninth}} [[Jamii:Biolojia]] [[Jamii:Jinsia]] [[Category:Uzazi]] [[Jamii:Uzazi wa mpango]] mpe64zpaztp2ddiu3j9cd77r1fi5fwb 0 55914 1580258 1335561 2026-07-18T01:58:27Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580258 wikitext text/x-wiki ^{Kwa ugonjwa tofauti, ambao majina huchanganywa wakati mwingine, angalia [[homa ya manjano]]}. {{lugha}} {{DiseaseDisorder infobox |Name = Homa wa Ini (Hepatitis) |Image = Alcoholic_hepatitis.jpg |Caption = [[Alcoholic liver disease|Alcoholic hepatitis]] evident by fatty change, cell [[necrosis]], [[Mallory bodies]] |ICD10 = {{ICD10|K|75|9|k|70}} |ICD9 = {{ICD9|573.3}} |DiseasesDB = 20061 |MedlinePlus = |eMedicineSubj = |eMedicineTopic = |MeshID = D006505 }} '''Homa ya ini''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''[[:en:hepatitis|hepatitis]]''<ref>Wakati mwingine jina "[[homa ya manjano]]" au "homanyongo" hutumiwa kwa ugonjwa huu lakini hili ni jina la ugonjwa tofauti unaoitwa kwa Kiingereza "yellow fever"</ref>) ni [[uvimbe]] wa [[ini]] inayohusishwa na [[seli]] kuvimba [[kiini]] katika [[tishu]] ya ini. Hali hii inaweza kujiponyesha au kuendelea kuwa fibrosisi ([[kovu]]) na [[ugonjwa sugu]] wa ini. Homa ya ini inaweza kujitokeza kwa kiasi tu au kutokuwa na bila [[dalili]] yoyote, lakini mara nyingi huleta homa, kukosa [[hamu ya kula]] na kunyong'onyea kwa [[mwili]]. Homa ya ini ni ''kali'' wakati inapodumu chini ya miezi [[sita]] na ''sugu'' wakati unapozidi miezi sita. Ugonjwa huo unasababishwa mara nyingi na [[virusi]]. Lakini inatokea pia baada ya ini kupata madhara kutokana na [[sumu]] mbalimbali, hasa [[pombe]], [[dawa]] fulani na [[mimea]]), [[maambukizi]] mengine na magonjwa ya [[kingamwili]]. Kwa wakati mwingine inaweza kumpata mtu B au C kutokana na kuwa na uzito mkubwa [ya kurithi] pia baada ya kuugua italeta upungufu ya uzito. Kwa wanawake ni zaidi. Wakati mwingine haiambukizi watoto. Ila ni hatari kwa watoto na ni vyema wakapata chanjo. Haitibiki kwa dawa bali mara nyingine imeisha yenyewe tu. Baadhi ya wagonjwa wamepata hiyo shida bila kwisha kutokana na mashauri mabaya ya dawa za kidaktari, na kupelekea ugonjwa kuwa mbaya zaidi. ==Ishara na dalili== ===Kali=== [[Dalili]] za kwanza ni zile za mafua ambazo ni sawa na dalili za maambukizo yoyote ya virusi kama vile unyonge, na kuumwa misuli na viungo, [[homa]], [[kichefuchefu]] au [[kutapika]], kuendesha na maumivu ya kichwa. Dalili maalum, ambazo zinaweza kuwa katika homa ya ini kali yenye chanzo chochote, ni [[Anorexia|kupoteza hamu ya chakula]], chuki ya kuvuta sigara kati ya wavutaji sigara, mkojo mweusi, macho na ngozi kuwa manjano na usumbufu wa tumbo. Matokeo ya kimwili kwa kawaida ni madogo, licha ya homa ya ini katika thuluthi, uvimbe wepesi wa ini kwa asilimia kumi. Baadhi huwa na dalili za limfadenopathia (upanuzi wa tezi) kati ya asilimia tano au kukua kwa [[wengu]]. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Ryder S, Beckingham I |title=ABC of diseases of liver, pancreas, and biliary system: Acute hepatitis |journal=BMJ |volume=322 |issue=7279 |pages=151–153 |year=2001 |pmid=11159575 |doi=10.1136/bmj.322.7279.151 |pmc=1119417}}</ref> Hepatitis kali inakuwa sana na dalili katika watu wa umri mdogo. Dalili zaweza kutokea baada ya kupata afueni siku ya saba hadi siku kumi, kwa jumla ugonjwa hudumu wiki mbili hadi sita. <ref name="bain">Bain VG na M. Ma, papo hapo virusi Hepatitis, Sura ya 14, [http://www.gastroresource.com/GITextbook/en/Chapter14/14-4.htm ''Kanuni ya Kwanza ya gastroenterology (en online Nakala kitabu)'' ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.gastroresource.com/GITextbook/en/Chapter14/14-4.htm |date=20091028150816 }}</ref> Idadi ndogo ya watu wenye homa ya ini kali huendelea kuwa na ushinde wa ini ambapo ini hushindwa kutoa viungo hatari kwenye mwili [ambayo husababisha utatanishi na kukosa fahamu kutokana na kuharibika ubongo wa ini] na kutoa protini za damu (ambayo husababisha [[uvimbe wa pembeni]] na kutoa na damu). Hii inaweza kutishia uhai na mara kwa mara inahitaji kuhamisha ini. === Sugu === Homa ya ini sugu mara nyingi husababisha dalili sizizo maalum kama vile unyonge, uchovu na udhaifu, na mara nyingi haisababishi dalili zozote. kwa kawaida zinazoainishwa katika kipimo cha damukifanyikacho kuchunguza dalili maalum tukio la homa ya ini huonyesha kuzidi kuharibika kwa ini. uchunguzi wa kimwili huonyesha kunenepa kwa ini <ref name="MerckHome">{{MerckHome|10|137|c||Chronic hepatitis}}</ref> Uharibifu mkubwa na kovu kwa ini (yaani cirrhosis) husababisha kupoteza uzito, na urahisi wa kukwaruzwa na kutoka damu ovyo, uvimbe wa pembeni (uvimbe wa miguu) na kujaa maji katika mwina wa tumbo. Hatimaye, ugonjwa sugu wa ini unaweza kusababisha matatizo mbalimbali:vena ya umio (mishipa wazi katika ukuta wa umio ambayo inaweza kusababisha kutoka kwa kwa damu kunakohatarisha maisha) kuharibika ubongo wa ini (kuchanganyikiwa na kukosa fahamu) na ugonjwa wa hepatorenali (figo kutofanya kazi). [[Chunusi]], [[hedhi]] isiyo ya kawaida, kovu ya mapafu, kuvimba tezi ya [[kikoromeo]] na ya [[figo]] ziko katika [[wanawake]] walio na Homa ya ini ya kingamwili nafsi. <ref name="MerckHome"></ref> == Sababu == === Kali === * Virusi vya ini: ** Homa ya Ini A kupitia E **Malengelenge katika sehemu mbalimbali mwilini **virusi vya uvimbe wa seli **Epstein-Barr **Homa ya manjano **adenoviruses * maambukizi yasiyo ya virusi **toxoplasma **Leptospira **homa ya Q <ref>{{cite book |author=Parveen, M.D. Kumar (Editor), Michael, M.d. Clark (Editor) |title=Clinical Medicine: with STUDENT CONSULT Access |url=https://archive.org/details/kumarclarkclinic0000unse_a8s5 |publisher=W.B. Saunders Company |location=Philadelphia, PA |year= 2005|pages= |isbn=0-7020-2763-4 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> **homa ya madoadoa ya rocky mountain <ref>Scott Musa, MD, papo hapo Hepatitis sababu, [http://www.fpnotebook.com/GI70.htm ''Family mazoezi notebook.com'' ] {{Wayback|url=http://www.fpnotebook.com/GI70.htm |date=20070607204633 }}</ref> * Pombe * Sumu: Sumu ya [[uyoga]], tetrakloridi kaboni, asafetida * Dawa: Paracetamol, amoxycillin, antituberculosis madawa, minocycline na nyingine nyingi (tazama tena orodha hapo chini). * Ischemic hepatitis upungufu wa mzunguko wa damu * Ujauzito * Hali ya kingamwilinafsi, kwa mfano, utaratibu Lupasi Erithematosusi ya mfuno (SLE) * Magonjwa ya metaboliki, kwa mfano, ugonjwa wa Wilson === Sugu === * Virusi vya homa ya ini: Homa ya ini B pamoja na au bila homa ya ini D, homa ya ini c (hakuna homa ya manjano A na E hazisababishi homa ya manjano sugu) * kingamwilinafsi ** Homa ya manjano inayosababishwa na kingamwilinafsi * Pombe * Dawa ** Methyldopa ** nitrofurantoini ** isoniazidi - dawa itumikayo kutibu kifua kikuu ** ketokonazoli * steatohepatitis isiyosababishwa na pombe * urithi ** maradhi ya konea kijani ** upungufu wa alfa 1-antitrypsin * homa ini inayosababishwa na nyongo ya kimsingi, kolangitis ngumu ya msingi mara kwa mara huigiza homa ya ini sugu <ref name="bain"></ref> === Homa ya ini inayosababishwa na pombe === Ethano, hasa kwenye pombe, ni sababu kubwa ya Homa ya manjano. Kawaida homa ya manjano inayosababishwa na pombe hutokea baada ya muda wa matumizi ya pombeyanapozidi Homa ya manjano iletwayo na pombe huwa na dalili kadha wa kadha, ambazo ni pamoja na; kuhisi vibaya, uvimbe wa ini,maji katika tumbo, na kuongezeka kwa kimo kwa vipimo vya damu vya ini. homa ya manjano iletwayo na pombe hutofautiana kutoka ya kadili yenye vipimo vya ini vilivyooengezeka hadi ini kuvimba sana kuzidi kwa homa manjano kuongezeka kwa muda wa damu kuganda na [[kushindwa kwa ini]]. Kuugua kesi ya kuendelea na aidha obtundation (dulled fahamu) au mchanganyiko wa bilirubin ngazi nyanyuliwa na prothrombin wakati wa muda mrefu, kiwango cha vifo vya katika makundi yote ni 50% ndani ya siku 30 za mwanzo. Homa ya manjano inayoletwa na pombe ni tofauti na ugonjwa sugu wa ini inaosababishwa na matumizi ya pombe muda mrefu. Homa ya manjano inayoletwa na pombe inaweza kutokea kwa wagonjwa wa ini kwa ulevi sugu na ugonjwa sugu wa ini sababu ya pombe. Homa ya manjano inayoletwa na pombe yenyewe haisababishi ugonjwa sugu wa ini, lakini ugonjwa sugu wa ini ni wa kawaida zaidi kwa wagonjwa wa matumizi ya pombe kwa muda mrefu. Wagonjwa ambao hunywa pombe kupita kiasi mara nyingi zaidi kuliko wengine pia hupatikana kwa kuwa na homa ya manjano ya C. Mchanganyiko wa homa ya manjano ya C na matumizi ya pombe huchochea kusitawi kwa ugonjwa sugu wa ini. === Dawa zinazosababisha === Idadi kubwa ya dawa inaweza kusababisha homa ya ini: <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/dc/caz/infc/hepa/hepres.jsp | title = Hepatitis as a result of chemicals and drugs | accessdate = 2006-07-01 | work = HealthAtoZ | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060623141402/http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/dc/caz/infc/hepa/hepres.jsp | archivedate = 2006-06-23 }}</ref> * Agomelatine (tibamfadhaiko) * Allopurinol * Amitriptailini (tibamfadhaiko) * Amiodarone (kinza-kasi mpigo wa moyo) * Atomoxetine <ref>{{cite journal |author=Lim JR, Faught PR, Chalasani NP, Molleston JP |title=Severe liver injury after initiating therapy with atomoxetine in two children |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=148 |issue=6 |pages=831–4 |year=2006 |pmid=16769398 |doi=10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.01.035 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-pediatrics_2006-06_148_6/page/831}}</ref> *Azathioprini <ref>{{cite journal | author = Bastida G, Nos P, Aguas M, Beltrán B, Rubín A, Dasí F, Ponce J | title = Incidence, risk factors and clinical course of thiopurine-induced liver injury in patients with inflammatory bowel disease | journal = Aliment Pharmacol Ther | volume = 22 | issue = 9 | pages = 775–82 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16225485 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02636.x }}</ref> * Halothane (aina maalumu ya gesi ya kitiaganzi) * Dawa za kuzuia mimba * Ibuprofeni na indomethasini (NSAID s) * Isoniazidi (INH), rifampicin, na pyrazinamide [[Kifua kikuu|(kifua kikuu]] kiua vijasumu[[Antibaotiki|maalum]] s) * Ketokonazoli (kizuia vimelea) * Loratadaini (kimaliza kemikali za mzio) * Methotrexate {ukandamizaji kingamaradhi){/1} * Methyldopa kipunguza shinikizo la damu) * Minocycline (Tetrasaiklini kiua vijasumu) * Nifedipini (kipunguza shinikizo la damu) * Nitrofurantoini [[Antibaotiki|(kiua vijisumu)]] * Paracetamol (asetaminofeni nchini [[Marekani]]) zinaweza kusababisha homa ya manjano wakati zinazidisha kiasi cha dawa kinachohitajika. Ukali wa uharibifu wa ini unaweza kuwa mdogo na utawala wa haraka wa acetylcysteine. * Fenitoini na asidi ya valproik (antiepileptiks) * Troglitazone (antidiabetic, iliyotolewa mwaka wa 2000 kwa kusababisha athari homa ya manjano) * Zidovudine ( za kurefusha maisha yaani, dhidi ya virusi vya ukimwi) * Baadhi ya mimea na virutubisho lishe <ref name="pmid11151906">{{cite journal |author=Nadir A, Reddy D, Van Thiel DH |title=Cascara sagrada-induced intrahepatic cholestasis causing portal hypertension: case report and review of herbal hepatotoxicity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-gastroenterology_2000-12_95_12/page/3634 |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=95 |issue=12 |pages=3634–7 |year=2000 |pmid=11151906| doi = 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2000.03386.x}}</ref> Kozi ya [[kliniki]] ya dawa zinazosababisha homa ya manjano zinatofautiana sana, kulingana na dawa na tabia ya [[mgonjwa]] kukabiliana na dawa. Kwa mfano, halothane homa ya manjano inaweza tofautiana kutoka changa hadi ya kuua na pia homa ya manjano ya INH. [[Homoni]] za [[uzazi wa mpango]] zinaweza kusababisha mabadiliko ya kimuundo katika ini. Amiodarone homa ya manjano inaweza kosa matibabu sababu ya muda mrefu nusu- maisha ya dawa (hadi 60 siku) ina maana kwamba hakuna njia bora ya kuzuia yatokanayo na dawa. Statini s inaweza kusababisha mwinuko wa vipimo vya damuya uamilifu wa ini na kawaida bila kuonyesha msingi wa homa ya manjano. Mwisho, kugeuka kwa binadamu ni kuwa dawa yeyote inaweza kuwa sababu ya homa ya manjano. === Sumu nyingine === Sumu nyingine zinazoweza kusababisha homa ya ini ni: * Amatoxin-inakuwa na [[uyoga wa sumu]], ikiwa ni pamoja na kifunikio ya Kifo ''(Uyoga wenye faloids),'' Malaika Unaoangamiza ''(Uyoga wa sumu-ocreata),'' na aina fulani ya spishi za''Galerina.'' A sehemu moja ya [[uyoga]] inaweza tosha kusababisha mauti (10 mg au chini ya α amanitini). * Nyeupe[[Posferi|fosforasi]], ni sumu ya viwanda na kemikali ya vita. * Kaboni tetrakloridi ("tetra", wakala kavu ya kusafisha ), klorofomu, na trikloroethilini, zote klorini hidrokaboni , husababisha steatohepatitis (homa ya manjano na mafuta ya ini). * Cylindrospermopsin, sumu kutoka kwasainobacteria ''Cylindrospermopis raciborskii'' na nyingine sainobacteria. === Ischemic hepatitis === Hepatitis Ischemic husababishwa na mzunguko ilipungua kwa seli ya ini. Kawaida hii ni kutokana na shinikizo la damu ulipungua au mshtuko, na hivyo kusababisha sawa na muda wa "mshtuko ini". Wagonjwa na hepatitis ischemic kawaida mgonjwa sana kutokana na sababu msingi wa mshtuko. Mara chache, hepatitis ischemic husababishwa na matatizo ya mitaa na vyombo vya damu [[oksijeni]] kuwa ugavi wa ini (kama vile thrombosis, au clotting ya hepatic artery ambayo sehemu vifaa [[Damu|vya damu]] na chembechembe ini). Kupima damu ya mtu na hepatitis ischemic itaonyesha high ngazi sana ya Enzymes transaminase (AST na Alt), ambayo inaweza kisichozidi 1000 U / L. The kimo katika vipimo vya damu haya ni kawaida muda mfupi (kudumu siku 7-10). Ni nadra kwamba ini litaathiriwa na hepatitis ischemic. == Marejeo == {{Marejeo}} [[Jamii:Ini]] [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] 4y843e1nweb6urw63t9dqdh2cspxkma 0 56525 1580213 1536618 2026-07-18T01:22:12Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580213 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:AgCant-esten.jpg|thumb|Augustino wa Canterbury katika mavazi ya [[Askofu mkuu]].]] '''Augustino wa Canterbury''' (kwa [[Kilatini]] ''Augustinus Cantiacorum'') alizaliwa [[Roma]], [[Italia]], [[13 Novemba]] [[534]] akafariki [[Canterbury]], [[Uingereza]], [[26 Mei]] [[604]]) alikuwa [[mmonaki]] kutoka Italia aliyetumwa na [[Papa Gregori I]] kama [[askofu]] [[mmisionari]] huko Uingereza mwaka [[597]] akiwa na wamonaki wenzake wengi. Baada ya kupokewa vizuri na [[mfalme]] [[Ethelbert wa Kent]], aliiga [[maisha]] ya [[Kanisa]] la mwanzo na kumuongoa mfalme huyo pamoja na wananchi wengi sana, akianzisha kwa ajili yao [[dayosisi|majimbo]] mbalimbali<ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/27500</ref>. Anaheshimiwa na [[Kanisa Katoliki]], [[Waorthodoksi]] na [[Waanglikana]] kama [[mtakatifu]] "mtume wa Uingereza". [[Sikukuu]] yake ni tarehe [[26 Mei]] au [[27 Mei]]<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] == Vyanzo vya kale == * [[Beda Mhashamu]], ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' * [[Paulo Shemasi]], ''Vita Sancti Gregori Papae'' * [[Gregori Mkuu]], ''Epistulae'' * [[Gregori wa Tours]], ''Historia Francorum'' ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo ya Kiswahili== * Masomo ya Breviari - Sikukuu za Bwana, za Bikira Maria na za Watakatifu - Ndanda Mission Press 1978, uk 169-171 * John Kabeya na wengine - Maisha ya Watakatifu – ed. T.M.P. Book Department – Tabora 1965, 1989, uk. 182 * Pd. Leandry Kimario, [[Wakapuchini|O.F.M.Cap.]] - Mfahamu Mtakatifu Somo Wako - Maisha ya Watakatifu wa Kila Siku pamoja na Watakatifu Wafransisko - Toleo la pili - Dar es Salaam 2021, uk. 149-150 * Maurice Soseleje, Kalendari yetu – Maisha ya Watakatifu – Toleo la pili – ed. Benedictine Publications Ndanda Peramiho – Peramiho 1986 – ISBN 9976-63-112-X, uk. 42-43 == Marejeo ya lugha nyingine== * {{cite book |author=Bede |authorlink=Bede |coauthors= translated by Leo Sherley-Price |title=A History of the English Church and People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00beda |publisher=Penguin Classics |location=New York|year=1988 |isbn=0-14-044042-9 }} * {{cite book |author=Blair, John P. |title=The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society |url=https://archive.org/details/churchinanglosax0000blai |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year= 2005 |isbn=0-19-921117-5 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Blair, John |title=A Handlist of Anglo-Saxon Saints |encyclopedia=Local Saints and Local Churches in the Early Medieval West |editor=Thacker, Aland and Sharpe, Richard |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=2002 |pages=495–565|isbn=0-19-820394-2}} * {{cite book |last=Blair|first= Peter Hunter|coauthors=Blair, Peter D.|authorlink= Peter Hunter Blair |title=An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England|edition=Third |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2003 |isbn=0-521-53777-0 }} * {{cite book |author=Brooks, Nicholas |title=The Early History of the Church of Canterbury: Christ Church from 597 to 1066 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofch0000broo |publisher=Leicester University Press |location=London |year=1984 |isbn=0-7185-0041-5 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Colgrave, Bertram |title=Introduction |encyclopedia=The Earliest Life of Gregory the Great |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |edition=Paperback reissue of 1968 |year=2007|isbn=978-0-521-31384-1}} * {{cite book |author=Collins, Roger |title=Early Medieval Europe: 300–1000 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlymedievaleur0000coll_a7n9 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=0-312-21886-9 |edition=Second}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Dales, Douglas |title="Apostles of the English": Anglo-Saxon Perceptions |encyclopedia = L'eredità spirituale di Gregorio Magno tra Occidente e Oriente |publisher= l Segno Gabrielli Editori |year=2005 |isbn= 8888163549}} * {{cite book |author=Delaney, John P. |title=Dictionary of Saints|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofsain00dela |edition=Second |publisher=Doubleday |location=Garden City, NY |year=1980 |isbn=0-385-13594-7 }} * {{cite book |author=Dodwell, C. R. |title=Anglo-Saxon Art: A New Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonartnew0000dodw_62 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |year=1985 |edition =Cornell University Press |isbn=0-8014-9300-5}} * {{cite book |author=Fletcher, R. A. |authorlink= Richard A. Fletcher |title=The Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity |url=https://archive.org/details/barbarianconvers00flet |publisher=H. Holt and Co |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=0-8050-2763-7 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Frend, William H. C. | authorlink= William Hugh Clifford Frend |title=Roman Britain, a Failed Promise |encyclopedia=The Cross Goes North: Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe AD 300–1300 |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge, UK |editor=[[Martin Carver]] |year=2003 |isbn=1-84383-125-2 |pages=79–92 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Gameson, Richard and Fiona |title=From Augustine to Parker: The Changing Face of the First Archbishop of Canterbury |editor=Smyth, Alfred P.; [[Simon Keynes|Keynes, Simon]] |encyclopedia=Anglo-Saxons: Studies Presented to Cyril Roy Hart |publisher=Four Courts Press |location=Dublin |year=2006 |pages=13–38 |isbn=1-85182-932-6 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Hayward |first=Paul Anthony |editor= Lapidge, Michael et al. |encyclopedia=Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |title=St Justus |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location= Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1|pages= 267–268 }} * {{cite book |author=Higham, N. J. |title=The Convert Kings: Power and Religious Affiliation in Early Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/convertkingspowe0000high |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |year=1997 |isbn=0-7190-4827-3 }} * {{cite book |title=A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons: The Beginnings of the English Nation |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofan0000hind_b4f5 |last= Hindley|first=Geoffrey |year= 2006|publisher= Carroll & Graf Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7867-1738-5 }} * {{cite book |author=Kirby, D. P. |title=The Earliest English Kings |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=0-415-24211-8 }} * {{cite journal |author=Jones, Putnam Fennell |title=The Gregorian Mission and English Education |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_speculum_1928-07_3_3/page/335 |journal= [[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=335–348|year=1928 |month=Julai |doi=10.2307/2847433 |jstor= 2847433}} * {{cite book |author=Lapidge, Michael |title=The Anglo-Saxon Library |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonlibrar0000lapi |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=2006 |isbn=0-19-926722-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Laurentius|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |author=Lapidge, Michael|page=279 |editors=Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon; Scragg, Donald |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Lapidge |first=Michael |editor= Lapidge, Michael; Blair, John; Keynes, Simon; Scragg, Donald |encyclopedia=Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |title=Mellitus |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location= Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1 |pages=305–306 }} * {{cite book |author=Lawrence, C. H. |title=Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalmonastic0000lawr_n3c1 |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=0-582-40427-4 }} * {{cite journal |author=Markus, R. A. |title=The Chronology of the Gregorian Mission to England: Bede's Narrative and Gregory's Correspondence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-ecclesiastical-history_1963-04_14_1/page/16 |journal=[[Journal of Ecclesiastical History]] |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=16–30 |month=Aprili |year=1963 |doi=10.1017/S0022046900064356 }} * {{cite book |author=Mayr-Harting, Henry| authorlink= Henry Mayr-Harting |title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/comingofchristia0000mayr_a5a2|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |location=University Park, PA |year=1991 |isbn=0-271-00769-9 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last= Mayr-Harting |first= Henry |authorlink= Henry Mayr-Harting |encyclopedia= Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |title= Augustine (St Augustine) (d. 604) |url= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/899 |accessdate=30 Machi 2008|year=2004 |publisher= Oxford University Press|doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/899 |format={{ODNBsub}}}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last= Nelson |first= Janet L. |authorlink= Janet L. Nelson |encyclopedia= Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |title= Bertha (b. c.565, d. in or after 601) |url= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2269 |accessdate=30 Machi 2008|year=2004 |publisher= Oxford University Press |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/2269 |edition=Mei 2006 revised |format={{ODNBsub}}}} * {{cite book |author=Nilson, Ben |title=Cathedral Shrines of Medieval England|publisher=Boydell Press |year=1998 |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=0-85115-540-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Schapiro, Meyer |authorlink=Meyer Schapiro |title=The Decoration of the Leningrad Manuscript of Bede|encyclopedia= Selected Papers: Volume 3: Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art |pages=199 and 212–214|year= 1980 |publisher=Chatto & Windus|location= London|isbn= 0701125144 }} * {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Adam |year=1978 |title=St Augustine of Canterbury in History and Tradition |journal=Folklore |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages= 23–28 |jstor= 1260091 }} * {{cite book |title= Anglo-Saxon England |url= https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonenglan0000sten |last=Stenton |first=F. M. |authorlink= Frank Stenton |year= 1971|publisher= Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5 }} * {{cite book |author=Thomson, John A. F. |title= The Western Church in the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/westernchurchinm0000unse |publisher=Arnold |location=London |year=1998 |isbn=0-340-60118-3 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Wood, Ian | title=Augustine and Aidan: Bureaucrat and Charismatic? |encyclopedia = L'Église et la Mission au VIe Siècle: La Mission d'Augustin de Cantorbéry et les Églises de Gaule sous L'Impulsion de Grégoire le Grand Actes du Colloque d'Arles de 1998 |editor= Dreuille, Christophe de |publisher=Les Éditions du Cerf |location= Paris |year=2000 |isbn=2-204-06412-2}} * {{cite journal |last=Wood |first=Ian |title=The Mission of Augustine of Canterbury to the English |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_speculum_1994-01_69_1/page/1 |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |month=Januari |year=1994 |doi=10.2307/2864782 |jstor= 2864782 }} * {{cite book |author=Yorke, Barbara|authorlink= Barbara Yorke |title=The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800 |url=https://archive.org/details/conversionofbrit0000york|publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=0-582-77292-3 }} * {{cite journal |author=Chaplais, P. |title=Who introduced charters into England? The case for Augustine |journal=Journal of the Society of Archivists |volume=3 |date=1965-1969 |pages=526–542 |doi=10.1080/00379816509513917 |issue=10}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author= Sharpe, R. |title=The setting to St Augustine's translation, 1091 |encyclopedia=Canterbury and the Norman conquest |editor= R. Eales and R. Sharpe |year=1995|pages= 1–13}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Saint Augustine of Canterbury}} * [http://www.pase.ac.uk/pdb?dosp=VIEW_RECORDS&st=PERSON_NAME&value=13620&level=1&lbl=Augustine Augustine of Canterbury] {{Wayback|url=http://www.pase.ac.uk/pdb?dosp=VIEW_RECORDS&st=PERSON_NAME&value=13620&level=1&lbl=Augustine |date=20120301193301 }}&nbsp;– entry at Prosopography of Anglo Saxon England project {{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 534]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 604]] [[Jamii:Wamonaki]] [[Jamii:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Jamii:Wamisionari]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Uingereza]] lo9akskjhkjw3ckzkg5f1htfph19y6i 0 56847 1579977 899816 2026-07-17T18:15:17Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579977 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Raadmansgraend, Ulricehamn.jpg|thumb|350px|Strandgatan (Mapwa wa Mitaani) katika Ulricehamn]] [[Picha:Ulricehamn Municipality in Västra Götaland County.png|thumb|250px|]] '''Ulricehamn''' ni mji na manispaa nchini [[Uswidi]]. Kuna wakazi 9,250 (mwaka 2005). == Jiografia == Eneo lake ni 6.09 [[km²]]. <gallery> Picha:Rådhuset Ulricehamn.jpg|Ukumbi wa Ulricehamn </gallery> == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.ulricehamn.se/ www.ulricehamn.se] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ulricehamn.se/ |date=20210210134108 }} {{Mbegu-jio-Uswidi}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Uswidi]] d9oi0zy57gfuapdzyshrbudwsvtmj6l 0 57429 1580121 1210694 2026-07-18T00:20:29Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580121 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox album |Jina = Illmatic |Type = studio |Msanii = [[Nas]] |Cover = NasIllmatic.jpg |Imetolewa = 19 Aprili 1994 |Imerekodiwa = 1992–1993 <br />Battery Studios, [[Unique Recording Studios|Unique Studios]], [[Chung King Studios]], [[D&D Studios|D&D Recording]] <br /><small>([[New York City]], [[New York]])</small> |Aina = [[muziki wa hip hop|Hip hop]] |Urefu = 39:43 |Studio = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]] <br /><small>CK 57684</small> |Mtayarishaji = [[DJ Premier]], [[Large Professor]], [[L.E.S.]], [[MC Serch]] <small>(Watayarishaji Watendaji)</small>, Nas, [[Q-Tip (rapper)|Q-Tip]], [[Pete Rock]] |Albamu iliyopita = |Albamu hii = '''''Illmatic'''''<br />(1994) |Albamu ijayo = ''[[It Was Written]]''<br />(1996) |Misc = {{Singles |Jina = Illmatic |Type = studio |single 1 = [[Halftime]] |single 1 tarehe = 13 Oktoba 1992 |single 2 = [[It Ain't Hard to Tell]] |single 2 tarehe = 18 Januari 1994 |single 3 = [[The World Is Yours (Nas)|The World Is Yours]] |single 3 tarehe = 31 Mei 1994 |single 4 = Life's a Bitch |single 4 tarehe = 19 Aprili 1994 |single 5 = [[One Love (Nas)|One Love]] |single 5 tarehe = 25 Oktoba 1994 }}}} '''''Illmatic''''' ni jina albamu ya kwanza ya rapa wa Kimarekani [[Nas]]. Albamu ilitolewa mnamo tar. 19 Aprili 1994, kupitia studio za [[Columbia Records]]. Kufuatia kwake kuingia mkataba na Columbia kwa msaada wa [[MC Serch]], kipindi cha kurekodi albamu hii kimechukua nafasi baina ya mwaka wa 1992 hadi 1993 katika studio za [[Chung King Studios]], [[D&D Studios|D&D Recording]], Battery Studios, na [[Unique Recording Studios]] huko mjini [[New York City]]. Utayarishaji wake ulishughulikiwa na Nas, [[Large Professor]], [[Pete Rock]], [[Q-Tip]], [[L.E.S.]], na [[DJ Premier]]. Staili na albamu ya kigumu ya hip hop, ''Illmatic'' inakashda za Nas za kuingiza silabi ndani ya vina vinavyoelezea maudhui na hali ya mahali anapotoka huko mjini [[Queensbridge, Queens|Queensbridge, New York]]. Juu ya kutolewa kwake, albamu ilishika nafasi ya 12 katika chati za [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]] huko nchini Marekani, na kuuza nakala 59,000 katika wiki yake ya kwanza. Hata hivyo, mauzo yake ya awali yameanguka vibaya mno na kwenda kinyume na matarajio na single zake zote tano zimeshindwa kupata mafanikio ya haja katika chati. Wakati inapitia hali ya awali ya mauzo ya chini, ''Illmatic'' imepokea tahakiki halisi kutoka kwa watahakiki kadha wa kadha wa muziki juu ya kutolewa kwake na kupokea sifa kemkem kwa mashairi yaliyomo, utayarishaji, na staili ya mashairi ya Nas. Mnamo tar. 17 Januari 1996, albamu imetunukiwa [[RIAA certification|dhahabu]] na [[Recording Industry Association of America]], na mwaka wa 2001, imepokea platinum baada ya mauzo yake ya nakala milioni nje ya Marekani. == Orodha ya nyimbo == <!--This section is for album credits only--> {|class="wikitable" |- !# !Jina !Waimbaji !Watayarishaji !Sampuli<ref name="Breaks">[http://the-breaks.com/search.php?term=Nas&type=6 TheBreaks.com album samples] {{Wayback|url=http://the-breaks.com/search.php?term=Nas&type=6 |date=20060529005100 }}. TheBreaks.com. Retrieved on 2007-01-20.</ref> !Imerekodiwa !Urefu |- |1 |"The Genesis" | *[[Nas]], Jungle, [[AZ]] | |<small> * "Live at the Barbeque" wa [[Main Source]] * "Subway Theme" wa [[DJ Grand Wizard Theodore]] * "Train Sequence" wa Geoffrey Sumner |1993 |1:45 |- |2 |"[[N.Y. State of Mind]]" | *Nas |[[DJ Premier]] |<small> * "N.T." wa [[Kool & The Gang]] * "Flight Time" wa [[Donald Byrd]] * "Mind Rain" wa [[Joe Chambers]] * "Mahogany" wa [[Eric B. & Rakim]] * "Live at the Barbeque" wa [[Main Source]] |1992 |4:54 |- |3 |"Life's a Bitch" | *Mstari wa kwanza/kiitikio: AZ *Mstari wa pili: Nas |[[L.E.S.]], [[Nas]] |<small> * "Yearning for Your Love" wa [[The Gap Band]] * "Black Frost" wa [[Grover Washington, Jr.]] |1993 |3:30 |- |4 |"[[The World Is Yours (Nas song)|The World Is Yours]]" | *Verses: Nas *Chorus: [[Pete Rock]] |[[Pete Rock]] |<small> * "I Love Music" by [[Ahmad Jamal]] * "It's Yours" wa [[T La Rock]] |1992 |4:50 |- |5 |"[[Halftime]]" | *Nas |[[Large Professor]] |<small> * "Dead End" kutoka kwa ''Hair'' kibwagizo halisi cha washiriki wa Kijapani * "Soul Travelin'" by Gary Byrd * "School Boy Crush" wa [[Average White Band]] |1992 |4:20 |- |6 |"Memory Lane (Sittin' in da Park)" | *Nas |[[DJ Premier]] |<small> * "We're in Love" wa [[Reuben Wilson]] * "Pickin' Boogers" wa [[Biz Markie]] * "Droppin' Science" wa [[Craig G]] * "Get out of My Life, Woman" wa [[Lee Dorsey]] |1992 |4:08 |- |7 |"[[One Love (Nas)|One Love]]" | *Mistari: Nas *Kiitikio: [[Q-Tip]] |[[Q-Tip]] |<small> * "Smilin' Billy Suite Pt. II" wa [[The Heath Brothers]] * "Mixed Up Cup" by [[Clyde McPhatter]] * "Come in out of the Rain" wa [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] * "One Love" wa [[Whodini]] |1992 |5:25 |- |8 |"[[One Time 4 Your Mind]]" | *Nas |[[Large Professor]] |<small> * "Walter L" wa [[Gary Burton]] |1992 |3:18 |- |9 |"Represent" | *Nas |[[DJ Premier]] |<small> * "The Thief of Baghdad" wa [[Lee Erwin]] |1993 |4:12 |- |10 |"[[It Ain't Hard to Tell]]" | *Nas |[[Large Professor]] |<small> * "[[Human Nature]]" wa [[Michael Jackson]] * "N.T." wa [[Kool & the Gang]] * "Long Red" wa [[Mountain]] * "Why Can't People Be Colors Too?" wa Whatnauts * "Slow Dance" wa [[Stanley Clarke]] * "What Do You Want from Me Woman" wa The Blue Jays * "Sorcerer of Isis" wa Power of Zeus |1992 |3:22 |} ==Nafasi ya chati== *<u>Album</u> {|class="wikitable" !align="left"|Chati (1994)<ref>[{{Allmusic|class=album|id=r203123/charts-awards|pure_url=yes}} allmusic ((( Illmatic > Charts & Awards > Billboard Albums )))]. All Media Guide, LLC. Retrieved on 2007-01-20.</ref> !align="left"|Nafasi<br />iliyoshika |- |align="left"|U.S. ''Billboard'' 200 |align="center"|12 |- |align="left"|U.S. Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums |align="center"|2 |- |} *<u>Single</u> {| class="wikitable" !rowspan="2"|Mwaka !rowspan="2"|Single !colspan="4"|Nafasi ilizoshika<ref name="singlescharts">[{{Allmusic|class=album|id=r203123/charts-awards/billboard-single|pure_url=yes}} allmusic ((( Illmatic > Charts & Awards > Billboard Singles )))]. All Media Guide, LLC. Retrieved on 2007-01-20.</ref> |- !width="100"|<small>[[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]]</small> !width="100"|<small>[[Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs|Hot R&B Singles]]</small> !width="100"|<small>[[Hot Rap Singles|Hot Rap Tracks]]</small> !width="100"|<small>[[Hot Dance Singles Sales|Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales]]</small> |- |align="center" rowspan="1"|1993 |align="left"|"Halftime" |align="center"|— |align="center"|— |align="center"|8 |align="center"|— |- |align="center" rowspan="4"|1994 |align="left"|"It Ain't Hard to Tell" |align="center"|91 |align="center"|57 |align="center"|13 |align="center"|3 |- |align="left"|"The World Is Yours" |align="center"|114 |align="center"|67 |align="center"|27 |align="center"|6 |- |align="left"|"Life's a Bitch" |align="center"|— |align="center"|— |align="center"|— |align="center"|— |- |align="left"|"One Love" |align="center"|— |align="center"|106 |align="center"|24 |align="center"|6 |- |align="center" colspan="7" style="font-size: 8pt"| "—" denotes a release that did not chart. |- |} {{col-2}} ==Tanbihi== {{Marejeo|colwidth=30em}} == Marejeo == {{refbegin|colwidth=60em}} * {{cite book|author = Martin Torgoff|year = 2004|title = Can't Find My Way Home: America in the Great Stoned Age, 1945-2000|url = https://archive.org/details/cantfindmywayhom0000torg|publisher = Simon and Schuster|isbn = 0-743-25863-0}} * {{cite book|author = Oliver Wang, Dante Ross|year = 2003|title = Classic Material: The Hip-Hop Album Guide|url = https://archive.org/details/classicmaterialh0000unse|publisher = ECW Press|isbn = 1-550-22561-8}} * {{cite book|author = Ashyia N. Henderson|year = 2008|title = Contemporary Black Biography: Profiles from the International Black Community|url = https://archive.org/details/contemporaryblac0000ashy_y5f5| others = Vol. 33|publisher = Gale Research International |isbn = 0-787-65914-2}} * {{cite book|author = Sacha Jenkins|coauthors = ''et al.''|year = 1999|month = Desemba|title = Ego Trip's Book of Rap Lists|url = https://archive.org/details/egotripsbookofra00jenk|publisher = St. Martin's Griffin|isbn = 0-312-24298-0|page = [https://archive.org/details/egotripsbookofra00jenk/page/n353 352] }} * {{cite book | author = Mickey Hess | title = Icons of Hip Hop: An Encyclopedia of the Movement, Music, and Culture | url = https://archive.org/details/iconsofhiphopenc0000unse | others = Edition: illustrated | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | year = 2007 | location = | isbn = 0-313-33904-X}} ISBN 0-31333-902-3 * {{cite book | author = Todd Boyd | title = The New H.N.I.C.: The Death of Civil Rights and the Reign of Hip Hop | others = | publisher = NYU Press | year = 2004 | location = | isbn = 0-814-79896-9}} * {{cite book| author = Nathan Brackett, Christian Hoard | title = The New Rolling Stone Album Guide: Completely Revised and Updated 4th Edition | url = https://archive.org/details/newrollingstonea00brac | publisher = Simon and Schuster | year = 2004 | location = | isbn = 0-74320-169-8}} * {{cite book|author = [[Kool Moe Dee]]. |coauthors = [[Chuck D]].|year = 2003|month = Novemba|title = [[There's a God on the Mic]]|pages = |publisher = Thunder's Mouth Press|isbn = 1-56025-533-1}} * {{cite book|author = Alan Light|coauthors = ''et al.''|year = 1999|month = Oktoba|title = The Vibe History of Hip Hop|url = https://archive.org/details/vibehistoryofhip00ligh|pages = |publisher = Three Rivers Press|isbn = 0-609-80503-7}} {{refend}} == Viungo vya Nje == * ''[http://www.discogs.com/Nas-Illmatic/master/20148 Illmatic]'' at [[Discogs]] * {{MusicBrainz album|id=f00af81c-9249-49d0-b3f5-8b6725bd1900|name=Illmatic}} * [http://rapreviews.com/archive/BTTL_illmatic.html RapReviews "Back to the Lab" series: ''Illmatic''] — by Steve Juon * [http://sohh.com/article_print.php?content_ID=5405 Retro "QB" Classic: ''Illmatic''] {{Wayback|url=http://sohh.com/article_print.php?content_ID=5405 |date=20051027170026 }} — by George Hagan * [http://www.nobodysmiling.com/hiphop/editorial/85681.php Throwback Classic: ''Illmatic''] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nobodysmiling.com/hiphop/editorial/85681.php |date=20060506170052 }} — by Michael Ivey {{Nas}} [[Jamii:Albamu za 1994]] [[Jamii:Albamu za Nas]] [[Jamii:Albamu za Columbia Records]] [[Jamii:Albamu zilizotayarishwa na DJ Premier]] [[Jamii:Albamu zilizotayarishwa na Pete Rock]] [[Jamii:Albamu zilizotayarishwa na L.E.S.]] [[Jamii:Albamu zilizotayarishwa na Large Professor]] [[Jamii:Albamu zilizotayarishwa na Q-Tip]] [[Jamii:Albamu zilizotayarishwa na Marley Marl]] [[Jamii:Albamu za kwanza]] 5821leuhquajxhp9zfd8yu3kjf9jjyy 0 62518 1580109 1260545 2026-07-18T00:11:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580109 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Elephanta Caves Trimurti.jpg|thumb|300px|Sanamu za Trimurti]] [[Picha:Trimurti ellora.jpg|thumb|250px|Trimurti]] [[Picha:Brahma Vishnu Mahesh.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Trimurti]] [[Picha:Halebid3.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Trimurti]] '''Trimurti''' ni fundisho katika [[dini]] ya [[Uhindu]] linaloonyesha [[Mungu|miungu]] mikuu mitatu kama [[nguvu]] moja ya kimungu au kwa lugha nyingine miungu mikuu kama maumbo tofauti ya nguvu moja ya kimungu. [[Jina]] latokana na maneno ya [[Kisanskrit]] "tri" (maana yake "[[tatu]]") na "[[murti]]" (maana yake [[umbo]], [[mwili]], [[sanamu]] ya mungu). == Miungu ya Trimurti == Miungu mikuu inayotazamiwa kama [[umoja]] katika Trimurti ni [[Shiva]], [[Vishnu]] na [[Brahma]]. Katika fundisho hili Brahma hutazamiwa kama [[muumba]] wa [[ulimwengu]], Vishnu kama mungu wa kuutunza na Shiva kama nguvu itakayoharibu [[dunia]] na kuipeleka [[mwisho]] wake ili kuandaa [[uumbaji]] mpya wa dunia safi. Trimurti inafundisha ya kwamba miungu hiyo si ya pekee na bila ususiano, bali kila mmoja ni sehemu tu ya [[Brahman]] yaani ile nguvu moja kubwa. == Sanamu za Trimurti == Kuna [[picha]] na sanamu za Trimurti zinazolenga kuonyesha umoja huu kwa mfano * vichwa 3 juu ya [[shingo]] 1 * ny[[uso]] 3 kwenye [[kichwa]] 1 * sanamu yenye mwili 1 mwenye vichwa 3 na mikono 6. Picha hii inaunganishwa mara nyingi na ishara za miungu hii kama vile [[birika ya maji]] na [[rosari]] (Brahma), diski na [[konokono]] (Vishnu) na [[pembetatu]] pamoja na [[ngoma]] (Shiva). == Mawazo juu ya Trimurti == Umoja wa miungu kama Trimurti unatajwa katika vitabu vya kale kama Kūrma Purāṇa lakini si mara nyingi. Trimurti inafundishwa pia katika vitabu vya dini vya [[shule]] lakini kwa Wahindu wengi haina umuhimu mkubwa, kwa kuwa wengi wao ni hasa wafuasi wa mungu mkuu mmojawapo, ama Vishnu au Shiva au pia nguvu ya kike kwa majina mbalimbali. Wafuasi wa Shiva hufundisha "Trimurti" lakini hapo kwao ni nyuso 3 za Shiva mwenyewe anayetazamiwa kama muumba, mtunza na mharibu dunia kwa pamoja ingawa kwa kuchukua maumbo mbalimbali. Kwa hiyo ni zaidi fundisho linalotaka kuimarisha umoja wa Wahindu wote. Watazamaji waliona ya kwamba mafundisho ya Trimurti inafanana kiasi na mafundisho ya [[Utatu]] katika [[Ukristo]]. == Marejeo == {{reflist}} == Vitabu == {{commons category|Trimurti}} *{{cite book|last=Basham|first=A. L.|title=The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before The Coming of the Muslims|url=https://archive.org/details/wonderthatwasind0000alba_i6v2|publisher=Grove Press, Inc.,|location=New York|year=1954}} *{{cite book |last=Courtright |first=Paul B. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title={{IAST|Gaṇeśa}}: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-505742-2 }} *{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn= 0-521-43878-0}} *{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin (Editor)|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781405132510 |year=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd.|location=Malden, MA|isbn=1-4051-3251-5 }} *{{cite book |series=SUNY Series in Religious Studies |last=Grimes |first=John A. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Ganapati: Song of the Self |url=https://archive.org/details/ganapatisongofse0000grim |year=1995 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=0-7914-2440-5 }} *{{cite book |last=Jansen |first=Eva Rudy|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Book of Hindu Imagery|year=2003 |publisher=Binkey Kok Publications BV|location=Havelte, Holland|isbn=90-74597-07-6 }} Eighth printing; First published 1993. *{{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=Sarvepalli (Editorial Chairman)|authorlink=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |coauthors= |title=The Cultural Heritage of India |year=1956 |publisher=The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture |location=Calcutta |isbn= }} Second edition, four volumes, revised and enlarged, 1956 (volume IV). *{{cite book |series= |last=Winternitz |first=Maurice |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=History of Indian Literature |year=1972 |publisher=Oriental Books Reprint Corporation |location=New Delhi |isbn= }} Second revised reprint edition. Two volumes. First published 1927 by the University of Calcutta. *{{cite book |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/mythssymbolsinin00zimm |year=1972 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=0-691-01778-6 }} <!-- interwiki --> [[Jamii:Uhindu]] [[Jamii:Mungu]] c9gzpw4kju4dy931y3wcz6l2adxqy1m 0 64652 1580103 1574180 2026-07-18T00:08:06Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580103 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Kanisa Katoliki}} '''Historia ya Kanisa Katoliki''' inahusu [[Kanisa]] [[Kanisa Katoliki|hilo]] lililo la zamani ([[Waorthodoksi]] na [[Waorthodoksi wa Mashariki]] wanashiriki [[sifa]] hiyo) na kubwa kuliko [[madhehebu]] yote ya [[Ukristo]], hivyo [[historia]] yake inashika sehemu muhimu ya [[historia ya Kanisa]] lote [[dunia|duniani]] tangu lilipoanza [[mwaka]] [[30]] hivi [[BK]] hadi leo. Baada ya [[Yesu Kristo]] kuhubiri na kukusanya [[wafuasi]] kati ya [[Wayahudi]] wa [[karne ya 1]], hao walitumwa naye duniani kote, hasa [[wanaume]] 12 aliowaita [[Mitume wa Yesu|Mitume]], yaani "waliotumwa". [[mwandamizi|Waandamizi]] wao katika [[uongozi]] wa [[Kanisa]] walianza kuitwa [[Askofu|maaskofu]], na kati yao yule wa [[Roma]] alizidi kushika [[Papa|nafasi ya pekee]] kwa sababu [[Mtume Petro]] [[kifodini|alifia dini]] katika [[mji]] huo kutokana na [[dhuluma]] dhidi ya Ukristo ambayo ilianzishwa na [[Kaisari Nero]] ([[mwaka]] [[64]]) na kuendelea kwa [[kwikwi]] hadi ilipokomeshwa na [[Kaisari]] [[Konstantino Mkuu]] aliyetangaza huko [[Milano]] [[uhuru wa dini]] kwa wananchi wote ([[313]]). [[Mateso ya Wakristo|Dhuluma hiyo]] haikufaulu kuzuia uenezi wa [[dini]] hiyo mpya katika [[dola la Roma]]. Mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 2]], maaskofu walianza kukusanyika katika [[sinodi]] ili kuamua kuhusu masuala ya [[imani]] n.k. Mwaka [[325]] Konstantino aliitisha huko [[Nisea]] [[mtaguso mkuu]] [[Mtaguso wa kwanza wa Nisea|wa kwanza]] wa maaskofu wote ili kurudisha [[umoja wa Kanisa]] uliovurugwa na [[uzushi]] wa [[Ario]] kuhusu [[Yesu Kristo]]. Mwaka [[380]] Kaisari [[Theodosius I]] alifanya Ukristo wa Kikatoliki kuwa [[dini rasmi]] ya [[dola]] hilo kubwa lililoendelea kwa namna tofauti [[mashariki]] na [[magharibi]] kwa [[karne]] nyingi zilizofuata. [[Ushindi]] huo ulifanya wengi watamani [[cheo|vyeo]] ndani ya Kanisa, kwa kuwa viliendana sasa na [[heshima]] na [[mali]]: hivyo [[ubora]] ulipungua. Kabla yake [[Armenia]] ilikuwa nchi ya kwanza kupokea Ukristo kama [[dini ya taifa]] ([[301]]). Ushindani kati ya [[dayosisi|majimbo]] makuu muhimu zaidi (Roma, [[Konstantinopoli]], [[Aleksandria]], [[Antiokia]] na [[Yerusalemu]]) ulisababisha ma[[farakano]] makuu ([[431]], [[451]], [[1054]]) yaliyoacha Kanisa Katoliki katika [[Ulaya magharibi]] karibu peke yake. Huko, katika fujo iliyosababishwa na ma[[kabila]] yasiyostaarabika ya [[Wajerumaniki]] [[Uhamisho mkuu wa Ulaya|walioteka maeneo yote ya magharibi]], Kanisa lilichukua [[Wajibu|jukumu]] la kuokoa [[ustaarabu]] wa [[Ugiriki wa Kale]] na [[Roma ya Kale]] uliokwishaathiriwa na Ukristo kwa kiasi kikubwa. Katika [[juhudi]] hizo, [[monasteri]] za [[Wabenedikto]] na [[wamisionari]] waliotumwa katika [[Ulaya]] nzima walitoa mchango mkubwa, pamoja na ule wa [[Karolo Mkuu]], [[mfalme]] wa [[Wafaranki]], kabila la Kijerumaniki muhimu zaidi katika historia, ambalo lilikuwa la kwanza kuingia Kanisa Katoliki moja kwa moja bila kupitia Ukristo wa Kiario. Karolo alitawazwa na [[Papa Leo III]] kuwa Kaisari wa magharibi ([[800]]). Ushirikiano kati ya Mapapa na Makaisari wa [[Dola Takatifu la Kiroma]] ([[Ujerumani]] wa leo na nchi za kandokando) ulikuwa na mafanikio kadhaa na matatizo mengi zaidi na zaidi. Baada ya [[Uislamu]] kuanza katika [[karne ya 7]] na kuteka maeneo mengi ya Kikristo, Kanisa Katoliki liliona [[wajibu]] wake kuitikia maombi ya Wakristo waliohitaji msaada dhidi ya dhuluma iliyolenga kuwafanya [[kusilimu|wasilimu]]. Ndiyo chanzo cha [[Vita vya msalaba]] vilivyotawala karne zilizofuata. Wengi wanaona [[karne ya 13]] kuwa [[kilele]] cha [[tunda|matunda]] wa Kanisa Katoliki katika kulea upya Ulaya magharibi kwa kuzaa hasa [[mashirika ya ombaomba]] ya [[Fransisko wa Asizi]] na [[Dominiko Guzman]], [[mitindo]] mipya ya [[sanaa]], pamoja na [[vyuo vikuu]] walipostawi [[walimu wa Kanisa]] kama [[Thoma wa Akwino]] na [[Bonaventura]]. [[Utaifa]], uliotokea Ulaya magharibi kuanzia [[ufalme]] wa [[Ufaransa]] katika [[karne ya 14]], ulivuruga umoja wa Kanisa kiasi kwamba kwanza Mapapa waliishi [[Avignon]], mbali na Roma, kwa miaka 69 ([[1309]]-[[1378]]), halafu kwa miaka 38 (1378-[[1409]]) kukawa na [[Farakano la Kanisa la Magharibi]], waamini wengine wakimfuata Papa wa Roma na wengine [[Antipapa]] wa Avignon wakidhani ndiye Papa wa kweli. Mambo hayo na makwazo mengine, yaliyofanya wengi wadai bila mafanikio [[urekebisho]] wa Kanisa tangu karne za nyuma, hatimaye yalichangia katika [[karne ya 16]] kutokea kwa [[Matengenezo ya Kiprotestanti]] ambayo yalitenga na Papa sehemu kubwa ya [[Ulaya Kaskazini]] na kuvunjikavunjika katika [[madhehebu]] mengi. Hapo juhudi za [[urekebisho wa Kikatoliki]] ziliongezeka na kuleta hali mpya hasa baada ya [[Mtaguso wa Trento]] ([[1545]]-[[1563]]). Kabla ya hapo, [[uvumbuzi]] wa njia za baharini za kufikia [[Amerika]] ([[1492]]), [[bara]] lililokuwa halijulikani na Wakristo, na [[Asia mashariki]], ulichochea upya [[umisionari]]. Kwa kuwa nchi zilizoshika kwa kiasi kikubwa maeneo mapya duniani kote wakati huo zilikuwa za Kikatoliki ([[Hispania]] na [[Ureno]]), Kanisa kwa kutumia hasa [[utawa|mashirika ya kitawa]] liliweza kufidia upungufu uliosababishwa na Uprotestanti. [[Upinzani]] dhidi yake uliojitokeza katika Matengenezo hayo, ulizidi kupata nguvu katika [[Zama za Mwangaza]] na [[Mapinduzi ya Kifaransa]] ([[karne ya 18]]), halafu katika [[Ukomunisti]] ulioenea kutoka [[Urusi]] hadi [[Theluthi|thuluthi]] moja ya dunia ([[karne ya 20]]) na kuua Wakatoliki [[milioni]] kadhaa (mbali na Waorthodoksi wengi zaidi). Mbele ya changamoto hizo, [[Mtaguso wa pili wa Vatikano]] ([[1962]]-[[1965]]) ulielekeza njia mpya za kuendeleza Ukristo katika ulimwengu wa kisasa. Kwa mtazamo wa [[imani]], historia hiyo yote inaonyesha upande mmoja [[udhaifu]] na [[ukosefu]] wa Wakatoliki hata katika ngazi za uongozi, lakini pia uwezo wa [[neema]] ya [[Mungu]] wa kuleta [[watakatifu]] wapya katika mazingira yoyote. ==Tazama pia== * [[Historia ya Kanisa]] == Marejeo == *{{cite book|author=Aguilar, Mario|title=The History and Politics of Latin American Theology, Volume 1|url=https://archive.org/details/historypoliticso0001agui|location=London|publisher=SCM Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0334040231}} *{{cite book|author=Armstrong, Alastair|title=The European Reformation|location=London|publisher=Heinemann|year=2002|isbn=0435327100}} *{{cite book|title=Early Modern Italy|url=https://archive.org/details/earlymodernitaly0000blac|last=Black|first=Christopher|authorlink=Christopher Black|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0415214343}} *{{cite book|title=A Concise History of the Catholic Church|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00boke|last=Bokenkotter|first=Thomas|year=2004|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=0385505841}} *{{cite book|last=Casey|first=James|title=Early Modern Spain: A Social History (Social History of Modern Europe)|url=https://archive.org/details/earlymodernspain0000case|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|isbn=0415206871}} *[[Henry Chadwick (theologian)|Chadwick, Henry]] (1990), "The Early Christian Community", in McManners, John, ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', Oxford University Press, pp.&nbsp;20&ndash;61, ISBN 0198229283 *{{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=Owen|title=A History of Christianity|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchristi0000chad_b5p0|publisher=Barnes & Noble|year=1995|isbn=0760773327}} *{{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=Owen|title=The Reformation|url=https://archive.org/details/reformation0000chad_z8f9|publisher=Penguin|year=1964, 1990|isbn=0140137572}} *{{cite book|last= Collins|first=Michael|coauthors=Price, Mathew A.|title=The Story of Christianity|url= https://archive.org/details/storyofchristian0000coll|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|year=1999|isbn=0-7513-0467-0}} *{{cite book|title=The Cambridge Modern History|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgemodern05benigoog|last=Edward|first=John Emerich|authorlink=John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton|year=1908|publisher=Macmillan & Co. ltd., original from Harvard University|isbn=0674025857}} *{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|last=Fahlbusch|first=Erwin|year=2007|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|url=http://books.google.com/?id=7ly4DgtT3LkC&pg=PA729&dq=old+catholic+church,+origin|isbn=0802824153}} *{{cite book|last=Franzen|first=August|coauthors=Remigius Bäumer; Roland Fröhlich|title=Kleine Kirchengeschichte|publisher=Herder|location=Freiburg|year=2000|isbn=9783451268960|language=German}}''(quoted as Franzen)'' *[[Eamon Duffy|Duffy, Eamon]] (1997). ''Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes.'' Yale University Press. ISBN 0-3000-7332-1. *{{cite book|title=A History of the Church in Latin America|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchurchi0000duss|last=Dussel|first=Enrique|authorlink=Enrique Dussel|year=1981|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=0802821316}} *{{cite book|last=Franzen|first=August|coauthors=Remigius Bäumer;|title=Papstgeschichte|publisher=Herder|location=Freiburg|year=1988|isbn=345108578X|language=German}}''(quoted as Franzen, Papstgeschichte)'' *{{cite book|title=The English Reformation Revised|url=https://archive.org/details/englishreformati00chri|last=Haigh |first=Christopher|year=1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-33631-7}} *{{cite book|title=Geography of Religion|url=https://archive.org/details/geographyofrelig0000hitc_r6d0|last=Hitchcock|first=Susan Tyler|coauthors=[[John Esposito]]|year=2004|publisher=National Geographic Society|isbn=0-7922-7313-3}} *{{cite book|last=Jackson|first=Robert H.|authorlink=Robert H. Jackson (political scientist)|title=From Savages to Subjects: Missions in the History of the American Southwest|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_076560597|publisher=ME Sharpe, Inc|year=2000|isbn=9780765605979}} *{{cite book|title=Ireland Her Own|url=https://archive.org/details/irelandherownout0000taja|last=Jackson|first=T.A.|year=1991|publisher=Lawrence & Wishart|isbn=0853157359}} *{{cite book|title=The Native Peoples of North America|url=https://archive.org/details/nativepeoplesofn0000joha_j8g1|last=Johansen|first=Bruce|year=2006|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=0813538998}} *{{cite book|last=Kamen|first= Henry|title=The Spanish Inquisition|year=1997|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|location=London|isbn=0-297-81719-1}} *{{cite book|title=Mission to Paradise: The Story of Junipero Serra and the Missions of California|last=King|first=Kenneth|authorlink=Kenneth King (historian)|year=1975|url=http://books.google.com/?id=R_o8AAAAIAAJ&dq=junipero+serra&q=death+of+indians+by+disease|publisher=Society of California Pioneers}} *{{cite book|title=A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, 1450&ndash;1990|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchristi00unse_0|last=Koschorke|first=Klaus|coauthors=Ludwig, Frieder; Delgado, Mariano|year=2007|publisher=Wm B Eerdmans Publishing Co|isbn=978-0-8028-2889-7}} *{{cite book|last=Langan|first=Thomas|authorlink=Thomas Langan|title=The Catholic Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/catholictraditio00lang_0|publisher=University of Missouri Press|year=1998|isbn=9780826260963}} *{{cite book|last=Le Goff|first=Jacques|authorlink=Jacques Le Goff|title=Medieval Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/medievalciviliza0000lego_l6n6|publisher=Barnes & Noble|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7607-1652-6}} *{{cite book |title= Creeds of the Churches|last=Leith|first=John|authorlink=John H. Leith|year=1963|publisher=Aldine Publishing Co|url=http://books.google.com/?id=fOaXP-CjPOIC&pg=PA143&lpg=PA143&dq=first+vatican+council|isbn=0664240577}} *[[Diarmaid MacCulloch|MacCulloch, Diarmaid]] (2010). ''Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years.'' Viking. ISBN 9780670021260. originally published 2009 by Allen Lane, as ''A History of Christianity'' *[[Ramsay MacMullen|MacMullen, Ramsay]] (1984), ''Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400).'' New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ISBN 9780585381206 *Markus, Robert (1990), "From Rome to the Barbarian Kingdom (339&ndash;700)", in McManners, John, ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', Oxford University Press, pp.&nbsp;62&ndash;91, ISBN 0198229283 *{{cite book|last=McManners|first=John|authorlink=John McManners|year=1990|title=The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordillustrate00mcma|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0198229283}} *{{cite book|title=The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History|url=https://archive.org/details/romancatholicchu0000norm|last=Norman|first=Edward|authorlink=Edward Norman|year=2007|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25251-6}} *{{cite book|title=A Short History of the Catholic Church|last=Orlandis|first=Jose|authorlink=Jose Orlandis|year=1993|publisher=Scepter Publishers|url=http://books.google.com/?id=M8kjqryq8dIC&dq=catholic+church+and+world+history&pg=PP1&q=Catholic+church+and+world+history&cd=1|isbn=1851821252}} *{{cite book|last=Pham|first=John Peter|title=Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession|url=https://archive.org/details/heirsoffisherman0000john|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=0195178343}} *{{cite book|title=The First Crusaders|url=https://archive.org/details/firstcrusaders1000jona|last=Riley-Smith|first=Jonathan|authorlink=Jonathan Riley-Smith|year=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780511003080}} *{{cite book|title= Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo|last=Scheina |first=Robert L.|year=2007|publisher=Brassey's|url=http://books.google.com/?id=8aWQ_7oKJfkC&pg=PA33&lpg=PA33&dq=cristero+war+priests+killed|isbn=1574884522}} *{{cite book|last=Samora|first=Julian|last2=Simon|first2=Patricia Vandel|last3=Candelaria|first3=Cordelia|last4=Pulido|first4=Alberto L|title=A History of the Mexican-American People|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmexican00samo|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|year=1993|isbn=9780268010973}} *{{cite book|last= Schama|first= Simon|authorlink= Simon Schama|title= A History of Britain 1: At the Edge of the World?|origyear=2000|year=2003|publisher=[[BBC|BBC Worldwide]]|location=London|isbn=0 56 348714 3|pages=309&ndash;11|chapter= Burning Convictions}} *{{cite book|title=A Dictionary of Political Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofpoli0000scru_h0g0|last=Scruton|first=Roger|authorlink=Roger Scruton|year=1996 |publisher=Macmillan|isbn=0330280996}} *{{cite book|title=Church and State in Early Modern England, 1509-1640|url=https://archive.org/details/churchstateinear0000solt|last=Solt|first=Leo Frank|authorlink=Leo Frank Solt|year=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0195059794}} *{{cite book|last= Stacy|first=Lee|title=Mexico and the United States|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|year= 2003|isbn=0761474021}} *{{cite book|title=A People Adrift: The Crisis of the Roman Catholic Church in America|url=https://archive.org/details/peopleadriftcris0000stei|first=Peter|last=Steinfels|authorlink=Peter Steinfels|year=2003|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=0-68-483663-7}} *{{cite book|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades|url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer|last=Tyerman|first=Christopher|year=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0674023870}} *{{cite book|title=The Catholic Church Through the Ages|url=https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchth0000vidm|last=Vidmar|first=John|authorlink=John Vidmar|year=2005|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=0809142341}} *{{cite book|title=John Paul II: A Light for the World, Essays and Reflections on the Papacy of|last=Walsh|first=Mary Ann|coauthors=Thavis, John|year=2003|url=http://books.google.com/?id=pWkVkkWcNIUC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=john+paul+ii+no+place+in+priesthood+for+those+who+would+abuse+children|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=1580511422}} *{{cite book|title=How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/howcatholicchurc0000wood|last=Woods Jr |first=Thomas|authorlink=Thomas Woods|year=2005|publisher=Regnery Publishing, Inc|isbn=0-89526-038-7}} *{{cite book|title=FDR, The Vatican and the Roman Catholic Church in America, 1933&ndash;1945|last=Woolner |first=David|year=2003|url=http://books.google.com/?id=jMvaoXvJ4VcC&dq=role+of+catholic+church+during+world+war+ii&pg=PP1&q=Role+of+Catholic+Church+during+World+War+II&cd=2 |publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-88-209-7908-9}} {{mbegu-katoliki}} [[Category:Historia ya Kanisa]] [[Category:Historia ya Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Kanisa Katoliki]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Ulaya]] h7zn53sj7jvays2h2ozrq34tmgsqj5r 0 66019 1580136 1401715 2026-07-18T00:29:34Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580136 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:MarcusAureliusSacrificeRelief.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Marcus Aurelius]] na wanafamilia wake wakitoa sadaka ya [[shukrani]] kwa kushinda [[Wagermanik]]: jinsi ilivyochongwa wakati huo katika [[marumaru]], [[Roma]], [[Italia]].]] '''Sadaka''' ni toleo la chochote, kama vile chakula, vitu au wanyama, kwa lengo la juu, hasa la kidini, kwa mfano kumheshimu [[Mungu]] na kujiombea [[fadhili]] fulani toka kwake. ==Kafara== [[File:Codex Magliabechiano (141 cropped).jpg|thumb|Kafara ya [[Waazteki]] ya kumchinja [[mtu]], ilivyochorwa katika [[Codex Mendoza]], [[karne ya 16]], ([[Bodleian Library]], [[Oxford]]).]] Kama sadaka inaendana na [[uchinjaji]] wa [[binadamu]] au [[mnyama]] inaweza kuitwa [[kafara]]. ==Aina nyingine za sadaka== # [[Fungu la Kumi]] # [[Malimbuko]] # [[Nadhiri]] ==Marejeo== * {{cite book|last=Davies|first=Nigel|year=1981|title=Human Sacrifice: In History and Today|publisher=Dorset Press|isbn=0-88029-211-3}} * {{cite news|title=''In India, case links mysticism, murder''|last=Lancaster|first=John|publisher=[[Washington Post]]|date=29 Novemba 2003}} * Heinsohn, Gunnar: "The Rise of Blood Sacrifice and Priest Kingship in Mesopotamia: A Cosmic Decree?" ''Religion'', Vol. 22, 1992 [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a933947061] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13309a.htm Sacrifice] ([[Catholic Encyclopedia]]) * {{cite book|last=Bataille|first=Georges|year=1992|title=Theory of Religion|url=https://archive.org/details/theoryofreligion0000bata|publisher=Zone Books|isbn=0-942299-09-4}} * {{cite book|last=Carter|first=Jeffrey|year=2003|title=Understanding Religious Sacrifice|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingrel0000unse_g7l5|publisher=Continuum|isbn=0-8264-4880-1}} * {{cite book|last=Hubert|first=Henri|coauthors=Marcel Mauss|title=Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function|publisher=U of Chicago Press(reprint, orig 1898)|year=1981|isbn=0-226-35679-5}} ==Viungo vya nje== *https://www.al-feqh.com/sw/zaaka-hukumu-yake-na-masharti-yake ==Tanbihi== {{Marejeo}} [[Category:Dini]] 7qw9kovdsod14yfy8c4sh9zu5n6wbis 0 68340 1580231 1578047 2026-07-18T01:36:24Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580231 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Hypertension | Image = Grade 1 hypertension.jpg | Caption = Automated arm [[sphygmomanometer|blood pressure meter]] showing [[artery|arterial]] hypertension (shown a [[systolic blood pressure]] 158&nbsp;mmHg, [[diastolic blood pressure]] 99&nbsp;mmHg and [[heart rate]] of 80 beats per minute). | DiseasesDB = 6330 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|I|10||i|10}},{{ICD10|I|11||i|10}},{{ICD10|I|12||i|10}},<br/>{{ICD10|I|13||i|10}},{{ICD10|I|15||i|10}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|401}} | OMIM = 145500 | MedlinePlus = 000468 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 1106 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|ped|1097}} {{eMedicine2|emerg|267}} | MeshID = D006973 }} '''Shinikizo la juu la damu''' (HTN) au '''presha ya juu ya damu''' (pia huitwa '''shinikizo la mishipa ya damu''', HBP), ni [[ugonjwa]] sugu ambapo [[nguvu ya msukumo wa damu]] katika [[mshipa|mishipa]] ni kubwa kuliko kawaida. Ongezeko hilo husababisha [[moyo]] kufanya kazi kupita kiasi ili uzungushe [[damu]] katika [[mishipa ya damu]]. Kwa kawaida halina dalili, ila likidumu lina madhara makubwa kwa [[afya]]. Shinikizo la juu la damu ndilo sababu kubwa ([[kihatarishi]]) ya [[upoozaji]], [[mshtuko wa moyo]] (mashambulizi ya moyo), [[moyo kushindwa kufanya kazi]], [[kutuna kwa ukuta]] wa mishipa (k.m., [[kutuna kwa ukuta wa aota au mkole]]), [[chujio la mshipa wa kupeleka damu kwenye moyo au peripheral arterial disease]], na inasababishwa na [[ugonjwa sugu wa figo]]. Hata ongezeko la wastani la shinikizo la damu hupunguza [[matarajio ya muda wa kuishi]]. Kuna vipimo viwili vya shinikizo la damu, yaani systolic na diastolic: shinikizo au presha ya systolic ni [[kipimo]] cha damu ambacho kinapima nguvu ya msukumo wa damu katika mishipa ya damu wakati moyo unadunda. Shinikizo au presha ya diastole inapima nguvu ya msukumo wa damu katika mishipa ya damu wakati moyo umetulia au kati ya [[mapigo ya moyo]] (diastole). Kipimo cha kawaida cha shinikizo la damu ni 100–140&nbsp;[[milimita]] za [[zebaki]] (mmHg) upande wa systolic (kipimo cha juu) na 60–90&nbsp; milimita za zebaki upande wa diastolic (kipimo cha chini). Shinikizo la juu la damu hutokea kama kipimo kikiwa zaidi ya 140/90&nbsp;mmHg kwa muda mrefu. Kuna aina mbili za shinikizo la juu la damu: [[shinikizo la juu la damu la asili]] na [[shinikizo la damu linalosababishwa na magonjwa mengine]]. Kadiri ya [[asilimia]] 90–95 za watu wanaathiriwa na "shinikizo la juu la damu la asili", yaani wana ugonjwa huu bila kuwa na chanzo cha kisayansi kinachofahamika.<ref name="pmid10645931">{{cite journal |author=Carretero OA, Oparil S |title=Essential hypertension. Part I: Definition and etiology |journal=Circulation |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=329–35 |year=2000 |month=January |pmid=10645931 |url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/101/3/329.long |doi=10.1161/01.CIR.101.3.329}}</ref> Magonjwa mengine ya [[mafigo]], mishipa, moyo, [[mfumo wa homoni]] huathiri asilimia 5–10 iliyobaki ya watu wenye shinikizo la damu (ndilo shinikizo la damu linalosababishwa na magonjwa mengine). Ili kudhibiti shinikizo la damu, [[lishe bora]] na mabadiliko katika mtindo wa kuishi lazima yazingatiwe pamoja na kupunguza matatizo yanayoathiri [[afya]]. Hata hivyo, matumizi ya [[dawa]] ni muhimu kwa watu ambao mabadiliko ya mtindo wa maisha hautoshelezi kupunguza shinikizo la juu la damu, kutuna kwa [[ukuta wa ateri]] mithili ya puto kutokana na udhaifu wa sehemu hiyo. {{TOC limit|3}} ==Uainishaji wa shinikizo la damu== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |- ! rowspan=2 | Classification (JNC7)<ref name="jnc7">{{cite journal |author=Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, ''et al.'' |title=Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure |journal=Hypertension |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1206–52 |year=2003 |month=December |pmid=14656957 |doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000107251.49515.c2 |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/42/6/1206.long}}</ref> ! colspan=2 | Systolic pressure ! colspan=2 | Diastolic pressure |- ! [[mmHg]] ! [[Pascal (unit)|kPa]] ! mmHg ! kPa |- | Kawaida | 90–119 | 12–15.9 | 60–79 | 8.0–10.5 |- | Dalili ya shinikizo la juu la damu | 120–139 | 16.0–18.5 | 80–89 | 10.7–11.9 |- | Aina ya 1 shinikizo la juu la damu - kali | 140–159 | 18.7–21.2 | 90–99 | 12.0–13.2 |- | Aina ya 2 shinikizo la juu la damu - kali kiasi | ≥160 | ≥21.3 | ≥100 | ≥13.3 |- | [[Isolated systolic hypertension|Isolated systolic<br/>shinikizo la juu la damu - kali sana]] | ≥140 | ≥18.7 | <90 | <12.0 |} ===Watu wazima=== Kwa watu wenye umri wa miaka 18 au zaidi, shinikizo la juu la damu linaweza kuwa systolic na/au diastolic kama kipimo hicho ni zaidi kuliko kipimo cha kawaida kinachokubalika ambacho ni (139&nbsp;mmHg systolic, 89&nbsp;mmHg diastolic: tazama table — Uainishaji (JNC7)). Kama vipimo vinapatikana baada ya kutumia chombo kinachopima presha kwa masaa 24 (24-hour ambulatory) au kufanya maangalizi nyumbani, vipimo vya chini vinatumiwa (135&nbsp;mmHg systolic or 85&nbsp;mmHg diastolic). Pia miongozo ya kimataifa ya hivi karibuni imegawanya shinikizo la damu katika vikundi mbali mbali vyenye vipimo chini ya kipimo cha shinikizo la juu la damu ili kuthibitisha hatari iliyopo ya shinikizo la juu la damu. JNC7 (2003)<ref name="jnc7" /> anatumia neno dalili ya kuwa na shinikizo la juu la kwa presha ya damu iliyo kati ya 120 na 139&nbsp;mmHg systolic na/au 80–89&nbsp;mmHg diastolic, wakati Miongozo ya ESH-ESC (2007)<ref name=ESH-ESC>{{cite journal |author=Mancia G, De Backer G, Dominiczak A, ''et al.'' |title=2007 ESH-ESC Practice Guidelines for the Management of Arterial Hypertension: ESH-ESC Task Force on the Management of Arterial Hypertension |journal=J. Hypertens. |volume=25 |issue=9 |pages=1751–62 |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17762635 |doi=10.1097/HJH.0b013e3282f0580f |url=}}</ref> and BHS IV (2004)<ref name=BHSIV>{{cite journal |author=Williams B, Poulter NR, Brown MJ, ''et al.'' |title=Guidelines for management of hypertension: report of the fourth working party of the British Hypertension Society, 2004-BHS IV |journal=J Hum Hypertens |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=139–85 |year=2004 |month=March |pmid=14973512 |doi=10.1038/sj.jhh.1001683 |url=}}</ref> inatenganisha katika vikundi vya hali inayofaa, vya kawaida, na vya kawaida kiasi kutofautisha presha zilizopo chini ya 140&nbsp;mmHg systolic na 90&nbsp;mmHg diastolic. Shinikizo la juu la damu pia imegawanywa katika vikundi vifuatavyo: JNC7 inatofautisha shinikizo la juu la damu aina ya I, shinikizo la juu la damu aina ya II, na shinikizo la juu la damu hatua kali sana. Shinikizo la juu la damu ambayo ni kali sana (Isolated systolic hypertension) ni presha ya juu sana inayoambatana na presha ya kawaida ya diastolic, hali hii huwatokea sana wazee.<ref name="jnc7"/> The ESH-ESC Guidelines (2007)<ref name=ESH-ESC /> and BHS IV (2004),<ref name = BHSIV /> inatambua aina ya tatu (aina ya III) ya shinikizo la juu la damu kwa watu ambao wana presha ya juu ya systolic inayozidi 179&nbsp;mmHg au presha ya diastolic inayozidi 109&nbsp;mmHg. Shinikizo la juu la damu liko katika kundi la "sugu" kama [[madawa]] hayapunguzi shinikizo la damu hadi vipimo vya kawaida.<ref name="jnc7"/> ===Watoto wadogo na wachanga=== Si kawaida kwa [[watoto waliozaliwa karibuni]] kuwa na shinikizo la juu la damu na ni asilimia 0.2 hadi 3% ya watoto wachanga ambao wanapata. Shinikizo la damu haipimwi mara kwa mara kama watoto ni wadogo na wana afya nzuri. <ref name=Dionne>{{cite journal |author=Dionne JM, Abitbol CL, Flynn JT |title=Hypertension in infancy: diagnosis, management and outcome |journal=Pediatr. Nephrol. |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=17–32 |year=2012 |month=January |pmid=21258818 |doi=10.1007/s00467-010-1755-z |url=}}</ref> Shinikizo la damu huwapata watoto ambao wako katika hatari kubwa. Kuna masuala tofauti ya kuangalia, kama vile [[kipindi cha ujazito]], umri baada ya utungaji mimba, na [[uzito wakati wa kuzaliwa]] kabla ya kuamua kama kipimo cha shinikizo la damu ni cha kawaida kwa mtoto mchanga.<ref name=Dionne /> ===Watoto na vijana=== Ni kawaida kwa watoto na vijana kupata shinikizo la damu (asilimia 2–9% hutegemea na umri, jinsia, na asili)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Din-Dzietham R, Liu Y, Bielo MV, Shamsa F |title=High blood pressure trends in children and adolescents in national surveys, 1963 to 2002 |journal=Circulation |volume=116 |issue=13 |pages=1488–96 |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17846287 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.683243 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_circulation_2007-09-25_116_13/page/n73}}</ref> and is associated with long-term risks of ill-health.<ref name=fourth>{{cite journal |author= |title=The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents |journal=Pediatrics |volume=114 |issue=2 Suppl 4th Report |pages=555–76 |year=2004 |month=August |pmid=15286277 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pediatrics_2004-08_114_2/page/n294}}</ref> Hivi sasa kuna pendekezo la kuwapima damu watoto wenye zaidi ya miaka mitatu na kuangalia kama wana shinikizo la juu la damu kila wanapoenda kupimwa afya yao. Kabla ya kuthibitisha kama mtoto ana shinikizo la juu la damu mtoto lazima apimwe mara kadhaa.<ref name = fourth /> Shinikizo la damu huongezeka utotoni kufuatana na umri , wa watoto, shinikizo la damu linatambulika kama ni systolic ya kawaida au diastolic baada ya kupimwa zaidi ya mara tatu au zaidi ya asilimia 95 ambayo ni kawaida kufuatana na jinsia, umri na urefu wa mtoto. Dalili ya shinikizo la juu la damu (Prehypertension) kwa watoto linatambulika kama shinikizo au presha ya kawaida ya systolic au shinikizo au presha ya diastolic kama ni zaidi au sawa na asilimia 90, lakini ni chini ya asilimia 95.<ref name=fourth />Kwa vijana, inapendekezwa kwamba shinikizo la juu la damu na dalili ya shinikizo la juu la damu zichunguzwe na kuainisha kwa kutumia vigezo vya watu wazima.<ref name=fourth /> ==Ishara na dalili== Mara nyingi watu wenye shinikizo la damu hawana dalili yoyote, na huwa inagundulika baada ya kufanya uchunguzi kwa kawaida kupitia [[Uchunguzi (medicine)|screening]], au wakati maangalizi ya afya yanafanywa kwa sababu nyingine. Watu wengine wenye shinikizo la damu huwa wanapata [[maumivu ya kichwa]] (haswa nyuma ya kichwa na asubuhi), pamoja na [[kuchanganyikiwa]], [[kizunguzungu]], [[sikio kelele]] (mvumo au mazomeo masikioni), kutoweza kuona vizuri au [[Syncope (medicine)|matukio ya kuzirai]].<ref name=Fisher2005>{{cite book |author=Fisher ND, Williams GH |editor=Kasper DL, Braunwald E, Fauci AS, ''et al.'' |title=Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine|edition=16th |year=2005 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-07-139140-1 |pages=1463–81 |chapter=Hypertensive vascular disease}}</ref> Baada ya [[uchunguzi wa mwili]], kunakuwa na wasiwasi wa shinikizo la juu la damu kama [[kuna upanuzi wa mishipa ya damu ya retina]] baada ya kufanya uchunguzi wa [[optic fundus]] iliyopo nyuma ya jicho kwa kutumia [[chombo cha kufanyia uchunguzi yaani ophthalmoscopy]].<ref name=Wong2007>{{cite journal |author=Wong T, Mitchell P |title=The eye in hypertension |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_february-3-9-2007_369_9559/page/425 |journal=Lancet |volume=369 |issue=9559 |pages=425–35 |year=2007 |month=February |pmid=17276782 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60198-6}}</ref> Classically, ukali wa mabadiliko ya shinikizo la damu ya retina linagawanya kwenye vikundi kuanzia I hadi IV, ingawa inaweza kuwa vigumu kuzitofautisha aina kali kiasi.<ref name=Wong2007/> Chombo cha kufanyia uchunguzi wa macho kinaweza kuonyesha muda ambao mtu amekuwa na shinikizo la juu la damu=Fisher2005/> ===Shinikizo la juu la damu litokanalo na magonjwa mengine=== Dalili zingine zinaweza kusababishwa na [[magonjwa mengine]], yani shinikizo la damu linaloletwa na sababu zingine zinazojulikana kama vile [[magonjwa ya figo]] au [[mabadiliko ya mfumo wa homoni]]. Kwa mfano, unene wa kifua na tumbo, [[uthibiti mbaya wa sukari]], [[moon facies]] au mkusanyiko wa mafuta usoni, mkusanyiko wa mafuta mgongoni ("buffalo hump") na purple [[striae]] au alama za unene huonyesha dalili ya [[ugonjwa wa homoni wa Cushing's syndrome]].<ref name=ABC>{{cite book |author=O'Brien, Eoin; Beevers, D. G.; Lip, Gregory Y. H. |title=ABC of hypertension |url=https://archive.org/details/abcofhypertensio0000unse |publisher=BMJ Books |location=London |year=2007 |pages= |isbn=1-4051-3061-X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> [[Ugonjwa unaoathiri kikoromeo]] na [[acromegaly]] yaani mwili hutengeneza homoni ya kukuza umbo pia huweza kuleta shinikizo la juu la damu na dalili zake za kawaida huonekana.<ref name="ABC" /> Wembamba wa mishipa ya tumbo au abdominal [[bruit]] inaweza kuwa ni ishara ya [[renal artery stenosis]] au kuziba kwa mishipa ya damu ipelekayo damu kwenye figo. Shinikizo la chini la damu katika miguu au mapigo ya mshipa wa mguu yanayochelewa au ukosefu wa mapigo [[mshipa wa mguu|mapigo ya mshipa wa mguu]] inaweza kuwa ni dalili ya [[aortic coarctation]] (kupungua kwa upana wa mshipa mkuu utoao damu kwenye moyo kwenda mwilini). Shinikizo la damu ambalo linalotofautiana sana na kuumwa kwa kichwa, mpapatiko wa moyo, kubadilika rangi ya ngozi, na utoaji jasho ni lazima kuwe na wasiwasi wa [[pheochromocytoma yaani saratani ya tezi iliyo juu ya figo]].<ref name="ABC" /> ===Hali ya hatari ya shinikizo la juu la damu=== Shinikizo la damu lililo juu kupita kiasi (sawa au zaidi ya 180 au diastolic ya 110, wakati mwingine huitwa shinikizo la damu linaloweza kuleta kifo au linaloharakisha kifo) inatambulika kama "hali ya hatari ya shinikizo la juu la damu." Shinikizo la damu vinavyozidi vipimo hivi vinaonyesha hali kubwa ya hatari ya ugonjwa huu. Watu wenye viwango hivi vya shinikizo la damu wanaweza wasiwe na dalili zozote, ila wanaweza kulalamika kuumwa kwa kichwa (asilimia 22% ya wagonjwa)<ref>{{cite journal |author=Papadopoulos DP, Mourouzis I, Thomopoulos C, Makris T, Papademetriou V |title=Hypertension crisis |journal=Blood Press. |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=328–36 |year=2010 |month=December |pmid=20504242 |doi=10.3109/08037051.2010.488052 |url=}}</ref> na kuwa na kizunguzungu kuliko watu wa kawaida.<ref name=Fisher2005/> Dalili zingine za hali ya hatari ya shinikizo la damu ni kutoona vizuri au kutopumua vizuri kwa sababu moyo haufanyi kazi vizuri au kutojisikia vizuri [[uchovu]] kwa sababu mafigo yanashindwa kufanya kazi.<ref name="ABC" /> Watu wengi wenye hali ya hatari ya shinikizo la damu wanatambulika kuwa na msukumo mkubwa wa damu, lakini vichocheo vingine vinaweza kuongezea msukumo.<ref name=Marik2007>{{cite journal |author=Marik PE, Varon J |title=Hypertensive crises: challenges and management |journal=Chest |volume=131 |issue=6 |pages=1949–62 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17565029 |doi=10.1378/chest.06-2490 |url=http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/131/6/1949.long |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2012-12-04 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121204174126/http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/131/6/1949.long |dead-url=yes }}</ref> "Shinikizo la damu la ghafla", zamani ilikuwa inajulikana kama "shinikizo la damu inayodhuru", hutokea ikiwa kuna ithibati ya madhara yanayotokea katika ogani za mwili kwa sababu ya shinikizo la juu la damu. Madhara haya yanaweza kuwa [[hypertensive encephalopathy]] au shinikizo kichwani, inasababishwa na uvimbe wa ubongo na kutofanya kazi vizuri, na husababisha kichwa kuumwa na [[kupoteza fahamu]] (kuchanganyikiwa au kusinzia). Retinal [[papilloedema]] and fundal [[kuvuja damu kutokana na mpasuko wa mishipa midogo ya macho]] na [[kutoa usaha au maji]] ni dalili nyingine ya madhara ya ogani. [[Maumivu ya kifua]] yanaweza kuwa ni dalili ya uharibifu wa misuli ya moyo (ambayo baadaye yanaleta [[upungufu wa damu kati ya misuli ya moyo]]) au wakati mwingine [[ukuta wa ndani wa aorta huchanika na damu]], kuchanika kwa ukuta wa mshipa mkuu uitwao [[aota/mkole]]. Kukosa pumzi, kukohoa, na kukohoa makohozi yenye damu ni dalili ya [[pulmonary edema au mapafu kujaa maji]]. Hali hii inaleta uvimbe wa seli za mapafu unaosababishwa na [[udhaifu wa upande wa kushoto wa moyo]], na uwezo mdogo wa [[upande wa kushoto]] wa moyo kusukuma damu kutoka kwenye mapafu hadi mishipa ya damu.<ref name=Marik2007/> Figo kupoteza uwezo wake wa kufanya kazi upesi (figo kushindwa kufanya kazi kwa ghafla) na [[microangiopathic hemolytic anemia au upungufu wa damu]] (uharibifu wa seli za damu) unaweza kutokea.<ref name=Marik2007/> Katika hali hizi, shinikizo la chini la damu ni muhimu ili kupunguza madhara ya ogani.<ref name=Marik2007/> Kwa upande mwingine, hakuna ushahidi unaonyesha kuwa shinikizo la damu linatakiwa kupunguzwa kwa kasi wakati wa matatizo ya dharura ya shinikizo la juu la damu iwapo kuna ogani iliyoathirika. Upunguzaji wa ghafla wa shinikizo la damu unaweza kuwa ni hatari.<ref name="ABC" /> Matumizi ya dawa ya kushusha shinikizo la damu hatua kwa hatua zaidi ya masaa 24 hadi 48 yanapendekezwa wakati wa dharura inayotokana na shinikizo la juu la damu.<ref name=Marik2007/> ===Ujauzito=== Shinikizo juu la damu hutokea takriban 8-10% za ujauzito. Wanawake karibu wote wenye shinikizo juu la damu wakiwa na mimba walikwishaumwa na shinikizio la damu la kawaida. Hali hiyo ikitokea katika ujaa uzito ni dalili ya kwanza ya kifafa cha mimba kabla hakijashikika kabisa. Maradhi hayo hutokea katika muda wa pili wa ujaa uzito na majuma machache baada ya kujifungua. Uaguzi wa maradhi hayo ni pamoja na shinikizo la damu kuongezeka na dalili za protini ndani ya mkojo. Maradhi hayo hutokea takribin 5% ya ujaa uzito yakisababisha takribin 16% ya vifo vya wenye ujaa uzito. Hatari ya kifo cha mtoto inaongezeka maradufu kutokana na maradhi hayo dunia nzima. Kwa kawaida hakuna dalili maalum za kifafa cha mimba kabla hakijashikika kabisa hugunduliwa na uchujaji wa kawaida. Zinapotokea dalili za maradhi hayo hizo ndizo ni kuumwa kichwani, taabu za kuona vizuri (mwanga wa kumulika ghafla) kutapika, maumivu ya epigastriumu na kuvimba. Kifafaa cha mimba kabla hakijashikika kabisa wakati mwingine inaweza kuletea hali inayotisha maisha inayoitwa kifafa cha mimba. Kifafa cha mimba kinaleta hali ya dharura ya shinikizo la damu inayotatiza sana. Matatizo hayo ni pamoja na upofu, kuvimba kwa ubongo, utendaji wa kiklonasi ulio katika hali ya kukazika au kuvutika na kutia kifafa, kuharibika kwa mafigo, edema ya mapafu, disseminated intravascular coagulation (kutoganda vizuri kwa damu). Shinikizo juu ya damu ikiathiri uja uzito: Dawa Ukunga na Elimuuzazi:<ref>http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/261435-overview title=Hypertension and Pregnancy author=Gibson, Paul coauthors= date=July 30 2009 work=eMedicine Obstetrics and Gynecology publisher=Medscape pages= accessdate=2009-06=16}</ref> ===Watoto wadogo na wachanga=== Kushindwa kustawi, kutiliwa kifafa, usumbufu, uchovu/kukosa nguvu, hali inayorudiarudia ya kudhikisha kwa mapofu kushindwa kuhema vizuri Shinikizo Juu la Damu: <ref>eMedicine Pediatrics: Cardiac Disease and Critical Care Medicine” url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/889877-overview title=Hypertension author=Rodriguez-Cruz, Edwin coauthorsw=Ettinger, Leigh M date=April 6, 2010 wor4k=eMedicine Pediatrics: Cardiac Disease and Critical Care Medicine publisher=Medscape pages= accessdate=2009-06-16}</ref> can be associated with hypertension in neonates and young infants. Kuhusu watoto wachanga ambao wameshahitimu umri zaidi pamoja na wana, shinikizo la juu la damu linaweza kuumiza kichwa, usumbufu usioelezeka, uchovu (uchovu wa kiganga), kushindwa kustawi, macho kutiliwa kiwi, kutokwa na damu puani, hatimaye kiharusi uso kupoozwa baadaye. <ref>Name=Dionne ref name=”urlHpertension: eMedicine Pediatrics: Cardiac Disease and Critical Care Medicine.</ref> ===Kuzidi kwa ukali wa shinikizo la juu la damu=== Shinikizo la juu la damu linachangia vifo vya watoto wachanga kuliko athari nyingine, nalo linaweza kupatiwa kinga.<ref>{{cite web|title= Global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks.|url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf|work=World Health Organization|year=2009|accessdate=10 February 2012}}</ref> It increases the risk of [[ischemic heart disease]]<ref name=pmid12493255>{{cite journal |author=Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R |title=Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies |journal=Lancet |volume=360 |issue=9349 |pages=1903–13 |year=2002 |month=December |pmid=12493255 |doi= 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11911-8|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2002-12-14_360_9349/page/n13}}</ref> [[strokes]],<ref name="ABC" /> [[peripheral vascular disease]],<ref name="pmid18375152">{{cite journal |author=Singer DR, Kite A |title=Management of hypertension in peripheral arterial disease: does the choice of drugs matter? |journal=European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=701–8 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18375152 |doi=10.1016/j.ejvs.2008.01.007}}</ref> and other cardiovascular diseases, including [[heart failure]], [[aortic aneurysm]]s, diffuse [[atherosclerosis]], and [[pulmonary embolism]].<ref name="ABC" /> Hypertension is also a risk factor for [[cognitive impairment]], [[dementia]], and [[chronic kidney disease]].<ref name="ABC" /> Other complications include: *[[Hypertensive retinopathy]] *[[Hypertensive nephropathy]]<ref name="pmid19330604">{{cite journal |author=Zeng C, Villar VA, Yu P, Zhou L, Jose PA |title=Reactive oxygen species and dopamine receptor function in essential hypertension |journal=Clinical and Experimental Hypertension |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=156–78 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=19330604 |doi=10.1080/10641960802621283}}</ref> ==Sababu== ===Shinikizo la juu la damu la msingi=== Shinikizo la juu la damu la msingi ni aina inayojulikana zaidi, ikiwa chanzo cha 90-95% za waathirika wa shinikizo la juu la damu<ref name="pmid10645931"/> Takriban katika jamii zote za kisasa shinikizo la damu linapanda juu katika nyakati za kuzeeka.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vasan|first=RS|coauthors=Beiser, A, Seshadri, S, Larson, MG, Kannel, WB, D'Agostino, RB, Levy, D|title=Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged women and men: The Framingham Heart Study.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2002-02-27_287_8/page/1003|journal=JAMA: the journal of the American Medical Association|date=2002 Feb 27|volume=287|issue=8|pages=1003-10|pmid=11866648}}</ref> Shinikizo la juu la damu linatokana katika ushirikiano wa viini-urithi na athari za mazingira. Viini-urithi vingi vya kawaida vikiwa na athari ndogo juu ya shinikizo la damu vimeshatambulika<ref>The International Consortium for Blood Pressure Genome-Wide Association Studies. Genetic variants in novel pathways influence blood pressure and cardiovascular disease risk. Nature 2011; 478: 103–109 doi:10.1038/nature10405</ref> na vilevile vingine vya nadra lakini vyenye athari kubwa katika hilo<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lifton|first=RP|coauthors=Gharavi, AG, Geller, DS|title=Molecular mechanisms of human hypertension.|url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2001-02-23_104_4/page/545|journal=Cell|date=2001 Feb 23|volume=104|issue=4|pages=545-56|pmid=11239411}}</ref> lakini shinikizo juu la damu linalotokana na viini-athari halijaeleweka vizuri hadi leo hii. [[Chumvi]] kidogo tu,<ref>{{cite journal|last=He|first=FJ|coauthors=MacGregor, GA|title=A comprehensive review on salt and health and current experience of worldwide salt reduction programmes.|journal=Journal of human hypertension|date=2009 Jun|volume=23|issue=6|pages=363-84|pmid=19110538}}</ref> matunda na vyakula visivyo na [[mafuta]] mengi (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension ([[DASH diet]])), [[mazoezi]],<ref name="ReferenceA">Dickinson HO, Mason JM, Nicolson DJ, Campbell F, Beyer FR, Cook JV, Williams B, Ford GA. Lifestyle interventions to reduce raised blood pressure: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J Hypertens. 2006;24:215-33.</ref> [[weight loss]]<ref name=HaslamJames>{{cite journal |author=Haslam DW, James WP |title=Obesity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_october-1-7-2005_366_9492/page/1197 |journal=Lancet |volume=366 |issue=9492 |pages=1197–209 |year=2005 |pmid=16198769 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-1}}</ref> na kutokunywa [[vileo]] sana ni misaada dhidi ya presha kupanda.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Whelton PK, He J, Appel LJ, Cutler JA, Havas S, Kotchen TA ''et al.'' | year = 2002 | title = Primary prevention of hypertension: Clinical and public health advisory from The National High Blood Pressure Education Program | url = | journal = JAMA | volume = 288 | issue = 15| pages = 1882–8 | doi = 10.1001/jama.288.15.1882 | pmid = 12377087 }}</ref> Jinsi [[uchovu]],<ref name="ReferenceA"/> [[kahawa]],<ref>Mesas AE, Leon-Muñoz LM, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Lopez-Garcia E. The effect of coffee on blood pressure and cardiovascular disease in hypertensive individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;94:1113–26.</ref> na upungufu wa [[vitamini D]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vaidya A, Forman JP |title=Vitamin D and hypertension: current evidence and future directions |journal=Hypertension |volume=56 |issue=5 |pages=774–9 |year=2010 |month=November |pmid=20937970 |doi=10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.140160 |url=}}</ref> vinavyochangia presha ya juu haieleweki vizuri. Kinzano dhidi ya [[insulin]] inafikiriwa pia kupandisha presha.<ref name="pmid12364344">{{cite journal |author=Sorof J, Daniels S |title=Obesity hypertension in children: a problem of epidemic proportions |journal=Hypertension |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=441–447 |year=2002 |month=October |pmid=12364344 |doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000032940.33466.12 |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12364344 |accessdate=2009-06-03 |archive-date=2012-12-05 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205010228/http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12364344 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Utafiti wa hivi karibuni umedhulumu matukio ya maisha ya watoto wachanga kwa mfano, [[uzito mdogo wa mtoto mchanga]], tabia ya uvutaji sigara ya akina mama, na [[kutowanyonyesha watoto]] kama athari za hatari zinazoumiza watu wazima na shinikizo la damu la kimsingi.<ref name = "Lawlor 2005">{{cite journal|last=Lawlor|first=DA|coauthors=Smith, GD|title=Early life determinants of adult blood pressure.|journal=Current opinion in nephrology and hypertension|date=2005 May|volume=14|issue=3|pages=259-64|pmid=15821420}}</ref> Hata hivyo, mahusiano hayo yanabaki fumbo.<ref name = "Lawlor 2005"/> ===Shinikizo la juu la damu la hatua ya pili=== Shinikizo la juu la damu la hatua ya pili linatokana na chanzo kinachojulikana. Maradhi ya mafigo ni chanzo kinachozidi cha shinikizo la juu la damu hatua ya pili.<ref name="ABC" /> Chanzo kingine cha shinikizo la juu la damu ni hali tofauti za tezi zenye kunyesa ndani kwa ndani kama kwa mfano [[Cushing's syndrome]], [[hyperthyroidism]], [[hypothyroidism]], [[acromegaly]], [[Conn's syndrome]] or [[hyperaldosteronism]], [[hyperparathyroidism]], and [[pheochromocytoma]].<ref name="ABC" /><ref>Dluhy RG, Williams GH. Endocrine hypertension. In: Wilson JD, Foster DW, Kronenberg HM, eds. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology. 9th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders; 1998:729-49.</ref> Vyanzo vingine vya shinikizo la juu la damu hatua ya pili ni pamoja na [unene], [kushindwa kupumua kunakoleta usingizi wa mang’amung’amu], [kuwa na mimba], [kufinyika kwa aota], ulaji zaidi wa [urukususu] na dawa fulani zilizo halali zikiwa na zile zote zisizo halali pamoja na dawa za kienyeji.<ref name="ABC" /><ref>{{cite journal |author=Grossman E, Messerli FH |title=Drug-induced Hypertension: An Unappreciated Cause of Secondary Hypertension |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=125 |issue=1 |pages=14–22 |year=2012 |month=January |pmid=22195528 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.05.024 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-medicine_2012-01_125_1/page/14}}</ref> ==Pathophysiology== [[Image:Arterial pressure diagram.png|thumb|right|350px|A diagram explaining factors affecting [[arterial pressure]]]] Watu karibu wote wakiumia shinikizo la juu la damu la kimsingi linalowekwa imara, kinzi inayoongezeka kwa utiririko wa damu ([[kinzi kabisa ukingoni]]) inasababisha shinikizo la hali ya juu wakati utiririko wa damu kutoka moyoni unaendelea kama kawaida.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Conway J |title=Hemodynamic aspects of essential hypertension in humans |journal=Physiol. Rev. |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=617–60 |year=1984 |month=April |pmid=6369352 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physiological-reviews_1984-04_64_2/page/617}}</ref> Uthibitisho upo kubainisha vijana wengine wanaoumia shinikizo la juu la damu ambalo halijashikana kabisa wana utiririko wa damu kutoka moyoni wa kiwango cha juu, pigo linalozidi kawaida la moyo na kinzi ya kawaida ukingoni (hyperkinetic borderline hypertension).<ref name = Palatini>{{cite journal |author=Palatini P, Julius S |title=The role of cardiac autonomic function in hypertension and cardiovascular disease |journal=Curr. Hypertens. Rep. |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=199–205 |year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19442329 |doi= |url=}}</ref> These individuals develop typical features of established essential hypertension in later life as their cardiac output falls and peripheral resistance rises with age.<ref name = Palatini /> Whether this pattern is typical of all people who ultimately develop hypertension is disputed.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Andersson OK, Lingman M, Himmelmann A, Sivertsson R, Widgren BR |title=Prediction of future hypertension by casual blood pressure or invasive hemodynamics? A 30-year follow-up study |journal=Blood Press. |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=350–4 |year=2004 |pmid=15771219 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Increased peripheral resistance in established hypertension is mainly attributable to structural narrowing of small arteries and arterioles.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Folkow B |title=Physiological aspects of primary hypertension |journal=Physiol. Rev. |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=347–504 |year=1982 |month=April |pmid=6461865 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_physiological-reviews_1982-04_62_2/page/n2}}</ref> Reduction in number or density of capillaries may also contribute to peripheral resistance.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Struijker Boudier HA, le Noble JL, Messing MW, Huijberts MS, le Noble FA, van Essen H |title=The microcirculation and hypertension |journal=J Hypertens Suppl |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=S147–56 |year=1992 |month=December |pmid=1291649 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Shinikizo juu la damu pia linahusika na ukosefu wa ujikunjaji wa mishipa iliyoko ukingoni,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Safar ME, London GM |title=Arterial and venous compliance in sustained essential hypertension |journal=Hypertension |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=133–9 |year=1987 |month=August |pmid=3301662 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_hypertension_1987-08_10_2/page/133}}</ref> which may increase return of blood to the heart, increase cardiac [[Preload (cardiology)|preload]], and ultimately cause [[diastolic dysfunction]]. Ikiwa kuongezeka kwa finyo linaloendelea la mishipa ya damu huchangia shinikizo la juu la damu la kimsingi linalowekwa imara hakujathibitishwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schiffrin EL |title=Reactivity of small blood vessels in hypertension: relation with structural changes. State of the art lecture |journal=Hypertension |volume=19 |issue=2 Suppl |pages=II1-9 year=1992 month=February pmid=1735561 doi= }</ref> [[Pulse pressure]] (difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure) is frequently increased in older people with hypertension. This situation can involve systolic pressure that is abnormally high, but diastolic pressure may be normal or low. This condition is called [[isolated systolic hypertension]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chobanian AV |title=Clinical practice. Isolated systolic hypertension in the elderly |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=357 |issue=8 |pages=789–96 |year=2007 |month=August |pmid=17715411 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp071137 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2007-08-23_357_8/page/788}}</ref> High pulse pressure in elderly people with hypertension or isolated systolic hypertension is explained by increased [[arterial stiffness]], which typically accompanies aging and may be exacerbated by high blood pressure.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zieman SJ, Melenovsky V, Kass DA |title=Mechanisms, pathophysiology, and therapy of arterial stiffness |journal=Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=932–43 |year=2005 |month=May |pmid=15731494 |doi=10.1161/01.ATV.0000160548.78317.29 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_arteriosclerosis-thrombosis-and-vascular-biology_2005-05_25_5/page/932}}</ref> Many mechanisms have been proposed to account for rise in resistance seen within arterial system in hypertension. Most evidence implicates one or both of these causes: * Disturbances in renal salt and water handling, particularly abnormalities of intrarenal [[renin-angiotensin system]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Navar LG |title=Counterpoint: Activation of the intrarenal renin-angiotensin system is the dominant contributor to systemic hypertension |journal=J. Appl. Physiol. |volume=109 |issue=6 |pages=1998–2000; discussion 2015 |year=2010 |month=December |pmid=21148349 |pmc=3006411 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00182.2010a |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-physiology_2010-12_109_6/page/1998}}</ref> * Abnormalities of [[sympathetic nervous system]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Esler M, Lambert E, Schlaich M |title=Point: Chronic activation of the sympathetic nervous system is the dominant contributor to systemic hypertension |journal=J. Appl. Physiol. |volume=109 |issue=6 |pages=1996–8; discussion 2016 |year=2010 |month=December |pmid=20185633 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00182.2010 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-physiology_2010-12_109_6/page/1996}}</ref> These mechanisms are not mutually exclusive and it is likely that both contribute to some extent in most cases of essential hypertension. Limedokezwa kuwa kutofanya vizuri kwa kuta za ndani za mishipa ya damu pamoja na inflamesheni ya mishipa huenda inachangia kinzi inayoongezeka ukingoni pamoja na kuharibika kwa mishipa<ref>{{cite journal |author=Versari D, Daghini E, Virdis A, Ghiadoni L, Taddei S |title=Endothelium-dependent contractions and endothelial dysfunction in human hypertension |journal=Br. J. Pharmacol. |volume=157 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19630832 |pmc=2707964 |doi=10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00240.x |url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Marchesi C, Paradis P, Schiffrin EL |title=Role of the renin-angiotensin system in vascular inflammation |journal=Trends Pharmacol. Sci. |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=367–74 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18579222 |doi=10.1016/j.tips.2008.05.003 |url=}}</ref> == Utambuzi == {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left: 15px; text-align: center" |- |+ Mfano vipimo kutumbukiza katika shinikizo la damu ! Mfumo ! Majaribio |- | [[mfumo mkojo ya figo]] | [[Urinalysis Microscopic urinalysis]], [[proteinuria]], serum bun [[blood urea nitrogen BUN]] <small> ([[damu urea nitrojeni]]) </small> na /au [[creatinine]] |- | [[Endokrini mfumo Endokrini]] | Serum [[sodiamu]], [[potasiamu]], [[calcium]], [[Thyroid-stimulating hormone|TSH]] <small> ([[thyroid-stimulating hormone]]) </small>. |- | [[Umetaboli]] | [[kufunga damu glucose]], cholesterol jumla, [[High-density lipoprotein|HDL]] na [[LDL]] cholesterol, [[triglycerides]] |- | Wengine | [[Hematocrit]], [[electrocardiogram]], na [[radiograph kifua]] |- | colspan=2 | Vyanzo: ''Harrison's ya kanuni ya dawa za ndani''<ref name="isbn0-07-147691-1">{{cite book |author=Loscalzo, Joseph; Fauci, Anthony S.; Braunwald, Eugene; Dennis L. Kasper; Hauser, Stephen L; Longo, Dan L. |editor= |others= |title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine |edition= |publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical |year=2008 |pages= |isbn=0-07-147691-1 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/harrisonsprincip0000unse_b7u9|accessdate=}}</ref> ''others''<ref name="pmid19417858">{{cite journal |author=Padwal RS |title=The 2009 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: Part 1 – blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=279–86 |year=2009 |month=May |pmid=19417858 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(09)70491-X|url= |pmc=2707176 |author-separator=, |author2=Hemmelgarn BR |author3=Khan NA |display-authors=3 |last4=Grover |first4=S |last5=McKay |first5=DW |last6=Wilson |first6=T |last7=Penner |first7=B |last8=Burgess |first8=E |last9=McAlister |first9=FA}}</ref><ref name="pmid18548142">{{cite journal |author=Padwal RJ |title=The 2008 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: Part 1 – blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=455–63 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18548142 |pmc=2643189 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(08)70619-6|url= |author-separator=, |author2=Hemmelgarn BR |author3=Khan NA |display-authors=3 |last4=Grover |first4=S |last5=McAlister |first5=FA |last6=McKay |first6=DW |last7=Wilson |first7=T |last8=Penner |first8=B |last9=Burgess |first9=E}}</ref><ref name="pmid17534459">{{cite journal |author=Padwal RS |title=The 2007 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: Part 1 – blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=529–38 |year=2007 |month=May |pmid=17534459 |pmc=2650756 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(07)70797-3|url= |author-separator=, |author2=Hemmelgarn BR |author3=McAlister FA |display-authors=3 |last4=McKay |first4=DW |last5=Grover |first5=S |last6=Wilson |first6=T |last7=Penner |first7=B |last8=Burgess |first8=E |last9=Bolli |first9=P}}</ref><ref name="pmid16755312">{{cite journal |author=Hemmelgarn BR |title=The 2006 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: Part I – Blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=22 |issue=7 |pages=573–81 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16755312 |pmc=2560864 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(06)70279-3|url= |author-separator=, |author2=McAlister FA |author3=Grover S |display-authors=3 |last4=Myers |first4=MG |last5=McKay |first5=DW |last6=Bolli |first6=P |last7=Abbott |first7=C |last8=Schiffrin |first8=EL |last9=Honos |first9=G}}</ref><ref name="pmid16003448">{{cite journal |author=Hemmelgarn BR |title=The 2005 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: part 1- blood pressure measurement, diagnosis and assessment of risk |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=21 |issue=8 |pages=645–56 |year=2005 |month=June |pmid=16003448 |doi= |url= |author-separator=, |author2=McAllister FA |author3=Myers MG |display-authors=3 |last4=McKay |first4=DW |last5=Bolli |first5=P |last6=Abbott |first6=C |last7=Schiffrin |first7=EL |last8=Grover |first8=S |last9=Honos |first9=G}}</ref> |} Shinikizo la damu ni kupatikana wakati mgonjwa ana vinavyoendelea shinikizo la damu. Kijadi,<ref name="NICE127 full"/> utambuzi unahitaji vipimo vitatu vya sphygmomanometer tofauti kwa vipindi vya mwezi mmoja.<ref>{{cite book |author=North of England Hypertension Guideline Development Group |chapter=Frequency of measurements |page=53 |title=Essential hypertension (NICE CG18) |publisher=[[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] |date=1 August 2004 |url=http://guidance.nice.org.uk/index.jsp?action=download&o=48384 |accessdate=2011-12-22 |archive-date=2012-07-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714085714/http://guidance.nice.org.uk/index.jsp?action=download&o=48384 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ya awali ya ukaguzi ya wagonjwa la damu ni pamoja na historia na uchunguzi wa kimwili [[Medical history|history]] na [[physical examination]]. Pamoja na Upatikanaji wa saa 24 [[ambulatory wachunguzi wa shinikizo la damu]] mashine ya damu nyumbani shinikizo, muhimu wa kuepuka utambuzi sahihi ya wagonjwa na shinikizo la damu kanzu nyeupe imesababisha mabadiliko katika itifaki. Katika Uingereza, sasa ni bora kufuatilia moja alimfufua kliniki ya kusoma na kipimo ambulatory. Kufuatilia pia inaweza kufanyika, lakini chini ya walau, na nyumbani ufuatiliaji shinikizo la damu katika kipindi cha siku saba.<ref name="NICE127 full">{{cite book |author=National Clinical Guideline Centre |title=Hypertension (NICE CG 127) |publisher=[[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] |chapter=7 Diagnosis of Hypertension, 7.5 Link from evidence to recommendations |page=102 |date=August 2011 |url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13561/56007/56007.pdf |accessdate=2011-12-22 |archive-date=2013-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723014309/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13561/56007/56007.pdf |dead-url=yes |=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723014309/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/13561/56007/56007.pdf }}</ref> Mara baada ya uchunguzi wa shinikizo la damu yamepatikana, madaktari kujaribu kubaini sababu ya msingi juu ya hatari na dalili nyingine, kama sasa. [[shinikizo la damu sekondari]] ni ya kawaida zaidi kwa watoto karibisha kijani na kesi nyingi husababiswa na ugonjwa wa figo [[renal disease]]. Msingi au shinikizo la damu ni muhimu zaidi ya kawaida katika Vijana na ina hatari nyingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na hatima na historia ya familia ya shinikizo la damu.<ref name="pmid16719248">{{cite journal | author = Luma GB, Spiotta RT | title = Hypertension in children and adolescents | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2006-05-01_73_9/page/n79 | journal = Am Fam Physician | volume = 73 | issue = 9 | pages = 1558–68 | month = may | year = 2006 | pmid = 16719248}}</ref> Vipimo vya maabara pia kuwa walifanya kubainisha sababu ya uwezekano wa shinikizo la damu ya sekondari, na kuamua kama shinikizo la damu unaosababisha uharibifu wa moyo, macho, na mafigo. Vipimo vya ziada kama ajali ya ugonjwa wa[[kisukari]] na Viwango vya juu vya cholesterol ni kutumbukiza kwa sababu hizi ni hali ya hatari kwa ajili ya maendeleo ya [[ugonjwa wa moyo]] na kuhitaji matibabu.<ref name="pmid10645931"/> Creatinine [[Serum]] ni kipimo cha kupima kwa uwepo wa ugonjwa wa figo, ambao unaweza kuwa ama sababu au matokeo ya shinikizo la damu. Serum creatinine peke inaweza kuza thamani [[kiwango ya glomerular filtration]]. Miongozo ya hivi karibuni kutetea matumizi ya mamlinganyo uingizaji kama vile [[Muundo wa mpangilio wa chakula katika formula figo Magonjwa]] (MDRD) na makisio ya kiwango cha glomerular filtration (eGFR). <ref name = JNC7 /> eGFR pia yanaweza kutoa kipimo msingi ya kazi ya figo ambayo yanaweza kutumika kwa ajili ya kufuatilia madhara ya dawa kadhaa antihypertensive juu ya kazi ya figo. Upimaji wa sampuli za mkojo kwa ajili ya [[proteinuria|protini]] kutumika kama kiashiria cha sekondari ya ugonjwa wa figo. [[Electrocardiogram]] (EKG/ECG) ni kufanyika kwa kuangalia kwa ushahidi kwamba moyo upo katika matatizo kutokana na shinikizo la damu. Inaweza pia kuonyesha kugandamana kwa misuli ya moyo ([[kushoto ventrikali hypertrophy]]) au kama moyo una uzoefu kabla madogo ya usumbufu kama vile mashambulizi ya kimya moyo. [[Kifua X-ray]] au [[echocardiogram]] pia inaweza kufanywa kwa kuangalia kwa ishara ya moyo utvidgningen au uharibifu wa moyo. <ref name="ABC" /> ==Kinga== Idadi ya watu ambao wanashinikiza la juu la damu ni kubwa japo hawatambui.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal|last=Williams|first=B|coauthors=Poulter, NR, Brown, MJ, Davis, M, McInnes, GT, Potter, JF, Sever, PS, McG Thom, S, British Hypertension, Society|title=Guidelines for management of hypertension: report of the fourth working party of the British Hypertension Society, 2004-BHS IV.|journal=Journal of human hypertension date=2004 Mar|volume=18|issue=3|pages=139-85|pmid=14973512}}</ref> Hutua ya kushughulikia idadi ya watu wote wanaotakiwa kupunguza madhara ya shinikizo la damu na kupunguza haja ya tiba ya antihypertensive dawa za kulevya. Mabadiliko ya maisha Ilipendekeza kuwa shinikizo la damu liwe chini, kabla ya kuanza dawa za tiba. 2004 Uingereza shinikizo la damu Society la miongozo<ref name="ReferenceB"/> mapendekezo ya mabadiliko ya maisha yafuatayo sambamba na miongozo ilivyoainishwa na Marekani ya taifa ya mipango ya High BP elimu ya mwaka 2002<ref>{{cite journal | author = Whelton PK ''et al.'' | year = 2002 | title = Primary prevention of hypertension. Clinical and public health advisory from the National High Blood Pressure Education Program | url = | journal = JAMA | volume = 288 | issue = 15| pages = 1882–1888 | doi = 10.1001/jama.288.15.1882 | pmid = 12377087 }}</ref> kwa ajili ya kuzuia msingi wa shinikizo la damu ni kama ifuatavyo: * Kudumisha kawaida uzito wa mwili (kwa mfano. mwili molekuli index 20–25&nbsp;kg/m²). * Kupunguza malazi sodium ujali kwa mmol <100&nbsp; mmol/ siku (<6 g ya kloridi sodium au<2.4 g ya sodium kwa siku). * Kushiriki katika shughuli za mara kwa mara aerobic kimwili kama vile kutembea upesi (≥30 min kwa siku, wengi siku za juma). * Punguza pombe kwa vitengo visivyozidi 3 units/ kwa siku kwa wanaume na vitengo visivyozidi 2 units/ kwa siku kwa wanawake. * Hutumia lishe lenye matunda na mbonga (kwa mfano, angalau tano sehemu kwa siku). Mabadiliko mwafaka ya mtindo wa maisha yanaweza kupunguza shinikizo la damu kama ilivyo kwa dawa ya mtu binafsi ya antihypertensive na kupata matokeo bora zaidi. <ref name="ReferenceB"/> ==Udhibiti== ===Mabadiliko katika mtindo wa maisha === Aina ya kwanza ya matibabu ya shinikizo la damu ni inafanana na mabadiliko ya mtindo wa maisha yaliyopendekezwa,<ref name="npsppr">{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.org.au/health_professionals/publications/prescribing_practice_review/current/prescribing_practice_review_52 |title=NPS Prescribing Practice Review 52: Treating hypertension |date=September 1, 2010 |publisher=NPS Medicines Wise |accessdate=November 5, 2010 |archivedate=2013-06-26 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6HefAmPDs?url=http://www.nps.org.au/publications/health-professional/prescribing-practice-review }}</ref> na ni pamoja na mabadiliko ya malazi<ref>{{cite journal|last=Siebenhofer|first=A|coauthors=Jeitler, K, Berghold, A, Waltering, A, Hemkens, LG, Semlitsch, T, Pachler, C, Strametz, R, Horvath, K|title=Long-term effects of weight-reducing diets in hypertensive patients journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2011-09-07|volume=9|pages=CD008274|pmid=21901719|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008274.pub2|editor1-last=Siebenhofer|editor1-first=Andrea}}</ref> physical exercise, and weight loss. Mazoezi ya viungo, na kupunguza uzito. Mabadiliko haya yote yameonekana kupunguza kwa kiasi kikubwa shinikizo la damu<ref>{{cite journal |author=Blumenthal JA |title=Effects of the DASH diet alone and in combination with exercise and weight loss on blood pressure and cardiovascular biomarkers in men and women with high blood pressure: the ENCORE study |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=170 |issue=2 |pages=126–35 |year=2010 |month=January |pmid=20101007 |doi=10.1001/archinternmed.2009.470 |url= |author-separator=, |author2=Babyak MA |author3=Hinderliter A |display-authors=3 |last4=Watkins |first4=L. L. |last5=Craighead |first5=L. |last6=Lin |first6=P.-H. |last7=Caccia |first7=C. |last8=Johnson |first8=J. |last9=Waugh |first9=R.}}</ref> kama shinikizo la damu ni ya juu kiasi cha kuhalalisha matumizi ya haraka ya dawa, mabadiliko ya maisha bado yanapendekezwa.. Mipango mbalimbali iliyoundwa na kupunguza dhiki ya kisaikolojia [[biofeedback]], ulegezaji, au kutafakari hutangazwa ili kupunguza shinikizo la damu. Hata hivyo, tafiti za kisayansi , kwa ujumlahazina usaidi wala ufanisi wao, kwa sababu masomo kwa ujumla ya ubora wa chini.<ref name="pmid19822104">{{cite journal |author=Greenhalgh J, Dickson R, Dundar Y |title=The effects of biofeedback for the treatment of essential hypertension: a systematic review |journal=Health Technol Assess |volume=13 |issue=46 |pages=1–104 |year=2009 |month=October |pmid=19822104 |doi=10.3310/hta13460 |url= |doi_brokendate=2010-08-21}}</ref><ref name="pmid18350109">{{cite journal |author=Rainforth MV, Schneider RH, Nidich SI, Gaylord-King C, Salerno JW, Anderson JW |title=Stress Reduction Programs in Patients with Elevated Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |journal=Curr. Hypertens. Rep. |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=520–8 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18350109 |pmc=2268875 |doi= 10.1007/s11906-007-0094-3|url=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Ospina MB |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |volume= |issue=155 |pages=1–263 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17764203 |doi= |url= |author-separator=, |author2=Bond K |author3=Karkhaneh M |display-authors=3 |last4=Tjosvold |first4=L |last5=Vandermeer |first5=B |last6=Liang |first6=Y |last7=Bialy |first7=L |last8=Hooton |first8=N |last9=Buscemi |first9=N}}</ref> Malazi na mabadiliko kama vile chakula [[cha chini sodiamu]] ni faida. Muda mrefu ( zaidi ya wiki 4) chini -sodiamu chakula katika [[Caucasian, race Caucasians]] ni bora katika kupunguza shinikizo la damu, kwa watu na shinikizo la damu na kwa watu wenye shinikizo la damu ya kawaida .<ref name=cochrane2008>{{cite journal|last=He|first=FJ|coauthors=MacGregor, GA|title=Effect of longer-term modest salt reduction on blood pressure. journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2004|issue=3|pages=CD004937|pmid=15266549|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/o/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD004937/frame.html}}</ref> pia , chakula [[DASH diet]], lishe lenye karanga, nafaka, samaki, kuku, matunda, na mboga, ambayo husaidia kukuza moyo na [[Taifa , Mpafu, na damu Taasisi]], punguza shinikizo la damu. Kipengele kikubwa cha mpango wa [[sodiamu]], ingawa mlo pia ni tajiri [[potassiamu]], [[magnesiamu]], [[calcium]], na [[protini]].<ref name="dashguide">{{cite web|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/hbp/dash/new_dash.pdf|title=Your Guide To Lowering Your Blood Pressure With DASH|format=PDF|accessdate=2009-06-08}}</ref> ===Dawa=== Madarasa kadhaa ya dawa, pamoja inajulikana kama [[antihypertensive madawa]] ya kulevya s, sasa zipo kwa ajili ya kutibu shinikizo la damu. Mtu hatari wa moyo na mishipa ( ikiwa ni pamoja na hatari ya infarction myocardial na kiharusi) na masomo ya shinikizo la damu ni kuchukuliwa wakati maagizo madawa ya kulevya.<ref name=nps01>{{cite journal |url=http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/33/4/108/12 |title=Drug treatment of elevated blood pressure |author=Nelson, Mark |journal=Australian Prescriber |issue=33 |pages=108–112 |accessdate=August 11, 2010}}</ref> Ikiwa matibabu ya madawa ya kulevya ni ikianzishwa,Moyo ya taifa,Mapafu,na damu Taasisi ya saba ya pamoja ya kamati ya taifa ya juu ya shinizo la damu (JNC-7)<ref name = JNC7>{{cite journal |author=Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, ''et al.'' |title=Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure |journal=Hypertension |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=1206–52 |year=2003 |month=December |pmid=14656957 |doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000107251.49515.c2 |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/42/6/1206.long}}</ref> Inapendezeka kwamba kufuatilia daktari kwa ajili ya Kukabiliana na matibabu kwa ajili ya kutathmini na athari yoyote mbaya kutokana na dawa. Kupunguza [[shinikizo la damu]] na 5&nbsp;mmHg inaweza kupunguza hatari ya kiharusi kwa 34% na hatari ya[[ungonjwa wa moyo ischemic]] kwa 21%. Shinikizo la damu kupunguza pia husaidia kupunguza uwezekano wa [[shida ya akili]], [[moyo kushindwa]], na [[vifo]] kutokana na [[ugonjwa wa moyo na mishipa]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Law M, Wald N, Morris J |title=Lowering blood pressure to prevent myocardial infarction and stroke: a new preventive strategy |journal=Health Technol Assess |volume=7 |issue=31 |pages=1–94 |year=2003 |pmid=14604498 |url=http://www.hta.ac.uk/fullmono/mon731.pdf |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2011-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304150457/http://www.hta.ac.uk/fullmono/mon731.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Lengo la matibabu ya lazima ya kupunguza shinikizo la damu na chini ya 140/90&nbsp;mmHg kwa ajili ya watu wengi, na chini kwa kale wenye ugonjwa wa kisukari au ugonjwa wa figo. Baadhi ya wataalamu wa afya kupendekeza kuweka Viwango vya chini 120/80&nbsp;mmHg.<ref name=nps01 /><ref>{{cite web|first=Gina |last=Shaw |url=http://www.webmd.com/content/article/73/88927.htm |title=Prehypertension: Early-stage High Blood Pressure |publisher=WebMD |date=2009-03-07 |accessdate=2009-07-03}}</ref> Kama lengo shinikizo la damu si alikutana,matibabu zaidi inahitajika.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1161/01.HYP.0000200702.76436.4b|url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/47/3/345|title=Therapeutic Inertia Is an Impediment to Achieving the Healthy People 2010 Blood Pressure Control Goals|author=Eni C. Okonofua; Kit N. Simpson; Ammar Jesri; Shakaib U. Rehman; Valerie L. Durkalski; Brent M. Egan|journal=Hypertension|volume=47|issue=2006;47:345|pages=345–51|date=January 23, 2006|accessdate=2009-11-22|pmid=16432045}}</ref> Miongozo juu ya uchaguzi wa dawa na jinsi ya kuamua bora kwa ajili ya matibabu subgroups mbalimbali vilivyobadilika na tofauti kati ya nchi. Wataalamu wala kukubaliana kuhusu dawa bora.<ref name=Compare10>{{cite journal|last=Klarenbach|first=SW|coauthors=McAlister, FA, Johansen, H, Tu, K, Hazel, M, Walker, R, Zarnke, KB, Campbell, NR, Canadian Hypertension Education, Program|title=Identification of factors driving differences in cost effectiveness of first-line pharmacological therapy for uncomplicated hypertension. journal=The Canadian journal of cardiology|date=2010 May|volume=26|issue=5|pages=e158-63|pmid=20485695}}</ref> The [[Kushirikiana Cochrane]], [[Shirila la Afya ya Duniani]], na Umoja wa Mataifa kusaidi miomgozo ya chini -dozi [[Thiazide|thiazide-makao diuretic]] kama matibabu ina penda zaidi ya awali.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wright JM, Musini VM |title=First-line drugs for hypertension |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD001841 |year=2009 |pmid=19588327 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001841.pub2 |url= |editor1-last=Wright |editor1-first=James M}}</ref><ref name=Compare10/> Uingereza Miongozo kusisitiza [[calcium channel blocker]]s (CCB) kwa ajili ya watu zaidi ya umri wa miaka 55 au ya Afrika au Caribbean asili ya familia. Miongozo kupendekeza [[angiotensin-kuwabadili enzyme kiviza]]s (ACEI)s kama matibabu ina penda zaidi ya awali kwa ajili ya watu wadogo.<ref name="NICE127-drug"/> katika Japan, kwa kunzia na mtu yeyote wa Madarasa sita ya dawa ikiwa ni pamoja na : CCB, ACEI/ARB, thiazide diuretics, [[beta blockers]], na [[blockers alpha]] ni aliona nafuu. Katika Canada, yote ya dawa hizi isopokuwa alpha blockers- ni Ilipendekeza kama inawezekana chaguzi ya kwanza. <ref name=Compare10/> ====Madawa ya mchanganyiko==== Watu wengi wanahitaji zaidi ya moja ya madawa ya kudhibiti shinikizo la damu zao. JNC7<ref name = JNC7/> and ESH-ESC guidelines<ref name=ESH-ESC /> Wakili kuanza matibabu ya madawa ya mbili wakati shinikizo la damu ni zaidi ya 20&nbsp; mmHg hapo juu systolic au zaidi ya 10&nbsp; mmHg juu ya malengo ya diastolic. Michanganyiko ya ku penda zaidi ni rennin-angiotensin na Kalsium channel blockers, au inhibitors renin–angiotensin na diuretics.<ref name = sever>{{cite journal |author=Sever PS, Messerli FH |title=Hypertension management 2011: optimal combination therapy |journal=Eur. Heart J. |volume=32 |issue=20 |pages=2499–506 |year=2011 |month=October |pmid=21697169 |doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehr177 |url=}}</ref> Michanganyiko kukubalika ni pamoja na yafuatayo: * Calcium channel blockers na diuretics * Beta blockers na diuretics * Dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers na beta blockers * Dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers na ama verapamil or diltiazem Michanganyiko haikubaliki ni kama ifuatavyo: * Yasiyo ya calcium blockers (kama vile verapamil au diltiazem) na beta blockers * Dual renin–angiotensin mfumo blockade (Kwa mfano, angiotensin kuwabadili enzyme kiviza + angiotensin receptor blocker) * Renin–angiotensin mfumo blockers na beta blockers * Beta blockers na madawa ya anti-adrenergic. <ref name = sever /> Kuepuka michanganyiko ya kiviza ACE inhibitor au angiotensin II adui receptor antagonist, a diuretic, na [[NSAID]] ( Ikiwa pamoja na kuchangua COX-2 inhibitors na madawa ya kulevya nonprescribed kama vile ibuprofen) kila inapowezekana kutokana na hatari kubwa ya kushindwa kwa figo papo hapo. Mchanganyiko inajulikana simo kama “whammy triple” katika maandiko ya Australia ya Afya. <ref name="npsppr" /> Vidonge vyenye mchanganyiko za kudumu wa Madarasa mawili ya dawa za kutosha. Wakati wao ni rahisi, wao ni bora akiba kwa ajili ya watu ambao ni amara katika vipengele mtu binafsi. <ref>{{cite book |title=British National Formulary |volume=No. 62 |date=September 2011 |chapter=2.5.5.1 Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors |chapterurl=http://bnf.org/bnf/bnf/current/2578.htm |accessdate=2011-12-22 |archive-date=2021-12-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223201747/https://about.medicinescomplete.com/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ===Wazee=== Kutibu wastani kwa presha kali itapungua vifo na athari upande wa moyo na mishipa katika watu wenye umri wa miaka 60 na kuendelea.<ref name=Cochrane09/> Katika watu zaidi ya miaka 80 na umri wa tiba haionekani kwa kiasi kikubwa kupunguza vifo vya jumla lakini kupunguza hatari ya ungonjwa wa moyo.<ref name=Cochrane09>{{cite journal |author=Musini VM, Tejani AM, Bassett K, Wright JM |title=Pharmacotherapy for hypertension in the elderly |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=4 |pages=CD000028 |year=2009 |pmid=19821263 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000028.pub2 |url= |editor1-last=Musini |editor1-first=Vijaya M}}</ref> Ilipendekeza shinikizo la damu lengo ni chini ya 140/90&nbsp;mm Hg na [[thiazide diuretic]]s ya kuwa dawa yaku penda zaidi katika Amerika.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Aronow WS, Fleg JL, Pepine CJ, ''et al.'' |title=ACCF/AHA 2011 expert consensus document on hypertension in the elderly: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus documents developed in collaboration with the American Academy of Neurology, American Geriatrics Society, American Society for Preventive Cardiology, American Society of Hypertension, American Society of Nephrology, Association of Black Cardiologists, and European Society of Hypertension |journal=J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. |volume=57 |issue=20 |pages=2037–114 |year=2011 |month=May |pmid=21524875 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2011.01.008 |url=}}</ref> Katika mwongozo mpya Uingereza, [[Kalsiamu-channel blocker]]s ya matibabu ina penda zaidi na masomo kliniki lengo la chini ya 150/90&nbsp;mmHg, au chini ya 145/85&nbsp;mmHg juu ya ufuatiliaji ambulatory au nyumbani shinikizo la damu.<ref name="NICE127-drug">{{cite web |author=National Institute Clinical Excellence |title=1.5 Initiating and monitoring antihypertensive drug treatment, including blood pressure targets |work=GC127 Hypertension: Clinical management of primary hypertension in adults |url=http://publications.nice.org.uk/hypertension-cg127/guidance#initiating-and-monitoring-antihypertensive-drug-treatment-including-blood-pressure-targets-2 |date=August 2011 |accessdate=2011-12-23 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6HefEbMNE?url=http://publications.nice.org.uk/hypertension-cg127/guidance#initiating-and-monitoring-antihypertensive-drug-treatment-including-blood-pressure-targets-2 |archivedate=2013-06-26 }}</ref> ===Shinikizo sugu la damu=== Shinikizo sugu la damu ni shinikizo la damu kwamba bado hapo juu lengo shinikizo la damu licha ya matumizi ya mawakala wa tatu antihypertensive mali ya madaraja mbalimbali ya madawa ya kulevya antihypertensive wote mara moja. Miongozo kwa ajili ya kutibu shinikizo la damu sugu yamechapishwa katika Uingereza<ref name="NICE-BP">{{cite web |title=CG34 Hypertension - quick reference guide |publisher=[[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] |date=28 June 2006 |url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg034quickrefguide.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2009-03-04 |archivedate=2009-03-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313072133/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg034quickrefguide.pdf |=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313072133/http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/cg034quickrefguide.pdf }}</ref> and the US.<ref name="pmid18391085">{{cite journal |author=Calhoun DA |title=Resistant hypertension: diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment. A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Professional Education Committee of the Council for High Blood Pressure Research |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_hypertension_2008-06_51_6/page/1403 |journal=Hypertension |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=1403–19 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18391085 |doi=10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.189141 |author-separator=, |author2=Jones D |author3=Textor S |display-authors=3 |last4=Goff |first4=D. C. |last5=Murphy |first5=T. P. |last6=Toto |first6=R. D. |last7=White |first7=A. |last8=Cushman |first8=W. C. |last9=White |first9=W.}}</ref> ==Uenezi== Mwaka [[2015]] takriban 16-37% ya idadi ya watu wazima wa dunia, walikuwa na shinikizo la juu la damu.<ref name="pmid15652604">{{cite journal |author=Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J |title=Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data |journal=[[The Lancet]] |volume=365 |issue=9455 |pages=217–23 |year=2005 |pmid=15652604 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17741-1}}</ref> Ilikuwa ni kawaida katika nchi zote: zilizoendelea (333 milioni) na zisizostawi (639 milioni).<ref name="pmid15652604"/> Hata hivyo, viwango hutofautiana vikubwa katika mikoa mbalimbali kwa viwango vya chini kama 3.4% (wanaume) na 6.8% (wanawake) katika maeneo ya vijijini [[India]] na kama 68.9% ( wanaume) na 72.5% (wanawake) katika [[Polandi]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Whelton PK, He J |title=Worldwide prevalence of hypertension: a systematic review |journal=J. Hypertens. |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=11–9 |year=2004 |month=January |pmid=15106785 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Mwaka 1995 ilikadiriwa kuwa milioni 43 watu Marekani walikuwa na shinikizo la juu la damu au walikuwa wakitumia dawa ya kulipunguza. [[Takwimu]] hiyo inawakilisha karibu 24% ya idadi ya watu wazima nchini. <ref name="pmid7875754">{{cite journal |author=Burt VL |title=Prevalence of hypertension in the US adult population. Results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1991 |journal=Hypertension |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=305–13 |year=1995 |month=March |pmid=7875754 |doi= |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7875754 |access date=2009-06-05 |author-separator=, |author2=Whelton P |author3=Roccella EJ |display-authors=3 |last4=Brown |first4=C |last5=Cutler |first5=JA |last6=Higgins |first6=M |last7=Horan |first7=MJ |last8=Labarthe |first8=D |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2012-12-05 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205091508/http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7875754 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Viwango vya shinikizo la damu nchini Marekani walikuwa kuongezeka na kufikia 29% mwaka 2004.<ref name="pmid7607734"/><ref name="pmid17608879">{{cite journal |author=Ostchega Y, Dillon CF, Hughes JP, Carroll M, Yoon S |title=Trends in hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control in older U.S. adults: data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1988 to 2004 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-geriatrics-society_2007-07_55_7/page/1056 |journal=Journal of the American Geriatrics Society |volume=55 |issue=7 |pages=1056–65 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17608879 |doi=10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01215.x}}</ref> Kama ilivyo mwaka 2006 shinikizo la damu huathiri watu wazima 76 milioni Marekani (34% ya idadi ya watu) na kuwa miongoni mwa viwango yva juu zaidi vya shinikizo la damu katika dunia kwa 44%.<ref name =AHA2010 /> Ni zaidi ya kawaida katika Wamerikani uliotekea na chini ya kawaida katika Wazungu na [[Hispanics]]. Viwango vya kuongezeka kwa umri, na ni mkubwa [[kusini mashariki mwa Marekani]]. Shinikizo la damu ni la kawaida zaidi ndani ya wanaume kulinganisha na wanawake (ingawa wanakuwa wamemaliza kuelekea kupunguza tofauti hii) na kwa wale wa hali ya [[chini kiuchumi]].<ref name="pmid10645931"/> === Watoto=== Viwango ya shinikizo la damu kwa watoto inaongezeka.<ref name="pmid19421783">{{cite journal |author=Falkner B |title=Hypertension in children and adolescents: epidemiology and natural history |journal=Pediatr. Nephrol. |volume= 25|issue= 7|pages= 1219–24|year=2009 |month=May |pmid=19421783 |pmc=2874036 |doi=10.1007/s00467-009-1200-3}} </ref> Zaidi shinikizo la damu kwa watoto, hasa kabla ya [[ubalehe]], linategemea ugonjwa mwingine wa msingi. Mbali na fetma, figo ugomjwa ni sababu ya kawaida (60–70%) ya shiniko la damu kwa watoto. Vijana kawaida kuwa na msingi au muhimu shinikizo la damu, ambayo akaunti kwa ajili ya 85–95% ya kesi. <ref name=aafp>{{cite journal |author=Luma GB, Spiotta RT |title=Hypertension in children and adolescents |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=73 |issue=9 |pages=1558–68 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16719248 |url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20060501/1558.html |access-date=2013-03-06 |archive-date=2007-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926230038/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20060501/1558.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ==Historia== [[Image:William Harvey ( 1578-1657) Venenbild.jpg|Mchoro wa [[veni]] katika [[kitabu]] cha [[William Harvey]] ''Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus'' (“An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Living Beings”)|right|thumb]] Uelewa wa kisasa wa mfumo wa moyo ulianza na kazi ya mtabibu [[William Harvey]] (1578-1657). Harvey alielezea mzunguko wa damu katika kitabu chake ''De Otu ordis'' ("On Motion of the Heart and Blood"). [[Padri]] wa [[Uingereza]] [[Stephen Hales]] alifanya kipimo cha kwanza cha kuchapishwa cha kipimo cha shinikizo la damu katika mwaka 1733 .<ref name="pmid1744849"/><ref name=Kotchen2011>{{cite journal |author=Kotchen TA |title=Historical trends and milestones in hypertension research: a model of the process of translational research |journal=Hypertension |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=522–38 |year=2011 |month=October |pmid=21859967 |doi=10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.177766}}</ref> Maelezo ya shinikizo la damu kama ugonjwa ulitoka, miongoni mwa wengine, [[Thomas Young]] katika mwaka 1808 na [[Richard Bright (mtabibu)|Richard Bright]] katika mwaka 1836 .<ref name="pmid1744849"/> Ripoti ya kwanza ya muiniko wa shinikizo la damu katika mtu bila ushahidi wa ugonjwa wa figo ilitolewa na [[Frederick Akbar Mahomed]] (1849-1884).<ref>{{cite book |editor=Swales JD|title=Manual of hypertension |url=https://archive.org/details/manualofhyperten0000unse|publisher=Blackwell Science |location=Oxford |year=1995 |pages=xiii |isbn=0-86542-861-1}}</ref> Hata hivyo, shinikizo la damu kama chombo cha kliniki ilikuja kuwa katika mwaka 1896 na uvumbuzi wa cuff [[sphygmomanometer]] na [[Scipione Riva-Rocci]] mwaka 1896.<ref>{{cite book | title=A century of arterial hypertension 1896–1996 | url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofarteria0000unse | editor=Postel-Vinay N | page=213 | location=Chichester | publisher=Wiley | year=1996 | isbn=0-471-96788-2}}</ref> Uvumbuzi huu uliruhusu shinikizo la damu kupimwa katika [[zahanati]]. Mwaka 1905, [[Nikolai Korotkoff]] aliboresha mbinu kwa kueleza [[Korotkoff sounds]] ambazo zilisikiwa wakati ateri ilikuwa auscultated na stetoskopu wakati sphygmomanometer cuff ilikuwa imwetolewa upepo<ref name=Kotchen2011/> Kihistoria matibabu ya kiitwacho "ugonjwa mgumu wa pigo la moyo" ilihusisha kupunguza kiasi cha damu na [[blood letting]] au kupaka [[leech]]es.<ref name="pmid1744849">{{cite journal |author=Esunge PM |title=From blood pressure to hypertension: the history of research |journal=J R Soc Med |volume=84 |issue=10 |pages=621 |year=1991 |month=October |pmid=1744849 |pmc=1295564}}</ref> [[Yellow Emperor]] wa Uchina, [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus|Cornelius Celsus]], [[Galen]], na [[Hippocrates]] walitetea kuruhusu damu.<ref name="pmid1744849"/> Katika karne za 19 na 20, kabla ya matibabu ya ufanisi ya pharmacological ya shinikizo la damu ilikuwa inawezekana, taratibu tatu za matibabu zilitumika, zote zikiwa na athari mbalimbali. Namna hizi ni pamoja na taratibu kali za kizuizi cha sodiamu, (kwa mfano, lishe la mchele <ref name="pmid1744849"/>), [[sympathectomy]] (upasuaji wa kukausha sehemu za [[sympathetic nervous system]]), na tiba ya pyrogen (kudungwa dutu ambazo zilisababisha homa, pasipo moja kwa moja kupunguza shinikizo la damu).<ref name="pmid1744849"/> Kemikali ya kwanza ya shinikizo la damu, [[sodium thiocyanate]], ilitumika mwaka 1900 lakini ilikuwa na madhara mengi na haikupendwa.<ref name="pmid1744849"/> Mawakala wengine kadhaa waliundwa baada ya [[World War II|Second World War]]. Maarufu zaidi na fanisi kiasi ilikuwa [[tetramethylammonium hidrojeni]] na isio na uasili yake [[hexamethonium]], [[hydralazine]], na [[reserpine]] (inayotokana na mmea wa dawa ''[[Rauwolfia serpentina]]''). Uvumbuzi kubwa ilikuwa ya mafanikio na ugunduzi wa mawakala wa mdomo wa kwanza nzuri wanapatikana wanayovumiliwa. Ya kwanza ilikuwa [[chlorothiazide]], ya kwanza [[thiazide]] [[diuretic]], ambayo iliundwa na kiua vijasumu [[sulfanilamide]] na kupatikana mwaka 1958.<ref name="pmid1744849"/><ref>{{cite journal|author=Novello FC, Sprague JM | title=Benzothiadiazine dioxides as novel diuretics | journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc. | year=1957 | volume=79 | pages=2028 | doi=10.1021/ja01565a079|issue=8}}</ref> Iliongeza takamwili ya chumvi wakati inazuia mkusanyiko wa maji. [[randomized controlled trial]] ambayo ilifadhiliwa na [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|Veterans Administration]] ikilinganishwa na [[hydrochlorothiazide]] pamoja na reserpine pamoja na hydralazine dhidi ya placebo. Utafiti huo ulisimamishwa mapema kwa sababu wale walio katika kundi la shinikizo la juu la damu ambao walikuwa wanapata tiba walipatwa na matatizo mengi zaidi ya wagonjwa waliotibiwa na ilionekana ni vibaya kumnyima matibabu kutoka kwao. Utafiti uliendelea kwa watu wenye shinikizo la damu ya chini na kuonyesha kwamba matibabu, hata katika watu walio na shinikizo la damu kiasi, kupunguza hatari ya kufa moyo na mishipa kwa zaidi ya nusu. <ref>{{cite journal | author=Freis ED | title=The Veterans Administration Cooperative Study on Antihypertensive Agents. Implications for Stroke Prevention | journal=Stroke | year=1974 | volume=5 | pages=76–77 | pmid=4811316 | url=http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/5/1/76.long | format=PDF | issue=1 | doi=10.1161/01.STR.5.1.76}}</ref> Mwaka 1975, [[Lasker Award|Lasker Special Public Health Award]] ilitolewa kwa timu ambayo iliunda chlorothiazide. Matokeo ya tafiti hizi ilisababisha kampeni za afya za umma ili kuongeza uelewa wa umma wa shinikizo la damu na ilikuza kipimo na matibabu ya shinikizo la damu. Hatua hizi huonekana zilichangia angalau kwa sehemu kwa kupungua kwa asilimia 50 katika ugonjwa wa kiharusi na ischemic heart kati ya 1972 na 1994. == Jamii na utamaduni == ===Uelewa=== [[Image:HTNstudyupd.png|thumb|right|Grafu inaonyesha kiwango cha ufahamu, matibabu na udhibiti wa shinikizo la damu ikilinganishwa na kati ya utafiti nne ya [[National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey|NHANES]]<ref name="pmid7607734">{{cite journal |author=Burt VL |title=Mwelekeo wa maambukizi, ufahamu, matibabu, na udhibiti wa shinikizo la damu katika idadi ya Marekani ya watu wazima. Takwimu kutoka kwa utafiti wa makadirio ya afya, ya kwama 1960-1991 |journal=Hypertension |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=60–9 |year=1995 |month=July |pmid=7607734 |doi= |url=http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7607734 |accessdate=2009-06-05 |author-separator=, |author2=Cutler JA |author3=Higgins M |display-authors=3 |last4=Horan |first4=MJ |last5=Labarthe |first5=D |last6=Whelton |first6=P |last7=Brown |first7=C |last8=Roccella |first8=EJ |archive-date=2012-12-20 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121220113643/http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7607734 |dead-url=yes |https://archive.today/20121220113643/http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7607734 |=https://archive.today/20121220113643/http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=7607734 }}</ref>]] [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] limebainisha shinikizo la damu kama chanzo kikubwa cha [[cardiovascular]] [[Mortality rate|mortality]]. [[The World Hypertension League]] (WHL), shirika mwamvuli la jamii 85 ya taifa ya shinikizo la damu na ligi, ilitambua kuwa zaidi ya asilimia 50 ya watu walio na shinikizo la damu duniani hawajui hali yao.<ref name="pmid17534457">{{cite journal |author=Chockalingam A |title=Impact of World Hypertension Day |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=517–9 |year=2007 |month=May |pmid=17534457 |pmc=2650754 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(07)70795-X|url= }}</ref> Ili kukabiliana na tatizo hili, WHL imeanzisha kampeni ya kimataifa juu ya shinikizo la damu mwaka 2005 na kutunikia tarehe 17 Mei kila mwaka kama [[World Hypertension Day]] (WHD). Zaidi ya miaka mitatu iliyopita, vyama zaidi vya kitaifa vimekuwa vikishiriki katika WHD na wamekuwa wabunifu katika shughuli zao za kupata ujumbe kwa umma. Mwaka 2007, kulikuwa na rekodi ya ushiriki kutoka nchi ya wanachama 47 ya WHL. Wakati wa wiki ya WHD, nchi hizi zote zilishirikiana na serikali za mitaa, jamii za kitaaluma, mashirika yasiyo ya kiserikali, na viwanda binafsi kukuza ufahamu wa shinikizo la damu kupitia kampeni kadhaa [[Mass media|media]] na umma. Ukitumia [[mass media]] kama vile [[wavuti]] na [[runinga]], ujumbe umewafikia zaidi ya watu milioni 250. Vile kasi inaongezeka mwaka baada yaa mwaka, WHL ina matumaini kuwa karibu watu wote wanaokadiriwa kufikia bilioni 1.5 ambao wameathirika na muinuko wa shinikizo la damu wanaweza kufikiwa.<ref name="pmid18548140">{{cite journal |author=Chockalingam A |title=World Hypertension Day and global awareness |journal=Canadian Journal of Cardiology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=441–4 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18548140 |pmc=2643187 |doi= 10.1016/S0828-282X(08)70617-2|url= }}</ref> ===Uchumi=== Shinikizo la damu ni shida sugu ya kawaida ya matibabu inayochochea ziara kwa watoa huduma msingi wa afya nchini Marekani. Shirika la Moyo Marekani limekadiria gharama za moja kwa moja na zisizo za moja kwa moja ya shinikizo la damu katika [[dola]] bilioni 76.6 katika mwaka 2010.<ref name = AHA2010>{{cite journal |author=Lloyd-Jones D, Adams RJ, Brown TM, ''et al.'' |title=Heart disease and stroke statistics--2010 update: a report from the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation |volume=121 |issue=7 |pages=e46–e215 |year=2010 |month=February |pmid=20019324 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192667 |url=}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, asilimia 80 ya watu walio na shinikizo la damu wanafahamu hali zao na asilimia 71 wanachukua baadhi ya dawa dhidi ya shinikizo la damu. Hata hivyo, asilimia 48 tu ya watu ambao wanafahamu wana shinikizo la damu wanadhibiti ipasavyo hali hiyo.<ref name = AHA2010 /><ref name="pmid19124418">{{cite journal |author=Alcocer L, Cueto L |title=Hypertension, a health economics perspective |journal=Therapeutic Advances in Cardiovascular Disease |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=147–55 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=19124418 |doi=10.1177/1753944708090572 |url=http://tak.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19124418 |accessdate=2009-06-20 |archive-date=2012-12-04 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121204191320/http://tak.sagepub.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19124418 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Madaktari wanakabiliwa na shida nyingi katika kudhibiti shinikizo la damu, ikiwa ni pamoja na upinzani kwa kutumia dawa mbalimbali ili kufikia malengo ya shinikizo la damu. Watu pia wanakabiliwa na changamoto ya kufuata ratiba ya dawa na kufanya mabadiliko ya maisha. Hata hivyo, kufikia malengo ya shinikizo la damu inawezekana. Kupunguza shinikizo la damu inapunguza gharama kwa kiasi kikubwa ambayo inahusishwa na huduma ya matibabu ya juu.<ref name="The Economic Impact of Hypertension">{{cite journal |author=William J. Elliott |title=The Economic Impact of Hypertension |journal=The Journal of Clinical Hypertension |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=3–13 |year=2003 |month=October |doi= 10.1111/j.1524-6175.2003.02463.x |pmid=12826765}}</ref><ref name="pmid18345711">{{cite journal |author=Coca A |title=Economic benefits of treating high-risk hypertension with angiotensin II receptor antagonists (blockers) |journal=Clinical Drug Investigation |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=211–20 |year=2008 |pmid=18345711 |doi= 10.2165/00044011-200828040-00002|url= }}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{Reflist|2}} [[Jamii:Tiba]] [[jamii:Magonjwa]] [[Jamii:Damu]] [[Jamii:Moyo]] szamyxs8z7so9z7cmx48fh3a2m0ogwk 0 68516 1580254 1573347 2026-07-18T01:54:24Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580254 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Papa Fransisko </br><span style="font-weight:normal;">''Pope Francis''</span> | picha = Canonization 2014-The Canonization of Saint John XXIII and Saint John Paul II (14036966125).jpg | maelezo = Papa Fransisko siku alipotangaza watakatifu watangulizi wake [[Yohane XXIII]] na [[Yohane Paulo II]] ([[2014]]). Amevaa [[kanzu]] nyeupe kama inavyotumiwa na maaskofu wa Roma tangu [[karne ya 16]]. | jina la kuzaliwa = Jorge Mario Bergoglio | tarehe ya kuzaliwa = 17 Desemba 1936 </br>[[File:Flag of Argentina.svg|25px]] [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]] | tarehe ya kufa = 21 Aprili 2025 | mahali alipofia = Domus Sanctae Marthae, [[Vatikani]] | sababu ya kifo = | kazi yake = Papa wa Kanisa Katoliki | majina-mengine = Askofu wa Roma, Halifa wa Mtume Petro | organization = [[Kanisa Katoliki]], [[Vatikani]] | ndoa = Hakuna (alifuata useja wa kipadre) | watoto = Hakuna | wazazi = Mario José Bergoglio<br />Regina María Sívori | elimu = {{plainlist| *Chuo Kikuu cha Juu cha Mtakatifu Yosefu *Kitivo cha Falsafa na Teolojia cha San Miguel *Taasisi ya Milltown ya Teolojia na Falsafa *Shule ya Uzamili ya Sankt Georgen ya Falsafa na Teolojia}} |aliyemtangulia = [[Papa Benedikto XVI]] |anayemfuata = [[Papa Leo XIV]] |dini = [[Ukristo]] |dhehebu= [[Ukatoliki]] |saini = FirmaPapaFrancisco.svg |nembo = Coat of arms of Franciscus.svg |ukubwa_nembo = 85px }} '''Papa Fransisko, [[Shirika la Yesu|S.I.]]''' (kwa [[Kilatini]] Franciscus; jina la awali '''Jorge Mario Bergoglio'''; [[17 Desemba]] [[1936]] – [[21 Aprili]] [[2025]]) alikuwa [[askofu]] wa [[Roma]], na hivyo pia [[Papa]] wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]] [[dunia]]ni kote na [[Kiongozi|mtawala]] wa [[Vatikani]], tangu tarehe [[13 Machi]] [[2013]] hadi [[kifo]] chake. Amemfuata [[Papa Benedikto XVI]] akiwa wa 266 katika [[orodha ya mapapa]]. Katika miaka 12 ya Upapa, Fransisko alijulikana kwa [[unyenyekevu]], mkazo juu ya [[huruma ya Mungu]], [[juhudi]] kwa ajili ya wanyonge, [[haki]] ya kijamii na majadiliano na [[dini]] nyingine. Alizaliwa [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]], Fransisko alikuwa [[Papa]] wa kwanza kutoka [[Amerika]], [[Nusutufe ya kusini]], na [[Shirika la Yesu]]. Upapa wake uliashiria mtazamo wa kichungaji zaidi ukilinganishwa na watangulizi wake, na aligeuka kuwa sauti yenye ushawishi mkubwa wa maadili kuhusu masuala kama mabadiliko ya [[tabianchi]], [[uhamiaji]], [[ukosefu wa usawa]], na [[amani]]. Waraka wake wa kichungaji wa mwaka 2015, Laudato si’, uliotoa wito wa kuhifadhi mazingira na kuchukua hatua za haraka dhidi ya ongezeko la joto duniani, ulisifiwa sana na kunukuliwa mara kwa mara katika mijadala ya sera za kimataifa. Fransisko pia alianzisha mageuzi muhimu ndani ya Ofisi kuu za Roma na alifanyia kazi mwitikio wa [[Kanisa]] dhidi ya kashfa za unyanyasaji wa kijinsia. Aliwateua makardinali kutoka maeneo yasiyowakilishwa vizuri, akionesha mwelekeo wa [[Kanisa]] la kimataifa na jumuishi zaidi. Licha ya kukosolewa na makundi mbalimbali, Papa Fransisko alibaki kuwa na ushawishi wa kimataifa hadi kifo chake kilichotokana na ugonjwa wa muda mrefu tarehe 21 Aprili 2025.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Pope Francis biography|first1=Rene|last1=Ostberg|publisher=Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francis-I-pope |accessdate=2025-04-21|lang=en}}</ref> ==Maisha== [[Faili:Papal Visit to the Philippines January 18 2015.jpg|thumb|right|[[Umati]] wa watu [[milioni]] 6 wakishiriki [[Misa]] iliyongozwa na Papa Fransisko huko Rizal Park, [[Manila]], [[Ufilipino]], tarehe [[18 Januari]] [[2015]].]] Baada ya masomo ya [[kemia]] na kipindi kifupi cha [[kazi]], tarehe [[11 Machi]] [[1958]] aliitikia [[wito]] wa [[utawa|kitawa]] na wa [[padri|kipadri]], akaweka [[nadhiri]] za muda tarehe [[12 Machi]] [[1960]], akapata [[upadrisho]] tarehe [[13 Desemba]] [[1969]]. Tarehe [[22 Aprili]] [[1973]] aliweka [[nadhiri za daima]]. Kati ya miaka [[1973]] na [[1979]] alikuwa [[mkuu wa shirika]] nchini Argentina. Mwaka [[1992]] alichaguliwa kuwa [[askofu msaidizi]] wa Buenos Aires akapewa [[daraja]] hiyo tarehe [[27 Juni]] mwaka huo, halafu akawa [[askofu mkuu]] wa Buenos Aires tarehe [[28 Februari]] [[1998]], pia askofu wa [[Wakatoliki wa Mashariki]] wa Argentina wasio na askofu wa kwao tarehe [[6 Novemba]] 1998, akateuliwa kuwa [[kardinali]] tarehe [[21 Februari]] [[2001]]. Kati ya miaka [[2005]] na [[2011]] alikuwa rais wa [[Baraza la Maaskofu Katoliki]] la Argentina. Alichaguliwa Papa tarehe [[13 Machi]] [[2013]], wiki mbili baada ya mtangulizi wake kung'atuka. Tofauti na kawaida ya muda mrefu, alijichagulia jina lisilowahi kutumiwa na mapapa waliomtangulia. Chaguo hilo linaelekeza nia ya kufuata kwa namna fulani roho ya [[Fransisko wa Asizi]]. Kabla ya kuchaguliwa alijulikana kwa unyenyekevu na [[ufukara]] wake, pamoja na juhudi za kutetea haki za wanyonge, [[imani sahihi]] na [[maadili]] ya [[Kanisa]]. Tabia hizo alizileta katika ngazi ya juu ya [[Kanisa Katoliki]], akijivutia mioyo ya watu wengi. Tarehe [[13 Aprili]] 2013 alichagua Jopo la Makardinali 8 kutoka ma[[bara]] yote limsaidie kuongoza Kanisa na kurekebisha [[idara]] na [[ofisi]] zake huko [[Vatikano]]. Tarehe [[29 Juni]] 2013, Papa Fransisko alitoa waraka wake wa kwanza, "[[Lumen Fidei]]", kuhusu imani; huo ulifuatwa tarehe [[24 Novemba]] 2013 na "[[Evangelii Gaudium]]" kuhusu [[uinjilishaji]]. Tarehe [[18 Juni]] [[2015]], alitoa [[barua]] [[ensiklika]] kwa watu wote "[[Laudato si']]" kuhusu [[mazingira]], mabadiliko ya [[hali ya hewa]] na maendeleo ya kufaa. Barua hiyo ilipokewa vizuri na wengi. == Upapa == [[File:Coat of arms of Franciscus.svg|thumb|100px|Nembo ya Papa Fransisko]] [[Papa Fransisko]] alianza [[upapa]] wake tarehe 13 Machi 2013 kufuatia kujiuzulu kwa [[Papa Benedikto XVI]]. Akiwa [[Papa]] wa kwanza kutoka shirika la Kijesuiti na pia wa kwanza kutoka [[Amerika]], uchaguzi wake uliashiria hatua muhimu katika historia ya [[Ukatoliki|Kanisa Katoliki]]. Mwanzoni mwa upapa wake, alivutia watu wengi kwa mtindo wake wa maisha rahisi na wa kichungaji, jambo lililoonekana katika uamuzi wake wa kuishi kwenye nyumba ya wageni ya Vatikani badala ya Kasri la Kitume. Alisisitiza huruma, unyenyekevu, na huduma kwa maskini, akitoa mfano ulioeleweka na Wakatoliki wengi duniani kote. Katika kipindi cha uongozi wake, Papa Fransisko alielekeza juhudi zake katika kurekebisha Curia ya Kirumi, kuendeleza uwazi wa kifedha ndani ya Vatikani, na kushughulikia masuala sugu kama vile unyanyasaji wa kingono ndani ya Kanisa. Alihimiza utunzaji wa mazingira kupitia waraka wake wa mwaka 2015, Laudato si’, uliotoa wito wa kuchukua hatua za haraka dhidi ya mabadiliko ya tabianchi. Waraka wake mwingine wa mwaka 2020, Fratelli tutti, ulisisitiza undugu, urafiki wa kijamii, na mshikamano wa kimataifa. Pia alisonga mbele katika mazungumzo ya [[dini|kidini]], hasa na [[Uislamu]], na alijitahidi kuponya migawanyiko na Kanisa la Kiorthodoksi la Mashariki na jumuiya za Kiprotestanti. Licha ya kupingwa na baadhi ya makundi ya kihafidhina ndani ya Kanisa, Papa Fransisko aliendelea kuwa sauti yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani, akitetea amani, haki ya kiuchumi, na heshima ya kila binadamu hadi kifo chake mwaka 2025. ==Kifo == [[Papa Fransisko]] alifariki akiwa na umri wa miaka 88 siku ya Jumatatu ya [[Pasaka]], tarehe 21 [[Aprili]] 2025, saa 07:35 CEST (UTC+02:00) katika makazi yake ya "''Domus Sanctae Marthae''". [[Kifo]] chake kilitangazwa na Kardinali [[Kevin Farrell]] kupitia kituo cha televisheni cha [[Vatikani]] na katika taarifa ya video; hali halisi ya kifo chake bado haijafichuliwa rasmi, ingawa vyanzo vya [[Italia]] viliripoti bila rasmi kuwa kifo kilitokana na tatizo la ubongo, huenda kiharusi. Vatikani baadaye ilieleza kuwa alifariki kutokana na nimonia ya mapafu yote mawili. Kifo chake kimeanzisha kipindi cha mpito wa upapa (papal interregnum) pamoja na siku tisa za maombolezo zijulikanazo kwa Kilatini kama novemdiales (‘siku tisa’). Kwa mujibu wa desturi, mazishi ya papa hufanyika kati ya siku nne hadi sita baada ya kifo chake; inatarajiwa kwamba atazikwa katika Kanisa Kuu la Santa Maria Maggiore kulingana na matakwa yake. Makardinali wapiga kura wanatarajiwa kuwasili Roma kuhudhuria mkutano mkuu wa makardinali, ambapo pia wataamua tarehe na saa ya kuanza kwa mkutano wa uchaguzi wa papa mpya (conclave). == Teolojia == Papa Fransisko mara nyingi anahusishwa na mtazamo wa kichungaji na wa mageuzi katika teolojia, akisisitiza [[huruma]], unyenyekevu, na kuwajali waliotengwa. Kutokana na asili yake ya [[Shirika la Yesu|Kijesuiti]], anaweka mkazo mkubwa kwenye utambuzi wa kiroho, haki ya kijamii, na kuwafikia maskini. Waraka wake wa kitume wa mwaka 2013, Evangelii Gaudium (Furaha ya Injili), unaeleza maono yake ya Kanisa jumuishi na lenye mwelekeo wa kimisionari, akitaka mabadiliko kutoka kwa Kanisa linalozingatia kanuni hadi kuwa kama "hospitali ya uwanjani" baada ya vita, likitoa uponyaji na huruma. Katika masuala ya kijamii na kiuchumi, Papa Fransisko ameikosoa mara kwa mara tabia ya matumizi kupita kiasi, ukosefu wa usawa wa [[uchumi|kiuchumi]], na ubepari usiodhibitiwa. Katika waraka wake wa kichungaji wa mwaka 2015 Laudato si', alizungumzia masuala ya mazingira na mabadiliko ya tabianchi, akielezea uangalizi wa mazingira kama jukumu la kimaadili na kiroho. Waraka huu ulikuwa miongoni mwa nyaraka za kwanza za Kipapa kukabiliana moja kwa moja na migogoro ya kimazingira duniani, akihusisha uharibifu wa sayari na mateso ya maskini duniani. Katika masuala ya mafundisho, Fransisko amedumisha mafundisho ya jadi ya Kikatoliki kuhusu mambo kama utoaji mimba na utakatifu wa uhai, lakini amesisitiza umuhimu wa muktadha, huruma, na mchakato wa hatua kwa hatua katika huduma ya kichungaji. Mtazamo wake umesababisha sifa na ukosoaji kwa pamoja: wapo wanaomwona kama mrekebishaji anayefufua dhamira ya Kanisa, na wengine wakieleza wasiwasi juu ya kile wanachokiona kama ukosefu wa uwazi katika mafundisho. Kupitia teolojia yake, Papa Fransisko ametafuta kulifanya Kanisa Katoliki lihusike zaidi na masuala ya kisasa huku akidumisha misingi yake ya kiroho na kimaadili. Papa Fransisko pia amekuwa na mtazamo wa wazi zaidi kuhusu watu wa [[Mapenzi ya jinsia moja|LGBTQ+]], ingawa msimamo wake wa [[dini|kidini]] bado unalingana na mafundisho ya Kanisa. Alisema, "Mimi ni nani nihukumu?" alipokuwa akizungumzia Wakatoliki mashoga wanaomtafuta Mungu, na mwaka 2023, alikubali baraka kwa jozi za jinsia moja chini ya masharti fulani, ingawa si kama ndoa. Amelihimiza Kanisa kuwa na mtazamo wa ukaribisho zaidi kwa watu waliotengwa, ikiwa ni pamoja na waliotalikiana na wahamiaji, akitetea ujumuishaji bila kubadilisha mafundisho ya Kanisa.<ref>{{Cite Web|title=Pope clarifies remarks about homosexuality and sin|author=Carol Glatz|url=https://www.usccb.org/news/2023/pope-clarifies-remarks-about-homosexuality-and-sin |accessdate=2025-04-25|lang=en}}</ref> ==Tazama pia== *[[Orodha ya Mapapa]] ==Maandishi yake== ===Vitabu=== * {{cite book|title=Meditaciones para religiosos|year=1982|publisher=Diego de Torres|location=Buenos Aires|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|trans_title=Meditations for the Religious|oclc=644781822}} * {{cite book|title=Reflexiones en esperanza|year=1992|publisher=Ediciones Universidad del Salvador|location=Buenos Aires|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|trans_title=Reflections of Hope|oclc=36380521}} * {{cite book|title=Educar: exigencia y pasión: desafíos para educadores cristianos|url=https://archive.org/details/educarexigenciay0000fran|year=2003|publisher=Editorial Claretiana|location=Buenos Aires|isbn=9789505124572|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|trans_title=To Educate: Exactingness and Passion: Challenges for Christian Educators}} * {{cite book|title=Ponerse la patria al hombro: memoria y camino de esperanza|year=2003|publisher=Editorial Claretiana|location=Buenos Aires|isbn=9789505125111|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|trans_title=Putting the Motherland on One's Shoulders: Memoir and Path of Hope}} * {{cite book|title=La nación por construir: utopía, pensamiento y compromiso: VIII Jornada de Pastoral Social|year=2005|publisher=Editorial Claretiana|location=Buenos Aires|isbn=9789505125463|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|trans_title=The Nation to Be Built: Utopia, Thought, and Commitment}} * {{cite book|title=Corrupción y pecado: algunas reflexiones en torno al tema de la corrupción|year=2006|publisher=Editorial Claretiana|location=Buenos Aires|isbn= 9789505125722|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|trans_title=Corruption and Sin: Some Thoughts on Corruption}} * {{cite book|title=Sobre la acusación de sí mismo|year=2006|publisher=Editorial Claretiana|location=Buenos Aires|isbn= 978-950-512-549-4|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|trans_title=On Self-Accusation, (or [http://www.news.va/en/news/presentation-of-first-two-books-in-italian-by-pope from the Italian], Humility: The Road towards God)}} * {{cite book|title=El verdadero poder es el servicio|year=2007|publisher=Editorial Claretiana|location=Buenos Aires|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|oclc=688511686|language=Spanish|trans_title=True Power Is Service}} * {{cite book|title=Seminario: las deudas sociales de nuestro tiempo: la deuda social según la doctrina de la iglesia|year=2009|publisher=EPOCA-USAL|location=Buenos Aires|isbn=9788493741235|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|trans_title=Seminar: the Social Debts of Our Time: Social Debt According to Church Doctrine}} * {{cite book|title=[[On Heaven and Earth|Sobre el cielo y la tierra]]|year=2010|publisher=Editorial Sudamericana|location=Buenos Aires|isbn=9789500732932|first1=Jorge|last1=Bergoglio|first2=Abraham|last2=Skorka|authorlink2=Abraham Skorka|language=Spanish|trans_title=On Heaven and Earth}} * {{cite book|title=Seminario Internacional: consenso para el desarrollo: reflexiones sobre solidaridad y desarrollo|year=2010|publisher=EPOCA|location=Buenos Aires|isbn=9789875073524|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|trans_title=International seminar: Consensus about Development: Reflexions on Solidarity and development}} * {{cite book|title=Nosotros como ciudadanos, nosotros como pueblo: hacia un bicentenario en justicia y solidaridad|year=2011|publisher=Editorial Claretiana|location=Buenos Aires|isbn=9789505127443|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|trans_title=Ourselves as Citizens, Ourselves as a People: towards a Bicentenary in Justice and Solidarity}} ===Mengine=== * {{cite book|title=La vida sagrada y su misión en la Iglesia y en el mundo|year=1995|publisher=Argentina Catholic University: Faculty of Theology|first=Jorge|last=Bergoglio|language=Spanish|oclc=806712655|url=http://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/2489810.pdf}} * {{cite conference|title=Episcopus minister Evangelii Iesu Christi propter spem mundi: relatio post disceptationem|year=2001|publisher=E Civitate Vaticana|first1=Edward Michael|last=Egan|first2=Jorge|last2= Bergoglio|conference=The Catholic Church. The Synod of Bishops. Ordinary General Assembly|oclc=749998123}} * {{cite book|last1=Bergoglio|first1=Jorge|editor1-first=Elisa|editor1-last=Buzzi|title=A Generative Thought: An Introduction to the Works of Luigi Giussani|url=http://site.ebrary.com/id/10132858|year=2003|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal |isbn=0773526129|pages=79–83|chapter=For Man}} * {{cite book|title=Diálogos entre Juan Pablo II y Fidel Castro|year=2004|publisher=Ciudad Argentina|location=Buenos Aires|isbn=9789875070745|editor-first=Jorge|editor-last=Bergoglio|first1=Pope|last1=John Paul|first2=Fidel|last2=Castro|language=Spanish|trans_title=Dialogues Between John Paul II and Fidel Castro}} * {{cite journal|last=Bergoglio|first=Jorge|year=2007|title=Buscar el camino hacia el futuro, llevando consigo la memoria de las raíces|journal=[[Humanitas (journal)|Humanitas]]|issue=47|pages=468–483 |publisher=[[National Humanities Institute]]|language=Spanish|oclc=176911626}} * {{cite book|title=El santito Ceferino Namuncurá: relato en verso|year=2007|publisher=Lumen|location=Buenos Aires|first=José María|last=Castiñeira de Dios|others=Foreword by Jorge Bergoglio|isbn=9789870007340|language=Spanish}} * [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pont_committees/eucharist-congr/documents/rc_committ_euchar_doc_20080618_mistero-alleanza_en.html Official Vatican transcript in English of IEC Catechesis ''The Eucharist: Gift from God for the life of the world'' (2008)] (originally given in Spanish), 49th International Eucharistic Congress, Quebec, Canada * Agencia Informativa Católica Argentina (1999–2012). [http://www.aica.org/doc.php?s=Q2FyZGVuYWwgSm9yZ2UgTWFyaW8gQmVyZ29nbGlvIFNK ''Documentos de los obispos: Homilías y documentos del cardenal Bergoglio''] {{Wayback|url=http://www.aica.org/doc.php?s=Q2FyZGVuYWwgSm9yZ2UgTWFyaW8gQmVyZ29nbGlvIFNK |date=20131206103617}} {{es}} ==Marejeo== {{marejeo}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://img.irtve.es/imagenes/primeros-instantes-fumata-blanca/1363201699933.jpg Moshi mweupe uliotangaza uchaguzi kukamilika] * [http://www.vatican.va/ Vatican: the Holy See]&nbsp;– Vatican web site * (Official Vatican YouTube page, covering the Pope and related interests) * [http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/f/francis_i/index.html?inline=nyt-per Collected news and articles at] the The New York Times * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/pope-francis Collected news and articles at] The Guardian * [http://www.news.va/en/news/biography-who-is-jorge-mario-bergoglio Vatican Web site: Official biography of JORGE MARIO BERGOGLIO published on the occasion of the Conclave by the Holy See Press Office with the information provided by the cardinals themselves] {{Wayback|url=http://www.news.va/en/news/biography-who-is-jorge-mario-bergoglio |date=20171018141414}} * {{Dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Christianity/Denominations/Catholicism/Popes/F/Francis/}} * {{Twitter|Pontifex}} (Official Twitter account) {{Commons}} {{Mapapa}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Fransisko, Papa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1936]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2025]] [[Jamii:Wajesuiti]] [[Jamii:Mapapa]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Argentina]] [[Jamii:Mapapa wa Karne ya 21]] jtz6wc1ry22bf9mg72iocdsxn32zstr 0 68740 1580167 1578184 2026-07-18T00:47:36Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580167 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Schizophrenia | Image = Cloth embroidered by a schizophrenia sufferer.jpg | Caption = Cloth embroidered by a patient diagnosed with schizophrenia | Width = | DiseasesDB = 11890 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|20||f|20}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|295}} | ICDO = | OMIM = 181500 | MedlinePlus = 000928 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 2072 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|520}} | MeshName = Schizophrenia | MeshNumber = F03.700.750 |}} '''Skizofrenia''' ni [[ugonjwa wa akili]] unaosababisha fikira na hisia zisizo za kawaida.<ref>"Skizofrenia" Concise Medical Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 2010. Oxford Reference Online. [http://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/web/Library/AboutTheLibrary.htm Maastricht University Library] {{Wayback|url=http://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/web/Library/AboutTheLibrary.htm |date=20120614062252 }}. 29 June 2010[http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t60.e9060 prepaid subscription only]</ref> Watu wengi walio na ugonjwa huo husikia yasiyokuwemo (kama kuota njozi), na woga na makisio yasiyoeleweka ([[paranoia]]), pia wanaweza kuamini mambo ya kiajabu na yasiyoeleweka, kuzungumza bila [[mantiki]] n.k. Watu hawa huwa na ugumu wa kuhusiana na wengine inavyofaa au kudumisha kazi. [[Dalili]] kwa kawaida huanza katika [[ujana]] baada ya [[umri]] wa miaka 16. Takriban [[asilimia]] 0.3 hadi 0.7 ya [[idadi]] ya watu [[duniani]] watakuwa na hali hiyo wakati mmoja [[Maisha|maishani]] mwao.<ref name=Lancet09/> Mwenendo unaoonekana na matukio yaliyoripotiwa husaidia kubaini iwapo mtu ana ugonjwa huo. Vipengele kadhaa muhimu vinaweza kusababisha skizofrenia. Vipengele hivi ni pamoja na uhusiano wa kijamii na mtu aliye na hali hii, mazingira ya hapo awali ya mtu, mfumo wa neva unaodhibiti mwili na akili ya mtu, na taratibu za kiakili na kijamii. Baadhi ya [[dawa]], zikiwemo dawa za kuagiziwa na daktari, zinaweza kusababisha dalili au kuzifanya mbaya zaidi. Utafiti wa hivi sasa unaangazia jukumu la mfumo wa neva ingawa hakuna mtu aliyepata kisababishi hata kimoja cha kiogani kilichojitenga. Miungano mingi ya dalili zinazoweza kutokea imepelekea mjadala kuhusu iwapo ugonjwa huu ni hali moja au hali nyingi tofauti. Neno "skizofrenia" linatokana na maneno mawili ya [[Lugha ya Kigriki|Griki]] yanayomaanisha "kugawanya" na "akili". Hata hivyo, skizofrenia haimaanishi "akili iliyogawanyika" wala kusababisha watu kuwa na nafsi nyingi (au "zilizogawanyika"). Watu wengi hushindwa kutofautisha skizofrenia na hali kama hizo.<ref name=BMJ07/> Matibabu hasa ni kwa kutumia dawa ili kupunguza dalili kuu. Dawa hizi husitisha nyendo katika sehemu za ubongo zinazochakata kemikali inayoitwa [[dopamine]]. (Baadhi ya dawa hizi pia husitisha shughuli katika sehemu ambazo huchakata kemikali inayoitwa [[serotonin]].) Matibabu ambayo pia ni muhimu ni pamoja na therapi ya kiakili, usaidizi katika kutafuta na kudumisha kazi na pia marekebisho ya kimahusiano. Katika matukio makubwa ambapo kuna hatari kwa mtu binafsi na watu wengine, mtu anaweza kuhitaji kulazwa hospitalini. Hatua hii inaweza kuchukuliwa kwa idhini au bila idhini ya mtu huyu. Hata hivyo, matukio ya kulazwa hospitalini siku hizi yamepunguka na kuwa nadra ikilinganishwa na hapo awali.<ref name="BeckerKilian2006">{{cite journal |author=Becker T, Kilian R|year=2006 |title=Psychiatric services for people with severe mental illness across western Europe: what can be generalized from current knowledge about differences in provision, costs and outcomes of mental health care? |journal=[[Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica]] Supplement |volume=429 |pages=9–16 |pmid=16445476 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00711.x|issue=429}}</ref> Skizofrenia hudhaniwa kuathiri hasa michakato ya kiakili, lakini pia huchangia matatizo ya muda mrefu pamoja na mwenendo na hisia. Watu walio na skizofrenia wana uwezekano wa kuwa na hali zingine pia, zikiwemo mfadhaiko na wasiwasi. Takriban asilimia 50 ya watu walio na skizofrenia hutumia madawa ya kulevya wakati mmoja maishani mwao.<ref name="Sim_et_al_2006">{{cite journal |author=Buckley PF, Miller BJ, Lehrer DS, Castle DJ |title=Psychiatric comorbidities and schizophrenia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_schizophrenia-bulletin_2009-03_35_2/page/383 |journal=Schizophr Bull |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=383–402|year=2009 |month=March |pmid=19011234 |pmc=2659306 |doi=10.1093/schbul/sbn135}}</ref> Matatizo ya kijamii kama vile ukosefu wa kazi kwa muda mrefu, umaskini na ukosefu wa makao hutokea mara nyingi. Kwa wastani, watu walio na skizofrenia hufa miaka 12 hadi 15 mapema zaidi ya wale wasio na hali hii: Watu walio na skizofrenia wana matatizo ya mwili mengi zaidi, na wana kiwango cha uwezekano wa kujiua cha asilimia 5 zaidi ya watu wa kawaida.<ref name=Lancet09/> == Dalili == Watu walio na skizofrenia wanaweza kusikia au kuona yasiyokuwemo; kusikia sauti ni jambo linalotokea mara nyingi. Watu hawa wanaweza kuwa na fikira za kiajabu na kuwa na wasiwasi wakihofia kuwa kuna mtu anayetaka kuwaumiza. Maneno na fikira zao zinaweza kukosa mpangilio: wanaweza kupoteza msururu wao wa fikra, huku wakitunga sentensi zilizo na maana duni au sentensi zisizo na maana yoyote ile. Mambo yanayofuatia ugonjwa wa skizofrenia ni pamoja na kujitenga na mahusiano ya kijamii, kuvaa ovyo na kutozingatia usafi, na kukosa motisha na uamuzi.<ref name=CarsonNursing>Carson VB (2000). [http://books.google.com/books?id=QM5rAAAAMAAJ Mental health nursing: the nurse-patient journey] W.B. Saunders. ISBN 978-0-7216-8053-8. p. 638.</ref> Mtindo unaoweza kuonekana wa matatizo ya kihisia, kama vile kukosa mwitikio, pia hutokea mara nyingi.<ref name="HirschWeinberger2003p21">{{cite book|author1=Hirsch SR|author2= Weinberger DR|title=Schizophrenia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=x3fmsV55rigC&pg=PA21|year= 2003|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=9780632063888|page=21}}</ref> Ufahamu duni wa mahusiano ya kijamii huhusishwa na skizofrenia <ref>{{cite journal |author=Brunet-Gouet E, Decety J |title=Social brain dysfunctions in schizophrenia: a review of neuroimaging studies |journal=Psychiatry Res|volume=148 |issue=2–3 |pages=75–92 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17088049 |doi=10.1016/j.pscychresns.2006.05.001}}</ref> na mara nyingi watu walio na skizofrenia hudhania kuwa watu wengine wanapangia kuwadhuru. Kwa sababu hiyo, watu walio na hali hii mara nyingi hukaa mbali na watu wengine.<ref name="HirschWeinberger2003p481">{{cite book|author1=Hirsch SR|author2= WeinbergerDR|title=Schizophrenia|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=x3fmsV55rigC&pg=PA21|year= 2003|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=9780632063888|page=481}}</ref> Katika mojawapo ya aina dogo za hali hii zisizotokea mara nyingi, mtu anaweza kukosa kuzungumza, anaweza kutunduaa katika hali za kiajabu, au kukasirika bila sababu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ungvari GS, Caroff SN, Gerevich J|title=The catatonia conundrum: evidence of psychomotor phenomena as a symptom dimension in psychotic disorders |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_schizophrenia-bulletin_2010-03_36_2/page/231|journal=Schizophr Bull |volume=36|issue=2 |pages=231–8 |year=2010 |month=March |pmid=19776208 |doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp105}}</ref> Watu walio na umri wa takriban miaka 18 na walio katika mwanzo wa utu uzima wako katika kiwango cha juu zaidi cha kupata skizofrenia.<ref name=Lancet09>{{cite journal |author=[[Jim van Os|van Os J]], Kapur S |title=Schizophrenia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_august-22-28-2009_374_9690/page/635 |journal=Lancet |volume=374 |issue=9690 |pages=635–45 |year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19700006|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60995-8}}</ref> Miaka hii ni muhimu katika kuendelea kijamii na kitaaluma katika maisha ya vijana. <ref name="Addington_et_al_2007"/> Katika asilimia 40 ya wanaume na asilimia 23 ya wanawake wanaotambuliwa na skizofrenia, hali hii hujionyesha kabla ya umri wa miaka 19.<ref name=Cullen>{{cite journal |author=Cullen KR, Kumra S, Regan J ''et al.'' |title=Atypical Antipsychotics for Treatment of Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders |journal=Psychiatric Times |volume=25 |issue=3 |year=2008 |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/schizophrenia/article/10168/1147536 |access-date=2013-05-11 |archive-date=2008-12-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081228153056/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/schizophrenia/article/10168/1147536 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ili kupunguza matatizo ya ukuaji yanayohusishwa na skizofrenia, hivi karibuni juhudi nyingi zimefanyika ili kutambua na kutibu awamu ya ugonjwa inayotokea kabla ya dalili kuanza. Awamu hii ya “kabla ya mwanzo” imeshatambuliwa hata miezi 30 kabla ya dalili kuanza.<ref name="Addington_et_al_2007">{{cite journal |author=Addington J, Cadenhead KS, Cannon TD, ''et al.''|year=2007|title=North American prodrome longitudinal study: a collaborative multisite approach to prodromal schizophrenia research |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_schizophrenia-bulletin_2007-05_33_3/page/665|journal=[[Schizophrenia Bulletin]] |volume=33 | issue=3 |pages=665–72 |pmid=17255119|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbl075|pmc=2526151}}</ref>Wakati wa awamu ya kabla ya mwanzo, watu ambao hupata skizofrenia baadaye wanaweza kuwa na dalili za muda mrefu au zilizo na kikomo au dalili kuu sana<ref name="Amminger_et_al_2006">{{cite journal |author=Amminger GP, Leicester S, Yung AR, ''et al.'' |year=2006 |title=Early onset of symptoms predicts conversion to non-affective psychosis in ultra-high risk individuals |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_schizophrenia-research_2006-05_84_1/page/67 |journal=[[Schizophrenia Research]] |volume=84 | issue=1 |pages=67–76|pmid=16677803 |doi=10.1016/j.schres.2006.02.018}}</ref>pamoja na dalili zisizo maalum za kujitenga na watu, hasira na hisia za kijumla za kukosa furaha pakubwa <ref name="ParnasJorgensen1989">{{cite journal |author=Parnas J, Jorgensen A |year=1989 |title=Pre-morbid psychopathology in schizophrenia spectrum|journal=[[British Journal of Psychiatry]] |volume=115 |pages=623–7 |pmid=2611591}}</ref> na kuzembea <ref>{{cite book |ref=harv |last=Coyle|first=Joseph |editor1-first=George J |editor1-last=Siegal |editor2-first=R. Wayne |editor2-last=Albers |editor3-first=Scott T |editor3-last=Brady|editor4-first=Donald |editor4-last=Price |title=Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects |url=https://archive.org/details/basicneurochemis0000unse_y3l1 |format=Textbook |edition=7th |year=2006|publisher=Elsevier Academic Press |location=Burlington, MA |isbn=0-12-088397-X |page=[https://archive.org/details/basicneurochemis0000unse_y3l1/page/876 876] |chapter=Chapter 54: The Neurochemistry of Schizophrenia}}</ref>. === Uainishaji wa Schneider === Mtaalamu wa magonjwa ya akili, Kurt Schneider, (aliyezaliwa mwaka wa 1887 na kufariki mwaka wa 1967) aliorodhesha dalili mbalimbali ambazo aliamini ziliwezesha kutofautisha skizofrenia na magonjwa mengine makubwa ya kiakili. Dalili hizi hujulikana kama dalili za kiwango cha kwanza, nazo ni pamoja na imani kuwa kuna nguvu za nje zinazoongoza mtu, kutia au kutoa mawazo katika akili ya mtu au kuwasambazia watu wenginefikira za mtu. Dalili hizi pia huhusisha kusikia sauti zisizokuwepo zinazosema kuhusu fikira au matendo ya mtu au pia kuzungumza na sauti zisizokuwepo.<ref name="SchneiderClinicalPsychopathology">{{cite book|last1=Schneider |first1=K |authorlink1=Kurt Schneider |title=Clinical Psychopathology |url=http://books.google.com/?id=ofzOAAAAMAAJ |edition=5 |year=1959 |publisher=Grune & Stratton |location=New York }}</ref> Dalili hizi za kiwango cha kwanza zimechangia kigezo cha hivi sasa cha kutambua iwapo mtu ana skizofrenia. Hata hivyo, kuna swali, iwapo uwepo au ukosefu wa dalili hizi kwa kweli unaweza kutabiri iwapo mtu ana au hana hali hii. Uhakiki wa utafiti uliofanyika kati ya mwaka wa 1970 na 2005 ulionyesha kuwa utafiti huu haukuthibitisha wala kukanusha madai ya Schneider. Uhakiki huu ulieleza kuwa dalili za kiwango cha kwanza hazifai kutiliwa mkazo sana katika kutambua iwapo mtu ana skizofrenia.<ref name="pmid17562695">{{cite journal |author=Nordgaard J, Arnfred SM, Handest P, Parnas J |title=The diagnostic status of first-rank symptoms |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_schizophrenia-bulletin_2008-01_34_1/page/137 |journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=137–54 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=17562695 |pmc=2632385|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbm044}}</ref> === Dalili chanya na hasi === Mara nyingi skizofrenia huelezewa kwa kurejelea dalili chanya au hasi (punguzi).<ref name="Sims_2002">{{cite book |author=Sims A |title=Symptoms in the mind: an introduction to descriptive psychopathology |url=https://archive.org/details/symptomsinmindin0000sims_o2s8 |publisher=W. B. Saunders|location=Philadelphia |year=2002 |isbn=0-7020-2627-1 }}</ref> Dalili chanya ni zile zisizopatikana katika watu wengi, lakini zipo katika watu walio na skizofrenia. Dalili chanya ni pamoja na fikira zisizo za kawaida ambazo hazieleweki (delusheni). Fikira hizi pamoja na fikira au maneno yasiyo na mpangilio, na pia zinahusisha kuhisi, kusikia, kuona, kunusia au kuonja vitu visivyokuwemo (kuota njozi). Kuota njozi huku huchukuliwa kama dalili za ugonjwa wa akili ambao humzuia mtu kufahamu iwapo hali fulani ni halisi au ni dhana tu<ref>Kneisl C. and Trigoboff E.(2009). Contemporary Psychiatric- Mental Health Nursing. 2nd edition. London Pearson Prentice Ltd. p. 371</ref> na kwa kawaida huhusiana na delusheni za mtu.<ref name=DSM299/> Positive symptoms usually respond well to medication.<ref name=DSM299>American Psychiatric Association. Task Force on DSM-IV. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. American Psychiatric Pub. ISBN 978-0-89042-025-6. p. 299</ref> Dalili hasi ni matendo ambayo watu wengi hutenda au uwezo wanaokuwa nao unaokosekana katika watu walio na skizofrenia. Kwa mfano, ukosefu wa mwitikio wa kawaida wa hisia au michakato ya fikira ni dalili hasi. Dalili hizi haziitikii matibabu vyema .<ref name=CarsonNursing/> Dalili hasi ni pamoja na hisia bapa au hafifu. Dalili hizi pia huhusisha uwezo duni wa kuzungumza. Dalili hizi pia ni pamoja na ukosefu wa uwezo wa kuhisi furaha, ukosefu wa hamu ya kuwa na uhusiano na hata kukosa motisha. Utafiti unadokeza kuwa dalili hasi huchangia sana katika kiwango duni cha maisha, ulemavu wa kiutendaji na kuwategemea watu wengine ikilinganishwa na dalili chanya.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Velligan DI and Alphs LD |title=Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: The Importance of Identification and Treatment |journal=Psychiatric Times |volume=25 |issue=3 |date=March 1, 2008 |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/schizophrenia/article/10168/1147581 |access-date=2013-05-11 |archive-date=2009-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091006015627/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/schizophrenia/article/10168/1147581 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Watu walio na dalili wazi hasi mara nyingi huwa na historia duni ya urekebishaji kabla ya dalili kutokea na mwitikio wao wa matibabu huwa mdogo.<ref name=CarsonNursing/><ref name=AFP10/> == Visababishi == Muungano wa vipengele katika jeni za mtu na mazingira huchangia katika kuendelea kwa skizofrenia.<ref name=Lancet09/><ref name=BMJ07/>Watu walio na historia ya kifamilia ya skizofrenia na pia wanaopata dalili za muda mfupi au zinazogandamiza utendaji wao wana asilimia 20-40 ya kutambuliwa mwaka mmoja baadaye.<ref name="Drake_Lewis_2005">{{cite journal |author=Drake RJ, Lewis SW |title=Early detection of schizophrenia |journal=Current Opinion in Psychiatry|volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=147–50 |year=2005 |month=March |pmid=16639167 |doi=10.1097/00001504-200503000-00007}}</ref> === Vipengele vilivyorithiwa === Makadiro ya iwapo skizofrenia inaweza kurithiwa hutofautiana kwa sababu kutenganisha athari za jeni za mtu na mazingira yake ni jambo gumu.<ref name="ODonovan_et_al_2003">{{cite journal |author=O'Donovan MC, Williams NM, Owen MJ |title=Recent advances in the genetics of schizophrenia|journal=Hum. Mol. Genet. |volume=12 Spec No 2 |pages=R125–33 |year=2003 |month=October |pmid=12952866 |doi=10.1093/hmg/ddg302}}</ref> Hatari iliyo kuu zaidi (asilimia 6.5) ya kuendelea kwa skizofrenia ni kuwa na jamaa wa karibu aliye na hali hii. Mtu aliye na skizofrenia akiwa na ndugu pacha wanaofanana, pacha huyo pia huwa na hali hii katika zaidi ya asilimia 40 ya matukio.<ref name=BMJ07/> Inawezekana kuwa jeni nyingi zinahusika, kila mojawapo kwa kiwango kidogo.<ref name=BMJ07/> Jeni nyingi zinazokisiwa kuhusika zimependekezwa, zikiwemo utofauti katika idadi ya nakala za jeni maalum, jeni aina ya NOTCH4, na eneo la dutu maalumu za kiogani ziitwazo protini histoni.<ref name=Genes10>{{cite journal |author=McLaren JA, Silins E, Hutchinson D, Mattick RP, Hall W |title=Assessing evidence for a causal link between cannabis and psychosis: a review of cohort studies |journal=Int. J. Drug Policy |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=10–9 |year=2010 |month=January|pmid=19783132 |doi=10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.09.001 |url=}}</ref>Idadi fulani ya mahusiano yanayohusisha protini maalumu zinazorithiwa pia zimeonekana kuhusiana na hali hii.<ref>{{cite journal |author=O'Donovan MC, Craddock NJ, Owen MJ |title=Genetics of psychosis; insights from views across the genome |journal=Hum. Genet. |volume=126 |issue=1 |pages=3–12 |year=2009 |month=July |pmid=19521722|doi=10.1007/s00439-009-0703-0}}</ref>Inaonekana kuwa kuna upishano mkuu katika jeni zinazohusiana na skizofrenia na jeni zinazohusiana na maradhi ya hisia mseto (maradhi ya kimihemko yanayohusisha msururu wa mihemko ya juu na ya chini).<ref>{{cite journal | author = Craddock N, Owen MJ | title = The Kraepelinian dichotomy - going, going... But still not gone | journal = The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 196 | pages = 92–95| year = 2010 | doi = 10.1192/bjp.bp.109.073429 | pmid=20118450 | pmc=2815936}}</ref> Ikichukuliwa kuwa skizofrenia inaweza kurithiwa, swali moja ni, ni kwa nini jeni zinazoongeza uwezekano wa dalili kuu zinaweza kufuka. Kufuka kwa hali kama hii si rahisi kutokea. Nadharia moja inagusia jeni zinazohusika katika kufuka kwa lugha na mienendo ya kizazi. Hata hivyo, nadharia zote zimethibitishwa kuwa za uongo au zisizoweza kutibitishwa.<ref name="pmid18502103">{{cite journal |author=Crow TJ|title=The 'big bang' theory of the origin of psychosis and the faculty of language |journal=[[Schizophrenia Research]] |volume=102 |issue=1–3|pages=31–52 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18502103 |doi=10.1016/j.schres.2008.03.010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Clinical Handbook of Schizophrenia|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalhandbook00mues|year=2008|isbn=1593856520|pages=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalhandbook00mues/page/n43 22]–23|author=Mueser KT, Jeste DV|publisher=Guilford Press|location=New York}}</ref> === Vipengele vya kimazingira === Vipengele vya kimazingira vinavyohusiana na kuendelea kwa skizofrenia ni pamoja na mazingira anayoishi mtu, utumiaji wa madawa na dhiki ya kabla ya kuzaliwa.<ref name=Lancet09/>Mitindo ya kimalezi inaonekana kutokuwa na athari zozote, ingawa watu walio na wazazi wanaowasaidia hufaulu zaidi ya wale walio na wazazi wasiowasaidia.<ref name=BMJ07/> Kuishi katika mazingira ya miji wakati wa utotoni au utu uzima kumethibitishwa kuongezea hatari ya skizofrenia kwa kigawe cha mbili.<ref name=Lancet09/><ref name=BMJ07/> Hii ni kweli hata baada ya kujumlisha utumizi wa dawa, kabila na ukubwa wa kikundi cha kimahusiano.<ref name="fn_19">{{cite journal |author=[[Jim van Os|Van Os J]] |year=2004 |title=Does the urban environment cause psychosis?|journal=[[British Journal of Psychiatry]] |volume=184 | issue=4 |pages=287–288 |pmid=15056569 |doi=10.1192/bjp.184.4.287}}</ref> Vipengele vingine vinavyochangia pakubwa ni pamoja na iwapo mtu anahisi kutengwa kimausiano pamoja na matatizo ya kimahusiano, ubaguzi wa rangi, kusambaratika kwa mifumo ya kijamii, ukosefu wa kazi na hali duni ya makao.<ref name=BMJ07/><ref name="Selten_et_al_2007">{{cite journal |author=Selten JP, Cantor-Graae E, Kahn RS|year=2007 |month=March |title=Migration and schizophrenia |journal=Current Opinion in Psychiatry |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=111–115 |pmid=17278906|doi=10.1097/YCO.0b013e328017f68e}}</ref> Kuna ushahidi kuwa matukio ya utotoni ya dhuluma au kiwewe ni vipengele vya hatari ya kuwa na skizofrenia baadaye katika maisha.<ref>{{cite journal |authors=Larkin W, Read J |title=Childhood trauma and psychosis: evidence, pathways, and implications|journal=J Postgrad Med |year=2008 |volume=54 |pages=287-293 |pmid=18953148 |url=http://www.jpgmonline.com/text.asp?2008/54/4/287/41437}}</ref> ==== Madawa ya kulevya ==== Dawa za aina tofauti zimehusishwa na uendeleaji wa skizofrenia.<ref name=BMJ07/>Takriban nusu ya watu walio na skizofrenia hutumia madawa ya kulevya au pombe kwa wingi.<ref name="Gregg_et_al_2007"/> Bangi (pia inayojulikana kama cannabis) inaweza kuwa kisababishi cha hali hii.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Large|first=M|coauthors=Sharma, S, Compton, MT, Slade, T, Nielssen, O|title=Cannabis Use and Earlier Onset of Psychosis: A Systematic Meta-analysis.|journal=Archives of general psychiatry|date=2011 Feb 7|pmid=21300939}}</ref> Hata hivyo, madawa mengiine yanaweza kutumiwa tu kama taratibu za kukabiliana na dhiki, wasiwasi, upweke au ukosefu wa mostisha.<ref name="Gregg_et_al_2007">{{cite journal |author=Gregg L, Barrowclough C, Haddock G |year=2007 |title= Reasons for increased substance use in psychosis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-psychology-review_2007-05_27_4/page/494 |journal= Clin Psychol Rev |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=494–510|pmid=17240501 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2006.09.004}}</ref><ref name=Leweke08/> Bangi inahusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya kuwa na ugonjwa mkuu wa akili kulingana na jinsi mtu alivyoitumia dawa hii mara nyingi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moore THM, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A ''et al.'' |year=2007 |title= Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review |journal=Lancet |volume=370 |issue=9584 |pages=319–328 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3|pmid=17662880}}</ref> Kutumia bangi kila mara kumehusishwa na hatari ya mara mbili ya kupata ugonjwa mkuu wa akili na skizofrenia.<ref name=Leweke08>{{cite journal|author=Leweke FM, Koethe D |title=Cannabis and psychiatric disorders: it is not only addiction |journal=Addict Biol |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=264–75|year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18482435 |doi=10.1111/j.1369-1600.2008.00106.x |url=}}</ref> Hata hivyo, kisababishi cha uhusiano huu kimetiliwa shaka na hivyo kukumbwa na utata.<ref name="Genes10"/><ref name="Degenhardt2003">{{Cite pmid|12821204}}</ref><ref name="Amar2007">{{Cite pmid|17703707}}</ref>Madawa ya kulevya, na kwa kiwango kidogo pombe, yanaweza kupelekea dalili zinazojitokeza kama skizofrenia.<ref name=BMJ07/><ref name=alcohol>{{cite web|url=http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3113.htm |title=Alcohol-Related Psychosis |accessdate=September 27, 2006 |author=Larson, Michael |date=2006-03-30 |work=eMedicine |publisher=WebMD}}</ref>Utumizi wa tumbako hauonekani kusababisha skizofrenia. Hata hivyo, watu walio na skizofrenia, kama kikundi, hutumia tumbako kwa kiwango cha juu sana kuliko idadi ya kijumla ya watu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Sagud|first=M|coauthors=Mihaljević-Peles, A, Mück-Seler, D, Pivac, N, Vuksan-Cusa, B, Brataljenović, T, Jakovljević, M|title=Smoking and schizophrenia.|journal=Psychiatria Danubina|date=2009 Sep|volume=21|issue=3|pages=371–5|pmid=19794359}}</ref> ==== Vipengele vya kabla ya kuzaliwa ==== Vipengele kama kukoseshwa oksijeni, maambukizi au dhiki na mama kukosa virutubishi wakati wa ujauzito, ni mambo yanayoweza kusababisha ongezeko ndogo la kiwango cha hatari ya kupata skizofrenia baadaye katika maisha.<ref name=Lancet09/> Watu walio na skizofrenia wako na uwezekano kuwa walizaliwa katika majira ya baridi au ya joto (angalau katika nusu ya kusini mwa dunia). Hii inaweza kulinganishwa na viwango vya juu vya kukumbana na virusi kabla ya kuzaliwa.<ref name=BMJ07/> Tofauti hii ni takriban asilimia 5 hadi 8.<ref name=yolken>{{cite journal|journal=Herpes |year=2004 |volume=11 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=83A–88A |month=Jun |title=Viruses and schizophrenia: a focus on herpes simplex virus.|url=http://www.stanleylab.org/publications/VIRUSES.asp |author=Yolken R. |pmid=15319094}}</ref> == Utaratibu wa utendakazi == Juhudi nyingi zimefanywa ili kueleza uhusiano uliopo kati ya utendakazi mbadilifu wa ubongo na skizofrenia.<ref name=Lancet09/> Mojawapo ya juhudi hizi hujulikana kama "nadharia tete ya dopamini". Wazo hili hudokeza kuwa dalili kali za kiakili huhusiana na akili kufasili vibaya uchochezi duni wa seli fulani za neva zinazotolesha kemikali ya dopamini.<ref name=Lancet09/> === Utaratibu wa utendakazi wa akili === Taratibu nyingi za utendakazi wa akili zimehusishwa na uendeleaji na udhibiti wa skizofrenia. Utambuzi mpotovu wa uhasilia, hasa wakati wa dhiki au katika hali zinazochanganya, umetambuliwa katika watu walio na skizofrenia au walio katika hatari ya kuwa na hali hii.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Broome MR, Woolley JB, Tabraham P, ''et al.'' |title=What causes the onset of psychosis? |journal=Schizophr. Res. |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=23–34 |year=2005 |month=November|pmid=16198238 |doi=10.1016/j.schres.2005.02.007}}</ref>Baadhi ya dalili zinazohusisha uwezo wa kufikiria zinaweza kuonyesha matatizo kama vile kupoteza kumbukumbu. Dalili zingine zinaweza kuhusiana na mambo fulani au matukio.<ref name="Bentall_et_al_2007">{{cite journal |author=Bentall RP, Fernyhough C, Morrison AP, Lewis S, Corcoran R |year=2007 |title=Prospects for a cognitive-developmental account of psychotic experiences |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-clinical-psychology_2007-06_46_2/page/155 |journal=Br J Clin Psychol|volume=46 | issue=Pt 2 |pages=155–73 |pmid=17524210 | doi = 10.1348/014466506X123011}}</ref><ref name="Kurtz_2005">{{cite journal |author=Kurtz MM|year=2005 |title=Neurocognitive impairment across the lifespan in schizophrenia: an update |journal=[[Schizophrenia Research]] |volume=74 | issue=1|pages=15–26 |pmid=15694750 |doi=10.1016/j.schres.2004.07.005}}</ref> Licha ya ushahidi wa kutokuwepo kwa mwitikio wa kihisia, matokeo ya hivi majuzi ya utafiti yamenyeosha kuwa watu wengi walio na skizofrenia huwa na mwitikio wa kihisia. Watu hawa hasa wanaonekana wenye mwitikio dhidi ya vipengele hasi au vya kudhikisha. Usikivu kama huu unaweza kusababisha hatarisho la dalili au hali hiyo. <ref name="schizophrenia1">{{cite journal |author=Cohen AS, Docherty NM |year=2004 |title=Affective reactivity of speech and emotional experience in patients with schizophrenia |journal=[[Schizophrenia Research]] |volume=69 | issue=1 |pages=7–14 |pmid=15145465 |doi=10.1016/S0920-9964(03)00069-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Horan WP, Blanchard JJ |year=2003 |title=Emotional responses to psychosocial stress in schizophrenia: the role of individual differences in affective traits and coping |journal=[[Schizophrenia Research]] |volume=60 | issue=2–3 |pages=271–83 |pmid=12591589|doi=10.1016/S0920-9964(02)00227-X}}</ref> Ushahidi mwingine unadokeza kuwa maudhui ya delusheni na dalili zinginezo yanaweza kuonyesha kisababishi cha kihisia cha hali hii. Ushahidi huu unadokeza kuwa jinsi mtu anavyotafsiri matukio kama hayo ni jambo linaloweza kuathiri dalili zao.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Smith B, Fowler DG, Freeman D, ''et al.'' |title=Emotion and psychosis: links between depression, self-esteem, negative schematic beliefs and delusions and hallucinations |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_schizophrenia-research_2006-09_86_1-3/page/181 |journal=Schizophr. Res. |volume=86 |issue=1–3 |pages=181–8 |year=2006 |month=September |pmid=16857346|doi=10.1016/j.schres.2006.06.018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Beck, AT |year=2004 |title=A Cognitive Model of Schizophrenia |journal=Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy |volume=18 | issue=3 |pages=281–88 | doi = 10.1891/jcop.18.3.281.65649}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bell V, Halligan PW, Ellis HD |year=2006 |title=Explaining delusions: a cognitive perspective |journal=[[Trends (journals)|Trends in Cognitive Science]] |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=219–26 |pmid=16600666 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2006.03.004}}</ref> Uwepo wa mienendo fulani ili kuepuka hatari zinazodhaniwa kuwepo unaweza kuchangia katika muda ambao delusheni itadumu na idadi ya marejeo.<ref name="Freeman_BRT_2007">{{cite journal |author=Freeman D, Garety PA, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Bebbington PE, Dunn G |title=Acting on persecutory delusions: the importance of safety seeking |journal=Behav Res Ther |volume=45 |issue=1|pages=89–99 |year=2007 |month=January |pmid=16530161 |doi=10.1016/j.brat.2006.01.014 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_behaviour-research-and-therapy_2007-01_45_1/page/89}}</ref> Ushahidi zaidi wa jukumu la utaratibu wa kiakili hutokana na jinsi therapi ya kiakili inavyoathiri dalili za skizofrenia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kuipers E, Garety P, Fowler D, Freeman D, Dunn G, Bebbington P |title=Cognitive, emotional, and social processes in psychosis: refining cognitive behavioral therapy for persistent positive symptoms |journal=Schizophr Bull |volume=32 Suppl 1 |pages=S24–31 |year=2006 |month=October |pmid=16885206 |pmc=2632539|doi=10.1093/schbul/sbl014 }}</ref> === Utaratibu wa utendakazi wa neva === Watu walio na skizofrenia wana mabadiliko ya muundo na kemia ya akili. <ref name=Lancet09/>Utafiti unaotumia upimaji wa akili na picha za kiteknolojia kuchunguza tofauti za kiutendaji katika akili umeonyesha kuwa tofauti zinaonekana kutokea, kwa kawaida, katika sehemu za akili zinazodhibiti kumbukumbu, utaratibu, hisia, lugha na udhibiti wa mienendo ya kichocheo.<ref>{{cite book |year=2006 |author=Kircher, Tilo and Renate Thienel |title=The Boundaries of Consciousness |isbn=0444528768|page=302 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=YHGacGKyVbYC&pg=PA302 |chapter=Functional brain imaging of symptoms and cognition in schizophrenia|publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam}}</ref> Licha ya kuwa mdogo kuliko ulio katika ugonjwa wa akili wa Alzheimer, kuna upungufu wa ukubwa wa akili uliotambuliwa katika koteksi ya mbele na dewe za muda (sehemu maalum za ubongo). Haijulikani wazi kama mabadiliko haya ya ukubwa ni mabadiliko endelevu au huwepo tu kabla ya dalili za hali hii kuonekana. <ref>{{harvnb|Coyle|2006|p=878}}</ref>Tofauti hizi zimelinganishwa na kupunguliwa kiakili ambako mara nyingi huhusishwa na skizofrenia.<ref name="Green2006">{{cite journal |author=Green kiasiMF |year=2006 |title=Cognitive impairment and functional outcome in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder|journal=Journal of Clinical Psychiatry |volume=67 | issue=Suppl 9 |pages=3–8 |pmid=16965182}}</ref>Kwa sababu saketi fulani za neva huwa zimegeuzwa, wataalamu wanapendekeza kuwa skizofrenia inafaa kutambuliwa kama mkusanyiko wa hali za kimatibabu zinazohusiana kwa karibu badala ya kutambuliwa kama hali moja.<ref name=Insel_2010>{{cite journal |author=Insel TR |title=Rethinking schizophrenia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2010-11-11_468_7321/page/186 |journal=Nature |volume=468 |issue=7321 |pages=187–93 |year=2010|month=November |pmid=21068826 |doi=10.1038/nature09552 }}</ref> Uangalifu wa kipekee umepewa utendakazi wa kemikali aina ya dopamini katika ubongo. Lengo hili lilitokana na matokeo ya kiajali ya utafiti yaliyoonyesha kuwa mchanganyiko wa elementi wa kiogani wa aina ya phenothiazine, inayozuia utendakazi wa dopamine,inaweza kupunguza dalili kali za skizofrenia. Isitoshe, dawa zingine changamshi zinazochochea kuzalishwa kwa dopamine zinaweza kufanya dalili kali za skizofrenia kuwa mbaya zaidi.<ref name="Laruelle_et_al_1996">{{cite journal |author=Laruelle M, Abi-Dargham A, van Dyck CH, ''et al.'' |title=Single photon emission computerized tomography imaging of amphetamine-induced dopamine release in drug-free schizophrenic subjects |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=93 |issue=17 |pages=9235–40 |year=1996|month=August |pmid=8799184 |pmc=38625 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.93.17.9235}}</ref> ''Nadharia tete yenye ushawishi ya athari ya dopamine'' ya skizofrenia ilipendekeza kuwa kiwango kikubwa cha uwezeshaji wa ncha fulani za neva zinazopokea dopamine husababisha dalili hasi za skizofrenia. Dhana hii ilipendekezwa miaka 20 iliyopita kulingana na ukweli kuwa dawa zinazotibu dalili mbaya zaidi au hatari huzuia dopamine. Katikati mwa miaka ya 1990, utafiti wa kipicha ulitoa ushahidi wa kuegemeza dhana hii. Nadharia tete ya dopamine sasa inadhaniwa kuwa rahisi sana. Hii ni kwa sababu, kwa upande mmoja, dawa mpya zaidi, zisizokuwa za kawaida (''zinazojulikana kama dawa zisizo za kawaida za kuzuia magonjwa ya akili'') zinaweza kufanya kazi vyema sawasawa na zile za hapo awali. Hii ni kweli hata ingawa dawa hizi mpya zaidi pia huathiri utendakazi wa kemikali aina ya serotonin na pia zinaweza kuzuia kiasi kidogo zaidi cha dopinine.<ref name="JonesPilowsky2002">{{cite journal |author=Jones HM, Pilowsky LS |year=2002 |title=Dopamine and antipsychotic drug action revisited |journal=[[British Journal of Psychiatry]]|volume=181 |pages=271–275 |pmid=12356650 |doi=10.1192/bjp.181.4.271}}</ref> Utafiti pia umelenga glutamate, kemikali inayobeba mawasiliano kati ya neva na ncha za neva ambapo mawasiliano haya hupokewa. Utafiti huu, kwa kiwango kikubwa, ni kwa sababu kiwango kidogo cha ncha hizi za neva hupatikana baada ya kifo, katika ubongo wa watu waliokuwa na skizofrenia<ref name="fn_27">{{cite journal |author=Konradi C, Heckers S |year=2003 |title=Molecular aspects of glutamate dysregulation: implications for schizophrenia and its treatment |journal=Pharmacology and Therapeutics |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=153–79 |pmid=12559388|doi=10.1016/S0163-7258(02)00328-5 }}</ref> na utambuzi kuwa dawa zinazozuia glutamate zinaweza kusababisha dalili na matatizo ya kusoma zinazofanana na dalili za skizofrenia.<ref name="fn_59">{{cite journal |author=Lahti AC, Weiler MA, Tamara Michaelidis BA, Parwani A, Tamminga CA |year=2001 |title=Effects of ketamine in normal and schizophrenic volunteers |journal=[[Neuropsychopharmacology]] |volume=25|issue=4 |pages=455–67 |pmid=11557159 |doi=10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00243-3 }}</ref>Utendakazi uliopunguka wa glutamate unahusishwa na utendaji mbaya wa vipimo vinavyohitaji utaratibu na kumbukumbu. Glutamate pia inaweza kuathiri utendakazi wa dopamini. Ukweli huu unapendekeza kuwa njia za glutamate zinaweza kuwa na jukumu muhimu katika hali hii.<ref name="fn_28">{{cite journal |author=Coyle JT, Tsai G, Goff D |year=2003 |title=Converging evidence of NMDA receptor hypofunction in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia |journal=Annals of the [[New York Academy of Sciences]] |volume=1003 |pages=318–27 |pmid=14684455 |doi=10.1196/annals.1300.020}}</ref> Hata hivyo, dalili chanya hukataa kuitikia dawa zinazoathiri glutamate.<ref name="fn_60">{{cite journal |author=Tuominen HJ, Tiihonen J, Wahlbeck K |year=2005 |title=Glutamatergic drugs for schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=[[Schizophrenia Research]] |volume=72 |pages=225–34 |pmid=15560967|doi=10.1016/j.schres.2004.05.005 |issue=2–3}}</ref> {{clear}} == Utambuzi == [[Picha:John Forbes Nash, Jr. by Peter Badge.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Forbes Nash|John Nash]], a U.S. [[mathematician]] and joint winner of the 1994 [[Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences|Nobel Prize for Economics]], who had schizophrenia. His life has been the subject of the 2001 [[Academy Award]]-winning film ''[[A Beautiful Mind (film)|A Beautiful Mind]]''.]] Utaratibu wa [[DSM-IV]]-TR au [[ICD-10]] hutumika kuthibitisha iwapo mtu ana skizofrenia.<ref name=Lancet09/>Taratibu hizi hutumia matukio yaliyoripotiwa na mtu binafsi na mambo yasiyo ya kawaida yanayotambuliwa katika mwenendo wa mtu, huku yakifuatiwa na utambuzi wa kimatibabu unaofanywa na mtaalamu wa nyanja za afya ya akili. Dalili zinazohusishwa na skizofrenia hutokea katika [[wigo]] wa idadi ya watu. Mtu anaweza kutambulika kuwa na ugonjwa huu iwapo tu dalili ni hatari sana.<ref name=BMJ07/> Kufikia mwaka wa 2009, hakuna kipimo cha kimalengo cha kuamua ikiwa mtu ana hali hii.<ref name=Lancet09/> === Utaratibu wa utambuzi === Utaratibu wa aina ya [[ICD-10]], kwa kawaida hutumika katika nchi za Uropa. Utaratibu wa aina ya DSM-IV-TR hutumika [[Marekani]] na kote ulimwenguni. Utaratibu wa aina ya DSM-IV-TR hutumika zaidi katika utafiti. Utaratibu wa aina ya ICD-10 ulisisitiza sana dalili kuu za aina ya Schneideria. Kiutendaji, utangamano kati ya mifumo hii miwili ni wa kiwango cha juu.<ref name="Jakobsen_et_al_2005">{{cite journal |author=Jakobsen KD, Frederiksen JN, Hansen T, ''et al.'' |year=2005 |title=Reliability of clinical ICD-10 schizophrenia diagnoses |journal=Nordic Journal of Psychiatry |volume=59 | issue=3 |pages=209–12 |pmid=16195122 | doi = 10.1080/08039480510027698}}</ref> Kulingana na tafsiri ya nne iliyodurusiwa ya DSM-IV-TR, ni sharti mtu atimize taratibu tatu, (zinazojulikana kama "utaratibu wa kiutambuzi") ili itambuliwe kama ana skizofrenia:<ref name="DSM-IV-TR" /> # Dalili bainifu: Mojawapo au mbili kati ya dalili hizi ni sharti ziwepo kwa wakati mwingi katika kipindi cha mwezi mmoja (au chini ya mwezi, ikiwa dalili zilitolewa kufuatia matibabu): #* Delusheni #* Kuota njozi #* Matatizo ya kimazungumzo, ambayo ni ishara ya matatizo ya fikira. #* Mwenendo uliotatizika pakubwa (kama vile kuvaa kiholela au kulia kila mara) au mwenendo wa [[katatonia|kikatatonia]] au (pigwa na bumbuwazi) #* Dalili hasi kama vile kutopata mwitikio wa kihisia au kiwango cha chini cha mwitikio wa hisia, uwezo wa kuzungumza au motisha. #: Iwapo delusheni ni za kutisha au ikiwa mtu huyu anasikia sauti moja inayoendelea kumwelekeza kuhusu matendo ya mtu huyu au anasikia sauti mbili au zaidi zikijibizana, basi ni dalili hii pekee (delusheni au kuota njozi) inayohitajika. Utaratibu kuhusu matatizo ya uwezo wa kuzungumza hufikiwa iwapo tu utaratibu huu ni hatari kiasi cha kuathiri mawasiliano vibaya au kwa kiwango kikubwa. # Matatizo ya kijamii au kikazi: Katika sehemu kubwa ya muda baada ya dalili kuanza, eneo moja au maeneo mengi ya utendakazi kama vile kazi, mahusiano, utunzaji wa kibinafsi, huwa chini sana ya kiwango alichofikia mtu hapo awali. # Kipindi muhimu: Dalili zinazoendelea za usumbufu huu huendelea kwa angalau miezi sita. Kipindi hiki cha miezi sita ni sharti kijumuishe angalau mwezi mmoja wa dalili (au chini ya mwezi, ikiwa dalili zitaondolewa kufuatia matibabu). Ikiwa dalili za usumbufu zinaonekana kwa zaidi ya mwezi mmoja lakini chini ya miezi sita, basi utambuzi wa hali kama ile ya skizofrenia (inayoitwa “matatizo ya kiskizofrenia”) hutambuliwa.<ref name="DSM-IV-TR">{{cite book |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV |author=American Psychiatric Association |publisher=American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc. |location=Washington, DC |year=2000 |chapter=Schizophrenia |chapterurl=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/schiz.htm |isbn=0-89042-024-6 |accessdate=2008-07-04 |archive-date=2008-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611030258/http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/schiz.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref>Dalili hatari za ugonjwa wa akili zinazodumu kwa chini ya mwezi mmoja zinaweza kutambuliwa kama ugonjwa wa akili wa muda mfupi, na hali tofauti zinaweza kuainishwa kama "tatizo la kiakili ambalo halijatambulika" (ugonjwa wa akili ambao haujapewa jina maalum). Skizofrenia haiwezi kutambuliwa iwapo dalili za tatizo la kimihemko linatambulika kuwepo kwa kiwango cha juu (ingawa tatizo la mathara ya kiakili linaweza kutambuliwa). Hali hii haiwezi kutambuliwa ikiwa dalili za matatizo yaliyoenea ya kiukuaji zipo, isipokuwa delusheni kuu au hali ya kuota njozi pia ipo au dalili zimesababishwa na hali ya kijumla ya kimatibabu au kiini kama vile [[kutumia madawa ya kulevya]]. === Aina ndogo === DSM-IV-TR ina aina tano ndogo za skizofrenia, ingawa watengenezaji wa toleo linalofuata la DSM, DSM-5 wamependekeza aina hizi ndogo kukoma kutolewa:<ref>[[American Psychiatric Association]] DSM-5 Work Groups (2010)[http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevisions/Pages/SchizophreniaandOtherPsychoticDisorders.aspx Proposed Revisions – Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders]. Retrieved 17 February 2010.</ref><ref name=WHOICD/> * Aina ndogo za paranoia: Delusheni au kuota njozi kwa kusikia sauti huwepo. Hata hivyo, aina ya matatizo ya kifikira, mienendo isiyo na utaratibu au ukosefu wa mwitikio wa hisia yote hazipo. Delusheni huhusisha kudhani kuwa kuna mtu anayejaribu kumuumiza mgonjwa huyu au kuwa tata sana. Mawazo mengine kama wivu, imani kuu sana ya kidini au maumivu ya kimwili yanaweza kuwepo(DSM code 295.3/ICD code F20.0). * Aina ndogo zisizo na utaratibu maalum: Aina hii ndogo imepewa jina “skizofrenia hebafreniki” katika ICD. Matatizo ya kimawazo na pia ukosefu wa mwitikio wa kihisia huwepo.(DSM code 295.1/ICD code F20.1). * Aina ndogo ya katatonia: Mtu aliye na hali hii anaweza kuduwaa au kudhihirisha ukosefu wa utulivu, au miendo isiyo na kusudi. Dalili zake zinaweza kuhusisha kufanya mambo kana kwamba amepigwa na bumbuwazi, au mgonjwa anaweza kuwaruhusu watu wengine bila kukusudia, waiweke miguu na mikono yake katika hali fulani, kisha aikalishe katika hali hiyo (DSM code 295.2/ICD code F20.2). * Aina ndogo zisizotofautishwa: Dalili hatari za kiakili zipo lakini utaratibu wa wazimu, ukosefu wa mpangilio au katatonia ungali haujapatikana (DSM code 295.9/ICD code F20.3). * Aina ndogo zilizobakia: Dalili chanya huwepo katika kiwango cha chini pekee (DSM code 295.6/ICD code F20.5). Aina ya ICD-10 hueleza aina zingine mbili ndogo:<ref name=WHOICD>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/GRNBOOK.pdf |title=The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders |format=pdf |work=World Health Organization |page=26}}</ref> * Mfadhaiko wa baada ya skizofrenia: Watu wanaweza kuwa na dalili ndogo za skizofrenia na kuwa na [[mfadhaiko]] baada ya aina mojawapo ya zile aina tano ndogo. (ICD code F20.4). * Skizofrenia ya kawaida: Dalili hatari hasi huongezeka polepole baada ya muda, bila kuwepo kwa historia ya matukio ya ugonjwa hatari wa akili (ICD code F20.6). === Magonjwa mengine === Dalili hatari za ugonjwa wa akili zinaweza kuwepo katika matatizo mengine ya akili ikiwa ni pamoja na matatizo yanayohusishwa na utumizi wa madawa. Delusheni zisizokuwa za kutisha na kujitenga na watu pia zinaweza kuwa dalili za hali zingine. Skizofrenia hutokea ikiambatana na [[hali shurutishi shikilizi]] (pia inayoitwa OCD, tatizi inayofanya mtu kushikilia sana mawazo au matendo fulani) inatojirudia mara nyingi zaidi ya inavyoweza kudhaniwa kuwa ya kibahati tu. Hata hivyo, kutofautisha tamaa zinazotokea katika OCD kutokana na delusheni za skizofrenia ni jambo linaloweza kuwa vigumu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bottas A |title=Comorbidity Schizophrenia With Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder |journal=Psychiatric Times |volume=26 |issue=4|date=April 15, 2009 |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1402540 }}</ref> Uchunguzi wa kijumla zaidi unaweza kuhitajika ili kuthibitisha kuwa hakuna magonjwa mengine yaliyo na dalil kama za skizofrenia. Magonjwa mengine yanayohitaji kuchunguzwa ni pamoja na deliriamu, ambayo ni hali inayohusisha njozi ya kimaono inayotokea ghafla, na mshuko [ufahamu na ambao unaweza kuashiria ugonjwa fiche wa kimatibabu. Ni nadra sana kwa uchunguzi kurudiwa baada ya ugonjwa kutokea kwa mara ya kwanza, iwapo hautakuwa umesababishwa na hali maalum ya kimatibabu au athari mbaya ya dawa. == Kinga == Hakuna ushahidi unaoonyesha manufaa ya matibabu ya mapema.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Marshall M, Rathbone J |title=Early intervention for psychosis |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=4 |pages=CD004718 |year=2006 |pmid=17054213 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004718.pub2|url=}}</ref>Ingawa kuna ushahidi mdogo unaoonyesha kuwa matibabu ya mapema ya watu walio na maradhi makali ya ugonjwa wa akili yanaweza kuboresha matokeo ya muda mfupi, vipimo hivi vimeonyesha manufaa madogo sana miaka 5 baadaye.<ref name=Lancet09/>Kujaribu kuzuia skizofrenia katika kipindi cha kabla ya ugonjwa huu kuanza ni hatua ambayo manufaa yake hayajulikani vyema, na hivyo (haipendekezwi (kufikia mwaka wa 2009).<ref>{{cite journal |author=de Koning MB, Bloemen OJ, van Amelsvoort TA, ''et al.'' |title=Early intervention in patients at ultra high risk of psychosis: benefits and risks |journal=Acta Psychiatr Scand |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=426–42|year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19392813 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01372.x |url=}}</ref>Ni vigumu kuzuia ugonjwa huu kwa sababu hakuna viashirizi vya hali yake ya baadaye.<ref name="Cannon_et_al_2007">{{cite journal |author=Cannon TD, Cornblatt B, McGorry P |title=The empirical status of the ultra high-risk (prodromal) research paradigm |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_schizophrenia-bulletin_2007-05_33_3/page/661 |journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=661–4 |year=2007 |month=May|pmid=17470445 |doi=10.1093/schbul/sbm031 |pmc=2526144}}</ref> == Udhibiti == Matibabu ya kimsingi ya skizofrenia ni yale ya kukabiliana na dalili kali za kiakili. Matibabu haya mara nyingi hufanyika sambamba na usaidizi wa kiakili na kijamii.<ref name=Lancet09/>Iwapo mgonjwa ana maradhi makali ya ugonjwa huu, anaweza kulazwa hospitalini, aidha kwa idhini yake (au, iwapo ni halali, bila idhini yake). Wagonjwa hawajakuwa wakilazwa hospitalini tangu miaka ya 1950, ingawa wangali wanalazwa.<ref name="BeckerKilian2006" />Huduma saidizi za kijamii, ikiwemo huduma ya vituo vidogo, ziara za washiriki wa kikundi cha kijamii cha afya ya kiakili, ajira saidizi<ref>{{cite journal | author = McGurk SR, Mueser KT, Feldman K, Wolfe R, Pascaris A | title = Cognitive training for supported employment: 2–3 year outcomes of a randomized controlled trial. | journal = American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 164 | issue = 3 | pages = 437–41 | month = Mar | year = 2007 | url = http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/164/3/437 | doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.164.3.437 | pmid = 17329468 | access-date = 2013-05-11 | archive-date = 2007-03-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070303025101/http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/164/3/437 | url-status = dead }}</ref>, na vikundi saidizi hutumika mara nyingi. Sehemu fulani ya ushahidi inaonyesha kuwa mazoezi ya mwili ya kila mara huboresha afya ya kimwili na kiakili ya wagonjwa wa skizofrenia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gorczynski P, Faulkner G |title=Exercise therapy for schizophrenia |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|issue=5 |pages=CD004412 |year=2010 |pmid=20464730 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004412.pub2 |url=}}</ref> === Matibabu === [[Picha:Risperdal tablets.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Risperidone]] (trade name Risperdal) is a common [[atypical antipsychotic]] medication.]] Matibabu ya kimsingi ya skizofrenia ni matumizi ya dawa ,<ref name="fn_72">{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG82FullGuideline.pdf |format=PDF|title=Schizophrenia: Full national clinical guideline on core interventions in primary and secondary care |accessdate=2009-11-25 |author=National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health |date=2009-03-25 |home=Gaskell and the British Psychological Society}}</ref> ambayo yanaweza kupunguza dalili mbaya kwa kati ya siku 7 na 14. Hata hivyo, matibabu hukosa pakubwa kukabiliana na dalili mbaya au walio na matatizo ya kufikiria.<ref name=AFP10/><ref name="pmid18291627">{{cite journal |author=Tandon R, Keshavan MS, Nasrallah HA |title=Schizophrenia, "Just the Facts": what we know in 2008 part 1: overview |journal=[[Schizophrenia Research]] |volume=100|issue=1–3 |pages=4–19 |year=2008 |month=March |pmid=18291627 |doi=10.1016/j.schres.2008.01.022|url=http://download.journals.elsevierhealth.com/pdfs/journals/0920-9964/PIIS0920996408000716.pdf| formt=PDF}}</ref> Uamuzi kuhusu matibabu yatakayotumiwa hutegemea manufaa, hatari na gharama. <ref name=Lancet09/>Utata ungalipo kuhusu matibabu yaliyo bora kati ya yale ya kivikundi, ya kawaida au yasiyo ya kawaida ya kizuia magonjwa ya akili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kane JM, Correll CU |title=Pharmacologic treatment of schizophrenia |journal=Dialogues Clin Neurosci |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=345–57 |year=2010 |pmid=20954430}}</ref>Aina zote za matibabu zina viwango sawa vya wagonjwa kusitisha matibabu na kurejea kwa dalili wakati aina za kawaida za matibabu zimetumika kwa vipimo vya wastani.<ref name=AFP07>{{cite journal |author=Schultz SH, North SW, Shields CG|title=Schizophrenia: a review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2007-06-15_75_12/page/n88|journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=75 |issue=12 |pages=1821–9 |year=2007 |month=June |pmid=17619525}}</ref>Asilimia 40-50 ya watu huitikia matibabu vyema, asilimia 30-40 huwa na mwitikio nusu huku asilimia 20 wakiwa na mwitikio usiotosheleza (baada ya wiki 6 za kutumia aina 2 au 3 za matibabu).<ref name=AFP10/>Matibabu yanayojulikana kama clozapine ni mwafaka kwa watu wasionufaika na matibabu mengine ingawa yanaweza kupunguza idadi ya seli nyeupe za damu (ambayo ni madhara makuu mbadala) katika asilimia 1 - 4 ya watu wanaoyatumia.<ref name=Lancet09/><ref name=BMJ07/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Wahlbeck K, Cheine MV, Essali A |title=Clozapine versus typical neuroleptic medication for schizophrenia|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=2 |pages=CD000059 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. |year=2007 |pmid=10796289|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000059}}</ref> Dawa za kawaida za kuzuia magonjwa ya akili huhusishwa na viwango vya juu vya miendo au matendohiari yasiyoweza kudhitiwa. Dawa za kawaida za kuzuia magonjwa ya akili huhusishwa na viwango vya juu vya kuongezeka kwa uzito wa mwili, kisukari na hatari ya kupata usumbufu wa umetaboli, ambalo ni tatizo linaloweza kuongeza hatari ya matatizo ya moyo na maradhi mengine makali.<ref name=AFP07/>Dawa za kawaida za kuzuia magonjwa ya akili huwa na athari chache mbadala za aina ya kwanza. Hata hivyo, tofauti hizi ni chache.<ref name=WPA08>{{cite journal |author=Tandon R, Belmaker RH, Gattaz WF, ''et al.'' |title=World Psychiatric Association Pharmacopsychiatry Section statement on comparative effectiveness of antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia |journal=Schizophr. Res.|volume=100 |issue=1–3 |pages=20–38 |year=2008 |month=March |pmid=18243663 |doi=10.1016/j.schres.2007.11.033}}</ref> Baadhi ya dawa za kawaida za kuzuia magonjwa ya akili huhusishwa na hatari zaidi ya kifo kuliko dawa zingine; clozapine huhusishwa na viwango vya chini zaidi vya kifo.<ref name=Mort09/>Haijulikani bayana iwapo dawa za kisasa hupunguza uwezekano wa kupata matatizo nadra lakini matatizo makali ya neva si bayana.<ref name="Ananth_et_al_2004">{{cite journal |author=Ananth J, Parameswaran S, Gunatilake S, Burgoyne K, Sidhom T |title=Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and atypical antipsychotic drugs |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_2004-04_65_4/page/n27 |journal=Journal of Clinical Psychiatry|volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=464–70 |year=2004 |month=April |pmid=15119907 |doi=10.4088/JCP.v65n0403}}</ref> Watu wasiotaka au wasioweza kutumia matibabu kila mara wanaweza kutumia maandalizi ya kudumu ya dawa za kuzuia magonjwa ya akili<ref name=Depo06>{{cite journal |author=McEvoy JP |title=Risks versus benefits of different types of long-acting injectable antipsychotics |journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=67 Suppl 5 |issue= |pages=15–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16822092}}</ref>. Maandalizi kama haya yanapotumika pamoja na usaidizi wa kiakili na kijamii yanaweza kuwasaidia watu kuendelea na matibabu yao.<ref name=Depo06/> === Tiba za kiakili === Sehemu kubwa ya usaidizi wa kiakili na kijamii inaweza kuwa na manufaa katika kutibu skizofrenia. Usaidizi huu ni pamoja na aina mbalimbali za therapi, <ref name=FT10>{{cite journal|author=Pharoah F, Mari J, Rathbone J, Wong W |title=Family intervention for schizophrenia |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=12|pages=CD000088 |year=2010 |pmid=21154340 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000088.pub3}}</ref>matibabu ya kijamii, ajira saidizi, mafunzo ya kiustadi, usaidizi wa kiuchumi na pia usaidizi wa kiakili wa kudhibiti ulevi na uzito.<ref name=PORT09>{{cite journal |author=Dixon LB, Dickerson F, Bellack AS, ''et al.'' |title=The 2009 schizophrenia PORT psychosocial treatment recommendations and summary statements |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_schizophrenia-bulletin_2010-01_36_1/page/48 |journal=Schizophr Bull |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=48–70 |year=2010 |month=January |pmid=19955389 |doi=10.1093/schbul/sbp115}}</ref>Therapi ya familia au elimu, ambayo huguzia mfumo wote wa familia ya mtu, inaweza kusaidia kuzuia marudio ya dalili au haja ya kulaza hospitalini.<ref name=FT10/>Ushahidi wa manufaa ya therapi ya mienendo ya kiakili (pia inayoitwa "therapi ya kimazungumzo") katika kupunguza dalili au kuzuia marudio ya dalili hizi ni mndogo sana.<ref name=LynchLawsMcKenna>{{cite journal |author=Lynch D, Laws KR, McKenna PJ|title=Cognitive behavioural therapy for major psychiatric disorder: does it really work? A meta-analytical review of well-controlled trials|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-medicine_2010-01_40_1/page/n11|journal=Psychol Med |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=9–24 |year=2010 |month=January |pmid=19476688 |doi=10.1017/S003329170900590X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Jones C, Cormac I, Silveira da Mota Neto JI, Campbell C |title=Cognitive behaviour therapy for schizophrenia |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=4 |pages=CD000524 |year=2004 |pmid=15495000 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000524.pub2 |url=}}</ref> Therapi za kisanaa au uigizaji hazijatafitiwa vyema.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Ruddy R, Milnes D | title = Art therapy for schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like illnesses. | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | issue = 4 | pages = CD003728 | url = http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003728.html | year = 2005 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003728.pub2 | pmid = 16235338 | archive-date = 2011-10-27 | access-date = 2013-05-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111027132811/http://www2.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003728.html | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name="Ruddy-2007">{{cite journal | author = Ruddy RA, Dent-Brown K | title = Drama therapy for schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like illnesses. | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | url = http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab005378.html | issue = 1 | pages = CD005378 | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD005378.pub2 | pmid = 17253555 | archive-date = 2011-08-25 | access-date = 2013-05-11 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110825024045/http://www2.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab005378.html | url-status = dead }}</ref> == Mtazamo == [[Picha:Schizophrenia world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|[[Disability-adjusted life year]] for schizophrenia per 100,000&nbsp;inhabitants in 2004. {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|≤&nbsp;185}} {{legend|#fff200|185–197}} {{legend|#ffdc00|197–207}} {{legend|#ffc600|207–218}} {{legend|#ffb000|218–229}} {{legend|#ff9a00|229–240}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|240–251}} {{legend|#ff6e00|251–262}} {{legend|#ff5800|262–273}} {{legend|#ff4200|273–284}} {{legend|#ff2c00|284–295}} {{legend|#cb0000|≥&nbsp;295}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Skizofrenia ni ugonjwa ulio na gharama kuu za kibinadamu na kiuchumi.<ref name=Lancet09/>Hali hii hupelekea upungufu wa matarajio ya urefu wa maisha wa miaka 12 hadi 15, kwa kimsingi kwa sababu ya hali hii inavyohusiana na mienendo inayoathiri afya. Ongezeko la viwango vya kujiua (mtu kujiua) huathiri kwa kiasi kidogo.<ref name=Lancet09/> Tofauti hizi za matarajio ya urefu wa maisha ziliongezeka kati ya miaka ya 1970 na 1990.<ref name=Mort07>{{cite journal |author=Saha S, Chant D, McGrath J |title=A systematic review of mortality in schizophrenia: is the differential mortality gap worsening over time? |journal=Arch. Gen. Psychiatry |volume=64 |issue=10 |pages=1123–31 |year=2007 |month=October |pmid=17909124 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.64.10.1123}}</ref> Hata hivyo, kati ya miaka ya 1990 na miaka ya kwanza 10 ya karne ya 21, tofauti hizi hazikubadilika sana nchini Finland, ambayo ina mfumo wa afya ulio na ufikiaji wazi wa huduma ya afya.<ref name=Mort09>{{cite journal |author=Chwastiak LA, Tek C |title=The unchanging mortality gap for people with schizophrenia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_august-22-28-2009_374_9690/page/590 |journal=Lancet |volume=374 |issue=9690|pages=590–2 |year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19595448 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61072-2}}</ref> Skizofrenia ni kisababishi kikuu cha ulemavu huku ugonjwa mkali wa akili ukiorodheshwa kama ugonjwa wa tatu mkuu unaolemaza.<ref name="fn_35">{{cite journal |author=Ustun TB |coauthors=Rehm J, Chatterji S, Saxena S, Trotter R, Room R, Bickenbach J, and the [[World Health Organization|WHO]]/[[National Institutes of Health|NIH]] Joint Project CAR Study Group|year=1999 |title=Multiple-informant ranking of the disabling effects of different health conditions in 14 countries |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_1999-07-10_354_9173/page/110 |journal=[[The Lancet]]|volume=354 | issue=9173 |pages=111–15 |pmid=10408486 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07507-2}}</ref>Takriban 3/4 ya watu walio na skizofrenia wana ulemavu endelevu huku wakiwa na dalili zinazorejea kila mara.<ref name=AFP10>{{cite journal |author=Smith T, Weston C, Lieberman J |title=Schizophrenia (maintenance treatment) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2010-08-15_82_4/page/n31 |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=82 |issue=4 |pages=338–9 |year=2010 |month=August |pmid=20704164 }}</ref> Baadhi ya wagonjwa hupona kabisa hivyo kuwajibika kikamilifu katika jamii.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Warner R |title=Recovery from schizophrenia and the recovery model|journal=Curr Opin Psychiatry |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=374–80 |year=2009 |month=July |pmid=19417668 |doi=10.1097/YCO.0b013e32832c920b |url=}}</ref>Watu wengi walio na skizofrenia huishi bila kutegemea wengine ingawa husaidiwa na jamii.<ref name=Lancet09/>Katika watu walio na dalili za maradhi ya kwanza ya magonjwa ya akili, asilimia 42 yao huwa na matokeo bora ya muda mrefu. Asilia 35 ya watu huwa na matokeo ya kisaidizi. Asilimia 35 ya watu hawa huwa na matokeo yasiyo bora.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Menezes NM, Arenovich T, Zipursky RB |title=A systematic review of longitudinal outcome studies of first-episode psychosis |journal=Psychol Med |volume=36 |issue=10|pages=1349–62 |year=2006 |month=October |pmid=16756689 |doi=10.1017/S0033291706007951 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-medicine_2006-10_36_10/page/1349}}</ref>Matokeo ya skizofrenia huonekana bora katika nchi zilizoendelea kuliko nchi zinazoendelea<ref name=Isa07>{{cite journal |author=Isaac M, Chand P, Murthy P |title=Schizophrenia outcome measures in the wider international community |journal=Br J Psychiatry Suppl |volume=50 |issue= |pages=s71–7 |year=2007 |month=August|pmid=18019048 }}</ref>,ingawa dhana hii imekosolewa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cohen A, Patel V, Thara R, Gureje O|title=Questioning an axiom: better prognosis for schizophrenia in the developing world? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_schizophrenia-bulletin_2008-03_34_2/page/229|journal=Schizophr Bull |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=229–44|year=2008 |month=March |pmid=17905787 |pmc=2632419 |doi=10.1093/schbul/sbm105}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Burns J |title=Dispelling a myth: developing world poverty, inequality, violence and social fragmentation are not good for outcome in schizophrenia |journal=Afr J Psychiatry (Johannesbg) |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=200–5 |year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19894340}}</ref> Watu walio na skizofrenia huwa na uwezekano wa kujiua kuliko watu wengi wa kawaida. Kima hiki kimetajwa kuwa asilimia 10. Uchambuzi wa hivi karibuni wa tafiti na takwimu ulidurusu makadirio haya hadi asilimia 4.9, huku uchambuzi wa karibu zaidi ukitokea katika kipindi kinachofuata maibuko ya kwanza ya dalili au mara ya kwanza ya kulazwa hospitalini.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Palmer BA, Pankratz VS, Bostwick JM |title=The lifetime risk of suicide in schizophrenia: a reexamination |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry|volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=247–53 |year=2005 |month=March |pmid=15753237 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.62.3.247}}</ref> Kati ya asilimia 20 na 40 ya wagonjwa hujaribu kujiua angalau mara moja.<ref name=Suicide10/><ref name=DSM304/> Vipengele mbalimbali vya hatari vinahusisha jinsia ya kiume, mafadhaiko, na ujuzi wa hali ya juu.<ref name=Suicide10>{{cite journal |author=Carlborg A, Winnerbäck K, Jönsson EG, Jokinen J, Nordström P|title=Suicide in schizophrenia |journal=Expert Rev Neurother |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=1153–64 |year=2010 |month=July |pmid=20586695|doi=10.1586/ern.10.82 |url=}}</ref> Skizofrenia imeonyeshwa kuhusiana pakubwa na uvutaji sigara kufuatia utafiti kote ulimwenguni. <ref name="de Leon">{{cite journal|pmid=15949648|year=2005|author=De Leon J, Diaz FJ|title=A meta-analysis of worldwide studies demonstrates an association between schizophrenia and tobacco smoking behaviors|volume=76|issue=2-3|pages=135–57|doi=10.1016/j.schres.2005.02.010|journal=Schizophrenia research}}</ref><ref name="Keltner">{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1744-6163.2006.00085.x|title=Smoke, Smoke, Smoke That Cigarette|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_perspectives-in-psychiatric-care_2006-11_42_4/page/256|year=2006|author=Keltner NL, Grant JS|journal=Perspectives in Psychiatric Care|volume=42|pages=256|pmid=17107571|issue=4}}</ref>Uvutaji sigara hasa uko juu katika watu walio na skizofrenia, huku makadirio yakitofautiana kutoka asilimia 80 hadi 90 ya watu hawa wakiwa wavutaji wa kila mara, ikilinganishwa na asilimia 20 ya idadi ya jumla ya watu.<ref name="Keltner"/> Watu wanaovuta sigara mara nyingi huvuta sana na kuvuta sigara zilizo na kiwangi cha juu cha kemikali ya nikotini.<ref name=DSM304>American Psychiatric Association. Task Force on DSM-IV. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. American Psychiatric Pub. ISBN 978-0-89042-025-6. p. 304</ref> Kuna utafiti unaoonyesha kuwa mgonjwa wa skizofrenia changanyikizi anaweza kuwa na uwezo wa kuishi bila kuwategemea watu wengine na kufanya kazi kikamilifu kinyume na aina zingine ndogo za skizofrenia.<ref name=DSM314>American Psychiatric Task Force on DSM-IV. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. American Psychiatric Pub. ISBN 978-0-89042-025-6. p. 314</ref> == Visababishi na uwezekano == Kufikia mwaka wa 2011, skizofrenia huathiri takriban asilimia 0.3 hadi 0.7 ya watu, <ref name=Lancet09/> or 24 million people worldwide,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/mental_health/management/schizophrenia/en/ |title=Schizophrenia |publisher=World Health Organization|date= 2011 |accessdate= February 27, 2011}}</ref>katika wakati fulani wa maisha yao. Wanaume huwa na hali hii mara 1.4 zaidi ya wanawake. Kwa kawaida, skizofrenia hutokea katika wanaume.<ref name=BMJ07/>Miaka ya kilele ya mwanzo wa dalili huwa umri wa miaka 20 na 28 kwa wanaume na 26 na 32 kwa wanawake. <ref name="castle1991">{{cite journal |author=Castle D, Wessely S, Der G, Murray RM |title=The incidence of operationally defined schizophrenia in Camberwell, 1965–84 |journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry |volume=159 |pages=790–4 |year=1991 |month=December |pmid=1790446 |doi=10.1192/bjp.159.6.790}}</ref> Dalili zinazoanza utotoni ni adimu zaidi,<ref name="Kumra_et_al_2001">{{cite journal |author=Kumra S, Shaw M, Merka P, Nakayama E, Augustin R |year=2001|title=Childhood-onset schizophrenia: research update |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_canadian-journal-of-psychiatry_2001-12_46_10/page/923 |journal=Canadian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=46 | issue=10 |pages=923–30|pmid=11816313}}</ref>sawa na dalili zinazoanza katika umri wa wastani au uzeeni.<ref>{{cite book| author = Hassett Anne, et al. (eds) | title = Psychosis in the Elderly |publisher = London: Taylor and Francis. |isbn=1841843946 | year = 2005 | page = 6 | url = http://books.google.com/?id=eLaMOJ9oj28C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Psychosis+in+the+Elderly }}</ref>Licha ya maarifa yaliyopo ya kuonyesha kuwa skizofrenia hutokea kwa viwango sawa ulimwengu, viwango vyake vya uwezekano hutofautiana kote ulimwenguni, <ref name="Jablensky_et_al_1992">{{cite journal |author=Jablensky A, Sartorius N, Ernberg G, ''et al.'' |year=1992 |title=Schizophrenia: manifestations, incidence and course in different cultures. A World Health Organization ten-country study|journal=Psychological Medicine Monograph Supplement |volume=20 |pages=1–97 |pmid=1565705 |doi=10.1017/S0264180100000904}}</ref> baina ya mataifa,<ref name="Kirkbride_et_al_2006">{{cite journal |author=Kirkbride JB, Fearon P, Morgan C, ''et al.'' |title=Heterogeneity in incidence rates of schizophrenia and other psychotic syndromes: findings from the 3-center AeSOP study |journal=Archives of General Psychiatry |volume=63 |issue=3|pages=250–8 |year=2006 |month=March |pmid=16520429 |doi=10.1001/archpsyc.63.3.250}}</ref> na katika kiwango cha eneo maalum.<ref name="Kirkbride_et_al_2007">{{cite journal |author=Kirkbride JB, Fearon P, Morgan C, ''et al.'' |year=2007 |title=Neighbourhood variation in the incidence of psychotic disorders in Southeast London |journal=Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology |volume=42 | issue=6 |pages=438–45|pmid=17473901 | doi = 10.1007/s00127-007-0193-0}}</ref> Hali hii husababisha takriban asilimia 1 ya idadi ya miaka ya kuzoea ulemavu kote ulimwenguni (yaani, miaka ambayo mtu ameishi na ulemavu).<ref name=BMJ07>{{cite journal |author=Picchioni MM, Murray RM |title=Schizophrenia |journal=BMJ |volume=335 |issue=7610 |pages=91–5 |year=2007 |month=July|pmid=17626963 |pmc=1914490 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39227.616447.BE}}</ref> Kima cha skizofrenia hutofautiana kulingana na jinsi inavyofasiliwa.<ref name=Lancet09/> == Historia == Matukio ya hali zinazofanana na skizofrenia zilikuwa adimu katika nakala za kihistoria kabla ya karne ya 19, ingawa mienendo isiyo ya kawaida, isiyoeleweka na isiyodhibitiwa iliripotiwa mara nyingi. Ripoti ya kina kuhusu tukio fulani katika mwaka wa 1797 na matukio yaliyoripotiwa katika mwaka wa 1809 mara nyingi huchukuliwa kama matukio ya kale zaidi ya ugonjwa huu katika uandishi wa afya na afya ya kiakili.<ref name="Heinrichs2003">{{cite journal |author=Heinrichs RW |title=Historical origins of schizophrenia: two early madmen and their illness|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-history-of-the-behavioral-sciences_2003_fall_39_4/page/349 |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=349–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14601041 |doi=10.1002/jhbs.10152}}</ref>Skizofrenia ilielezewa kwa mara ya kwanza mnamo mwaka wa 1853. Hali hii ilielezwa kuwa dalili za kipekee zilizowaathiri vijana baleghe na vijana wakubwa, na ilijulikana kama “démence précoce” (“demenshia ya mapema”). Neno kama hili lilitumika mnamo mwaka wa 1891, katika ripoti ya tukio la matatizo makali ya akili. Mnamo mwaka wa 1893, utofautishi mpana mpya ulifanywa kati ya hali hii na matatizo ya kihisia (hali iliyojulikana kama "mfadhaiko wa kiwazimu" na kujumuisha mfadhaiko na mabadiliko ya kihisia). Wakati huo ugonjwa huu ulikuwa ukiaminika kuwa ugonjwa wa ubongo,<ref name="fn_2">{{cite book |author=Kraepelin E, Diefendorf AR |title=Text book of psychiatry |edition=7 |year=1907 |publisher=Macmillan|location=London}}</ref>hasa aina ya dimenshia (ugonjwa unaoathiri uwezo wa kukumbuka na utendakazi wa ubongo), iliyotofautiana na dimenshia ambayo kwa kawaida hutokea baadaye maishani.<ref name="fn_49">{{cite book |author=Hansen RA, Atchison B |title=Conditions in occupational therapy: effect on occupational performance |url=https://archive.org/details/conditionsinoccu0000unse_y0e2 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstown, MD |year=2000 |isbn=0-683-30417-8}}</ref> Eugen Bleuler aliunda jina "skizofrenia", ambalo linalotafsiriwa kama "akili iliyogawanyika",<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kuhn R |title=Eugen Bleuler's concepts of psychopathology|journal=History of Psychiatry|volume=15 |issue=3 |year=2004 |pages=361–6 |doi=10.1177/0957154X04044603 |pmid=15386868 |others=tr. Cahn CH}}</ref> mnamo mwaka wa 1908. Neno hili lilikusudiwa kueleza mgawanyiko wa utendakazi kati ya nafsi, kuwaza, kumbukumbu, na utambuzi. Dalili zake kuu zilielezwa kama "A nne": athari bapa (au mwitikio wa kihisia), otizimu (hali ya kiakili inayotatiza uwezo wa mtu kujibiza na kuwasiliana na wengine, na hisia kinzani (kuchanganyikiwa kiakili).<ref name="fn_78">{{cite journal |author=Stotz-Ingenlath G |title=Epistemological aspects of Eugen Bleuler's conception of schizophrenia in 1911 |journal=Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=153–9 |year=2000|pmid=11079343|url=http://www.kluweronline.com/art.pdf?issn=1386-7423&volume=3&page=153|format=PDF |doi=10.1023/A:1009919309015}}</ref>Bleuler alitambua kuwa ugonjwa huu haukuwa dimenshia kwa sababu baadhi ya wagonjwa hawa waliboreka kiafya wala sio kudhoofika, hivyo akapendekeza neno skizofrenia badala yake. Matibabu yalibadilika yamkini kikamilifu katika miaka ya katikati mwa 1950 kufuatia kutengenezwa na kutolewa kwa dawa iitwayo chlorpromazine.<ref name="Turner2007">{{cite journal | author=Turner T | title=Unlocking psychosis | journal=British Medical Journal | year=2007 | volume=334 | issue=suppl | pages=s7 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39034.609074.94 | pmid=17204765 }}</ref> [[Picha:Chlorpromazine-3D-vdW.png|thumb|left|Molecule of [[chlorpromazine]] (trade name Thorazine), which revolutionized treatment of schizophrenia in the 1950s]] Katika miaka ya mwanzo ya 1970, utaratibu wa kutambua skizofrenia ulikuwa chini ya utata mwingi, jambo ambalo lilipelekea utaratibu wa kiutendaji ambao hutumika kwa sasa. Kwa mujibu wa matokeo ya Utafiti wa Kiutambuzi wa Marekani na Uingereza wa mwaka wa 1971, ugonjwa wa skizofrenia ulikuwa ukitambuliwa kwa kiwango cha juu zaidi nchini Marekani kuliko ulivyotambuliwa bara Uropa.<ref name="Wing1971">{{cite journal |author=Wing JK |title=International comparisons in the study of the functional psychoses |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-medical-bulletin_1971-01_27_1/page/77 |journal=British Medical Bulletin |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=77–81 |year=1971 |month=January |pmid=4926366}}</ref>Tofauti ilikuwa kwa upande mmoja kufuatia matokeo legevu ya utaratibu wa kutambua iwapo mtu alikuwa na hali hii nchini Marekani, ambapo mwongozo wa DSM-II ulitumika. Katika bara Uropa, mwongozo wa ICD-9 ulitumika. Utafiti wa mwaka wa 1972, ambao ulichapishwa katika jarida liitwalo Science, ulitambua kuwa utambuzi wa skizofrenia nchini Marekani ulikuwa usioweza kutegemewa. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosenhan D |year=1973|title=On being sane in insane places |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1973-01-19_179_4070/page/n34 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=179 |pages=250–8 |pmid=4683124| doi=10.1126/science.179.4070.250|issue=4070}}</ref>Vipengele hivi vilipelekea kudurusu kuhusu jinsi ya kuthibitisha iwapo mtu alikuwa na ugonjwa wa skizofrenia, na pia mwongozo wote wa DSM. Marekebisho haya yalipekea kuchapishwa kwa toleo la mwaka wa 1980 la DSM-III. <ref name="Wilson1993">{{cite journal |author=Wilson M |title=DSM-III and the transformation of American psychiatry: a history |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_1993-03_150_3/page/399 |journal=[[American Journal of Psychiatry]] |volume=150 |issue=3 |pages=399–410 |year=1993|month=March |pmid=8434655 }}</ref> Neno “skizofrenia” mara nyingi hudhaniwa kumaanisha kuwa watu walioathiriwa wana "nafsi iliyogawanyika". Baadhi ya watu waliotambuliwa kuwa na skizofrenia wanaweza kusikia sauti na kuzisikia kama za nafsi maalum. Skizofrenia haihusishi mtu kubadilika baina ya nafsi maalum. Utatanishi uliopo hutokea kwa sababu ya ufafanuzi halisi wa neno hili. Matumizi mabaya ya kwanza ya "skizofrenia" kama "nafsi iliyogawanyika" yalikuwa katika makala ya T. S Eliot mnamo mwaka wa 1933. <ref name="fn_3">{{cite book|author=Berrios, G. E.; Porter, Roy |title=A history of clinical psychiatry: the origin and history of psychiatric disorders |publisher=Athlone Press |location=London |year=1995|isbn=0-485-24211-7}}</ref> == Jamii na tamaduni == [[Picha:Eugen bleuler.jpg|thumb|upright|The term schizophrenia was coined by [[Eugen Bleuler]].]] Uamuzi hasi wa kijamii umetambulika kama kizuizi kikuu katika uponyaji wa wagonjwa wa skizofrenia.<ref>{{cite book | author = Maj, Mario and Sartorius N. | title = Schizophrenia | url = https://archive.org/details/schizophrenia0000unse_i3l5 | date = 15 September 1999 | publisher = Wiley | location = Chichester | isbn = 978-0-471-99906-5 | page = [https://archive.org/details/schizophrenia0000unse_i3l5/page/292 292]}}</ref>Katika utafiti mkubwa wa kisampuli wa mwaka wa 1999, asilimia 12.8 ya Wamarekani waliamini kuwa watu walio na skizofrenia walikuwa na "uwezekano mkuu sana" wa kuzua vurugu dhidi ya wengine, huku asilimia 48.1 wakisema kuwa watu hawa walikuwa "wakikisiwa kuweza" kufanya hivyo. Zaidi ya asilimia 74 ya watu walisema kuwa watu wenye skizofrenia walikuwa aidha "hawana uwezo mkubwa" au "hawawezi kamwe" kufanya uamuzi kuhusu matibabu yao, huku asilimia 70.2 wakisema jambo lili hili kuhusu uamuzi wa matumizi ya pesa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pescosolido BA, Monahan J, Link BG, Stueve A, Kikuzawa S |title=The public's view of the competence, dangerousness, and need for legal coercion of persons with mental health problems |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-public-health_1999-09_89_9/page/1339 |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=89 |issue=9 |pages=1339–45 |year=1999|month=September |pmid=10474550 |pmc=1508769 |doi= 10.2105/AJPH.89.9.1339}}</ref>Mtazamo wa watu waliokuwa na ugonjwa mkali wa akili kama wanaozua ghasia umeongezeka kwa zaidi ya mara mbili tangu miaka ya 1950, kulingana na uchanganuzi mmoja.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Phelan JC, Link BG, Stueve A, Pescosolido BA|year=2000 |month=June |title=Public Conceptions of Mental Illness in 1950 and 1996: What Is Mental Illness and Is It to be Feared? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-health-and-social-behavior_2000-06_41_2/page/188|journal=Journal of Health and Social Behavior |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=188–207 |doi=10.2307/2676305}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2002, neno skizofrenia nchini Ujapani lilibadilishwa kutoka “Seishin-Bunretsu-Byō”　精神分裂病 (“ugonjwa wa kugawanyika kwa akili) hadi “Tōgō-shitchō-shō”　統合失調症 (“tatizo la uunganisho”), katika harakati za kupunguza aibu au maudhi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kim Y, Berrios GE |title=Impact of the term schizophrenia on the culture of ideograph: the Japanese experience |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_schizophrenia-bulletin_2001_27_2/page/181 |journal=Schizophr Bull |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=181–5 |year=2001 |pmid=11354585}}</ref> Dhana ya kuwa ugonjwa huu husababishwa na vipengele tofauti (wala sio kisababishi kimoja tu) ilichangia jina hili mpya. Badiliko hili liliongeza idadi ya watu waliokuwa wamehamasishwa kuhusu utambuzi huu kutoka asilimia 37 hadi 70 kwa kipindi cha miaka 3.<ref name="Sato">{{cite journal |author=Sato M |year=2004 |title=Renaming schizophrenia: a Japanese perspective |journal=World Psychiatry |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=53–55 |pmid=16757998 |pmc=1472254}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2002 chini Marekani, gharama ya skizofrenia, ikijumuisha gharama za moja kwa moja (watu ambao hawakulazwa hospitalini, watu waliolazwa, dawa na utunzaji wa muda mrefu) na gharama zisizohusu utunzaji wa kiafya (utimizaji sheria, kiwango kilichopungua cha uzalishaji kikazi, na [[kukosa ajira]]), ulikadiriwa kuwa bilioni $62.7.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wu EQ|year=2005 |title=The economic burden of schizophrenia in the United States in 2002 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-psychiatry_2005-09_66_9/page/1122|journal=J Clin Psychiatry |volume=66 | issue=9|pages=1122–9|pmid=16187769}}</ref> Kitabu "A Beautiful Mind" na filamu iliyo na kichwa kiki hiki inaeleza maisha ya [[John Forbes Nash]]. [[Mwanahesabu]] huyu na mshindi wa tuzo la Nobel katika Uchumi |tuzo la Nobel]] alikuwa na skizofrenia. == Tanbihi == {{reflist|2}} [[Jamii:Maradhi ya ubongo‎]] 9t1lbimm2wmyxul9pf873rprxv01eyp 0 69849 1579991 1578195 2026-07-17T18:47:24Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579991 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease |Name = Obesity |Image = Obesity-waist_circumference.svg |Alt = Three silhouettes depicting the outlines of a normal sized (left), overweight (middle), and obese person (right). |Caption = Silhouettes and waist circumferences representing normal, overweight, and obese |DiseasesDB = 9099 |ICD10 = {{ICD10|E|66| |e|65}} |ICD9 = {{ICD9|E|66| |e|278}} |MedlinePlus = 003101 |OMIM = 601665 |eMedicineSubj = med |eMedicineTopic =1653 |MeshName = Obesity |MeshNumber = C23.888.144.699.500 | }} '''Unene wa kupindukia''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] "obesity" kutokana na [[neno]] la [[Kilatini]] ''obesitas'', linalomaanisha "gumu, nono au nene” <ref name=etymol>''Ēsus'' is the past participle of ''edere'' (to eat), with ''ob'' (over) added to it. {{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=obesity |title=Online Etymology Dictionary: Obesity |work=Douglas Harper|accessdate=December 31, 2008}}; ''[[Kamusi ya Kingereza ya Oxford]]'' ilichapisha kutumika kwake kwa mara ya kwanza mnamo mwaka wa 1611 na [[Randle Cotgrave]]. {{cite web |url=http://www.oed.com/ |title=Obesity, n |work=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] 2008|accessdate=March 21, 2009}}</ref>; [[jina la kisayansi]] kwa [[Kilatini]] ni "adipositas") ni hali mbaya ambapo [[mafuta ya ziada ya mwili]] hulimbikizana hadi kiwango kinachoweza kuathiri vikubwa [[afya]], ikipelekea ongezeko la [[maradhi]] na kupungua kwa [[matarajio ya kuishi]]. <ref name="WHO 2000 p.6">WHO 2000 p.6</ref><ref name=HaslamJames/> [[Kipimo]] cha [[mwili]] kuwa mnene na mzito mno ni [[uwiano]] kati ya [[urefu]] wa mtu na [[uzito]] wake. Watu hutajika kuwa na unene wa kupindukia wakati [[nambapeo ya mata ya mwili]] (NMM), kipimo kinachopatikana kwa kugawanya [[uzito]] wa mtu kwa [[kilogramu]] kwa mraba wa [[urefu]] wake katika [[mita]], kimezidi 30&nbsp;kg/m².<ref name="WHO 2000 p.9">WHO 2000 p.9</ref> Kuwa mneme mno kunaleta [[hatari]] ningi kwa [[afya]] na kusababisha au kuongeza uwezekano wa [[magonjwa]] kama vile: * [[Shinikizo la juu la damu]] * Ugonjwa wa [[kisukari]] * [[Maradhi ya moyo]] * [[Ugonjwa wa kupooza]] * Shida za kupumua na [[pumu]]<ref>http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/24118.php</ref><ref name=HaslamJames/> * Matatizo ya viungo vya [[miguu]] na ya [[uti wa mgongo]] * [[Maradhi ya mishipa]], * [[Apnea pingani ya usingizi]] * [[Osteoathritisi]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>. Watu wakinenepa mno hufa mapema na kuwa na magonjwa mengi kuliko watu wembamba wanaokula kiasi tu, jinsi wanavyohitaji [[chakula]]. Tatizo la unene [[duniani]] hukumba [[wanaume]] zaidi ya [[wanawake]]. Unene wa kupindukia mara nyingi husababishwa na ujumuisho wa kula chakula kilicho na nguvu nyingi, ukosefu wa [[mazoezi ya mwili]], na [[urithi]] wa [[jeni]] maalumu, ingawa visa vichache vina msingi wa jeni, matatizo ya [[kiendrosini]], [[matibabu]] au [[maradhi ya akili]]. Ushahidi wa kuthibitisha dhana kuwa baadhi ya watu hunenepa ingawa hula kiasi kidogo hautoshi; kwa wastani, watu wanene hutumia nguvu nyingi kuliko watu wenye mwili mdogo kwa sababu ya nguvu zinazohitajika kuimarisha [[mata]] kubwa ya mwili.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kushner, Robert |title=Treatment of the Obese Patient (Contemporary Endocrinology) |publisher=Humana Press |location=Totowa, NJ|year=2007 |page=158 |isbn=1-59745-400-1 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=vWjK5etS7PMC&pg=PA121&lpg=PA121&dq=measurement+of+metabolism+in+obese+Bessesen |doi= |accessdate=April 5, 2009}}</ref><ref name=Anes2000>{{cite journal |author=Adams JP, Murphy PG |title=Obesity in anaesthesia and intensive care |journal=Br J Anaesth |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=91–108 |year=2000 |month=July |pmid=10927998 |doi= 10.1093/bja/85.1.91|url=http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/85/1/91}}</ref> [[Chakula bora]] na [[mazoezi ya mwili]] ndiyo njia kuu za kutibu unene wa kupindukia. Ubora wa chakula unaweza kuimarishwa kwa kutumia vyakula vilivyo na nguvu nyingi, kama vile vyakula vilivyo na kiwango cha juu cha mafuta na [[sukari]], na kwa kutumia [[unyuzi wa chakula]] kwa wingi zaidi. [[Dawa za kukabiliana na unene]] zinaweza kutumiwa kupunguza hamu ya chakula au kuzuia ufyonzaji wa mafuta, huku mtu akila chakula kinachofaa. Iwapo chakula bora, mazoezi na matibabu hayatoshi, [[mpira wa utumboni]] unaweza kusaidia kupunguza uzito wa mwili, au [[upasuaji]] unaweza kufanywa ili kupunguza ukubwa na/au urefu wa matumbo. Upasuaji huo hupelekea mtu [[kushiba]] upesi na kupunguza uwezo wa kufyonza [[virutubishi]] vilivyomo katika chakula.<ref>NICE 2006 p.10–11</ref><ref name=balloon2008>{{cite journal |author=Imaz I, Martínez-Cervell C, García-Alvarez EE, Sendra-Gutiérrez JM, González-Enríquez J |title=Safety and effectiveness of the intragastric balloon for obesity. Uchanganuzi wa kina|journal=Obes Surg |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=841–6 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18459025|doi=10.1007/s11695-007-9331-8}}</ref> Unene wa kupindukia ni [[kisababishi kinachozuilika cha kifo]] kilicho kikuu ulimwenguni kote, huku kiwango chake cha [[ueneaji]] kikiongezeka kwa watu wazima na [[watoto]]. Viongozi huamini kuwa hili ni mojawapo ya matatizo makuu zaidi ya [[afya ya umma]] katika [[karne ya 21]].<ref name=Barn1999>{{cite journal |author=Barness LA, Opitz JM, Gilbert-Barness E |title=Obesity: genetic, molecular, and environmental aspects |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. A|volume=143A |issue=24 |pages=3016–34 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18000969 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.32035 |url=}}</ref> Unene wa kupindukia hufedheheshwa katika sehemu nyingi za [[ulimwengu]] wa kisasa (hasa katika [[Ustaarabu wa Magharibi]]<ref>Huko wengine wanalazimika kutumia vifaa maalum (butt wipers]) kushililia karatasi shashi wakiwa msalani</ref>), ingawa hali hii ilitazamwa na watu wengi kama [[ishara]] ya [[utajiri]] na afya bora katika nyakati za awali za [[historia]], na pia huonekana hivyo katika baadhi ya sehemu za [[dunia]].<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Woodhouse/> ==Uainishaji== Unene wa kupindukia ni hali ya kimatibabu ambapo [[mafuta ya mwili]] ya ziada hulimbikizana hadi kiwango kinachoathiri afya kwa vikubwa.<ref name="WHO 2000 p.6"/> Hali hii hufasiliwa kwa [[Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili]] na kukadiriwa zaidi kwa kupima ugawaji wa mafuta kupitia kwa uwiano wa kiuno na nyonga na ujumla wa vipengele hatari vya magonjwa ya mishipa na moyo.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Nutr J |year=2007 |volume=6 |page=32 |title= Measurement and Definitions of Obesity In Childhood and Adolescence: A field guide for the uninitiated |author= Sweeting HN|doi=10.1186/1475-2891-6-32|pmid=17963490 |url=http://www.nutritionj.com/content/6/1/32 |pmc= 2164947|issue=1}}</ref><ref>NHLBI p.xiv</ref> Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili kinahusiana kwa karibu na asilimia ya mafuta ya mwili na jumla ya mafuta ya mwili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gray DS, Fujioka K |title=Use of relative weight and Body Mass Index for the determination of adiposity |journal=J Clin Epidemiol |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=545–50 |year=1991 |pmid=2037859 |doi= 10.1016/0895-4356(91)90218-X|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-epidemiology_1991_44_6/page/545}}</ref> [[File:Obesity6.JPG|thumb|kushoto|alt=mtazamo wa mbele na upande wa kiwiliwili cha mwanamume aliye "mnene kupindukia". Alama za kuvutika kwa ngozi zinaonekana pamoja na jinakomastia.|Mwanamume "mnene kupindukia" aliye na Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili cha 47&nbsp;kg/m²: uzito 146&nbsp;kg (322&nbsp;lb), urefu sentimita 177&nbsp; (5&nbsp;ft 10&nbsp;in)]] Katika [[watoto]], uzito ulio bora hutofautiana kwa sababu ya [[umri]] na [[jinsia]]. Katika watoto na [[vijana]] [[baleghe]], unene wa kupindukia hufasiliwa si kwa [[nambari]] kamili, lakini kulingana na kundi la kawaida la wakati huo, hivi kwamba unene wa kupindukia ni wa Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili kilichozidi [[asilimia]] 95 <ref name="cdc.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/childrens_BMI/about_childrens_BMI.htm |title=Healthy Weight: Assessing Your Weight: BMI: About BMI for Children and Teens|publisher=[[Center for disease control and prevention]]|accessdate=April 6, 2009}}</ref>Data ya marejeleo ambayo ilitumiwa kukadiria hesabu hii ni ya kutoka mwaka 1963 hadi 1994, hivyo haijaathiriwa na ongezeko la uzito la hivi karibuni.<ref name="Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Wei R, Kuczmarski RL, Johnson CL 2001 1086–93">{{cite journal |author=Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Wei R, Kuczmarski RL, Johnson CL|title=Prevalence of overweight in US children: comparison of US growth charts from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention with other reference values for body mass index |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=73 |issue=6|pages=1086–93 |year=2001 |month=June |pmid=11382664 |doi= |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/73/6/1086}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |- ! BMI !! Classification |- |width=50%| < 18.5 ||underweight |- |18.5–24.9 || normal weight |- |25.0–29.9 || overweight |- |30.0–34.9 || class I obesity |- |35.0–39.9 || class II obesity |- |≥ 40.0 || &nbsp;&nbsp;class III obesity&nbsp;&nbsp; |} Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili hukadiriwa kwa kugawanya uzito wa mtu kwa kipeo cha uzito wake, na kwa kawaida huandikwa aidha kwa [[Mfumo wa mita]] au kwa [[vipimo vya Marekani]]: :Metric:<math>BMI=kilograms/meters^2</math> :US customary and [[Imperial System|imperial]]: <math>BMI=lb*703/in^2</math> ambapo <math>lb</math> ni uzito wa mtu katika [[pauni (uzito)|pauni]] na<math>in</math> ni urefu wa mtu katika inchi. Fasili zinazotumika mara nyingi, ambazo zilitolewa na [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] mwaka wa 1997 na kuchapishwa mwaka wa 2000, hutoa ukadiriaji kama ilivyoorodheshwa katika jedwali lililo upande wa kulia.<ref name="WHO 2000 p.9"/> Baadhi ya mashirika yamerekebisha kidogo fasili zilizotolewa na SAD. Habari ya kiupasuaji hugawanya unene wa kupindukia wa "daraja la 3" katika vikundi zaidi, ambavyo ukadiriaji wake ungali unakumbwa na utata.<ref name=morbid2007>{{cite journal|author=Sturm R |title=Increases in morbid obesity in the USA: 2000–2005 |journal=Public Health |volume=121 |issue=7|pages=492–6 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17399752 |pmc=2864630 |doi=10.1016/j.puhe.2007.01.006 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_public-health_2007-07_121_7/page/492}}</ref> * Any BMI ≥ 35 or 40 is ''severe obesity'' * A BMI of ≥ 35 or 40–44.9 or 49.9 is ''morbid obesity'' * A BMI of ≥ 45 or 50 is ''super obesity'' Kwa sababu watu wa asili ya [[Asia]] wameendelea kuathiriwa vibaya katika kiwango cha KUM cha chini kuliko kile cha [[Wazungu]], baadhi ya [[mataifa]] yamefasili upya unene wa kupindukia; [[Wajapani]] wameufasili kama kiwango chochote cha KUM kinachozidi 25<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kanazawa M, Yoshiike N, Osaka T, Numba Y, Zimmet P, Inoue S |title=Criteria and classification of obesity in Japan and Asia-Oceania|journal=Asia Pac J Clin Nutr |volume=11 Suppl 8 |issue= |pages=S732–S737 |year=2002 |month=December |pmid=12534701|doi= 10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s8.19.x|url=}}</ref> huku [[China]] ikitumia kipimo cha KUM cha juu ya 28.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bei-Fan Z |title=Predictive values of body mass index and waist circumference for risk factors of certain related diseases in Chinese adults: study on optimal cut-off points of body mass index and waist circumference in Chinese adults |journal=Asia Pac J Clin Nutr |volume=11 Suppl 8 |issue= |pages=S685–93 |year=2002 |month=December|pmid=12534691 |doi= 10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s8.9.x|url= |author2=Cooperative Meta-Analysis Group of Working Group on Obesity in China}}</ref> ==Madhara ya kiafya== Uzito uliozidi huhusianishwa na [[magonjwa]] mengi, hasa [[magonjwa ya moyo]] na [[mishipa]], [[kisukari aina ya 2]], [[apnea pingani ya usingizi]], aina fulani za [[saratani]], [[osteoathritisi]]<ref name=HaslamJames/> na [[pumu]]<ref>http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/24118.php</ref><ref name=HaslamJames/>. Matokeo yake ni kwamba unene wa kupindukia umetambulika kupunguza [[matarajio ya kuishi]].<ref name=HaslamJames/> ===Hatari ya kufa=== {{Double image|right|MenBMIMort.png|200|WomenBMIMort.png|200|alt=(Left) A graph showing how the risk of death varies with BMI. The lowest risk is found at a BMI of 20 to 25 and increases in both directions. (Right) A graph showing how the risk of death varies with BMI. The lowest risk is found at a BMI of 20 to 25 and increases in both directions.|Relative risk of death over 10 years for White men (left) and women (right) who have never smoked in the United States by BMI.<ref name=NEJM10>{{cite journal |author=Berrington de Gonzalez A |title=Body-Mass Index and Mortality among 1.46 Million White Adults |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=363 |issue=23 |pages=2211–9 |year=2010|month=December |pmid=21121834 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1000367 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2010-12-02_363_23/page/2210|pmc=3066051 |author-separator=,|display-authors=3}}</ref>||}} Unene wa kupindukia ni kati ya [[visababishi vya kifo vinavyozuilika]] kote ulimwenguni.<ref name=Barn1999/><ref>{{cite journal|author=Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL |title=Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000|journal=JAMA |volume=291 |issue=10 |pages=1238–45 |year=2004 |month=March |pmid=15010446 |doi=10.1001/jama.291.10.1238|url=http://www.csdp.org/research/1238.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name=Allison>{{cite journal |author=Allison DB, Fontaine KR, [[JoAnn E. Manson|Manson JE]], Stevens J, VanItallie TB |title=Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States |journal=JAMA |volume=282 |issue=16 |pages=1530–8 |year=1999 |month=October |pmid=10546692 |doi= 10.1001/jama.282.16.1530|url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/282/16/1530}}</ref> Utafiti mkuu wa Ulaya na Marekani umeonyesha kuwa hatari ya kufa iko chini zaidi katika kiwango cha KUM cha 20–25 kg/m²<ref name=NEJM10/><ref name=Lancet2009>{{cite journal |author=Whitlock G |title=Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies |journal=Lancet |volume=373 |issue=9669 |pages=1083–96 |year=2009|month=March |pmid=19299006 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60318-4 |url= |pmc=2662372 |author-separator=,|author2=Lewington S |author3=Sherliker P |display-authors=3 |last4=Sherliker |first4=P |last5=Clarke |first5=R|last6=Emberson |first6=J |last7=Halsey |first7=J |last8=Qizilbash |first8=N |last9=Collins |first9=R}}</ref> katika watu wasiovuta sigara na 24–27 kg/m² katika watu wanaoendelea kuvuta sigara, huku hatari hii ikiongezeka na mabadiliko kuelekea pande zote mbili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Calle EE, Thun MJ, Petrelli JM, Rodriguez C, Heath CW |title=Body-mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of U.S. adults |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=341 |issue=15 |pages=1097–105|year=1999 |month=October |pmid=10511607 |doi= 10.1056/NEJM199910073411501|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/341/15/1097}}</ref><ref name=Euro2008>{{cite journal |author=Pischon T |title=General and abdominal adiposity and risk of death in Europe |journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=359 |issue=20 |pages=2105–20 |year=2008 |month=November |pmid=19005195 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa0801891 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2008-11-13_359_20/page/2104|author-separator=, |author2=Boeing H |author3=Hoffmann K |display-authors=3 |last4=Bergmann |first4=M. |last5=Schulze|first5=M.B. |last6=Overvad |first6=K. |last7=Van Der Schouw |first7=Y.T. |last8=Spencer |first8=E. |last9=Moons|first9=K.G.M.}}</ref>Kipimo cha Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili cha zaidi ya 32 kimehusishwa na ongezeko la mara mbili la vifo kwa wanawake kwa muda wa miaka 16.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Manson JE |title=Body weight and mortality among women |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_the-new-england-journal-of-medicine_1995-09-14_333_11/page/n57 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=333 |issue=11 |pages=677–85 |year=1995 |pmid=7637744| doi = 10.1056/NEJM199509143331101 |author-separator=,|author2=Willett WC |author3=Stampfer MJ |display-authors=3 |last4=Colditz |first4=Graham A. |last5=Hunter|first5=David J. |last6=Hankinson |first6=Susan E. |last7=Hennekens |first7=Charles H. |last8=Speizer |first8=Frank E.}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, inakisiwa kuwa unene wa kupindukia husababisha zaidi ya vifo 111,909 hadi 365,000 kila mwaka,<ref name=HaslamJames>{{cite journal |author=Haslam DW, James WP|title=Obesity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_october-1-7-2005_366_9492/page/1197|journal=Lancet |volume=366 |issue=9492|pages=1197–209 |year=2005 |pmid=16198769 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-1}}</ref><ref name=Allison/> huku milioni 1 (7.7%) ya vifo katika nchi za Ulaya husababishwa na uzito uliozidi.<ref name=EuroG2008/><ref name=Euro2007>{{cite journal|author=Fried M |title=Inter-disciplinary European guidelines on surgery of severe obesity |journal=Int J Obes (Lond)|volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=569–77 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17325689 |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803560 |url=|author-separator=, |author2=Hainer V |author3=Basdevant A |display-authors=3 |last4=Buchwald |first4=H |last5=Deitel|first5=M |last6=Finer |first6=N |last7=Greve |first7=J W M |last8=Horber |first8=F |last9=Mathus-Vliegen|first9=E}}</ref> Kwa wastani, unene hupunguza muda wa maisha miaka 6 hadi 7:<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Peeters A, Barendregt JJ, Willekens F, Mackenbach JP, Al Mamun A, Bonneux L |title=Obesity in adulthood and its consequences for life expectancy: A life-table analysis |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=138 |issue=1 |pages=24–32 |year=2003 |month=January |pmid=12513041 |doi=|url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/138/1/24 | format=PDF |last7=Nedcom}}</ref>Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili cha 30–35 hupunguza miaka 2 hadi 4 matarajio ya kuishi<ref name=Lancet2009/> ilhali unene uliokithiri (Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili&nbsp;>&nbsp;40) hupunguza miaka 10 matarajio ya kuishi <ref name=Lancet2009/> ===Hali ya kuugua=== Unene wa kupindukia huongeza hatari ya hali nyingi za kimwili na kiakili. Ambatani hizi kwa kawaida huonyeshwa sana katika [[dalili]] za magonjwa ya [[metaboli]],<ref name=HaslamJames/> kama: [[kisukari aina ya 2]], [[shinikizo la juu la damu]], [[kolestro]], and [[hypertriglyceridemia]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Grundy SM |title=Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=89 |issue=6 |pages=2595–600|year=2004 |pmid=15181029 |doi=10.1210/jc.2004-0372}}</ref> Matatizo aidha husababishwa na unene moja kwa moja au kwa njia isiyo ya moja kwa moja inayohusiana kupitia utaratibu ulio na sababu sawa kama vile [[lishe duni]] au [[uzembe maishani]]. Uhusiano mkuu kati ya unene na hali maalum inatofautiana. Mojawapo ni [[kisukari aina ya 2]]. Mafuta ya ziada mwilini ndiyo kisababishi cha 64% ya kisukari kwa wanaume na 77% kwa wanawake.<ref>Seidell 2005 p.9</ref> Madhara ya kiafya huwa katika vikundi viwili vipana: * yale yanayotokana na madhara ya kiasi cha mafuta kilichozidi (kama vile [[osteoarthritisi]], [[apnea pingani ya usingizi]], kutengwa na jamii) na * yale yanayotokana na idadi iliyozidi ya [[seli za mafuta]] ([[kisukari]], [[saratani]], [[ugonjwa wa moyo na mishipa ya damu]], [[ugonjwa wa maini iliyo na mafuta usiohusiana na pombe]]).<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Bray2004>{{cite journal |author=Bray GA |title=Medical consequences of obesity |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=89 |issue=6 |pages=2583–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15181027|doi=10.1210/jc.2004-0535}}</ref>Ongezeko la mafuta katika mwili hugeuza hali ambavyo mwili huitikia [[insulini]] hata kusababisha [[kupinga insulini]]. Ongezeko la mafuta pia husababisha [[inflamesheni]],<ref>{{cite journal|author=Shoelson SE, Herrero L, Naaz A |title=Obesity, inflammation, and insulin resistance |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_gastroenterology_2007-05_132_6/page/2169 |journal=Gastroenterology|volume=132 |issue=6 |pages=2169–80 |year=2007 |month=May |pmid=17498510|doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2007.03.059}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Shoelson SE, Lee J, Goldfine AB|title=Inflammation and insulin resistance |journal=J. Clin. Invest. |volume=116 |issue=7 |pages=1793–801 |year=2006|month=July |pmid=16823477 |pmc=1483173 |doi=10.1172/JCI29069 |url=http://www.jci.org/articles/view/29069}}</ref> na kuandaa [[thrombosi]].<ref name=Bray2004/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Dentali F, Squizzato A, Ageno W|title=The metabolic syndrome as a risk factor for venous and arterial thrombosis |journal=Semin. Thromb. Hemost.|volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=451–7 |year=2009 |month=July |pmid=19739035 |doi=10.1055/s-0029-1234140}}</ref> ===Fumbo kuhusu kuendeleza uhai=== Ingawa madhara ya kiafya ya unene wa kupindukia miongoni mwa jumla ya watu imeungwa mkono na ushahidi uliopo, matokeo ya kiafya katika vikundi mahususi yanaonekana kuboreka kwa kiwango cha Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili kinachoongezeka. Tukio hilo linajulikana kama fumbo kuhusu kuendelea kuishi kwa watu walio na unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Schmidt2007>{{cite journal |author=Schmidt DS, Salahudeen AK |title=Obesity-survival paradox-still a controversy? |journal=Semin Dial |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=486–92 |year=2007 |pmid=17991192|doi=10.1111/j.1525-139X.2007.00349.x}}</ref> Mara ya kwanza fumbo hili lilielezwa mwaka 1999, likiwakumba watu wenye unene wa kupindukia waliokuwa wakisafishwa damu,<ref name=Schmidt2007/> kisha kupatikana katika watu waliokuwa na [[mshtuko wa moyo]] na [[ugonjwa wa ateri za pembeni]] (UAP).<ref name=paradox2003>{{cite journal |author=|title=Behavioral counseling in primary care to promote a healthcite journal y diet: recommendations and rationale |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2003-06-15_67_12/page/2572|journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=2573–6 |year=2003 |month=June |pmid=12825847 |doi= |author1= U.S. Preventive Services Task Force }}</ref> Katika watu waliokuwa na mshtuko wa moyo, wale wenye kipimo cha Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili cha kati ya 30.0. na 34.9 walikuwa na kima cha vifo cha chini kuliko wenye uzito wa kawaida. Hii ni kwa sababu watu mara nyingi hupoteza uzito kadiri wanavyoendelea kuwa wagonjwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Habbu A, Lakkis NM, Dokainish H |title=The obesity paradox: Fact or fiction?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-cardiology_2006-10-01_98_7/page/944 |journal=Am. J. Cardiol. |volume=98 |issue=7 |pages=944–8 |year=2006 |month=October |pmid=16996880|doi=10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.04.039}}</ref> Matokeo sawa na haya yamepatikana katika aina nyingine za magonjwa ya moyo. Watu walio na unene wa kupindukia wa daraja la 1 na magonjwa ya moyo hawana kima cha matatizo ya moyo kuliko watu walio na uzito wa kawaida ambao wana matatizo ya moyo. Hata hivyo, katika watu walio na viwango vikubwa zaidi vya unene, hatari ya kutokea kwa matatizo ya ziada huongezeka.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Romero-Corral A |title=Association of bodyweight with total mortality and with cardiovascular events in coronary artery disease: A systematic review of cohort studies |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_august-19-25-2006_368_9536/page/666 |journal=Lancet |volume=368|issue=9536 |pages=666–78 |year=2006 |pmid=16920472 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69251-9 |author-separator=,|author2=Montori VM |author3=Somers VK |display-authors=3 |last4=Korinek |first4=Josef |last5=Thomas |first5=Randal J|last6=Allison |first6=Thomas G |last7=Mookadam |first7=Farouk |last8=Lopez-Jimenez|first8=Francisco}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Oreopoulos A, Padwal R, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Fonarow GC, Norris CM, McAlister FA |title=Body mass index and mortality in heart failure: A meta-analysis |journal=Am. Heart J. |volume=156|issue=1 |pages=13–22 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18585492 |doi=10.1016/j.ahj.2008.02.014 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-heart-journal_2008-07_156_1/page/13}}</ref> Hata baada ya [[upasuaji wa kipenyo cha moyo]], hakuna ongezeko la vifo linalotambulika katika watu walio na uzito mkubwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Oreopoulos A, Padwal R, Norris CM, Mullen JC, Pretorius V, Kalantar-Zadeh K|title=Effect of obesity on short- and long-term mortality postcoronary revascularization: A meta-analysis|journal=Obesity (Silver Spring) |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=442–50 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=18239657|doi=10.1038/oby.2007.36}}</ref> Utafiti mmoja ulionyesha kuwa ongezeko la muda wa kuishi kwa watu wenye unene wa kupindukia husababishwa na matibabu madhubuti ambao watu hao hupata baada ya tukio la tatizo la moyo.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Diercks DB | title=The obesity paradox in non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes: Results from the Can Rapid risk stratification of Unstable angina patients Suppress ADverse outcomes with Early implementation of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Guidelines Quality Improvement Initiative | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-heart-journal_2006-07_152_1/page/140 | journal=Am Heart J | year=2006 | month=July | volume=152 |issue=1 | pages=140–8 | pmid=16824844 | doi=10.1016/j.ahj.2005.09.024| author-separator=,| author2=Roe MT|author3=Mulgund J| display-authors=3| last4=Pollack| first4=Charles V.| last5=Kirk| first5=J. Douglas| last6=Gibler|first6=W. Brian| last7=Ohman| first7=E. Magnus| last8=Smith| first8=Sidney C.| last9=Boden| first9=William E.}}</ref> Utafiti mwingine unaonyesha kuwa mtu anapouchukulia kwa makini [[ugonjwa wa muda mrefu wa kuzibika kwa mapafu]] (COPD) kwa walio na PDA, manufaa ya unene wa kupindukia hayapo tena.<ref name=paradox2003/> ==Visababishi== Katikia kiwango cha mtu binafsi, ujumlisho wa kula [[chakula kinachotoa nguvu]] na kutofanya [[mazoezi ya kimwili]] hudhaniwa kusababisha visa vingi zaidi vya unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=CADG2006/>Matukio machache sana husababishwa hasa na jeni, sababu za kimatibabu au ugonjwa wa akili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bleich S, Cutler D, Murray C, Adams A |title=Why is the developed world obese? |journal=Annu Rev Public Health |volume=29 |pages=273–95 |year=2008 |pmid=18173389|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090954}}</ref> Kinyume na matarajio, inakisiwa kuwa viwango vya unene wa kupindukia vinavyoongezeka katika jamii vinasababishwa na urahisi wa kupata chakula kinachovutia,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Drewnowski A, Specter SE|title=Poverty and obesity: the role of energy density and energy costs |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=79 |issue=1|pages=6–16 |year=2004 |month=January |pmid=14684391 |doi= |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/79/1/6}}</ref>ongezeko la kutegemea gari na uzalishaji wa bidhaa kwa kutumia mitambo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nestle M, Jacobson MF|title=Halting the obesity epidemic: a public health policy approach |journal=Public Health Rep |volume=115 |issue=1|pages=12–24 |year=2000 |pmid=10968581 |pmc=1308552 |doi= 10.1093/phr/115.1.12|url=}}</ref><ref name=James2008>{{cite journal |author=James WP |title=The fundamental drivers of the obesity epidemic |journal=Obes Rev |volume=9 |issue= Suppl 1 |pages=6–13 |year=2008 |month=March |pmid=18307693 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00432.x}}</ref> Uhakiki mmoja wa 2006 ulionyesha mambo mengine kumi yanayochangia katika ongezeko la unene wa kupindukia wa hivi majuzi: # kukosa usingizi wa kutosha, # [[matatizo ya mfumo wa mwili]] ([[vichafuzi vya mazingira]] vinavyotatiza umetaboli wa lipidi), # upungufu wa mabadiliko ya halijoto ya mazingira, # upungufu wa viwango vya [[kuvuta sigara]], kwa sababu uvutaji sigara hugandamiza hamu ya chakula, # kuendelea kutumia dawa zinazoweza kusababisha ongezeko la uzito wa mwili (kwa mfano, [[dawa ya kuzuia magonjwa ya akili yasiyo ya kawaida]]), # ongezeko la vikundi vya kikabila na umri vinavyoweza kukita zaidi, # ujauzito wa miaka ya uzeeni (jambo ambalo linaweza kusababisha hatari ya unene wa kupindukia katika watoto), # hatari za [[jenetikia|kijenetikia]]zinazoweza kupitishwa kutoka kizazi hadi kingine, # [[uteuzi wa kiasili]] kwa watu wenye kima cha juu zaidi cha Kielezo cha Uzito wa Mwili, na # [[kujamiiana kiubaguzi]] jambo ambalo huongeza vipengele hatari vya unene wa kupindukia (hii inaweza kuongezea idadi ya watu wanene sana kwa kuongezea kiwango cha tofauti kati ya idadi ya watu na uzito).<ref name="pmid16801930">{{cite journal|author=Keith SW |title=Putative contributors to the secular increase in obesity: Exploring the roads less traveled|journal=Int J Obes (Lond) |volume=30 |issue=11 |pages=1585–94 |year=2006 |pmid=16801930 |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803326|url=http://www.nature.com/ijo/journal/v30/n11/full/0803326a.html |author-separator=, |author2=Redden DT|author3=Katzmarzyk PT |display-authors=3 |last4=Boggiano |first4=M M |last5=Hanlon |first5=E C |last6=Benca |first6=R M |last7=Ruden |first7=D |last8=Pietrobelli |first8=A |last9=Barger |first9=J L}}</ref> Ingawa kuna utafiti wa kutosha unaoonyesha jinsi taratibu hizi zinavyopelekea ongezeko la kutokea kwa unene wa kupindukia, utafiti huu bado haujaweza kutoa hitimisho kamili. Watafiti walioufanya wanasema kuwa inawezekana kuwa taratibu hizi zina athari ya kiwango cha chini kuliko zile zilizojadiliwa katika aya iliyotangulia. ===Chakula bora=== {{Double image|right|World map of Energy consumption 1961,2.svg|200|World map of Energy consumption 2001-2003.svg|200|alt=(Left) A world map with countries colored to reflect the food energy consumption of their people in 1961. North America, Europe, and Australia have relatively high intake, while Africa and Asia consume much less.(Right) A world map with countries colored to reflect the food energy consumption of their people in 2001–2003. Consumption in North America, Europe, and Australia has increased with respect to previous levels in 1971 Food consumption has also increased substantially in many parts of Asia. However, food consumption in Africa remains low.|Map of dietary energy availability per person per day in 1961 (left) and 2001–2003 (right) in kcal/person/day. {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<1600}} {{legend|#fff200|1600–1800}} {{legend|#ffdc00|1800–2000}} {{legend|#ffc600|2000–2200}} {{legend|#ffb000|2200–2400}} {{legend|#ff9a00|2400–2600}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|2600–2800}} {{legend|#ff6e00|2800–3000}} {{legend|#ff5800|3000–3200}} {{legend|#ff4200|3200–3400}} {{legend|#ff2c00|3400–3600}} {{legend|#cb0000|>3600}} {{Multicol-end}} ||}} [[File:World Per Person Energy Consumption.png|thumb|alt=A graph showing a gradual increase in global food energy consumption per person per day between 1961 and 2002.|Average per capita energy consumption of the world from 1961 to 2002<ref name=Earth09>{{cite web |url=http://earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_db/index.php?theme=8&variable_ID=212&action=select_countries |title=EarthTrends: Nutrition: Calorie supply per capita |work=World Resources Institute |accessdate=Oct. 18, 2009}}</ref>]] Kima cha ugavi wa nguvu za kimlo kwa kila mtu hutofautiana pakubwa katika maeneo na nchi mbali mbali. Kima hiki pia kimebadilika pakubwa kwa muda mrefu sasa.<ref name=Earth09/> Kutoka mwanzoni wa miaka ya 1970 hadi mwishoni wa kiaka ya 1990, wastani wa kalori kwa kila mtu kila siku (kiwango cha chakula kilichonunuliwa) uliongezeka katika maeneo yote duniani ila Mashariki mwa Uropa. Nchi ya Marekani ilikuwa na kima cha juu zaidi cha upatikanaji, ikiwa ni [[kalori]] 3,654 kwa kila mtu katika mwaka wa 1996. Kima hiki kiliongezeka zaidi hadi 3,754 katika mwaka wa 2003.<ref name=Earth09/> Katika miaka ya mwisho ya 1990 Uropa ilikuwa na kalori &nbsp3,394; kwa kila mtu. Katika maeneo yanayostawi kiuchumi ya Asia kulikuwa na kalori&nbsp2,648; kwa kila mtu na katika kusin mwa jangwa la Sahara, watu walikuwa na kalori &nbsp 2,176;kwa kila mtu.<ref name=Earth09/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/1470965/USDA-frsept99b|title=USDA: frsept99b |work=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] |accessdate=January 10, 2009}}</ref> Jumla ya kalori inayotumika imetambulika kuwa inahusiana na unene wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/2009004/article/10933-eng.htm |title=Diet composition and obesity among Canadian adults |work=Statistics Canada |accessdate=}}</ref> Upatikanaji mkubwa wa vielekezo kuhusu lishe<ref>{{cite web |author=National Control for Health Statistics | title=Nutrition For Everyone | publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | url=http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone | accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref>haujafaulu kutatua shida za kula kupita kiasi na uamuzi mbaya kuhusu lishe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Marantz PR, Bird ED, Alderman MH |title=A call for higher standards of evidence for dietary guidelines |journal=Am J Prev Med|volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=234–40 |year=2008 |month=March |pmid=18312812 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2007.11.017|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-preventive-medicine_2008-03_34_3/page/234}}</ref> Kutoka mwaka wa 1971 hadi 2000, viwango vya unene wa kupindukia viliongezeka kutoka 14.5% hadi 30.9%.<ref name=Flegal2002>{{cite journal | author=Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CL| title=Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2000 | journal=JAMA | year=2002 | month=October | volume=288| pages=1723–1727 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/288/14/1723 | doi=10.1001/jama.288.14.1723 | pmid=12365955 |issue=14}}</ref> Katika kipindi hicho pia, wastani wa matumizi ya chakula kinachotoa nguvu yaliongezeka. Katika wanawake, wastani wa ongezeko hili ulikuwa kalori 335 kwa siku (1,542 mwaka wa 1971 na kalori 1,877 mwaka wa 2004), ilhali katika wanaume, wastani katika ongezeko hilo ulikuwa kalori 168 kwa siku (kalori 2,450 mwaka wa 1971 na kalori 2,618 mwaka wa 2004). Kiwango kikubwa cha nguvu hizi za ziada kilitokana na ongezeko la kutumia [[kabohidrati]] badala ya mafuta.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Wright JD, Kennedy-Stephenson J, Wang CY, McDowell MA, Johnson CL |title=Trends in intake of energy and macronutrients—United States, 1971–2000 | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep |year=2004 | month=February | volume=53 | issue=4 | pages=80–2 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5304a3.htm | pmid=14762332}}</ref> Vyanzo vya msingi vya kabohidrati hizi za ziada ni vinywaji vilivyo na sukari ambavyo vinakadiriwa kusababisha karibu 25% ya nguvu za kila siku katika vijana wakomavu Marekani, <ref name=Caballero>{{cite journal |author=Caballero B |title=The global epidemic of obesity: An overview|journal=Epidemiol Rev |volume=29 |issue= |pages=1–5 |year=2007 |pmid=17569676 |doi=10.1093/epirev/mxm012 |url=}}</ref>na [[chipsi]] za [[viazi]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mozaffarian|first=D|coauthors=Hao, T, Rimm, EB, Willett, WC, Hu, FB|title=Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term Weight Gain in Women and Men|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2011-06-23_364_25/page/2392|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=2011 Jun 23|volume=364|issue=25|pages=2392–404|pmid=21696306|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1014296|pmc=3151731}}</ref> Utumiaji wa vinywaji vilivyo na sukari unaaminika kuchangia katika ongezeko la viwango vya unene wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB |title=Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review work=Statistics Canada | J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=274–88 |year=2006 |month=August |pmid=16895873 |doi=|url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/84/2/274 |pmc=3210834}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Olsen NJ, Heitmann BL |title=Intake of calorically sweetened beverages and obesity |journal=Obes Rev |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=68–75|year=2009 |month=January |pmid=18764885 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00523.x |url=}}</ref> Jinsi jamii nyingi zinavyoendelea kutegemea [[nguvu nyingi za chakula]], viwango vikubwa vya chakula na vyakula duni, ndivyo uhusiano wa utumiaji wa vyakula duni na unene wa kupindukia unavyoendelea kusababisha madhara. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosenheck R|title=Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: a systematic review of a trajectory towards weight gain and obesity risk |journal=Obes Rev |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=535–47 |year=2008 |month=November |pmid=18346099|doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00477.x |url=}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, utumiaji wa vyakula duni uliongezeka mara tatu huku utumiaji wa chakula chenye nguvu ukiongezeka mara nne kati ya mwaka 1977 na 1995.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lin BH, Guthrie J and Frazao E |editor=Frazão E |title=Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 750: America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib750/ |year=1999 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service |location=Washington, DC |pages=213–239 |chapter=Nutrient contribution of food away from home |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2002-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020611183104/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib750/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> [[Sera za kilimo]] na [[ufundisanifu]] zinazozingatia mazingira nchini Marekani na barani Uropa zimesababisha kushuka kwa bei ya vyakula. Kule Marekani, hatua ya kupunguza bei ya mahindi, soya, ngano na mchele kupitia bili ya ukulima ya Marekani imepelekea kushuka kwa bei ya chakula cha viwandani ikilinganishwa na matunda na mboga.<ref>{{cite news|author=Pollan, Michael|title=You Are What You Grow|work=New York Times|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/22/magazine/22wwlnlede.t.html?ex=1186027200&en=bbe0f6a2c10e3b3c&ei=5070|date= 22 April 2007|accessdate= 2007-07-30}}</ref> Wakati mwingi, watu wanene kupindukia hawaripoti vyema jinsi wanavyotumia chakula ikilinganishwa na wale walio na uzito wa kawaida.<ref>Kopelman and Caterson 2005:324.</ref> Utafiti huu ni kwa mujibu wa uchunguzi wa watu uliofanyika katika chumba cha kipima kalori <ref>{{cite web|title=Metabolism alone doesn't explain how thin people stay thin |publisher=The Medical Post|work=John Schieszer|format=registration required}}</ref> na kwa kutazama moja kwa moja. ===Mwenendo wa kuzembea=== [[Mwenendo wa kuzembea]] huchangia pakubwa katika unene wa kupindukia.<ref>Seidell 2005 p.10</ref> Kote ulimwenguni, watu wengi wamegeukia kazi isiyohusisha nguvu nyingi za kimwili<ref name=WHO2009>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/ |title=WHO: Obesity and overweight |work=[[World Health Organization]] |accessdate=January 10, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218104805/http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/ |archivedate=2008-12-18 }}</ref><ref name=WHOExercise>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/index.html |title=WHO &#124; Physical Inactivity: A Global Public Health Problem |work=[[World Health Organization]] |accessdate=February 22, 2009}}</ref><ref name=Ness2006>{{cite journal |author=Ness-Abramof R, Apovian CM |title=Diet modification for treatment and prevention of obesity |journal=Endocrine |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=5–9 |year=2006 |month=February |pmid=16622287|doi=10.1385/ENDO:29:1:135 |url=}}</ref> na kwa wakati huu angalau 60% ya idadi ya watu duniani hupata mazoezi yasiyotosheleza.<ref name=WHOExercise/> Hii hasa ni kwa sababu ya ongezeko la kutumia mitambo katika uchukuzi, na teknologia inayosaidia sana kikazi huko nyumbani.T<ref name=WHO2009/><ref name=WHOExercise/><ref name=Ness2006/> Katika watoto, viwango vya kufanya mazoezi vinaonekana kushuka kwa sababu ya kutotembea sana na kutohusika katika somo la mazoezi ya mwili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Salmon J, Timperio A |title=Prevalence, trends and environmental influences on child and youthphysical activity |journal=Med Sport Sci |volume=50 |issue= |pages=183–99 |year=2007 |pmid=17387258|doi=10.1159/000101391 |series=Medicine and Sport Science |isbn=978-3-318-01396-2 }}</ref> Mienendo ya dunia katika burudani ambapo watu huusika moja kwa moja[[mazoezi ya mwili]] inaendelea kufifia. [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] linaonyesha kuwa, ulimwenguni kote, watu wanaendelea kuhusika katika burudani isiyohusisha maoezi, ilhali katika utafiti mmoja huko Finland<ref>{{cite journal |author=Borodulin K, Laatikainen T, Juolevi A, Jousilahti P |title=Thirty-year trends of physical activity in relation to age, calendar time and birth cohort in Finnish adults |journal=Eur J Public Health |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=339–44 |year=2008|month=June |pmid=17875578 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckm092 |url=}}</ref> ulionyesha ongezeko, ilhali utafiti mwingine huko Marekani ulionyesha kuwa mazoezi katika burudani hayajabadilika sana.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brownson RC, Boehmer TK, Luke DA |title=Declining rates of physical activity in the United States: what are the contributors?|journal=Annu Rev Public Health |volume=26 |issue= |pages=421–43 |year=2005 |pmid=15760296|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144437 |url=}}</ref> Katika watoto na watu wazima, kuna uhusiano kati ya kutazama runinga na hatari ya unene wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gortmaker SL, Must A, Sobol AM, Peterson K, Colditz GA, Dietz WH |title=Television viewing as a cause of increasing obesity among children in the United States, 1986–1990 |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med |volume=150 |issue=4 |pages=356–62 |year=1996 |month=April |pmid=8634729|doi=10.1001/archpedi.1996.02170290022003}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Vioque J, Torres A, Quiles J |title=Time spent watching television, sleep duration and obesity in adults living in Valencia, Spain |journal=Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. |volume=24 |issue=12 |pages=1683–8 |year=2000 |month=December |pmid=11126224 |doi= 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801434|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-obesity_2000-12_24_12/page/1683}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Tucker LA, Bagwell M |title=Television viewing and obesity in adult females |journal=Am J Public Health |volume=81 |issue=7 |pages=908–11 |year=1991 |month=July|pmid=2053671 |pmc=1405200 |doi= 10.2105/AJPH.81.7.908|url=http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/81/7/908 |format=PDF}}</ref> Ukaguzi ulitambua kuwa 63 kati ya tafiti 73 (86%) zilionyesha ongezeko katika kiwango cha unene wa kupindukia wa utotoni pindi watoto wanavyofikia vyombo vya mawasiliano, huku viwango hivi vikiongezeka kulingana na muda unaotumika kutazama runinga.ref>{{cite web |url=http://ipsdweb.ipsd.org/uploads/IPPC/CSM%20Media%20Health%20Report.pdf |title=Media + Child and Adolescent Health: A Systematic Review |publisher=Common Sense Media |year=2008 |format=PDF |work=Ezekiel J. Emanuel |accessdate=April 6, 2009 |archive-date=2012-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122070205/http://ipsdweb.ipsd.org/uploads/IPPC/CSM%20Media%20Health%20Report.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Usomijeni=== [[File:La monstrua desnuda (1680), de Juan Carreño de Miranda..jpg|thumb|wima|alt=Mchoro wa msichana mweusi wa kike mwenye nywele nyeusi, mashavu ya waridi aliye uchi akiegemea meza. Msichana huyu ameshika zabibu na majani ya zabibu katika mkono wake wa kushoto ambayo yamezifunika jenitalia zake.| Mchoro uliochorwa mwaka wa 1680 na [[Juan Carreno de Miranda]], wa msichana aliyedhaniwa kuwa na [[sindromu ya Prader-Will]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esst.org/newsletter2000.htm |title=Case Study: Cataplexy and SOREMPs Without Excessive Daytime Sleepiness in Prader Willi Syndrome. Is This the Beginning of Narcolepsy in a Five Year Old?|author=Mary Jones|publisher=European Society of Sleep Technologists|accessdate=April 6, 2009}}</ref>]] Kama magonjwa mengine mengi, unene wa kupindukia hutokana na mwingiliano kati ya vipengele vya kijeni na vya kimazingira. [[Upolimofi]] katika [[jeni]] nyingi zinazodhibiti [[hamu ya kula[[]] na [[umetaboli]]hupelekea unene wa kupindukia wakati nguvu za kutosha zinazotoka katika chakula zinapatikana. Katika mwaka wa 2006, zaidi ya 41 za sehemu hizi zimehusishwa na kuendelea kwa unene wa kupindukia wakati mazingira mwafaka yanapokuwepo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Poirier P |title=Obesity and cardiovascular disease: pathophysiology, evaluation, and effect of weight loss |journal=Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=968–76 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16627822 |doi=10.1161/01.ATV.0000216787.85457.f3|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_arteriosclerosis-thrombosis-and-vascular-biology_2006-05_26_5/page/968|author-separator=, |author2=Giles TD |author3=Bray GA |display-authors=3 |last4=Hong |first4=Y |last5=Stern|first5=JS |last6=Pi-Sunyer |first6=FX |last7=Eckel |first7=RH}}</ref> Watu walio na aina mbili za[[jeni ya FTO]] (jeni inayohusishwa na wingi wa mafuta na unene wa kupindukia) wamepatikana kwa wastani kuwa na uzito wa kilogramu 3-4]] &nbsp; zaidi na huwa katika hatari mara1.67 zaidi ya kukumbwa na unene wa kupindukia wakilinganishwa na wale wasio na hatari hii [[aleli]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Loos RJ, Bouchard C |title=FTO: the first gene contributing to common forms of human obesity |journal=Obes Rev |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=246–50|year=2008 |month=May |pmid=18373508 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00481.x |url=}}</ref> Asilimia ya unene wa kupindukia unaoweza kuhusishwa visababishi vya kijeni ni ya kubadilika kutoka 6% hadi 85% kulingana na idadi ya watu waliochunguzwa.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Yang W, Kelly T, He J |title=Genetic epidemiology of obesity |journal=Epidemiol Rev |volume=29 |issue=|pages=49–61 |year=2007 |pmid=17566051 |doi=10.1093/epirev/mxm004}}</ref> Unene wa kupindukia ni kipengele kikuu katika sindromu kadhaa kama vile [[sindromu ya Prader-Willi]], [[sindromu ya Bardet-Biedl]], [[sindromu ya Cohen]], na [[sindromu ya MOMO]]. Neno unene wa kupindukia usiosababishwa na sindromu hutumika wakati mwingine kuzitenga hali hizi.<ref name="pmid19506576">{{cite journal |author=Walley AJ, Asher JE, Froguel P |title=The genetic contribution to non-syndromic human obesity |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume= 10|issue= 7|pages= 431–42|year=2009|month=June |pmid=19506576 |doi=10.1038/nrg2594 |url=}}</ref> Kwa watu walio na mwanzo mkali wa mapema wa unene wa kupindukia (unaofasiliwa na mwanzo kabla ya umri wa miaka 10&nbsp; na kielezo cha uzani wa mwili zaidi ya tatu [[standard deviation]] zaidi ya kawaida), 7% huwa na kipimo kimoja cha mgeuko papale <ref>{{cite journal |author=Farooqi S, O'Rahilly S |title=Genetics of obesity in humans |journal=Endocr. Rev. |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=710–18 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17122358 |doi=10.1210/er.2006-0040 |url=http://edrv.endojournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/7/710 |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2010-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100710170521/http://edrv.endojournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/7/710 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Tafiti zilizolenga mitindo ya urithi badala ya jeni maalum zimetambua kuwa asilimia 80 ya watoto wa watu wawili walio wanene kupindukia walikuwa vilevile na unene wa kupindukia, ikilinganishwa na asilimia chini ya 10 ya watoto wa wazazi wawili waliokuwa na uzito wa kawaida.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kolata,Gina |title=Rethinking thin: The new science of weight loss&nbsp;– and the myths and realities of dieting |publisher=Picador |location= |year=2007 |page=122|isbn=0-312-42785-9}}</ref> [[Nadharia tete ya jeni yenye mafanikio]] hudai kuwa watu wana uwezekano mkubwa wa kupatwa na unene wa kupindukia kutokana na ukosefu wa chakula wakati wa mageuko ya binadamu. Uwezo wao wa kujinufaisha katika vipindi visivyo vya kawaida vya wingi kwa kuweka nguvu kama mafuta unaweza kuwafaa katika nyakati ambapo upatikanaji wa chakula si yakini na watu walio na hifadhi kubwa ya mafuta wanaweza kuwa na uwezekano mkubwa wa kuongoka[[njaa]]. Hata hivyo, huenda jamii zilizo na chakula kwa wingi zisizoee kujiwekea mafuta.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chakravarthy MV, Booth FW |title=Eating, exercise, and "thrifty" genotypes: Connecting the dots toward an evolutionary understanding of modern chronic diseases |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-physiology_2004-01_96_1/page/3 |journal=J. Appl. Physiol.|volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=3–10 |year=2004 |pmid=14660491 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00757.2003}}</ref> Nadharia hii imeweza kukosolewa sana na kupelelea kupendekezwa kwa nadharia zingine za kimageuko kama vile [[nadharia tete ya jeni isiyo na mkondo]] na[[fenotipu yenye mafanikio|nadharia tete ya fenotipu yenye mafanikio]]zilizopendekezwa. <ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/ijo.2009.175}}</ref><ref>{{cite doi|10.1002/ajhb.21100}}</ref> ===Maradhi mengine=== Maradhi mengine ya mwili na akili na dawa za kifamasia zinazotumiwa kuyatibu zinaweza kuongeza hatari ya unene wa kupindukia. Maradhi yanayoongeza hatari ya unene huo ni sindromu kadhaa za kijenetikia zisizo za kawaida (zilizoorodheshwa hapo juu) na aidha magonjwa mengine ya kuzaliwa nayo au ya kujitokeza baada ya kuzaliwa: [[uhipothiroidi]], [[Sindromu ya Cushing]], [[kukosa homoni ya kukua]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosén T, Bosaeus I, Tölli J, Lindstedt G, Bengtsson BA |title=Increased body fat mass and decreased extracellular fluid volume in adults with growth hormone deficiency |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-endocrinology_1993-01_38_1/page/63 |journal=Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf) |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=63–71 |year=1993 |pmid=8435887| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1993.tb00974.x}}</ref> na [[matatizo ya kula]]: [[matatizo ya kula yatokanayo na ulevi]] na [[sindromu ya kula usiku]].<ref name=HaslamJames/>.Hata hivyo, unene wa kupindukia hauchukuliwi kuwa tatizo la kiakili na kwa hiyo haujaorodheshwa katika Mwongozo wa Utambuzi na Takwimu za Maradhi ya Akili (DSM-IVR) kama maradhi ya akili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zametkin AJ, Zoon CK, Klein HW, Munson S |title=Psychiatric aspects of child and adolescent obesity: a review of the past 10 years |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-american-academy-child-adolescent-psychiatry_2004-02_43_2/page/134 |journal=J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=134–50 |year=2004 |month=February |pmid=14726719|doi=10.1097/00004583-200402000-00008}}</ref> Hatari ya uzito wa kupita kiasi na unene wa kupindukia iko juu kwa wagonjwa walio na maradhi ya akili kuliko kwa watu ambao hawana maradhi ya akili.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Chiles C, van Wattum PJ |title=Psychiatric aspects of the obesity crisis | journal=Psychiatr Times | year=2010 | volume=27 | issue=4 |pages=47–51}}</ref> Matibabu mengine yanaweza kusababisha kuongezeka kwa uzito au mabadiliko katika [[mchanganyiko wa mwili]]; nayo ni [[insulini]], [[salfonyilurea]], [[thiasolidinedioni]], [[dawa za magonjwa ya kiakili]], [[dawa ya unyogovu]], [[glucocorticoids|steroidi]], aina nyingine za [[dawa za mitukutiko]] ([[fenitoini]] na [[valproeati]]), [[pisotifeni]], na za [[uzuiaji mimba wa kihomoni]].<ref name=HaslamJames/> ===Vigezo vya kijamii=== Ingawa athari za kijenetiki ni muhimu katika kuelewa unene wa kupindukia, haziwezi kuwajibikia mkondo uliopo wa ongezeko katika nchi fulani au duniani.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Yach D, Stuckler D, Brownell KD |title=Epidemiologic and economic consequences of the global epidemics of obesity and diabetes |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=12 |issue=1|pages=62–6 |year=2006 |month=January |pmid=16397571 |doi=10.1038/nm0106-62 |url=}}</ref> Ingawa imekubalika kuwa utumizi wa nguvu zaidi ya kiasi kinachostahili kutumika husababisha unene wa kupindukia kibinafsi, kisababishi cha mageuko katika vipengele hivi viwili kwa kiwango cha jamii hujadiliwa sana. Kuna nadharia kadhaa zinazohusu visababishi vya unene wa kupindukia. Hata hivyo, nadharia nyingi zimeshikilia kuwa unene husababishwa na mchanganyiko wa vipengele tofauti. Uhusiano kati ya [[hadhi ya kijamii]] na Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili huwa tofauti ulimwenguni. Tathmini katika mwaka wa 1989 ilionyesha kuwa wanawake wenye hadhi ya juu ya kijamii katika nchi zinazostawii walikuwa na uwezekano mdogo wa kukumbwa na unene wa kupindukia. Hakuna tofauti muhimu zilizoonekana miongoni mwa wanaume wa hadhi tofauti za kijamii. Katika nchi zinazostawi, wanawake, wanaume na watoto kutoka katika hadhi ya juu ya kijamii walikuwa na viwango vikubwa vya unene wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sobal J, Stunkard AJ |title=Socioeconomic status and obesity: A review of the literature |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_1989-03_105_2/page/260 |journal=Psychol Bull |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=260–75 |year=1989 |month=March |pmid=2648443|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.105.2.260}}</ref>. Toleo la tathmini hii uliofanyika mwaka wa 2007 ulionyesha uhusiano uo huo lakini ulikuwa dhaifu. Upungufu katika uthabiti wa uhusiano huo ulihisika kuwa uliotokana na [[utandawazi]].<ref name=McLaren2007>{{cite journal |author=McLaren L |title=Socioeconomic status and obesity |journal=Epidemiol Rev|volume=29 |issue= |pages=29–48 |year=2007 |pmid=17478442 |doi=10.1093/epirev/mxm001}}</ref> Katika nchi zilizostawi, viwango vya unene wa kupindukia kwa watu wazima, na asilimia ya watoto waliobalehe walio na uzani wa kupindukia vinahusiana na [[tofauti za kiuchumi|tofauti za kimapato]]. Uhusiano kama huu hunekana katika majimbo ya Marekani: watu wengi wazima, hata walio katika matabaka ya juu katika jamii wana unene wa kupindukia hata katika majimbo yaliyo na tofauti za kimapato.<ref name="spirit">{{cite book|title=[[The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better]]|last1=Wilkinson|first1=Richard|authorlink1=Richard G. Wilkinson|last2=Pickett|first2=Kate|publisher=Allen Lane|location=London|isbn=978-1-84614-039-6|year=2009|pages=91–101|url=http://www.equalitytrust.org.uk/why/evidence/obesity}}</ref> Maelezo mengi yametolewa yakilinganisha Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili na hadhi ya kijamii. Inadhaniwa mwilia mwilizo wa kumudu vyakula bora zaidi, nao huwa katika shinikizo zaidi la kusalia wembamba kutoka kwa jamii, na wana nafasi na matumaini makubwa ya kudumisha [[siha njema ya kimwili]]. Katika [[nchi zisizostawi]] inaaminika kuwa uwezo wa kumudu chakula, utumizi mkubwa wa nguvu katika kufanya kazi za sulubu, na tamaduni zinazothamini miili mikubwa huchangia katika kuleta mitindo hii.<ref name=McLaren2007/> Mitazamo inayoshikiliwa na watu kuhusu ukubwa wa mwili maishani pia inaweza kuchangia unene wa kupindukia. Uhusiano wa mabadiliko katika Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili kwa muda mrefu umeonekana miongoni mwa marafiki, ndugu na wachumba.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Christakis NA, [[James H. Fowler|Fowler JH]] |title=The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32 Years |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2007-07-26_357_4/page/370 |journal= New England Journal of Medicine|volume=357 |issue=4|pages=370–379 |year=2007 |pmid=17652652 |doi=10.1056/NEJMsa066082}}</ref> Stress and perceived low social status appear to increase risk of obesity.<ref name="spirit" /><ref>{{cite journal|author=Bjornstop P|title=Do stress reactions cause abdominal obesity and comorbidities?|journal=Obesity Reviews|volume=2|issue=2|pages=73–86|year=2001|doi=10.1046/j.1467-789x.2001.00027.x|pmid=12119665}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Goodman E, Adler NE, Daniels SR, Morrison JA, Slap GB, Dolan LM|title=Impact of objective and subjective social status on obesity in a biracial cohort of adolescents|journal=Obesity Reviews|volume=11|issue=8|pages=1018–26|year=2003|pmid=12917508|doi=10.1038/oby.2003.140}}</ref> Uvutaji sigara huathiri pakubwa uzani wa mtu. Watu wanaokoma kuvuta sigara huongeza uzito kwa wastani wa kilo 4.4&nbsp; 9.7&nbsp;lb) katika wanaume na kilo 5.0&nbsp;(11.0&nbsp;lb) katika wanawake kwa muda wa miaka kumi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Flegal KM, Troiano RP, Pamuk ER, Kuczmarski RJ, Campbell SM |title=The influence of smoking cessation on the prevalence of overweight in the United States |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=333 |issue=18 |pages=1165–70 |year=1995 |month=November |pmid=7565970 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199511023331801 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/333/18/1165 |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2003-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030405192136/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/333/18/1165 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Hata hivo mabadiliko katika viwango vya uvutaji yamekuwa na matokeo duni kwa viwango vya jumla vya unene wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chiolero A, Faeh D, Paccaud F, Cornuz J |title=Consequences of smoking for body weight, body fat distribution, and insulin resistance|journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=801–9 |date=1 April 2008|pmid=18400700|url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/87/4/801 }}</ref> Nchini Marekani, idadi ya watoto alionao mtu inahusiana na hatarisho lao la unene wa kupindukia. Hatari ya mwanamke huongezeka kwa 7% kwa kila mtoto, ilhali hatarisho la mwanamume huongezeka kwa 4%.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Weng HH, Bastian LA, Taylor DH, Moser BK, Ostbye T |title=Number of children associated with obesity in middle-aged women and men: results from the health and retirement study |journal=J Women's Health (Larchmt) |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=85–91 |year=2004|pmid=15006281 |doi=10.1089/154099904322836492}}</ref> Hii inaweza kuelezwa kwa kiasi fulani kutokana na ukweli kwamba kuwa na watoto wanaokutegemea hupunguza shughuli za kimwili kwa wazazi katika nchi za Ulaya na Marekani.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bellows-Riecken KH, Rhodes RE |title=A birth of inactivity? A review of physical activity and parenthood |journal=Prev Med |volume=46|issue=2 |pages=99–110 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=17919713 |doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.08.003}}</ref> Katika nchi zinazostawi, ukuaji wa miji unachangia katika kiwango kinachoongezeka cha unene wa kupindukia. Nchini [[Uchina]]viwango vya jumla vya unene wa kupindukia viko chini ya asilimia 5; hata hivyo, katika miji mingine, viwango vya unene wa kupindukia ni zaidi ya asilimia 20.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/media/en/gsfs_obesity.pdf |title=Obesity and Overweight |format=PDF|publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |accessdate=February 22, 2009}}</ref> [[Utapiamlo]] mwanzoni mwa maisha umeaminika kuchangia katika viwango vinavyoongezeka vya unene wa kupindukia katika[[nchi zinazostawi]].<ref name=DC2001>{{cite journal |author=Caballero B |title=Introduction. Symposium: Obesity in developing countries: biological and ecological factors |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=131 |issue=3 |pages=866S–870S |year=2001|month=March |pmid=11238776 |doi= |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/131/3/866S}}</ref>Mabadiliko ya endokrini yanayotokea katika vipindi vya utapiamlo yanaweza kuendeleza uhifadhiwaji wa mafuta mara tu chakula zaidi kiletacho nguvu kinapopatikana.<ref name=DC2001/> Sawa na data za [[epidemiolojia tambuzi|epidemiolojia tambuzi]], na tafiti nyingi huthibitisha kuwa unene wa kupindukia unahusiana na upungufu katika utambuzi. <ref name="Smith2011"> {{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00920.x|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00920.x/abstract|doi_brokendate=1-1-2012|author1=<Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.>}}</ref> Iwapo unene wa kupindukia husababisha upungufu katika utambuzi kwa vyovyote vile bado haijulikani kwa sasa. ===Vikolezo viambukizi=== Utafiti wa jinsi vikolezo viambukizi vinavyoathiri umetaboli ungali katika hatua zake za kwanza. [[Flora ya utumbo]] imeonekana kutofautiana kati ya watu wembamba na wale walio na unene wa kupindukia. Kuna ishara kuwa flora ya utumbo katika watu wanene kupindukia na wale wembamba inaweza kuathiri uwezo wa umetaboli. Mabadiliko haya dhahiri katika uwezo wa umetaboli yanaaminika kuchangia kwa kiwango kikubwa katika kuvuna nguvu zinazosababisha unene wa kupindukia. Iwapo tofauti hizi ndizo visababishi vya moja kwa moja au ndiyo matokeo ya unene wa kupindukia, bado haijabainishwa kwa kiasi kisichopotosha<ref>{{cite journal |author=DiBaise JK, Zhang H, Crowell MD, Krajmalnik-Brown R, Decker GA, Rittmann BE |title=Gut microbiota and its possible relationship with obesity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mayo-clinic-proceedings_2008-04_83_4/page/460 |journal=Mayo Clinic proceedings. Mayo Clinic |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=460–9 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=18380992|doi=10.4065/83.4.460}}</ref> Uhusiano kati ya [[virusi]] na unene wa kupindukia umeonekana kwa wanadamu na spishi kadhaa za wanyama. Kiasi ambacho ushirikiano huu unaweza kuwa umechangia katika kuongezeka kwa kiwango cha unene wa kupindukia bado hakijabainishwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Falagas ME, Kompoti M |title=Obesity and infection |journal=Lancet Infect Dis |volume=6 |issue=7|pages=438–46 |year=2006 |month=July |pmid=16790384 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70523-0 |url=}}</ref> ==Pathofiziolojia== [[File:Fatmouse.jpg|thumb|alt=Panya wawili weupe wenye masikio yanayotoshana, macho meusi na pua za waridi. Hata hivyo upana wa mwili wa panya aliye kushoto ni takribani mara tatu zaidi ya ule wa panya wa kulia aliye na ukubwa wa kawaida.|Ulinganisho wa panya asiyeweza kutoa [[leptini]] na hatimaye kupelekea unene wa kupindukia (kushoto) na panya wa kawaida (kulia)]] Flier anafupisha taratibu nyingi za [[pathofiziolojia]] zinazohusika katika ukuaji na udhibiti wa unene wa kupindukia.<ref name="flier">{{cite journal | author=Flier JS | title=Obesity wars: Molecular progress confronts an expanding epidemic Molecular progress confronts an expanding epidemic | url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2004-01-23_116_2/page/337 | journal=Cell | year=2004 | pages=337–50 | volume=116 | issue=2 | pmid=14744442 | doi = 10.1016/S0092-8674(03)01081-X}}</ref> Kitengo hiki cha utafiti kilikuwa hakijaangaziwa hadi mwaka wa 1994[[leptini]] ilipogunduliwa. Tangu ugunduzi huu ulipofanyika, taratibu zingine nyingi za homoni zinazohusika katika udhibiti wa [[hamu ya kula]] na ulaji, mitindo ya uhifadhi ya [[tishu ya mafuta]] na ukuaji wa [[ukinzani kwa insulini zimefumbuliwa]]. Tangu kuvumbuliwa kwa leptini, [[grelin]], [[insulini]], [[oreksini]], [[PYY 3-36]], [[kolesistokinini]],[[adiponektini]], na vipengele vinginevyo zimechunguzwa. [[Adipokini]] ni chembe zinazoundwa na tishu ya mafuta; utendakazi wake unadhaniwa kubadilisha magonjwa mengi yanayohusiana na unene wa kupindukia. Inachukuliwa kuwa leptini na grelini hufanya kazi pamoja katika jinsi zinavyoathiri hamu ya kula; huku grelini, inayotolewa na tumbo, ikirekebisha uthibiti wa muda mfupi wa hamu ya kula (yaani kula wakati ambapo tumbo liko tupu na kukoma tumbo inapotanuka). Leptini hutolewa na tishu ya mafuta kuchochea hifadhi za mafuta mwilini na kupatanisha uthibiti wa muda mrefu wa hamu ya kula (yaani, kula kwa wingi ambapo hifadhi za mafuta ziko chini na kula kiasi kidogo zinapokuwa juu). Ingawa utoaji wa leptini unaweza kufaa katika kikundi kidogo cha watu wenye unene wa kupindukia walio na upungufu wa leptini, watu wengi wenye unene huu hufikiriwa kuwa wenye ukinzani wa leptini na wamepatikana kuwa na viwango vya juu vya leptini.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hamann A, Matthaei S |title=Regulation of energy balance by leptin |journal=Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes|volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=293–300 |year=1996 |pmid=8886745 |doi=10.1055/s-0029-1211457}}</ref> Ukinzani huu hufikiriwa kueleza kwa kiasi fulani sababu inayofanya utoaji wa leptini usionekane kufaa katika kukandamiza hamu ya kula kwa watu wengi walio na unene wa kupindukia.<ref name="flier"/> [[File:Leptin.png|thumb|kushoto|alt=Modeli ya mitazamo mitatu iliyo na jozi mbili za nguzo mkabala zilizopinda na kushikanishwa pamoja kwenye miisho na sehemu zingine zilizopangwa katika mistari.||Kielelezo cha molekuli ya leptini]] Ingawa leptini na grelini hutolewa pembezoni, zinadhibiti hamu ya kula kupitia jinsi zinavyoathiri[[mfumo mkuu wa neva]]. Hasa, leptini na grelini, na homoni zingine zinazohusiana na hamu ya kula huichochea [[hipothalamasi]], sehemu ya ubongo iliyo muhimu zaidi katika kudhibiti ulaji na utumiaji wa nguvu. Kuna mizunguko kadhaa katika hipothalamasi inayochangia kwenye jukumu lake katika kuongeza na kudumisha hamu ya kula, ambapo[[melanokotini]] ndiyo njia inayoeleweka vizuri sana.<ref name="flier"/> Mzunguko huu huanzia katika sehemu ya hipothalamasi iitwayo [[kiini akueti]], ambayo matokeo yake huenda kwenye [[hipothalamasi ya pembeni]] na [[hipothalamasi inayotambua shibe]], sehemu za ubongo zinazodhibiti kula na shibe mtawalia.<ref>{{cite book |author=Boulpaep, Emile L.; Boron, Walter F. |title=Medical physiologya: A cellular and molecular approach |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000boro_a6j9 |publisher=Saunders|location=Philadelphia |year=2003 |page=[https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000boro_a6j9/page/n1227 1227]|isbn=0-7216-3256-4}}</ref> Kiini akueti kina makundi mawili tofauti ya [[nyuroni]].<ref name="flier"/> Kundi la kwanza hudhirisha [[nuropeptaidi Y]] na [[peptaidi inayohusiana na agouti]] kwa pamoja na kuchangia katika kuichochea hipothalamasi ya pembeni na kuikandamiza hipothalamasi inayotambua shibe. Kundi la pili hudhihirisha [[pro-opiomelanokotini]] na [[nakala inayodhitiwa na kokeni na amfetamini]] (NIKA) na huchangia katika kuichochea hipothalamasi inayotambua shibe na kuikandamiza hipothalamasi ya pembeni. Kwa hiyo, nyuroni za nuropetaidi Y/peptaidi inayohusiana na agouti (NPY/AgRP) huchochea kula na kuzuia kushiba, ilhali nuroni za POMC/NIKA huchochea kushiba na kuzuia kula. Makundi yote mawili ya nuroni za kiini akueti nuroni hudhibitiwa kwa kiasi fulani na leptini. Leptini hukandamiza kundi la nuropetaidi Y/peptaidi inayohusiana na agouti (NPY/AgRP) huku ikilichochea kundi la POMC/NIKA. Kwa hivyo, ukosefu wa uchochelezi wa leptini, iwe ni kutokana na ukosefu wa leptini au ukinzani kwa leptin, hupelekea kula zaidi na inaweza kusababisha unene wa kupindukia wa kijenetikia na wa kupatikana maishani.<ref name="flier"/> {{clear}} ==Afya ya umma== [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] (WHO) linatabiri kuwa hivi karibuni, [[uzito wa kupita kiasi]] na unene wa kupindukia unaweza kuchukua nafasi ya matatizo ya jadi ya [[afya ya umma]] kama vile [[utapiamlo]] na [[magonjwa ya kuambukiza]] kama visababishi vikuu vya afya duni.<ref>{{cite book |author=Loscalzo, Joseph; Fauci, Anthony S.; Braunwald, Eugene; Dennis L. Kasper; Hauser, Stephen L; Longo, Dan L. |title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine |publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical |location=|year=2008 |pages= |isbn=0-07-146633-9 |oclc=|doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Unene wa kupindukia ni tatizo la afya ya umma na la kisera kwa sababu yaueneaji wake, gharama na athari za kiafya.<ref>{{cite book | author=Satcher D | title=The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity | year=2001 | publisher=U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of Surgeon General | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44206/|isbn=978-0-16-051005-2}}</ref> Juhudi za afya ya umma hulenga kuelewa na kurekebisha mazingira yanayochangia kukithiri kwa unene wa kupindukia miongoni mwa watu. Suluhisho hutazamia kubadilisha mambo yanayosababisha utumiaji zaidi wa vyakula viletavyo nguvu na kukandamiza shughuli/mazoezi ya mwili. Juhudi ni programu za milo zinazofadhiliwa na serikali katika shule, kupunguza uuzaji wa[[chakula visivyo bora]] kwa watoto, <ref>{{cite news | author=Brook Barnes | title=Limiting Ads of Junk Food to Children |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/18/business/18food.html | work=New York Times | date=2007-07-18 |accessdate=2008-07-24}}</ref> na kupunguza upatikanaji wa vinywanji vyenye sukari katika shule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.healthfinder.gov/news/newsstory.aspx?docID=625759 |title=Fewer Sugary Drinks Key to Weight Loss -healthfinder.gov |work=U.S.. Department of Health and Human Services |accessdate=Oct 18,2009 |archivedate=2012-11-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116045620/http://www.healthfinder.gov/news/newsstory.aspx?docID=625759 }}</ref> Juhudi zimefanywa katika uundaji wa mazingira ya miji ili kuongeza ufikiaji wa bustani na kutengeneza njia za waendao kwa miguu.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Brennan Ramirez LK | title=Indicators of activity-friendly communities: An evidence-based consensus process | journal=Am J Prev Med | year=2006 | month=December | issue=6 | pages=530–32 | pmid=17169714 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-preventive-medicine_2006-12_31_6/page/530|doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2006.07.026 | volume=31 | author-separator=, | author2=Hoehner CM | author3=Brownson RC |display-authors=3 | last4=Cook | first4=R | last5=Orleans | first5=C | last6=Hollander | first6=M | last7=Barker |first7=D | last8=Bors | first8=P | last9=Ewing | first9=R}}</ref> Nchi nyingi pamoja na vikundi vimechapisha ripoti zinazohusu unene wa kupindukia. Mnamo mwaka wa 1998, miongozo ya kwanza ya serikali ya shirikisho ya Marekani ilichapishwa kwa jina "Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults: The Evidence Report" (Mwongozo wa Kitabibu kuhusu Utambuzi, Utathmini na Matibabu ya Unene na Unene wa Kupindukia katika Watu Wazima).<ref>{{cite book |author=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute|title=Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults|publisher=International Medical Publishing, Inc |location=|year= 1998 |isbn=1-58808-002-1 |oclc=|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/obesity/ob_gdlns.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2006 [[Mfumo wa Unene wa Kupindukia wa Kanada]] ulichapisha "Canadian Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPG) on the Management and Prevention of Obesity in Adults and Children" [Taratibu za Kitabibu za Kanada zinazohusu Udhibiti na uzuiaji wa Unene wa Kupindukia kwa Watu Wazima na Watoto] Huu ni utaratibu wa kina unaozingatia ushahidi ili kushughulikia udhibiti na uzuiaji wa uzani wa kupita kiasi na unene wa kupindukia kwa watu wazima na watoto.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lau DC, Douketis JD, Morrison KM, Hramiak IM, Sharma AM, Ur E |title=2006 Canadian clinical practice guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children summary |journal=CMAJ |volume=176 |issue=8|pages=S1–13 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17420481 |pmc=1839777|doi=10.1503/cmaj.061409 |url=http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/176/8/S1}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2004 nchini Uingereza, [[Chuo cha Mafizishiani cha Royal]], [[Kitengo cha Afya ya Umma]] na [[Chuo cha Pediatria na Afya ya Watoto]] vilitoa ripoti, “Kuhifadhi Matatizo", iliyodokeza kuhusu kuongezeka kwa tatizo la unene wa kupindukia nchini Uingereza. <ref>{{cite book |title=Storing up problems; the medical case for a slimmer nation |date=2004-02-11|publisher=Royal College of Physicians |location= London|isbn=1-86016-200-2 |author=}}</ref> Mwaka huohuo, Kamati Teule ya Afya ya Bunge la Uingereza ilichapisha "uchunguzi wake wa kina zaidi [...] uliowahi kufanywa kuhusu athari ya unene wa kupindukia kwa afya na jamii nchini Uingereza na njia mwafaka zinazoweza kutumiwa katika kutatua tatizo hili.<ref name =GB2004>{{cite book |author=Great Britain Parliament House of Commons Health Committee |title=Obesity– Volume 1 – HCP 23-I, Third Report of session 2003–04. Report, together with formal minutes|url=http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmselect/cmhealth/23/2302.htm|accessdate=2007-12-17|year=2004 |month=May|publisher=TSO (The Stationery Office)|location=London, UK|isbn=978-0-215-01737-6}}</ref> Mwaka wa 2006, [[Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Afya na Ubora wa Kitabibu]] ilitoa utaratibu wa kutambua na kutibu unene wa kupindukia na vilevile athari za kisera kwa mashirika yasiyo ya kiafya kama vile mabaraza ya mitaa<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG43NICEGuideline.pdf |title=Obesity: guidance on the prevention, identification, assessment and management of overweight and obesity in adults and children|publisher=[[National Health Services]] (NHS)|year= 2006|format=PDF |work=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence(NICE)|accessdate=April 8, 2009}}</ref> Ripoti iliyotolewa na Bwana [[Derek Wanless]] mwaka wa 2007 kwa [[Hazina ya Mfalme]] ilionya kuwa iwapo hatua zaidi hazitachukuliwa, unene wa kupindukia una uwezo wa kulemaza [[Huduma ya Afya ya Kitaifa]]kifedha.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wanless |first=Sir Derek |coauthors=John Appleby, Anthony Harrison, Darshan Patel|title=Our Future Health Secured? A review of NHS funding and performance|url=http://www.kingsfund.org.uk/research/publications/our_future.html|accessdate=2007-12-17 |year=2007 |publisher=The King's Fund|location=London, UK |isbn=1-85717-562-X}}</ref> Hatua za kina zinabuniwa ili kuthibiti viwango vinavyoongezeka vya unene wa kupindukia. Mfumo wa Sera ya Kukabiliana na Unene wa Kupindukia hugawanya hatua kwa sera za ‘juu’, sera za ‘katikati’ na sera za ‘chini’. Sera za ‘juu’ zinalenga kubadilisha jamii, sera za ‘kati’ hujaribu kubadilisha mienendo ya watutu ili kuzuia unene wa kupindukia nazo sera za ‘chini’ hujaribu kuwahudumia wale ambao tayari wameathirika.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sacks G, Swinburn B, Lawrence M|title=Obesity Policy Action framework and analysis grids for a comprehensive policy approach to reducing obesity|journal=Obes Rev |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=76–86 |year=2009 |month=January|pmid=18761640|doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00524.x |url=}}</ref> ==Udhibiti== [[File:Obesity Med2008.JPG|thumb|alt=Kifurushi cha kadibodi kinachotumika kupakia aina mbili za dawa zinazotumika kutibu unene wa kupindukia. Orlistat imeonyeshwa hapo juu chini ya jina la chapa la Xenical kwa kifurushi cheupe kilicho na nembo ya Roche kwa kona hapo chini upande wa kulia (jina Roche lililo kwenye pembe sita). Sibutramine iko hapo chini, chini ya chapa Meridia. Kifurushi kina rangi nyeupe upande wa juu na samawati upande wa chini zilizotenganishwa na utepe wa kupima. Herufi A ya Abbott iko kwenye nusu ya chini ya kifurushi.|kulia|[[Orlistat]] (Xenical), tiba inayotumika sana katika kutibu unene wa kupindukia, na [[sibutramine]](Meridia) dawa iliyoondolewa hivi karibuni kutokana na athari zake kwa moyo]] Matibabu makuu ya unene wa kupindukia ni [[kudhibiti jinsi unavyokula]] and [[mazoezi ya mwili]].<ref name=CADG2006>{{cite journal|author=Lau DC, Douketis JD, Morrison KM, Hramiak IM, Sharma AM, Ur E |title=2006 Canadian clinical practice guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children summary |journal=CMAJ |volume=176 |issue=8|pages=S1–13 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17420481 |pmc=1839777 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.061409 |url=}}</ref>Mipango ya lishe inaweza kupelekea [[kupoteza uzito]]kwa kipindi cha muda mfupi<ref name=Strychar>{{cite journal |author=Strychar I |title=Diet in the management of weight loss |journal=CMAJ |volume=174 |issue=1 |pages=56–63 |year=2006 |month=January |pmid=16389240|pmc=1319349 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.045037 |url=http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/174/1/56}}</ref> lakini kudumisha kiwango hiki cha kupoteza uzito mara nyingi huwa vigumu na hivyo huhitaji kudumisha mwenendo wa maisha ya mazoezi ya kimwili na kula chakula kilicho na kiwango cha chini cha nguvu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shick SM, Wing RR, Klem ML, McGuire MT, Hill JO, Seagle H|title=Persons successful at long-term weight loss and maintenance continue to consume a low-energy, low-fat diet|journal=J Am Diet Assoc |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=408–13 |year=1998 |month=April |pmid=9550162|doi=10.1016/S0002-8223(98)00093-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Tate DF, Jeffery RW, Sherwood NE, Wing RR|title=Long-term weight losses associated with prescription of higher physical activity goals. Are higher levels of physical activity protective against weight regain? |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=954–9|date=1 April 2007|pmid=17413092 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/85/4/954}}</ref>Kufanikiwa kudumisha kiwango cha kupoteza uzani na mabadiliko katika mienenbo ni chini mno kati ya asilimia 2 - asilimia 20.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Wing, Rena R; Phelan, Suzanne|title=Science-Based Solutions to Obesity: What are the Roles of Academia, Government, Industry, and Health Care? Proceedings of a symposium, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, 10–11 March 2004 and Anaheim, California, USA, 2 October 2004 |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=82 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=207S–273S |date=1 July 2005|pmid=16002825|url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/82/1/222S }}</ref>Mabadiliko ya kilishe na kimienendo ni muhimu katika kudhibiti uongezaji wa kupita kiasi wa uzani katika [[ujauzito]] na kuboresha hali ya mama na mtoto.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Thangaratinam|first=S|coauthors=Rogozinska, E; Jolly, K; Glinkowski, S; Roseboom, T; Tomlinson, JW; Kunz, R; Mol, BW; Coomarasamy, A; Khan, KS|title=Effects of interventions in pregnancy on maternal weight and obstetric outcomes: meta-analysis of randomised evidence|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|date=2012 May 16|volume=344|pages=e2088|pmid=22596383|pmc=3355191|doi=10.1136/bmj.e2088}}</ref> Aina moja ya dawa, [[Orlistat]] (Xenical), inapatikana kwa urahisi na imeidhinishwa kwa matumizi ya muda mrefu. Hata hivyo, kupoteza uzito ni jambo la kadri kwa wastani wa kilogramu 2.9 &nbsp;kg (6.4&nbsp;lb) kwa mwaka 1 hadi 4&nbsp;na kuna habari kidogo kuhusu jinsi dawa hizi zinavyoathiri matatizo ya muda mrefu ya unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Orli07>{{cite journal |author=Rucker D, Padwal R, Li SK, Curioni C, Lau DC |title=Long term pharmacotherapy for obesity and overweight: updated meta-analysis |journal=BMJ|volume=335 |issue=7631 |pages=1194–99 |year=2007 |pmid=18006966 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39385.413113.25|url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/335/7631/1194 |pmc=2128668}}</ref> Matumizi yake yanahusiana na viwango vya juu vya athari kwa utumbo <ref name=Orli07/> and concerns have been raised about negative effects on the kidneys.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wood|first=Shelley|title=Diet Drug Orlistat Linked to Kidney, Pancreas Injuries|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/740855?src=mp&spon=30|work=Medscape|publisher=Medscape News|accessdate=26 April 2011}}</ref> Aina zingine mbili za dawa pia zinapatikana [[Lorcaserin]](Belviq) hupelekea upotezaji wa uzito kwa wastani kilogramu 3.1&nbsp; (asilimia 3 ya uzani wa mwili) zaidi ya plasebo kwa muda wa mwaka mmoja.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bays|first=HE|title=Lorcaserin: drug profile and illustrative model of the regulatory challenges of weight-loss drug development|journal=Expert review of cardiovascular therapy|date=2011 Mar|volume=9|issue=3|pages=265–77|pmid=21438803|doi=10.1586/erc.10.22}}</ref> Mchanganyiko wa [[Phentermine/topiramate|phentermine na topiramate]] (Qsymia) pia ni bora kwa kiwango fulani.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bays HE, Gadde KM |title=Phentermine/topiramate for weight reduction and treatment of adverse metabolic consequences in obesity |journal=Drugs Today |volume=47 |issue=12 |pages=903–14 |year=2011 |month=December|pmid=22348915 |doi=10.1358/dot.2011.47.12.1718738 |url=}}</ref> Njia mwafaka zaidi ya kutibu unene wa kupindukia ni [[upasuaji wa kibariatriki]]. Upasuaji kwa mujibu wa unene mkali wa kupindukia unahusiana na upotezaji wa uzito kwa muda mrefu na upunguaji katika vifo kwa ujumla. Utafiti mmoja ulitambua upotezaji wa uzito wa kati wa asilimia 14 na 25 (kulingana na utaratibu uliofuatwa) kwa miaka 10&nbsp; na upunguaji wa asilimia 29 katika vifo vitokanavyo na unene huu ikilinganishwa na hatua za kawaida za upotezaji wa uzito.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sjöström L |title=Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality in Swedish obese subjects |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=357 |issue=8 |pages=741–52 |year=2007 |month=August|pmid=17715408 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa066254 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2007-08-23_357_8/page/740|author-separator=, |author2=Narbro K |author3=Sjöström CD|display-authors=3 |last4=Karason |first4=Kristjan |last5=Larsson |first5=Bo |last6=Wedel |first6=Hans |last7=Lystig|first7=Ted |last8=Sullivan |first8=Marianne |last9=Bouchard |first9=Claude}}</ref> Hata hivyo, kutokana na gharama yake na hatari ya matatizo, watafiti wanatafuta tiba zingine mwafaka ilhali zisizo na madhara. {{clear}} ==Epidemiolojia== {{Double image|right|World map of Male Obesity, 2008.svg|200|World map of Female Obesity, 2008.svg|200|World obesity prevalence among males (left) and females (right).<ref name=IOTF2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.iotf.org/database/documents/GlobalPrevalenceofAdultObesity16thDecember08.pdf |title=Global Prevalence of Adult Obesity |format=PDF |work=[[International Obesity Taskforce]] |accessdate=January 29, 2008}}</ref> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#ffff65|<5%}} {{legend|#fff200|5–10%}} {{legend|#ffdc00|10–15%}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ffc600|15–20%}} {{legend|#ffb000|20–25%}} {{legend|#ff9a00|25–30%}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|30–35%}} {{legend|#ff6e00|35–40%}} {{legend|#ff5800|40–45%}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff4200|45–50%}} {{legend|#ff2c00|50–55%}} {{legend|#cb0000|>55%}} {{Multicol-end}} |alt=A map of the world with countries colored to reflect the percentage of men who are obese. Obese males and females have higher prevalence (above 30%) in the U.S. and some Middle Eastern and Oceanian countries, medium prevalence in the rest of North America and Europe, and lower prevalence (<5%) in most of Asia and Africa.||}} Kabla ya [[karne ya 20]], unene wa kupindukia ulikuwa wa nadra;<ref name=Haslam2007/> in 1997 the WHO formally recognized obesity as a global epidemic.<ref name=Caballero/> As of 2005 the WHO estimates that at least 400&nbsp;million adults (9.8%) are obese, with higher rates among women than men.<ref name=WHO2009a>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/index.html |title=Obesity and overweight |work=World Health Organization |accessdate=April 8, 2009}}</ref> Kiwango cha unene wa kupindukia pia huongezeka kulingana na umri kwa angalau kufikia umri wa miaka 50 au 60&nbsp; <ref>Seidell 2005 p.5</ref> na unene mkali wa kupindukia nchini Marekani, Australia, na Canada unaongezeka haraka kuliko kiwango cha jumla cha unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=morbid2007/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Howard, Natasha J.|title=Severe obesity: Investigating the socio-demographics within the extremes of body mass index |journal=Obesity Research &Clinical Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=51–59 |year=2008|month=March |pmid=|doi=10.1016/j.orcp.2008.01.001 |url= |first2=A |first3=T |first4=C |last2=Taylor |last3=Gill|last4=Chittleborough}}</ref><ref name=Tjepkema2005>{{cite book | author=Tjepkema M | chapter=Measured Obesity–Adult obesity in Canada: Measured height and weight | title=Nutrition: Findings from the Canadian Community Health Survey |publisher=Statistics Canada | date=2005-07-06 | location=Ottawa, Ontario |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-620-m/2005001/article/adults-adultes/8060-eng.htm}}</ref> Ijapokuwa uliwahi kuchukuliwa kama tatizo la nchi zilizo na mapato ya juu pekee, viwango vya unene wa kupindukia vinaongezeka ulimwenguni kote na kudhuru nchi zilizostaw na aidha zinazostawi<ref name=EuroG2008>{{cite journal |author=Tsigosa Constantine |title=Management of Obesity in Adults: European Clinical Practice Guidelines |journal=The European Journal of Obesity |volume=1 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=20054170 |doi=10.1159/000126822 |url=http://www.gojaznost.org/gs/dodatak/OMTFManagementofObesityinAdults2008.pdf |first2=Vojtech |issue=2 |first3=Arnaud |first4=Nick |first5=Martin |first6=Elisabeth |first7=Dragan |first8=Maximo |first9=Gabriela |pages=106–16 |last2=Hainer |last3=Basdevant |last4=Finer |last5=Fried |last6=Mathus-Vliegen |last7=Micic |last8=Maislos |last9=Roman |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2012-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426034913/http://www.gojaznost.org/gs/dodatak/OMTFManagementofObesityinAdults2008.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref>.Ongezeko hili limeonekana sana katika maeneo ya miji.<ref name=WHO2009a/> Sehemu inayobakia ulimwenguni ambayo unene wa kupindukia sio jambo la kawaida ni[[mataifa ya kusini mwa sahara]].<ref name=HaslamJames/> {{clear}} ==Historia== [[File:Charles Mellin zugeschr - Porträt eines Herrn - Gemäldegalerie Berlin.jpg|thumb|wima|alt=Mwanamume mwenye unene zaidi wa kupindukia aliye na kidevu chenye sehemu mbili, masharubu, na kuvalia nguo nyeusi huku akiwa na kitara kwenye upande wake wa kushoto.|Katika[[Enzi za Kati]] na[[kipindi cha mvuvumko]], mara nyingi unene wa kupindukia ulionekana kama ishara ya utajiri na ulikuwa umekithiri kwa tabaka aali: ''The Tuscan General [[Alessandro del Borro]]'', attributed to Charles Mellin, 1645<ref name=Zach2003>{{cite journal |author=Zachary Bloomgarden |title=Prevention of Obesity and Diabetes |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=26 |pages=3172–3178 |year=2003|pmid= 14578257|doi= 10.2337/diacare.26.11.3172|url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/26/11/3172.full|issue=11}}</ref>]] [[File:Venus von Willendorf 01.jpg|thumb|wima|alt= Kisanamu kilichochongwa kutoka kwa jiwe kilionyesha mwanamke mwenye unene wa kupindukia.|''[[Venus of Willendorf]]'' kilichotengenezwa 24,000–22,000 BC]] [[Wagiriki]] ndio waliokuwa wa kwanza kutambua unene wa kupindukia kama tatizo la kiafya.<ref name=Haslam2007>{{cite journal|author=Haslam D |title=Obesity: a medical history |journal=Obes Rev |volume=8 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=31–6 |year=2007|month=March |pmid=17316298 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00314.x |url=}}</ref> [["Hippocrates]] aliandika kuwa "Unene wa kupindukia si ugonjwa kivyake tu, bali ni dalili ya magonjwa mengine".<ref name=HaslamJames/> Daktari Mhindi wa upasuaji [[Sushruta]] (karne ya 6 BCE) alihusisha unene wa kupindukia na kisukari na matatizo ya moyo.<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07/> He recommended physical work to help cure it and its side effects.<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07>{{cite web |url=http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |format=PDF |title=History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician –Teacher par Excellence |accessdate=2008-09-19 |work=Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar |publisher= |year=2007 |archivedate=2008-10-10 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf }}</ref>Katika historia ya watu, wanadamu wamekumbwa sana na ukosefu wa chakula.<ref>{{cite book |author=Theodore Mazzone; Giamila Fantuzzi |title=Adipose Tissue And Adipokines in Health And Disease (Nutrition and Health) |publisher=Humana Press|location=Totowa, NJ |year=2006 |page=222 |isbn=1-58829-721-7 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>Kwa hivyo, kihistoria, unene wa kupindukia umeonekana kama ishara ya utajiri na ustawi. Ulikuwa umekithiri kwa maafisa wakuu barani Uropa katika [[Enzi za Kati]] na [[Kipindi cha Mvuvumko]]<ref name=Zach2003/> as well as in Ancient East Asian civilizations.<ref>Keller p. 49</ref> Kwa kuwepo kwa mwanzo wa [[mvuvumko wa viwanda]], iligunduliwa kuwa uwezo wa kijeshi na kiuchumi wa mataifa ulitegemea ukubwa wa mwili na nguvu za wanajeshi na wafanyikazi.<ref name=Caballero/> Kuongeza wastani wa kielezo cha uzito wa mwili kutoka kile kinachofikiriwa kuwa uzito wa chini hadi kwa kile kilicho anuwai ya kawaida kulichangia pakubwa katika ustawi wa jamii zilizo na viwanda.<ref name=Caballero/> Kutokana na hayo, kimo na uzito viliongezeka katika karne ya 19&nbsp; katika nchi zilizostawi. Katika karne ya 20, watu walipofikia kikamilifu uwezo wao wa kijenetiki wa kimo, uzito ulianza kuongezeka sana zaidi ya kimo na kupelekea unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Caballero/>Katika miaka ya 1950, kuongezeka kwa utajiri katika nchi zilizostawi kulipunguza vifo vya watoto. Hata hivyo, uzito ulipoongezeka, ugonjwa wa moyo na figo ulikithiri.<ref name=Caballero/><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.2105/AJPH.42.9.1116 | author=Breslow L |title=Public Health Aspects of Weight Control | journal=Am J Public Health Nations Health | year=1952 | month=September| volume=42 | issue=9 | pages=1116–20 | pmid=12976585 | pmc=1526346}}</ref> Katika kipindi hiki, kampuni za bima ziligundua uhusiano kati ya uzito na matarajio ya muda wa kuishi na hivyo basi zikaongeza malipo ya bima kwa walio na unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=HaslamJames/> Tamaduni nyingi katika historia zimeona unene wa kupindukia kama ambayo inatokana na makosa ya kimienendo. Mwigizaji aliyekuwa na ''obesus'' au mafuta katika[[uigizaji wa Kigriki]] aliwakilisha ulafi na utani. Katika nyakati za Ukristo, chakula kilichukuliwa kama njia inayoelekeza kwenye dhambi za [[uzembe]]na[[tamaa]].<ref name=Woodhouse/> Katika tamaduni za kisasa za Ulaya na Marekani, unene wa kupita kiasi unachukuliwa kama jambo lisilovutia na unene wa kupindukia mara nyingi huhusishwa na mambo kadhaa mabaya yasiyo na uasili. Watu wa umri tofauti wanaweza kufedheheshwa na kulengwa na wadhalimu au kutengwa na wenzao. Unene wa kupindukia kwa mara nyingine ni sababu ya ubaguzi<ref name=Bias2001>{{cite journal |author=Puhl R, Brownell KD |title=Bias, discrimination, and obesity|journal=Obes. Res. |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=788–805 |year=2001 |month=December |pmid=11743063|doi=10.1038/oby.2001.108 |url=}}</ref> Fahamu za umma katika jamii ya Ulaya na Marekani kuhusu uzito bora wa mwili zinatofautiana na zile zinazohusu uzito unaofikiriwa kuwa bora &nbsp;– na zote zimebadilika tangu mwanzo wa karne ya 20. Uzito unaochukuliwa kuwa bora umekuwa chini tangu miaka ya 1920. Marekani uliongezeka kwa asilimia 2 kutoka mwaka wa 1922 hadi 1999 ilhali wastani wa uzito wao ulipungua kwa asilimia 12.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rubinstein S, Caballero B |title=Is Miss America an undernourished role model? |journal=JAMA |volume=283|issue=12 |page=1569 |year=2000 |pmid=10735392 |doi= 10.1001/jama.283.12.1569|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_march-22-29-2000_283_12/page/1569}}</ref> Kwa upande mwingine, mitazamo ya watu kuhusu uzito bora imebadilika na kuchukua mkondo pinzani. Nchini Uingereza, uzito ambapo watu walijiona kuwa na uzito wa kupita kiasi ulikuwa juu kwa kiasi cha haja katika mwaka wa 2007 kuliko 1999.<ref name=John2008>{{cite journal|author=Johnson F, Cooke L, Croker H, Wardle J |title=Changing perceptions of weight in Great Britain: comparison of two population surveys |journal=BMJ |volume=337 |issue= |pages=a494 |year=2008 |pmid=18617488 |pmc=2500200 |doi= 10.1136/bmj.a494|url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/337/jul10_1/a494}}</ref> Mabadiliko haya yanaaminika kusababishwa na viwango vinavyoongezeka vya uadiposi (unene), hali inayopelekekea ukubalifu wa mafuta ya ziada mwilini kama jambo la kawaida.<ref name=John2008/> Unene wa kupindukia ungali unachukuliwa kuwa ishara ya utajiri na ufanisi katika sehemu nyingi za [[Afrika]]. Hili limekuwa jambo la kawaida hasa tangu kuzuka kwa janga la [[VVU]]lilianza. <ref name=HaslamJames/> ==Sanaa== Sanaa ya kwanza ya uchongaji iliyoleta mfano wa mwili wa binadamu kati ya miaka 20,000 - 35,000 &nbsp; iliyopita ilionyesha wanawake walio na unene wa kupindukia. Baadhi ya watu huihusisha [[sanamu ya Zuhura]]na juhudi za kusisitiza uwezo wa kuzaa ilhali wengine huhisi kuwa wao husimamia “unene” kwa watu wa wakati huo.<ref name=Woodhouse/> Hata hivyo, unene wa kupindukia haupo katika sanaa ya Wagiriki na Waroma, yamkini kwa kudumisha ulimbwende wao kwa mujibu wa kiasi. Haya yaliendelea katika sehemu kubwa ya historia ya ukristo barani Uropa ambapo wale tu walio na mapato ya chini wakichukuliwa kuwa wenye unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Woodhouse/> Katika [[Kipindi cha Mvuvumko]], baadhi ya watu katika tabaka la juu walianza kuuringia ukubwa wao jinsi inavyoonekana katika picha za Henry wa nane na Alessandro del Borro.<ref name=Woodhouse>{{cite journal |author=Woodhouse R |title=Obesity in art: A brief overview |journal=Front Horm Res |volume=36 |issue= |pages=271–86 |year=2008 |isbn=978-3-8055-8429-6|pmid=18230908 |doi=10.1159/000115370 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=nXRU4Ea1aMkC&pg=PA271&lpg=PA271&dq=Obesity+in+art:+a+brief+overview |series=Frontiers of Hormone Research}}</ref>[[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]] (1577–1640) alionyesha wanawake wenye miili mikubwa katika picha zake, ambapo anatoa neno [[Rubenesque]]. Hata hivyo, wanawake hawa bado walilidumisha umbo la shisha na uhusiano wake na uwezo wa kuzaa.<ref name=Fumento>{{cite book |author=Fumento, Michael |title=The Fat of the Land: Our Health Crisis and How Overweight Americans Can Help Themselves |url=https://archive.org/details/fatofland00mich |publisher=Penguin (Non-Classics) |year=1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/fatofland00mich/page/n153 126]|isbn=0-14-026144-3}}</ref> Katika karne ya 19 &nbsp; mitazamo kuhusu unene wa kupindukia ilibadilika katika nchi za Ulaya na Amerika. Baada ya karne kadhaa ambapo unene wa kupindukia ulihusiana na mali na hadhi ya kijamii katika jamii, wembamba ulianza kuonekana kama kipimo kifaacho.<ref name=Woodhouse/> ==Jamii na utamaduni== ===Athari za kiuchumi=== Pamoja na athari zake za kiafya, unene wa kupindukia husababisha matatizo mengi yakiwemo ugumu katika ajira <ref name="Puhl R. p.29">Puhl R., Henderson K., and Brownell K. 2005 p.29</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ehb.2009.01.008|author=Johansson E, Bockerman P, Kiiskinen U, Heliovaara M |title=Obesity and labour market success in Finland: The difference between having a high BMI and being fat |journal=Economics and Human Biology |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=36–45|year=2009 |pmid=19249259}}</ref> na gharama za juu za biashara. Athari hizi zinazikumba sekta zote za jamii kutoka kwa watu binafsi, hadi kwa mashirika, na hadi kwa serikali. Katika mwaka wa 2005, gharama za kimatibabu zinazoweza kuhusishwa na unene wa kupindukia nchini Marekani zilikuwa takribani dola bilioni &nbsp;190.2 &nbsp; au asilimia 20.6 ya gharama zote za kimatibabu,<ref name=medical-costs>{{cite journal|coauthors=John Cawley, Chad Meyerhoefer|title=The medical care costs of obesity: An instrumental variables approach|journal=Journal of Health Economics|year=2012|month=January|volume=31|issue=1|pages=219–230|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629611001366|accessdate=2 August 2012|doi=10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.10.003|pmid=22094013|last1=Cawley|first1=J}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|author=Finkelstein EA, Fiebelkorn IA, Wang G |title=National medical spending attributable to overweight and obesity: How much, and who's paying |journal= Health Affairs|volume=Online |issue=May |pages=|date=1 January 2003|url=http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/content/full/hlthaff.w3.219v1/DC1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/economic_consequences.htm |title=Obesity and overweight: Economic consequences | publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] | date=22 May 2007 |accessdate=2007-09-05}}</ref> while the cost of obesity in Canada was estimated at CA$2 billion in 1997 (2.4% of total health costs).<ref name="CADG2006"/> Jumla ya gharama ya unene wa kupindukia nchini Kanada ilikuwa imekadiriwa kuwa dola bilioni 2 za Australia katika mwaka wa 2005. Waustralia walio na uzito wa kupita kiasi na wanene kupindukia pia walipokea dola za Australia bilioni 35.6 kama ruzuku kutoka kwa serikali.<ref name=MJA2009>{{Rejea jarida|title=The cost of overweight and obesity in Australia|url=http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/192_05_010310/col10841_fm.html|year=2009|author=Colagiuri, Stephen|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|accessdate=2011-06-18|last2=Lee|first2=Crystal M. Y.|last3=Colagiuri|first3=Ruth|display-authors=4|author5=<Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.>|archive-date=2011-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819110111/http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/192_05_010310/col10841_fm.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kadiri ya gharama ya bidhaa za lishe imekadiriwa kuwa kati ya dola bilioni 40&nbsp; hadi dola bilioni 100&nbsp&nbsp; nchini Marekani pekee.<ref>{{cite news | last = Cummings | first = Laura|title = The diet business: Banking on failure|publisher = BBC News| date = 5 February 2003| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/2725943.stm| accessdate = 25 February 2009}}</ref> Miradi ya kuzuia unene wa kupindukia imezinduliwa ili kupunguza gharama ya kutibu magonjwa yanayohusiana na unene huu. Hata hivyo, jinsi watu wanavyoendelea kuishi ndivyo wanavyogharamika zaidi. Kwa hivyo, watafiti huafiki kuwa kupunguza unene wa kupindukia kunaweza kuidumisha afya ya umma lakini huenda isipunguze gharama ya jumla ya afya..<ref>{{cite journal |author=van Baal PH |title=Lifetime Medical Costs of Obesity: Prevention No Cure for Increasing Health Expenditure |journal=PLoS Med. |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=e29 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=18254654 |pmc=2225430 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050029 |url=http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050029 |author-separator=, |author2=Polder JJ |author3=de Wit GA |display-authors=3 |last4=Hoogenveen |first4=Rudolf T. |last5=Feenstra |first5=Talitha L. |last6=Boshuizen |first6=Hendriek C. |last7=Engelfriet |first7=Peter M. |last8=Brouwer |first8=Werner B. F. |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2015-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111110729/http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050029 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Wide Chair.jpg|thumb|kushoto|alt= Kiti cha ziada kipana kando ya viti kadhaa vyenye ukubwa wa kawaida.|Ni sharti huduma ziwazingatie watu walio na unene wa kupindukia kwa vifaa maalumu kama vile viti vipana.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bakewell J|title=Bariatric furniture: Considerations for use|journal=Int J Ther Rehabil|issue=7|pages=329–33|year=2007|url=http://www.ijtr.co.uk/cgi-bin/go.pl/library/article.cgi?uid=23858;article=IJTR_14_7_329_333|volume=14|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2011-10-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008202913/http://www.ijtr.co.uk/cgi-bin/go.pl/library/article.cgi?uid=23858;article=IJTR_14_7_329_333|dead-url=yes}}</ref>]] Unene wa kupindukia unaweza kusababisha fedheha ya kijamii na ugumu katika ajira.<ref name="Puhl R. p.29"/> Wakilinganishwa na wenzao walio na uzito wa kawaida, wafanyikazi walio na unene wa kupindukia kwa wastani wana viwango vya juu vya kutokuwa kazini kwao na huchukua likizo ya udhaifu mara kwa mara na kupelekea kuongezeka kwa gharama upande wa waajiri na kupunguka kwa tija.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Neovius K, Johansson K, Kark M, Neovius M|title=Obesity status and sick leave: a systematic review |journal=Obes Rev |volume=10|issue=1 |pages=17–27 |year=2009|month=January |pmid=18778315 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00521.x |url=}}</ref> Utafiti wa kuwachunguza wafanyikazi wa chuo kikuu cha Duke ulionyesha kuwa watu walio na kielezo cha uzito wa mwili zaidi ya 40 walijiandikisha kufidiwa katika [[fidia ya wafanyikazi]] mara mbili zaidi ya wale ambao kielezo chao cha uzito wa mwili kilikuwa 18.5-24.9. Pia siku zao za kutofika kazini kwao zilikuwa zaidi ya mara 12&nbsp; ikilinganishwa na wenzao wasio na kielezo cha juu cha uzito wa mwili. Majeraha ya mara kwa mara katika kikundi hiki yalitokana na kuanguka na kunyanyuka hivyo ikiathiri miguu, vifundo vya mikono au mikono, na migongo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ostbye T, Dement JM, Krause KM|title=Obesity and workers' compensation: Results from the Duke Health and Safety Surveillance System |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=167 |issue=8|pages=766–73|year=2007 |pmid=17452538 |doi=10.1001/archinte.167.8.766}}</ref> Bodi ya Bima ya Wafanyikazi katika Jimbo la Alabama nchini Marekani iliidhinisha mpango tata wa kuwatoza wafanyikazi walio na unene wa kupindukia dola 25 kila mwezi iwapo hawachukui hatua za kuupunguza uzito wao na kudumisha afya yao. Hatua hizi zilianza Januari 2010 na zinalenga wale walio na Kielezo cha Uzito wa Mwili cha zaidi ya kilo 35 &nbsp;kwa kila mita ² wanaokosa kuboresha afya yao baada ya mwaka mmoja.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/diet/news/20080825/alabama-obesity-penalty-stirs-debate |title=Alabama "Obesity Penalty" Stirs Debate |work=Don Fernandez |accessdate=April 5, 2009}}</ref> Utafiti fulani umeonyesha kuwa watu walio na unene wa kupindukia wana uwezekano mdogo wa kuajiriwa na pia wana uwezekano mdogo wa kupandishwa cheo.<ref name=Bias2001/> Watu hawa pia hulipwa mshahara wa chini kuliko wenzao wasio na unene huu wa kupindukia kwa kazi sawa. Wanawake na wanaume walio na unene wa kupindukia kwa wastani hupata asilimia 6 na 3 chini mtawalia.<ref>Puhl R., Henderson K., and Brownell K. 2005 p.30</ref> Nyanja mahususi kama vile shirika la ndege, afya na nyanja za vyakula, zina matatizo maalumu. Kutokana na viwango vinavyoongezeka vya unene wa kupindukia, mashirika ya ndege yanakumbwa na gharama ya juu ya mafuta na shinikizo la kuongeza upana wa viti.<ref>{{cite web | author=Lisa DiCarlo| url=http://www.forbes.com/2002/10/24/cx_ld_1024obese.html |title=Why Airlines Can't Cut The Fat|work=Forbes.com|date=2002-10-24 | accessdate=2008-07-23}}</ref> Katika mwaka wa 2000, uzito wa ziada wa abiria wenye unene wa kupindukia uliyagharimu mashirika ya ndege dola za Marekani milioni 275&nbsp;.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Dannenberg AL, Burton DC, Jackson RJ |title=Economic and environmental costs of obesity: The impact on airlines |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-preventive-medicine_2004-10_27_3/page/264 |journal=American journal of preventive medicine|volume=27 |issue=3 |page=264|year=2004 |pmid=15450642 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2004.06.004}}</ref> Ulimwengu wa afya umelazimika kuwekeza katika vifaa maalumu vya kuwashughulikia wagonjwa walio na unene zaidi wa kupindukia vikiwemo vifaa maalumu vya kunyanyua na [[ambyulensi ya kibariatriki]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Diet/obese-health-care-bariatric-ambulances/story?id=7981746|title=Who Should Pay for Obese Health Care?|author=Lauren Cox|publisher=ABC News|date=July 2, 2009|accessdate=2012-08-06}}</ref>Gharama za hoteli zimeongezwa na mahakama kwa shutma za kusababisha unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Govtrack>{{cite web | url=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-554 | title=109th U.S. Congress (2005–2006) H.R. 554: 109th U.S. Congress (2005–2006) H.R. 554: Personal Responsibility in Food Consumption Act of 2005 | publisher=GovTrack.us | accessdate=2008-07-24 | archivedate=2008-11-01 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101192335/http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-554 }}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2005, bunge la Marekani lilijadili utungaji sheria ya kuzuia kesi za raia dhidi ya sekta ya vyakula kwa mujibu wa unene wa kupindukia; hata hivyo, haikufanikiwa kuwa sheria..<ref name=Govtrack/> ===Ukubalifu wa ukubwa=== [[File:PresidentTaftTelephoneCrop.jpg|thumb|150px|kulia|kulia|Rais wa Marekani [[William Howard Taft]] alidhihakiwa mara nyingi kwa kuwa na uzito wa kupita kiasi]] Lengo kuu la vuguvugu la ukubalifu wa unene ni kupunguza ubaguzi dhidi ya watu walio na unene na uzito wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.capitalnaafa.org/whatisnaafa.html |title=What is NAAFA |work=[[National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance]] |accessdate=February 17, 2009 |archivedate=2009-03-12 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312001218/http://www.capitalnaafa.org/whatisnaafa.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.size-acceptance.org/mission.html |title=ISAA Mission Statement |work=[[International Size Acceptance Association]] |accessdate=February 17, 2009 |archive-date=2009-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225005852/http://www.size-acceptance.org/mission.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Hata hivyo, wengine katika vuguvugu hilo pia wanajaribu kupinga uhusiano uliothibitishwa kati ya unene wa kupindukia na athari mbaya za kiafya.<ref name=Pulver2007>{{cite book |author=Pulver, Adam |title=An Imperfect Fit: Obesity, Public Health, and Disability Anti-Discrimination Law |publisher=Social Science Electronic Publishing |location= |year=2007 |pages= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1316106|accessdate=January 13, 2009}}</ref> Kunayo mashirika kadhaa yanayoendeleza ukubalifu wa unene wa kupindukia. Umaarufu wa mashirika haya umeongezeka katika nusu ya hivi karibuni ya karne ya 20 &nbsp;.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Neumark-Sztainer D |title=The weight dilemma: a range of philosophical perspectives |journal=Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. |volume=23 Suppl 2 |issue= |pages=S31–7|year=1999 |month=March |pmid=10340803 |doi= 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800857|url=}}</ref>Shirika la Kitaifa la Kuendeleza Ukubalifu wa Unene]] nchini Marekani [[lilianzishwa mwaka wa 1969 na hujieleza kama shirika la haki za raia linalolenga kukomesha ubaguzi wa ukubwa.<ref>{{cite | author=National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance | url=http://www.naafaonline.com/dev2/ | title=We come in all sizes | publisher=NAAFA | year=2008 | accessdate=2008-07-29 | archivedate=2018-12-26 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226125112/https://www.naafaonline.com/dev2/%20 }}</ref> Hata hivyo, uhamasishaji juu ya unene umebaki harakati za pembeni.<ref>[http://www.bitchmagazine.org/article/big-trouble Big Trouble | Bitch Magazine<!--Bot-generated title-->] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bitchmagazine.org/article/big-trouble |date=20121226160246 }}, bitchmagazine.org</ref> [[Shirika la Kimataifa la Ukubalifu wa Ukubwa]]ni [[shirika lisilo la kiserikali]] lililoanzishwa mnamo mwaka wa 1997. Shirika hili ni la kimataifa na hueleza lengo lake kama kuendeleza ukubalifu wa ukubwa na kusaidia kukomesha ubaguzi kwa misingi ya uzito.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.size-acceptance.org/ |title=International Size Acceptance Association – ISAA |work=International Size Acceptance Association |accessdate=January 13, 2009 |archive-date=2009-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105165710/http://size-acceptance.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Vikundi hivi mara nyingi hupigania kutambulika kwa unene wa kupindukia kama ulemavu chini ya [[Sheria ya Wamarekani Walio na Ulemavu]] Hata hivyo, mfumo wa kisheria wa Marekani umeamua kuwa gharama zitakazokuwa za afya ya umma zinazidi faida za kueindeleza sheria hii ya dhidi ya ubaguzi kujumlisha unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Pulver2007/> ==Unene wa utotoni== Kielezo cha Uzito wa Mwili mwafaka hutofautiana kulingana na umri na jinsia ya mtoto. Unene katika watoto na vijana huelezwa kama Kielezo cha Uzito wa Mwili cha zaidi ya &nbsp;[[asilimia]].<ref name="cdc.gov"/>95. Data ya marejeo yenye ndio mzingi wa asilimia hizi ni kutoka 1963 hadi 1994 na hivyo haijaathiriwa na ongezeko la kiwango cha unene cha hivi karibuni.<ref name="Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Wei R, Kuczmarski RL, Johnson CL 2001 1086–93"/> Unene wa utotoni umefika kiwango cha mlipuko katika karne ya 21 &nbsp;, kukiwa na ongezeko la kiwango katika nchi zimeendelea na zinazoendelea. Kima cha unene kwa wavulana chini Kanada imeongezeka kutoka 11% miaka ya 1980s hadi zaidi ya 30% miaka ya 1990, bali kwa kipindi cha muda huu kiwango kiliongezeka kutoka 4 hadi 14% katika watoto wa Brazili.<ref name=flynn2006/> Kama ilivyo na unene katika watu wazima, hali nyingi tofauti huchangia kwa viwango vingi ongezeko la unene utotoni. Ubadilishaji wa lishe na upungufu wa mazoezi ya mwili huaminika kuwa ndizo visababishi viwili vya hivi karibu muhimu zaidi vya ongezeko la viwango.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dollman J, Norton K, Norton L |title=Evidence for secular trends in children's physical activity behaviour |journal=Br J Sports Med |volume=39 |issue=12 |pages=892–7; discussion 897 |year=2005|month=December |pmid=16306494 |pmc=1725088 |doi=10.1136/bjsm.2004.016675 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-sports-medicine_2005-12_39_12/page/892}}</ref> Kwa sababu unene wa utotoni huendelea hadi wakati wa utu uzima na unahusishwa na magonjwa mengi yanayodumu, watoto walio wanene mara nyingi huchunguzwa[[shinikizo la juu la damu]], [[Ugonjwa wa kisukari]], [[hipalipidimia]], na [[ini yenye mafuta]].<ref name=CADG2006/> Matibabu yanayotumika kwa watoto hasa ni hatua ya hali ya maisha na mbinu za mwenendo, hata hivyo bidii za kuongezea mazoezi kwa watoto zimekuwa na mafanikio madogo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Metcalf|first=B.|coauthors=Henley, W.; Wilkin, T.|title=Effectiveness of intervention on physical activity of children: systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials with objectively measured outcomes (EarlyBird 54)|journal=BMJ|date=27 September 2012|volume=345|issue=sep27 1|pages=e5888–e5888|doi=10.1136/bmj.e5888}}</ref>Nchini Marekani, dawa hazikubaliwi na Muungano wa Chakula na Dawa kutumika katika kikundi hiki cha umri.<ref name=flynn2006>{{cite journal |author=Flynn MA |title=Reducing obesity and related chronic disease risk in children and youth: a synthesis of evidence with 'best practice' recommendations|journal=Obes Rev |volume=7 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=7–66 |year=2006 |month=February |pmid=16371076|doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2006.00242.x |url= |author-separator=, |author2=McNeil DA |author3=Maloff B |display-authors=3|last4=Mutasingwa |first4=D. |last5=Wu |first5=M. |last6=Ford |first6=C. |last7=Tough |first7=S. C.}}</ref> ==Katika wanyama== Unono katika [[mifugo]] ni jambo la kawaida katika nchi nyingi. Kiwango cha unono uliozidi katika mbwa kule Marekani ni kutoka 23% hadi 41%, 5.1% yao wakiwa ni wanono.<ref name=Lund2006>{{cite journal|author=Lund Elizabeth M.|title=Prevalence and Risk Factors for Obesity in Adult Dogs from Private US Veterinary Practices|journal=Intern J Appl Res Vet Med|volume=4|issue=2|pages=177–86|year=2006|pmid= |doi= |url=http://www.jarvm.com/articles/Vol4Iss2/Lund.pdf}}</ref>Rates of obesity in cats was slightly higher at 6.4%.<ref name= Lund2006/>Nchini Australia kiwango cha unene wa kupindukia katika mbwa kwa muktadha wa utabibu wa mifugo imepatikana kuwa 7.6%.<ref>{{cite journal |author=McGreevy PD, Thomson PC, Pride C, Fawcett A, Grassi T, Jones B|title=Prevalence of obesity in dogs examined by Australian veterinary practices and the risk factors involved|journal=Vet. Rec.|volume=156|issue=22|pages=695–702|year=2005|month=May |pmid=15923551|doi= |url=}}</ref> Hatari za unono kwa mbwa inahusiana na unene wa wamiliki; hata hivyo, hakuna uhusiano kama huo baina ya [[paka]] na wamiliki.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nijland ML, Stam F, Seidell JC|title= Overweight in dogs, but not in cats, is related to overweight in their owners|journal=Public Health Nutr|volume=13|issue= 1|pages= 1–5|year=2009|month=June|pmid=19545467|doi=10.1017/S136898000999022X|url= }}</ref> ==Tazama pia== *[[Jon Brower Minnoch]] *[[Manuel Uribe]] *[[Mayra Rosales]] *[[Walter Hudson]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Marejeo== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | doi = 10.1079/BJN2002739 | last1 = Bhargava | first1 = Alok | last2 = Guthrie | first2 = J. | year = 2002 | title = Unhealthy eating habits, physical exercise and macronutrient intakes are predictors of anthropometric indicators in the Women's Health Trial: Feasibility Study in Minority Populations | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-nutrition_2002-12_88_6/page/719 | journal = British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 88 | issue = 6 | pages = 719–728 | pmid = 12493094 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Bhargava | first1 = Alok | year = 2006 | title = Fiber intakes and anthropometric measures are predictors of circulating hormone, triglyceride, and cholesterol concentration in the Women's Health Trial | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nutrition_2006-08_136_8/page/2249 | journal = Journal of Nutrition | volume = 136 | issue = 8 | pages = 2249–2254 | pmid = 16857849 }} * Jebb S. and Wells J. Measuring body composition in adults and children In:{{cite book|author=Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J. Stock, William H. Dietz|title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=|year=2005|pages=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse/page/12 12]–28|isbn=1-4051-1672-2|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse}} * Kopelman P., Caterson I. An overview of obesity management In:{{cite book|author=Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J. Stock, William H. Dietz|title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=|year=2005|pages=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse/page/319 319]–326|isbn=1-4051-1672-2|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse}} * {{cite book |author=[[National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute]] (NHLBI) |title=Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults |publisher=International Medical Publishing, Inc |location= |year=1998 |pages= |isbn=1-58808-002-1 |oclc= |url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/obesity/ob_gdlns.pdf |format=PDF }} * {{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG43NICEGuideline.pdf|title=Obesity: guidance on the prevention, identification, assessment and management of overweight and obesity in adults and children|publisher=[[National Health Services]] (NHS)|year=2006|format=PDF|work=[[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]](NICE)|accessdate=April 8, 2009}} * Puhl R., Henderson K., and Brownell K. Social consequences of obesity In:{{cite book|author=Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J. Stock, William H. Dietz|title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=|year=2005|pages=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse/page/29 29]–45|isbn=1-4051-1672-2|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse}} * Seidell JC. Epidemiology — definition and classification of obesity In:{{cite book|author=Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J. Stock, William H. Dietz|title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=|year=2005|pages=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse/page/3 3]–11|isbn=1-4051-1672-2|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse}} * {{cite book | author=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) | title=Technical report series 894: Obesity: Preventing and managing the global epidemic. | location=Geneva | publisher=World Health Organization | year=2000 | url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_894_(part1).pdf | format=PDF | isbn=92-4-120894-5 | access-date=2013-11-28 | archive-date=2015-05-01 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501075305/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_894_(part1).pdf | dead-url=yes }} {{Refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== {{Refbegin}} * {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Nutritional_and_Metabolic_Disorders/Obesity/}} * {{cite book |author=Fumento, Michael | authorlink=Michael Fumento | title=The Fat of the Land: Our Health Crises and How Overweight Americans can Help Themselves |url=https://archive.org/details/fatoflandourheal0000mich |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |year=1997|isbn=0-14-026144-3}} * {{cite book |author=Keller, Kathleen |title=Encyclopedia of Obesity |publisher=Sage Publications, Inc|location=Thousand Oaks, Calif |year=2008 |isbn=1-4129-5238-7 |oclc= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=aRp2rJrEqZsC&dq=IOTF+obesity+map|doi= |accessdate=}} * {{cite book |author=Kolata, Gina | authorlink=Gina Kolata |title=Rethinking Thin: The new science of weight loss –and the myths and realities of dieting |url=https://archive.org/details/rethinkingthinne0000kola_i1w5 |publisher=Picador |location= |year=2007 |pages= |isbn=0-312-42785-9}} * {{cite book|author=Kopelman, Peter G.|title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location= |year=2005|page=493 |isbn=1-4051-1672-2|url=http://books.google.com/?id=u7RvldSr5M0C&pg=PA87&dq=80+percent+of+the+offspring+of+two+obese+parents+become+obese}} * {{cite book |author=Levy-Navarro, Elena |title=The Culture of Obesity in Early and Late Modernity |url=https://archive.org/details/cultureofobesity0000levy |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location= |year=2008 |pages= |isbn=0-230-60123-5}} * {{cite book |author=Pool, Robert |title=Fat: Fighting the Obesity Epidemic |url=https://archive.org/details/fatfightingobesi00pool |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford, UK |year=2001 |pages= |isbn=0-19-511853-7}} {{Refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{commonscat|Obesity}} {{Sister project links|display=Obesity}} * [http://www.refugees.org/uploadedfiles/Participate/National_Programs/Healthy_Refugees/Brochures/Swahili-Obesity.pdf Unene ni nini] {{Wayback|url=http://www.refugees.org/uploadedfiles/Participate/National_Programs/Healthy_Refugees/Brochures/Swahili-Obesity.pdf |date=20090331130222 }} * [http://www.refugees.org/uploadedfiles/Participate/National_Programs/Healthy_Refugees/Brochures/Swahili-ChildhoodObesity.pdf Unene utotoni] {{Wayback|url=http://www.refugees.org/uploadedfiles/Participate/National_Programs/Healthy_Refugees/Brochures/Swahili-ChildhoodObesity.pdf |date=20090331130208 }} * [https://dmoztools.net/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Nutritional_and_Metabolic_Disorders/Obesity/ Unene kwenye tovuti ya DMOZ] {{Wayback|url=https://dmoztools.net/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Nutritional_and_Metabolic_Disorders/Obesity/ |date=20171112194539 }} [[Jamii:Afya]] [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] [[Jamii:Chakula]] 0s2ex8avajpembwu517auf99cthwjrl 1580155 1579991 2026-07-18T00:39:49Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580155 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease |Name = Obesity |Image = Obesity-waist_circumference.svg |Alt = Three silhouettes depicting the outlines of a normal sized (left), overweight (middle), and obese person (right). |Caption = Silhouettes and waist circumferences representing normal, overweight, and obese |DiseasesDB = 9099 |ICD10 = {{ICD10|E|66| |e|65}} |ICD9 = {{ICD9|E|66| |e|278}} |MedlinePlus = 003101 |OMIM = 601665 |eMedicineSubj = med |eMedicineTopic =1653 |MeshName = Obesity |MeshNumber = C23.888.144.699.500 | }} '''Unene wa kupindukia''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] "obesity" kutokana na [[neno]] la [[Kilatini]] ''obesitas'', linalomaanisha "gumu, nono au nene” <ref name=etymol>''Ēsus'' is the past participle of ''edere'' (to eat), with ''ob'' (over) added to it. {{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=obesity |title=Online Etymology Dictionary: Obesity |work=Douglas Harper|accessdate=December 31, 2008}}; ''[[Kamusi ya Kingereza ya Oxford]]'' ilichapisha kutumika kwake kwa mara ya kwanza mnamo mwaka wa 1611 na [[Randle Cotgrave]]. {{cite web |url=http://www.oed.com/ |title=Obesity, n |work=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] 2008|accessdate=March 21, 2009}}</ref>; [[jina la kisayansi]] kwa [[Kilatini]] ni "adipositas") ni hali mbaya ambapo [[mafuta ya ziada ya mwili]] hulimbikizana hadi kiwango kinachoweza kuathiri vikubwa [[afya]], ikipelekea ongezeko la [[maradhi]] na kupungua kwa [[matarajio ya kuishi]]. <ref name="WHO 2000 p.6">WHO 2000 p.6</ref><ref name=HaslamJames/> [[Kipimo]] cha [[mwili]] kuwa mnene na mzito mno ni [[uwiano]] kati ya [[urefu]] wa mtu na [[uzito]] wake. Watu hutajika kuwa na unene wa kupindukia wakati [[nambapeo ya mata ya mwili]] (NMM), kipimo kinachopatikana kwa kugawanya [[uzito]] wa mtu kwa [[kilogramu]] kwa mraba wa [[urefu]] wake katika [[mita]], kimezidi 30&nbsp;kg/m².<ref name="WHO 2000 p.9">WHO 2000 p.9</ref> Kuwa mneme mno kunaleta [[hatari]] ningi kwa [[afya]] na kusababisha au kuongeza uwezekano wa [[magonjwa]] kama vile: * [[Shinikizo la juu la damu]] * Ugonjwa wa [[kisukari]] * [[Maradhi ya moyo]] * [[Ugonjwa wa kupooza]] * Shida za kupumua na [[pumu]]<ref>http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/24118.php</ref><ref name=HaslamJames/> * Matatizo ya viungo vya [[miguu]] na ya [[uti wa mgongo]] * [[Maradhi ya mishipa]], * [[Apnea pingani ya usingizi]] * [[Osteoathritisi]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>. Watu wakinenepa mno hufa mapema na kuwa na magonjwa mengi kuliko watu wembamba wanaokula kiasi tu, jinsi wanavyohitaji [[chakula]]. Tatizo la unene [[duniani]] hukumba [[wanaume]] zaidi ya [[wanawake]]. Unene wa kupindukia mara nyingi husababishwa na ujumuisho wa kula chakula kilicho na nguvu nyingi, ukosefu wa [[mazoezi ya mwili]], na [[urithi]] wa [[jeni]] maalumu, ingawa visa vichache vina msingi wa jeni, matatizo ya [[kiendrosini]], [[matibabu]] au [[maradhi ya akili]]. Ushahidi wa kuthibitisha dhana kuwa baadhi ya watu hunenepa ingawa hula kiasi kidogo hautoshi; kwa wastani, watu wanene hutumia nguvu nyingi kuliko watu wenye mwili mdogo kwa sababu ya nguvu zinazohitajika kuimarisha [[mata]] kubwa ya mwili.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kushner, Robert |title=Treatment of the Obese Patient (Contemporary Endocrinology) |publisher=Humana Press |location=Totowa, NJ|year=2007 |page=158 |isbn=1-59745-400-1 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=vWjK5etS7PMC&pg=PA121&lpg=PA121&dq=measurement+of+metabolism+in+obese+Bessesen |doi= |accessdate=April 5, 2009}}</ref><ref name=Anes2000>{{cite journal |author=Adams JP, Murphy PG |title=Obesity in anaesthesia and intensive care |journal=Br J Anaesth |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=91–108 |year=2000 |month=July |pmid=10927998 |doi= 10.1093/bja/85.1.91|url=http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/85/1/91}}</ref> [[Chakula bora]] na [[mazoezi ya mwili]] ndiyo njia kuu za kutibu unene wa kupindukia. Ubora wa chakula unaweza kuimarishwa kwa kutumia vyakula vilivyo na nguvu nyingi, kama vile vyakula vilivyo na kiwango cha juu cha mafuta na [[sukari]], na kwa kutumia [[unyuzi wa chakula]] kwa wingi zaidi. [[Dawa za kukabiliana na unene]] zinaweza kutumiwa kupunguza hamu ya chakula au kuzuia ufyonzaji wa mafuta, huku mtu akila chakula kinachofaa. Iwapo chakula bora, mazoezi na matibabu hayatoshi, [[mpira wa utumboni]] unaweza kusaidia kupunguza uzito wa mwili, au [[upasuaji]] unaweza kufanywa ili kupunguza ukubwa na/au urefu wa matumbo. Upasuaji huo hupelekea mtu [[kushiba]] upesi na kupunguza uwezo wa kufyonza [[virutubishi]] vilivyomo katika chakula.<ref>NICE 2006 p.10–11</ref><ref name=balloon2008>{{cite journal |author=Imaz I, Martínez-Cervell C, García-Alvarez EE, Sendra-Gutiérrez JM, González-Enríquez J |title=Safety and effectiveness of the intragastric balloon for obesity. Uchanganuzi wa kina|journal=Obes Surg |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=841–6 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18459025|doi=10.1007/s11695-007-9331-8}}</ref> Unene wa kupindukia ni [[kisababishi kinachozuilika cha kifo]] kilicho kikuu ulimwenguni kote, huku kiwango chake cha [[ueneaji]] kikiongezeka kwa watu wazima na [[watoto]]. Viongozi huamini kuwa hili ni mojawapo ya matatizo makuu zaidi ya [[afya ya umma]] katika [[karne ya 21]].<ref name=Barn1999>{{cite journal |author=Barness LA, Opitz JM, Gilbert-Barness E |title=Obesity: genetic, molecular, and environmental aspects |journal=Am. J. Med. Genet. A|volume=143A |issue=24 |pages=3016–34 |year=2007 |month=December |pmid=18000969 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.32035 |url=}}</ref> Unene wa kupindukia hufedheheshwa katika sehemu nyingi za [[ulimwengu]] wa kisasa (hasa katika [[Ustaarabu wa Magharibi]]<ref>Huko wengine wanalazimika kutumia vifaa maalum (butt wipers]) kushililia karatasi shashi wakiwa msalani</ref>), ingawa hali hii ilitazamwa na watu wengi kama [[ishara]] ya [[utajiri]] na afya bora katika nyakati za awali za [[historia]], na pia huonekana hivyo katika baadhi ya sehemu za [[dunia]].<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Woodhouse/> ==Uainishaji== Unene wa kupindukia ni hali ya kimatibabu ambapo [[mafuta ya mwili]] ya ziada hulimbikizana hadi kiwango kinachoathiri afya kwa vikubwa.<ref name="WHO 2000 p.6"/> Hali hii hufasiliwa kwa [[Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili]] na kukadiriwa zaidi kwa kupima ugawaji wa mafuta kupitia kwa uwiano wa kiuno na nyonga na ujumla wa vipengele hatari vya magonjwa ya mishipa na moyo.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Nutr J |year=2007 |volume=6 |page=32 |title= Measurement and Definitions of Obesity In Childhood and Adolescence: A field guide for the uninitiated |author= Sweeting HN|doi=10.1186/1475-2891-6-32|pmid=17963490 |url=http://www.nutritionj.com/content/6/1/32 |pmc= 2164947|issue=1}}</ref><ref>NHLBI p.xiv</ref> Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili kinahusiana kwa karibu na asilimia ya mafuta ya mwili na jumla ya mafuta ya mwili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gray DS, Fujioka K |title=Use of relative weight and Body Mass Index for the determination of adiposity |journal=J Clin Epidemiol |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=545–50 |year=1991 |pmid=2037859 |doi= 10.1016/0895-4356(91)90218-X|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-epidemiology_1991_44_6/page/545}}</ref> [[File:Obesity6.JPG|thumb|kushoto|alt=mtazamo wa mbele na upande wa kiwiliwili cha mwanamume aliye "mnene kupindukia". Alama za kuvutika kwa ngozi zinaonekana pamoja na jinakomastia.|Mwanamume "mnene kupindukia" aliye na Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili cha 47&nbsp;kg/m²: uzito 146&nbsp;kg (322&nbsp;lb), urefu sentimita 177&nbsp; (5&nbsp;ft 10&nbsp;in)]] Katika [[watoto]], uzito ulio bora hutofautiana kwa sababu ya [[umri]] na [[jinsia]]. Katika watoto na [[vijana]] [[baleghe]], unene wa kupindukia hufasiliwa si kwa [[nambari]] kamili, lakini kulingana na kundi la kawaida la wakati huo, hivi kwamba unene wa kupindukia ni wa Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili kilichozidi [[asilimia]] 95 <ref name="cdc.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/childrens_BMI/about_childrens_BMI.htm |title=Healthy Weight: Assessing Your Weight: BMI: About BMI for Children and Teens|publisher=[[Center for disease control and prevention]]|accessdate=April 6, 2009}}</ref>Data ya marejeleo ambayo ilitumiwa kukadiria hesabu hii ni ya kutoka mwaka 1963 hadi 1994, hivyo haijaathiriwa na ongezeko la uzito la hivi karibuni.<ref name="Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Wei R, Kuczmarski RL, Johnson CL 2001 1086–93">{{cite journal |author=Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Wei R, Kuczmarski RL, Johnson CL|title=Prevalence of overweight in US children: comparison of US growth charts from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention with other reference values for body mass index |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=73 |issue=6|pages=1086–93 |year=2001 |month=June |pmid=11382664 |doi= |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/73/6/1086}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |- ! BMI !! Classification |- |width=50%| < 18.5 ||underweight |- |18.5–24.9 || normal weight |- |25.0–29.9 || overweight |- |30.0–34.9 || class I obesity |- |35.0–39.9 || class II obesity |- |≥ 40.0 || &nbsp;&nbsp;class III obesity&nbsp;&nbsp; |} Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili hukadiriwa kwa kugawanya uzito wa mtu kwa kipeo cha uzito wake, na kwa kawaida huandikwa aidha kwa [[Mfumo wa mita]] au kwa [[vipimo vya Marekani]]: :Metric:<math>BMI=kilograms/meters^2</math> :US customary and [[Imperial System|imperial]]: <math>BMI=lb*703/in^2</math> ambapo <math>lb</math> ni uzito wa mtu katika [[pauni (uzito)|pauni]] na<math>in</math> ni urefu wa mtu katika inchi. Fasili zinazotumika mara nyingi, ambazo zilitolewa na [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] mwaka wa 1997 na kuchapishwa mwaka wa 2000, hutoa ukadiriaji kama ilivyoorodheshwa katika jedwali lililo upande wa kulia.<ref name="WHO 2000 p.9"/> Baadhi ya mashirika yamerekebisha kidogo fasili zilizotolewa na SAD. Habari ya kiupasuaji hugawanya unene wa kupindukia wa "daraja la 3" katika vikundi zaidi, ambavyo ukadiriaji wake ungali unakumbwa na utata.<ref name=morbid2007>{{cite journal|author=Sturm R |title=Increases in morbid obesity in the USA: 2000–2005 |journal=Public Health |volume=121 |issue=7|pages=492–6 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17399752 |pmc=2864630 |doi=10.1016/j.puhe.2007.01.006 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_public-health_2007-07_121_7/page/492}}</ref> * Any BMI ≥ 35 or 40 is ''severe obesity'' * A BMI of ≥ 35 or 40–44.9 or 49.9 is ''morbid obesity'' * A BMI of ≥ 45 or 50 is ''super obesity'' Kwa sababu watu wa asili ya [[Asia]] wameendelea kuathiriwa vibaya katika kiwango cha KUM cha chini kuliko kile cha [[Wazungu]], baadhi ya [[mataifa]] yamefasili upya unene wa kupindukia; [[Wajapani]] wameufasili kama kiwango chochote cha KUM kinachozidi 25<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kanazawa M, Yoshiike N, Osaka T, Numba Y, Zimmet P, Inoue S |title=Criteria and classification of obesity in Japan and Asia-Oceania|journal=Asia Pac J Clin Nutr |volume=11 Suppl 8 |issue= |pages=S732–S737 |year=2002 |month=December |pmid=12534701|doi= 10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s8.19.x|url=}}</ref> huku [[China]] ikitumia kipimo cha KUM cha juu ya 28.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bei-Fan Z |title=Predictive values of body mass index and waist circumference for risk factors of certain related diseases in Chinese adults: study on optimal cut-off points of body mass index and waist circumference in Chinese adults |journal=Asia Pac J Clin Nutr |volume=11 Suppl 8 |issue= |pages=S685–93 |year=2002 |month=December|pmid=12534691 |doi= 10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s8.9.x|url= |author2=Cooperative Meta-Analysis Group of Working Group on Obesity in China}}</ref> ==Madhara ya kiafya== Uzito uliozidi huhusianishwa na [[magonjwa]] mengi, hasa [[magonjwa ya moyo]] na [[mishipa]], [[kisukari aina ya 2]], [[apnea pingani ya usingizi]], aina fulani za [[saratani]], [[osteoathritisi]]<ref name=HaslamJames/> na [[pumu]]<ref>http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/24118.php</ref><ref name=HaslamJames/>. Matokeo yake ni kwamba unene wa kupindukia umetambulika kupunguza [[matarajio ya kuishi]].<ref name=HaslamJames/> ===Hatari ya kufa=== {{Double image|right|MenBMIMort.png|200|WomenBMIMort.png|200|alt=(Left) A graph showing how the risk of death varies with BMI. The lowest risk is found at a BMI of 20 to 25 and increases in both directions. (Right) A graph showing how the risk of death varies with BMI. The lowest risk is found at a BMI of 20 to 25 and increases in both directions.|Relative risk of death over 10 years for White men (left) and women (right) who have never smoked in the United States by BMI.<ref name=NEJM10>{{cite journal |author=Berrington de Gonzalez A |title=Body-Mass Index and Mortality among 1.46 Million White Adults |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=363 |issue=23 |pages=2211–9 |year=2010|month=December |pmid=21121834 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1000367 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2010-12-02_363_23/page/2210|pmc=3066051 |author-separator=,|display-authors=3}}</ref>||}} Unene wa kupindukia ni kati ya [[visababishi vya kifo vinavyozuilika]] kote ulimwenguni.<ref name=Barn1999/><ref>{{cite journal|author=Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL |title=Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000|journal=JAMA |volume=291 |issue=10 |pages=1238–45 |year=2004 |month=March |pmid=15010446 |doi=10.1001/jama.291.10.1238|url=http://www.csdp.org/research/1238.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name=Allison>{{cite journal |author=Allison DB, Fontaine KR, [[JoAnn E. Manson|Manson JE]], Stevens J, VanItallie TB |title=Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States |journal=JAMA |volume=282 |issue=16 |pages=1530–8 |year=1999 |month=October |pmid=10546692 |doi= 10.1001/jama.282.16.1530|url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/282/16/1530}}</ref> Utafiti mkuu wa Ulaya na Marekani umeonyesha kuwa hatari ya kufa iko chini zaidi katika kiwango cha KUM cha 20–25 kg/m²<ref name=NEJM10/><ref name=Lancet2009>{{cite journal |author=Whitlock G |title=Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies |journal=Lancet |volume=373 |issue=9669 |pages=1083–96 |year=2009|month=March |pmid=19299006 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60318-4 |url= |pmc=2662372 |author-separator=,|author2=Lewington S |author3=Sherliker P |display-authors=3 |last4=Sherliker |first4=P |last5=Clarke |first5=R|last6=Emberson |first6=J |last7=Halsey |first7=J |last8=Qizilbash |first8=N |last9=Collins |first9=R}}</ref> katika watu wasiovuta sigara na 24–27 kg/m² katika watu wanaoendelea kuvuta sigara, huku hatari hii ikiongezeka na mabadiliko kuelekea pande zote mbili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Calle EE, Thun MJ, Petrelli JM, Rodriguez C, Heath CW |title=Body-mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of U.S. adults |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=341 |issue=15 |pages=1097–105|year=1999 |month=October |pmid=10511607 |doi= 10.1056/NEJM199910073411501|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/341/15/1097}}</ref><ref name=Euro2008>{{cite journal |author=Pischon T |title=General and abdominal adiposity and risk of death in Europe |journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=359 |issue=20 |pages=2105–20 |year=2008 |month=November |pmid=19005195 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa0801891 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2008-11-13_359_20/page/2104|author-separator=, |author2=Boeing H |author3=Hoffmann K |display-authors=3 |last4=Bergmann |first4=M. |last5=Schulze|first5=M.B. |last6=Overvad |first6=K. |last7=Van Der Schouw |first7=Y.T. |last8=Spencer |first8=E. |last9=Moons|first9=K.G.M.}}</ref>Kipimo cha Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili cha zaidi ya 32 kimehusishwa na ongezeko la mara mbili la vifo kwa wanawake kwa muda wa miaka 16.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Manson JE |title=Body weight and mortality among women |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_the-new-england-journal-of-medicine_1995-09-14_333_11/page/n57 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=333 |issue=11 |pages=677–85 |year=1995 |pmid=7637744| doi = 10.1056/NEJM199509143331101 |author-separator=,|author2=Willett WC |author3=Stampfer MJ |display-authors=3 |last4=Colditz |first4=Graham A. |last5=Hunter|first5=David J. |last6=Hankinson |first6=Susan E. |last7=Hennekens |first7=Charles H. |last8=Speizer |first8=Frank E.}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, inakisiwa kuwa unene wa kupindukia husababisha zaidi ya vifo 111,909 hadi 365,000 kila mwaka,<ref name=HaslamJames>{{cite journal |author=Haslam DW, James WP|title=Obesity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_october-1-7-2005_366_9492/page/1197|journal=Lancet |volume=366 |issue=9492|pages=1197–209 |year=2005 |pmid=16198769 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-1}}</ref><ref name=Allison/> huku milioni 1 (7.7%) ya vifo katika nchi za Ulaya husababishwa na uzito uliozidi.<ref name=EuroG2008/><ref name=Euro2007>{{cite journal|author=Fried M |title=Inter-disciplinary European guidelines on surgery of severe obesity |journal=Int J Obes (Lond)|volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=569–77 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17325689 |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803560 |url=|author-separator=, |author2=Hainer V |author3=Basdevant A |display-authors=3 |last4=Buchwald |first4=H |last5=Deitel|first5=M |last6=Finer |first6=N |last7=Greve |first7=J W M |last8=Horber |first8=F |last9=Mathus-Vliegen|first9=E}}</ref> Kwa wastani, unene hupunguza muda wa maisha miaka 6 hadi 7:<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Peeters A, Barendregt JJ, Willekens F, Mackenbach JP, Al Mamun A, Bonneux L |title=Obesity in adulthood and its consequences for life expectancy: A life-table analysis |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=138 |issue=1 |pages=24–32 |year=2003 |month=January |pmid=12513041 |doi=|url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/138/1/24 | format=PDF |last7=Nedcom}}</ref>Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili cha 30–35 hupunguza miaka 2 hadi 4 matarajio ya kuishi<ref name=Lancet2009/> ilhali unene uliokithiri (Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili&nbsp;>&nbsp;40) hupunguza miaka 10 matarajio ya kuishi <ref name=Lancet2009/> ===Hali ya kuugua=== Unene wa kupindukia huongeza hatari ya hali nyingi za kimwili na kiakili. Ambatani hizi kwa kawaida huonyeshwa sana katika [[dalili]] za magonjwa ya [[metaboli]],<ref name=HaslamJames/> kama: [[kisukari aina ya 2]], [[shinikizo la juu la damu]], [[kolestro]], and [[hypertriglyceridemia]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Grundy SM |title=Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=89 |issue=6 |pages=2595–600|year=2004 |pmid=15181029 |doi=10.1210/jc.2004-0372}}</ref> Matatizo aidha husababishwa na unene moja kwa moja au kwa njia isiyo ya moja kwa moja inayohusiana kupitia utaratibu ulio na sababu sawa kama vile [[lishe duni]] au [[uzembe maishani]]. Uhusiano mkuu kati ya unene na hali maalum inatofautiana. Mojawapo ni [[kisukari aina ya 2]]. Mafuta ya ziada mwilini ndiyo kisababishi cha 64% ya kisukari kwa wanaume na 77% kwa wanawake.<ref>Seidell 2005 p.9</ref> Madhara ya kiafya huwa katika vikundi viwili vipana: * yale yanayotokana na madhara ya kiasi cha mafuta kilichozidi (kama vile [[osteoarthritisi]], [[apnea pingani ya usingizi]], kutengwa na jamii) na * yale yanayotokana na idadi iliyozidi ya [[seli za mafuta]] ([[kisukari]], [[saratani]], [[ugonjwa wa moyo na mishipa ya damu]], [[ugonjwa wa maini iliyo na mafuta usiohusiana na pombe]]).<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Bray2004>{{cite journal |author=Bray GA |title=Medical consequences of obesity |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=89 |issue=6 |pages=2583–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15181027|doi=10.1210/jc.2004-0535}}</ref>Ongezeko la mafuta katika mwili hugeuza hali ambavyo mwili huitikia [[insulini]] hata kusababisha [[kupinga insulini]]. Ongezeko la mafuta pia husababisha [[inflamesheni]],<ref>{{cite journal|author=Shoelson SE, Herrero L, Naaz A |title=Obesity, inflammation, and insulin resistance |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_gastroenterology_2007-05_132_6/page/2169 |journal=Gastroenterology|volume=132 |issue=6 |pages=2169–80 |year=2007 |month=May |pmid=17498510|doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2007.03.059}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Shoelson SE, Lee J, Goldfine AB|title=Inflammation and insulin resistance |journal=J. Clin. Invest. |volume=116 |issue=7 |pages=1793–801 |year=2006|month=July |pmid=16823477 |pmc=1483173 |doi=10.1172/JCI29069 |url=http://www.jci.org/articles/view/29069}}</ref> na kuandaa [[thrombosi]].<ref name=Bray2004/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Dentali F, Squizzato A, Ageno W|title=The metabolic syndrome as a risk factor for venous and arterial thrombosis |journal=Semin. Thromb. Hemost.|volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=451–7 |year=2009 |month=July |pmid=19739035 |doi=10.1055/s-0029-1234140}}</ref> ===Fumbo kuhusu kuendeleza uhai=== Ingawa madhara ya kiafya ya unene wa kupindukia miongoni mwa jumla ya watu imeungwa mkono na ushahidi uliopo, matokeo ya kiafya katika vikundi mahususi yanaonekana kuboreka kwa kiwango cha Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili kinachoongezeka. Tukio hilo linajulikana kama fumbo kuhusu kuendelea kuishi kwa watu walio na unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Schmidt2007>{{cite journal |author=Schmidt DS, Salahudeen AK |title=Obesity-survival paradox-still a controversy? |journal=Semin Dial |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=486–92 |year=2007 |pmid=17991192|doi=10.1111/j.1525-139X.2007.00349.x}}</ref> Mara ya kwanza fumbo hili lilielezwa mwaka 1999, likiwakumba watu wenye unene wa kupindukia waliokuwa wakisafishwa damu,<ref name=Schmidt2007/> kisha kupatikana katika watu waliokuwa na [[mshtuko wa moyo]] na [[ugonjwa wa ateri za pembeni]] (UAP).<ref name=paradox2003>{{cite journal |author=|title=Behavioral counseling in primary care to promote a healthcite journal y diet: recommendations and rationale |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2003-06-15_67_12/page/2572|journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=67 |issue=12 |pages=2573–6 |year=2003 |month=June |pmid=12825847 |doi= |author1= U.S. Preventive Services Task Force }}</ref> Katika watu waliokuwa na mshtuko wa moyo, wale wenye kipimo cha Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili cha kati ya 30.0. na 34.9 walikuwa na kima cha vifo cha chini kuliko wenye uzito wa kawaida. Hii ni kwa sababu watu mara nyingi hupoteza uzito kadiri wanavyoendelea kuwa wagonjwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Habbu A, Lakkis NM, Dokainish H |title=The obesity paradox: Fact or fiction?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-cardiology_2006-10-01_98_7/page/944 |journal=Am. J. Cardiol. |volume=98 |issue=7 |pages=944–8 |year=2006 |month=October |pmid=16996880|doi=10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.04.039}}</ref> Matokeo sawa na haya yamepatikana katika aina nyingine za magonjwa ya moyo. Watu walio na unene wa kupindukia wa daraja la 1 na magonjwa ya moyo hawana kima cha matatizo ya moyo kuliko watu walio na uzito wa kawaida ambao wana matatizo ya moyo. Hata hivyo, katika watu walio na viwango vikubwa zaidi vya unene, hatari ya kutokea kwa matatizo ya ziada huongezeka.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Romero-Corral A |title=Association of bodyweight with total mortality and with cardiovascular events in coronary artery disease: A systematic review of cohort studies |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_august-19-25-2006_368_9536/page/666 |journal=Lancet |volume=368|issue=9536 |pages=666–78 |year=2006 |pmid=16920472 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69251-9 |author-separator=,|author2=Montori VM |author3=Somers VK |display-authors=3 |last4=Korinek |first4=Josef |last5=Thomas |first5=Randal J|last6=Allison |first6=Thomas G |last7=Mookadam |first7=Farouk |last8=Lopez-Jimenez|first8=Francisco}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Oreopoulos A, Padwal R, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Fonarow GC, Norris CM, McAlister FA |title=Body mass index and mortality in heart failure: A meta-analysis |journal=Am. Heart J. |volume=156|issue=1 |pages=13–22 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18585492 |doi=10.1016/j.ahj.2008.02.014 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-heart-journal_2008-07_156_1/page/13}}</ref> Hata baada ya [[upasuaji wa kipenyo cha moyo]], hakuna ongezeko la vifo linalotambulika katika watu walio na uzito mkubwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Oreopoulos A, Padwal R, Norris CM, Mullen JC, Pretorius V, Kalantar-Zadeh K|title=Effect of obesity on short- and long-term mortality postcoronary revascularization: A meta-analysis|journal=Obesity (Silver Spring) |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=442–50 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=18239657|doi=10.1038/oby.2007.36}}</ref> Utafiti mmoja ulionyesha kuwa ongezeko la muda wa kuishi kwa watu wenye unene wa kupindukia husababishwa na matibabu madhubuti ambao watu hao hupata baada ya tukio la tatizo la moyo.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Diercks DB | title=The obesity paradox in non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes: Results from the Can Rapid risk stratification of Unstable angina patients Suppress ADverse outcomes with Early implementation of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Guidelines Quality Improvement Initiative | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-heart-journal_2006-07_152_1/page/140 | journal=Am Heart J | year=2006 | month=July | volume=152 |issue=1 | pages=140–8 | pmid=16824844 | doi=10.1016/j.ahj.2005.09.024| author-separator=,| author2=Roe MT|author3=Mulgund J| display-authors=3| last4=Pollack| first4=Charles V.| last5=Kirk| first5=J. Douglas| last6=Gibler|first6=W. Brian| last7=Ohman| first7=E. Magnus| last8=Smith| first8=Sidney C.| last9=Boden| first9=William E.}}</ref> Utafiti mwingine unaonyesha kuwa mtu anapouchukulia kwa makini [[ugonjwa wa muda mrefu wa kuzibika kwa mapafu]] (COPD) kwa walio na PDA, manufaa ya unene wa kupindukia hayapo tena.<ref name=paradox2003/> ==Visababishi== Katikia kiwango cha mtu binafsi, ujumlisho wa kula [[chakula kinachotoa nguvu]] na kutofanya [[mazoezi ya kimwili]] hudhaniwa kusababisha visa vingi zaidi vya unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=CADG2006/>Matukio machache sana husababishwa hasa na jeni, sababu za kimatibabu au ugonjwa wa akili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bleich S, Cutler D, Murray C, Adams A |title=Why is the developed world obese? |journal=Annu Rev Public Health |volume=29 |pages=273–95 |year=2008 |pmid=18173389|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090954}}</ref> Kinyume na matarajio, inakisiwa kuwa viwango vya unene wa kupindukia vinavyoongezeka katika jamii vinasababishwa na urahisi wa kupata chakula kinachovutia,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Drewnowski A, Specter SE|title=Poverty and obesity: the role of energy density and energy costs |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=79 |issue=1|pages=6–16 |year=2004 |month=January |pmid=14684391 |doi= |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/79/1/6}}</ref>ongezeko la kutegemea gari na uzalishaji wa bidhaa kwa kutumia mitambo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nestle M, Jacobson MF|title=Halting the obesity epidemic: a public health policy approach |journal=Public Health Rep |volume=115 |issue=1|pages=12–24 |year=2000 |pmid=10968581 |pmc=1308552 |doi= 10.1093/phr/115.1.12|url=}}</ref><ref name=James2008>{{cite journal |author=James WP |title=The fundamental drivers of the obesity epidemic |journal=Obes Rev |volume=9 |issue= Suppl 1 |pages=6–13 |year=2008 |month=March |pmid=18307693 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00432.x}}</ref> Uhakiki mmoja wa 2006 ulionyesha mambo mengine kumi yanayochangia katika ongezeko la unene wa kupindukia wa hivi majuzi: # kukosa usingizi wa kutosha, # [[matatizo ya mfumo wa mwili]] ([[vichafuzi vya mazingira]] vinavyotatiza umetaboli wa lipidi), # upungufu wa mabadiliko ya halijoto ya mazingira, # upungufu wa viwango vya [[kuvuta sigara]], kwa sababu uvutaji sigara hugandamiza hamu ya chakula, # kuendelea kutumia dawa zinazoweza kusababisha ongezeko la uzito wa mwili (kwa mfano, [[dawa ya kuzuia magonjwa ya akili yasiyo ya kawaida]]), # ongezeko la vikundi vya kikabila na umri vinavyoweza kukita zaidi, # ujauzito wa miaka ya uzeeni (jambo ambalo linaweza kusababisha hatari ya unene wa kupindukia katika watoto), # hatari za [[jenetikia|kijenetikia]]zinazoweza kupitishwa kutoka kizazi hadi kingine, # [[uteuzi wa kiasili]] kwa watu wenye kima cha juu zaidi cha Kielezo cha Uzito wa Mwili, na # [[kujamiiana kiubaguzi]] jambo ambalo huongeza vipengele hatari vya unene wa kupindukia (hii inaweza kuongezea idadi ya watu wanene sana kwa kuongezea kiwango cha tofauti kati ya idadi ya watu na uzito).<ref name="pmid16801930">{{cite journal|author=Keith SW |title=Putative contributors to the secular increase in obesity: Exploring the roads less traveled|journal=Int J Obes (Lond) |volume=30 |issue=11 |pages=1585–94 |year=2006 |pmid=16801930 |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0803326|url=http://www.nature.com/ijo/journal/v30/n11/full/0803326a.html |author-separator=, |author2=Redden DT|author3=Katzmarzyk PT |display-authors=3 |last4=Boggiano |first4=M M |last5=Hanlon |first5=E C |last6=Benca |first6=R M |last7=Ruden |first7=D |last8=Pietrobelli |first8=A |last9=Barger |first9=J L}}</ref> Ingawa kuna utafiti wa kutosha unaoonyesha jinsi taratibu hizi zinavyopelekea ongezeko la kutokea kwa unene wa kupindukia, utafiti huu bado haujaweza kutoa hitimisho kamili. Watafiti walioufanya wanasema kuwa inawezekana kuwa taratibu hizi zina athari ya kiwango cha chini kuliko zile zilizojadiliwa katika aya iliyotangulia. ===Chakula bora=== {{Double image|right|World map of Energy consumption 1961,2.svg|200|World map of Energy consumption 2001-2003.svg|200|alt=(Left) A world map with countries colored to reflect the food energy consumption of their people in 1961. North America, Europe, and Australia have relatively high intake, while Africa and Asia consume much less.(Right) A world map with countries colored to reflect the food energy consumption of their people in 2001–2003. Consumption in North America, Europe, and Australia has increased with respect to previous levels in 1971 Food consumption has also increased substantially in many parts of Asia. However, food consumption in Africa remains low.|Map of dietary energy availability per person per day in 1961 (left) and 2001–2003 (right) in kcal/person/day. {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<1600}} {{legend|#fff200|1600–1800}} {{legend|#ffdc00|1800–2000}} {{legend|#ffc600|2000–2200}} {{legend|#ffb000|2200–2400}} {{legend|#ff9a00|2400–2600}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|2600–2800}} {{legend|#ff6e00|2800–3000}} {{legend|#ff5800|3000–3200}} {{legend|#ff4200|3200–3400}} {{legend|#ff2c00|3400–3600}} {{legend|#cb0000|>3600}} {{Multicol-end}} ||}} [[File:World Per Person Energy Consumption.png|thumb|alt=A graph showing a gradual increase in global food energy consumption per person per day between 1961 and 2002.|Average per capita energy consumption of the world from 1961 to 2002<ref name=Earth09>{{cite web |url=http://earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_db/index.php?theme=8&variable_ID=212&action=select_countries |title=EarthTrends: Nutrition: Calorie supply per capita |work=World Resources Institute |accessdate=Oct. 18, 2009}}</ref>]] Kima cha ugavi wa nguvu za kimlo kwa kila mtu hutofautiana pakubwa katika maeneo na nchi mbali mbali. Kima hiki pia kimebadilika pakubwa kwa muda mrefu sasa.<ref name=Earth09/> Kutoka mwanzoni wa miaka ya 1970 hadi mwishoni wa kiaka ya 1990, wastani wa kalori kwa kila mtu kila siku (kiwango cha chakula kilichonunuliwa) uliongezeka katika maeneo yote duniani ila Mashariki mwa Uropa. Nchi ya Marekani ilikuwa na kima cha juu zaidi cha upatikanaji, ikiwa ni [[kalori]] 3,654 kwa kila mtu katika mwaka wa 1996. Kima hiki kiliongezeka zaidi hadi 3,754 katika mwaka wa 2003.<ref name=Earth09/> Katika miaka ya mwisho ya 1990 Uropa ilikuwa na kalori &nbsp3,394; kwa kila mtu. Katika maeneo yanayostawi kiuchumi ya Asia kulikuwa na kalori&nbsp2,648; kwa kila mtu na katika kusin mwa jangwa la Sahara, watu walikuwa na kalori &nbsp 2,176;kwa kila mtu.<ref name=Earth09/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/1470965/USDA-frsept99b|title=USDA: frsept99b |work=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] |accessdate=January 10, 2009}}</ref> Jumla ya kalori inayotumika imetambulika kuwa inahusiana na unene wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/2009004/article/10933-eng.htm |title=Diet composition and obesity among Canadian adults |work=Statistics Canada |accessdate=}}</ref> Upatikanaji mkubwa wa vielekezo kuhusu lishe<ref>{{cite web |author=National Control for Health Statistics | title=Nutrition For Everyone | publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | url=http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone | accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref>haujafaulu kutatua shida za kula kupita kiasi na uamuzi mbaya kuhusu lishe.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Marantz PR, Bird ED, Alderman MH |title=A call for higher standards of evidence for dietary guidelines |journal=Am J Prev Med|volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=234–40 |year=2008 |month=March |pmid=18312812 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2007.11.017|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-preventive-medicine_2008-03_34_3/page/234}}</ref> Kutoka mwaka wa 1971 hadi 2000, viwango vya unene wa kupindukia viliongezeka kutoka 14.5% hadi 30.9%.<ref name=Flegal2002>{{cite journal | author=Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CL| title=Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2000 | journal=JAMA | year=2002 | month=October | volume=288| pages=1723–1727 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/288/14/1723 | doi=10.1001/jama.288.14.1723 | pmid=12365955 |issue=14}}</ref> Katika kipindi hicho pia, wastani wa matumizi ya chakula kinachotoa nguvu yaliongezeka. Katika wanawake, wastani wa ongezeko hili ulikuwa kalori 335 kwa siku (1,542 mwaka wa 1971 na kalori 1,877 mwaka wa 2004), ilhali katika wanaume, wastani katika ongezeko hilo ulikuwa kalori 168 kwa siku (kalori 2,450 mwaka wa 1971 na kalori 2,618 mwaka wa 2004). Kiwango kikubwa cha nguvu hizi za ziada kilitokana na ongezeko la kutumia [[kabohidrati]] badala ya mafuta.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Wright JD, Kennedy-Stephenson J, Wang CY, McDowell MA, Johnson CL |title=Trends in intake of energy and macronutrients—United States, 1971–2000 | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep |year=2004 | month=February | volume=53 | issue=4 | pages=80–2 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5304a3.htm | pmid=14762332}}</ref> Vyanzo vya msingi vya kabohidrati hizi za ziada ni vinywaji vilivyo na sukari ambavyo vinakadiriwa kusababisha karibu 25% ya nguvu za kila siku katika vijana wakomavu Marekani, <ref name=Caballero>{{cite journal |author=Caballero B |title=The global epidemic of obesity: An overview|journal=Epidemiol Rev |volume=29 |issue= |pages=1–5 |year=2007 |pmid=17569676 |doi=10.1093/epirev/mxm012 |url=}}</ref>na [[chipsi]] za [[viazi]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mozaffarian|first=D|coauthors=Hao, T, Rimm, EB, Willett, WC, Hu, FB|title=Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term Weight Gain in Women and Men|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2011-06-23_364_25/page/2392|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=2011 Jun 23|volume=364|issue=25|pages=2392–404|pmid=21696306|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1014296|pmc=3151731}}</ref> Utumiaji wa vinywaji vilivyo na sukari unaaminika kuchangia katika ongezeko la viwango vya unene wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB |title=Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review work=Statistics Canada | J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=274–88 |year=2006 |month=August |pmid=16895873 |doi=|url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/84/2/274 |pmc=3210834}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Olsen NJ, Heitmann BL |title=Intake of calorically sweetened beverages and obesity |journal=Obes Rev |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=68–75|year=2009 |month=January |pmid=18764885 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00523.x |url=}}</ref> Jinsi jamii nyingi zinavyoendelea kutegemea [[nguvu nyingi za chakula]], viwango vikubwa vya chakula na vyakula duni, ndivyo uhusiano wa utumiaji wa vyakula duni na unene wa kupindukia unavyoendelea kusababisha madhara. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosenheck R|title=Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: a systematic review of a trajectory towards weight gain and obesity risk |journal=Obes Rev |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=535–47 |year=2008 |month=November |pmid=18346099|doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00477.x |url=}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, utumiaji wa vyakula duni uliongezeka mara tatu huku utumiaji wa chakula chenye nguvu ukiongezeka mara nne kati ya mwaka 1977 na 1995.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lin BH, Guthrie J and Frazao E |editor=Frazão E |title=Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 750: America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib750/ |year=1999 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service |location=Washington, DC |pages=213–239 |chapter=Nutrient contribution of food away from home |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2002-06-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020611183104/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib750/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> [[Sera za kilimo]] na [[ufundisanifu]] zinazozingatia mazingira nchini Marekani na barani Uropa zimesababisha kushuka kwa bei ya vyakula. Kule Marekani, hatua ya kupunguza bei ya mahindi, soya, ngano na mchele kupitia bili ya ukulima ya Marekani imepelekea kushuka kwa bei ya chakula cha viwandani ikilinganishwa na matunda na mboga.<ref>{{cite news|author=Pollan, Michael|title=You Are What You Grow|work=New York Times|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/22/magazine/22wwlnlede.t.html?ex=1186027200&en=bbe0f6a2c10e3b3c&ei=5070|date= 22 April 2007|accessdate= 2007-07-30}}</ref> Wakati mwingi, watu wanene kupindukia hawaripoti vyema jinsi wanavyotumia chakula ikilinganishwa na wale walio na uzito wa kawaida.<ref>Kopelman and Caterson 2005:324.</ref> Utafiti huu ni kwa mujibu wa uchunguzi wa watu uliofanyika katika chumba cha kipima kalori <ref>{{cite web|title=Metabolism alone doesn't explain how thin people stay thin |publisher=The Medical Post|work=John Schieszer|format=registration required}}</ref> na kwa kutazama moja kwa moja. ===Mwenendo wa kuzembea=== [[Mwenendo wa kuzembea]] huchangia pakubwa katika unene wa kupindukia.<ref>Seidell 2005 p.10</ref> Kote ulimwenguni, watu wengi wamegeukia kazi isiyohusisha nguvu nyingi za kimwili<ref name=WHO2009>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/ |title=WHO: Obesity and overweight |work=[[World Health Organization]] |accessdate=January 10, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218104805/http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/ |archivedate=2008-12-18 }}</ref><ref name=WHOExercise>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/index.html |title=WHO &#124; Physical Inactivity: A Global Public Health Problem |work=[[World Health Organization]] |accessdate=February 22, 2009}}</ref><ref name=Ness2006>{{cite journal |author=Ness-Abramof R, Apovian CM |title=Diet modification for treatment and prevention of obesity |journal=Endocrine |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=5–9 |year=2006 |month=February |pmid=16622287|doi=10.1385/ENDO:29:1:135 |url=}}</ref> na kwa wakati huu angalau 60% ya idadi ya watu duniani hupata mazoezi yasiyotosheleza.<ref name=WHOExercise/> Hii hasa ni kwa sababu ya ongezeko la kutumia mitambo katika uchukuzi, na teknologia inayosaidia sana kikazi huko nyumbani.T<ref name=WHO2009/><ref name=WHOExercise/><ref name=Ness2006/> Katika watoto, viwango vya kufanya mazoezi vinaonekana kushuka kwa sababu ya kutotembea sana na kutohusika katika somo la mazoezi ya mwili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Salmon J, Timperio A |title=Prevalence, trends and environmental influences on child and youthphysical activity |journal=Med Sport Sci |volume=50 |issue= |pages=183–99 |year=2007 |pmid=17387258|doi=10.1159/000101391 |series=Medicine and Sport Science |isbn=978-3-318-01396-2 }}</ref> Mienendo ya dunia katika burudani ambapo watu huusika moja kwa moja[[mazoezi ya mwili]] inaendelea kufifia. [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] linaonyesha kuwa, ulimwenguni kote, watu wanaendelea kuhusika katika burudani isiyohusisha maoezi, ilhali katika utafiti mmoja huko Finland<ref>{{cite journal |author=Borodulin K, Laatikainen T, Juolevi A, Jousilahti P |title=Thirty-year trends of physical activity in relation to age, calendar time and birth cohort in Finnish adults |journal=Eur J Public Health |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=339–44 |year=2008|month=June |pmid=17875578 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckm092 |url=}}</ref> ulionyesha ongezeko, ilhali utafiti mwingine huko Marekani ulionyesha kuwa mazoezi katika burudani hayajabadilika sana.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brownson RC, Boehmer TK, Luke DA |title=Declining rates of physical activity in the United States: what are the contributors?|journal=Annu Rev Public Health |volume=26 |issue= |pages=421–43 |year=2005 |pmid=15760296|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144437 |url=}}</ref> Katika watoto na watu wazima, kuna uhusiano kati ya kutazama runinga na hatari ya unene wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gortmaker SL, Must A, Sobol AM, Peterson K, Colditz GA, Dietz WH |title=Television viewing as a cause of increasing obesity among children in the United States, 1986–1990 |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med |volume=150 |issue=4 |pages=356–62 |year=1996 |month=April |pmid=8634729|doi=10.1001/archpedi.1996.02170290022003}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Vioque J, Torres A, Quiles J |title=Time spent watching television, sleep duration and obesity in adults living in Valencia, Spain |journal=Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. |volume=24 |issue=12 |pages=1683–8 |year=2000 |month=December |pmid=11126224 |doi= 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801434|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-obesity_2000-12_24_12/page/1683}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Tucker LA, Bagwell M |title=Television viewing and obesity in adult females |journal=Am J Public Health |volume=81 |issue=7 |pages=908–11 |year=1991 |month=July|pmid=2053671 |pmc=1405200 |doi= 10.2105/AJPH.81.7.908|url=http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/81/7/908 |format=PDF}}</ref> Ukaguzi ulitambua kuwa 63 kati ya tafiti 73 (86%) zilionyesha ongezeko katika kiwango cha unene wa kupindukia wa utotoni pindi watoto wanavyofikia vyombo vya mawasiliano, huku viwango hivi vikiongezeka kulingana na muda unaotumika kutazama runinga.ref>{{cite web |url=http://ipsdweb.ipsd.org/uploads/IPPC/CSM%20Media%20Health%20Report.pdf |title=Media + Child and Adolescent Health: A Systematic Review |publisher=Common Sense Media |year=2008 |format=PDF |work=Ezekiel J. Emanuel |accessdate=April 6, 2009 |archive-date=2012-11-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122070205/http://ipsdweb.ipsd.org/uploads/IPPC/CSM%20Media%20Health%20Report.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ===Usomijeni=== [[File:La monstrua desnuda (1680), de Juan Carreño de Miranda..jpg|thumb|wima|alt=Mchoro wa msichana mweusi wa kike mwenye nywele nyeusi, mashavu ya waridi aliye uchi akiegemea meza. Msichana huyu ameshika zabibu na majani ya zabibu katika mkono wake wa kushoto ambayo yamezifunika jenitalia zake.| Mchoro uliochorwa mwaka wa 1680 na [[Juan Carreno de Miranda]], wa msichana aliyedhaniwa kuwa na [[sindromu ya Prader-Will]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.esst.org/newsletter2000.htm |title=Case Study: Cataplexy and SOREMPs Without Excessive Daytime Sleepiness in Prader Willi Syndrome. Is This the Beginning of Narcolepsy in a Five Year Old?|author=Mary Jones|publisher=European Society of Sleep Technologists|accessdate=April 6, 2009}}</ref>]] Kama magonjwa mengine mengi, unene wa kupindukia hutokana na mwingiliano kati ya vipengele vya kijeni na vya kimazingira. [[Upolimofi]] katika [[jeni]] nyingi zinazodhibiti [[hamu ya kula[[]] na [[umetaboli]]hupelekea unene wa kupindukia wakati nguvu za kutosha zinazotoka katika chakula zinapatikana. Katika mwaka wa 2006, zaidi ya 41 za sehemu hizi zimehusishwa na kuendelea kwa unene wa kupindukia wakati mazingira mwafaka yanapokuwepo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Poirier P |title=Obesity and cardiovascular disease: pathophysiology, evaluation, and effect of weight loss |journal=Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=968–76 |year=2006 |month=May |pmid=16627822 |doi=10.1161/01.ATV.0000216787.85457.f3|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_arteriosclerosis-thrombosis-and-vascular-biology_2006-05_26_5/page/968|author-separator=, |author2=Giles TD |author3=Bray GA |display-authors=3 |last4=Hong |first4=Y |last5=Stern|first5=JS |last6=Pi-Sunyer |first6=FX |last7=Eckel |first7=RH}}</ref> Watu walio na aina mbili za[[jeni ya FTO]] (jeni inayohusishwa na wingi wa mafuta na unene wa kupindukia) wamepatikana kwa wastani kuwa na uzito wa kilogramu 3-4]] &nbsp; zaidi na huwa katika hatari mara1.67 zaidi ya kukumbwa na unene wa kupindukia wakilinganishwa na wale wasio na hatari hii [[aleli]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Loos RJ, Bouchard C |title=FTO: the first gene contributing to common forms of human obesity |journal=Obes Rev |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=246–50|year=2008 |month=May |pmid=18373508 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00481.x |url=}}</ref> Asilimia ya unene wa kupindukia unaoweza kuhusishwa visababishi vya kijeni ni ya kubadilika kutoka 6% hadi 85% kulingana na idadi ya watu waliochunguzwa.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Yang W, Kelly T, He J |title=Genetic epidemiology of obesity |journal=Epidemiol Rev |volume=29 |issue=|pages=49–61 |year=2007 |pmid=17566051 |doi=10.1093/epirev/mxm004}}</ref> Unene wa kupindukia ni kipengele kikuu katika sindromu kadhaa kama vile [[sindromu ya Prader-Willi]], [[sindromu ya Bardet-Biedl]], [[sindromu ya Cohen]], na [[sindromu ya MOMO]]. Neno unene wa kupindukia usiosababishwa na sindromu hutumika wakati mwingine kuzitenga hali hizi.<ref name="pmid19506576">{{cite journal |author=Walley AJ, Asher JE, Froguel P |title=The genetic contribution to non-syndromic human obesity |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume= 10|issue= 7|pages= 431–42|year=2009|month=June |pmid=19506576 |doi=10.1038/nrg2594 |url=}}</ref> Kwa watu walio na mwanzo mkali wa mapema wa unene wa kupindukia (unaofasiliwa na mwanzo kabla ya umri wa miaka 10&nbsp; na kielezo cha uzani wa mwili zaidi ya tatu [[standard deviation]] zaidi ya kawaida), 7% huwa na kipimo kimoja cha mgeuko papale <ref>{{cite journal |author=Farooqi S, O'Rahilly S |title=Genetics of obesity in humans |journal=Endocr. Rev. |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=710–18 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17122358 |doi=10.1210/er.2006-0040 |url=http://edrv.endojournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/7/710 |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2010-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100710170521/http://edrv.endojournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/7/710 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Tafiti zilizolenga mitindo ya urithi badala ya jeni maalum zimetambua kuwa asilimia 80 ya watoto wa watu wawili walio wanene kupindukia walikuwa vilevile na unene wa kupindukia, ikilinganishwa na asilimia chini ya 10 ya watoto wa wazazi wawili waliokuwa na uzito wa kawaida.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kolata,Gina |title=Rethinking thin: The new science of weight loss&nbsp;– and the myths and realities of dieting |publisher=Picador |location= |year=2007 |page=122|isbn=0-312-42785-9}}</ref> [[Nadharia tete ya jeni yenye mafanikio]] hudai kuwa watu wana uwezekano mkubwa wa kupatwa na unene wa kupindukia kutokana na ukosefu wa chakula wakati wa mageuko ya binadamu. Uwezo wao wa kujinufaisha katika vipindi visivyo vya kawaida vya wingi kwa kuweka nguvu kama mafuta unaweza kuwafaa katika nyakati ambapo upatikanaji wa chakula si yakini na watu walio na hifadhi kubwa ya mafuta wanaweza kuwa na uwezekano mkubwa wa kuongoka[[njaa]]. Hata hivyo, huenda jamii zilizo na chakula kwa wingi zisizoee kujiwekea mafuta.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chakravarthy MV, Booth FW |title=Eating, exercise, and "thrifty" genotypes: Connecting the dots toward an evolutionary understanding of modern chronic diseases |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-physiology_2004-01_96_1/page/3 |journal=J. Appl. Physiol.|volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=3–10 |year=2004 |pmid=14660491 |doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00757.2003}}</ref> Nadharia hii imeweza kukosolewa sana na kupelelea kupendekezwa kwa nadharia zingine za kimageuko kama vile [[nadharia tete ya jeni isiyo na mkondo]] na[[fenotipu yenye mafanikio|nadharia tete ya fenotipu yenye mafanikio]]zilizopendekezwa. <ref>{{cite doi|10.1038/ijo.2009.175}}</ref><ref>{{cite doi|10.1002/ajhb.21100}}</ref> ===Maradhi mengine=== Maradhi mengine ya mwili na akili na dawa za kifamasia zinazotumiwa kuyatibu zinaweza kuongeza hatari ya unene wa kupindukia. Maradhi yanayoongeza hatari ya unene huo ni sindromu kadhaa za kijenetikia zisizo za kawaida (zilizoorodheshwa hapo juu) na aidha magonjwa mengine ya kuzaliwa nayo au ya kujitokeza baada ya kuzaliwa: [[uhipothiroidi]], [[Sindromu ya Cushing]], [[kukosa homoni ya kukua]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosén T, Bosaeus I, Tölli J, Lindstedt G, Bengtsson BA |title=Increased body fat mass and decreased extracellular fluid volume in adults with growth hormone deficiency |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-endocrinology_1993-01_38_1/page/63 |journal=Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf) |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=63–71 |year=1993 |pmid=8435887| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1993.tb00974.x}}</ref> na [[matatizo ya kula]]: [[matatizo ya kula yatokanayo na ulevi]] na [[sindromu ya kula usiku]].<ref name=HaslamJames/>.Hata hivyo, unene wa kupindukia hauchukuliwi kuwa tatizo la kiakili na kwa hiyo haujaorodheshwa katika Mwongozo wa Utambuzi na Takwimu za Maradhi ya Akili (DSM-IVR) kama maradhi ya akili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Zametkin AJ, Zoon CK, Klein HW, Munson S |title=Psychiatric aspects of child and adolescent obesity: a review of the past 10 years |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-american-academy-child-adolescent-psychiatry_2004-02_43_2/page/134 |journal=J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=134–50 |year=2004 |month=February |pmid=14726719|doi=10.1097/00004583-200402000-00008}}</ref> Hatari ya uzito wa kupita kiasi na unene wa kupindukia iko juu kwa wagonjwa walio na maradhi ya akili kuliko kwa watu ambao hawana maradhi ya akili.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Chiles C, van Wattum PJ |title=Psychiatric aspects of the obesity crisis | journal=Psychiatr Times | year=2010 | volume=27 | issue=4 |pages=47–51}}</ref> Matibabu mengine yanaweza kusababisha kuongezeka kwa uzito au mabadiliko katika [[mchanganyiko wa mwili]]; nayo ni [[insulini]], [[salfonyilurea]], [[thiasolidinedioni]], [[dawa za magonjwa ya kiakili]], [[dawa ya unyogovu]], [[glucocorticoids|steroidi]], aina nyingine za [[dawa za mitukutiko]] ([[fenitoini]] na [[valproeati]]), [[pisotifeni]], na za [[uzuiaji mimba wa kihomoni]].<ref name=HaslamJames/> ===Vigezo vya kijamii=== Ingawa athari za kijenetiki ni muhimu katika kuelewa unene wa kupindukia, haziwezi kuwajibikia mkondo uliopo wa ongezeko katika nchi fulani au duniani.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Yach D, Stuckler D, Brownell KD |title=Epidemiologic and economic consequences of the global epidemics of obesity and diabetes |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=12 |issue=1|pages=62–6 |year=2006 |month=January |pmid=16397571 |doi=10.1038/nm0106-62 |url=}}</ref> Ingawa imekubalika kuwa utumizi wa nguvu zaidi ya kiasi kinachostahili kutumika husababisha unene wa kupindukia kibinafsi, kisababishi cha mageuko katika vipengele hivi viwili kwa kiwango cha jamii hujadiliwa sana. Kuna nadharia kadhaa zinazohusu visababishi vya unene wa kupindukia. Hata hivyo, nadharia nyingi zimeshikilia kuwa unene husababishwa na mchanganyiko wa vipengele tofauti. Uhusiano kati ya [[hadhi ya kijamii]] na Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili huwa tofauti ulimwenguni. Tathmini katika mwaka wa 1989 ilionyesha kuwa wanawake wenye hadhi ya juu ya kijamii katika nchi zinazostawii walikuwa na uwezekano mdogo wa kukumbwa na unene wa kupindukia. Hakuna tofauti muhimu zilizoonekana miongoni mwa wanaume wa hadhi tofauti za kijamii. Katika nchi zinazostawi, wanawake, wanaume na watoto kutoka katika hadhi ya juu ya kijamii walikuwa na viwango vikubwa vya unene wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sobal J, Stunkard AJ |title=Socioeconomic status and obesity: A review of the literature |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_1989-03_105_2/page/260 |journal=Psychol Bull |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=260–75 |year=1989 |month=March |pmid=2648443|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.105.2.260}}</ref>. Toleo la tathmini hii uliofanyika mwaka wa 2007 ulionyesha uhusiano uo huo lakini ulikuwa dhaifu. Upungufu katika uthabiti wa uhusiano huo ulihisika kuwa uliotokana na [[utandawazi]].<ref name=McLaren2007>{{cite journal |author=McLaren L |title=Socioeconomic status and obesity |journal=Epidemiol Rev|volume=29 |issue= |pages=29–48 |year=2007 |pmid=17478442 |doi=10.1093/epirev/mxm001}}</ref> Katika nchi zilizostawi, viwango vya unene wa kupindukia kwa watu wazima, na asilimia ya watoto waliobalehe walio na uzani wa kupindukia vinahusiana na [[tofauti za kiuchumi|tofauti za kimapato]]. Uhusiano kama huu hunekana katika majimbo ya Marekani: watu wengi wazima, hata walio katika matabaka ya juu katika jamii wana unene wa kupindukia hata katika majimbo yaliyo na tofauti za kimapato.<ref name="spirit">{{cite book|title=[[The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better]]|last1=Wilkinson|first1=Richard|authorlink1=Richard G. Wilkinson|last2=Pickett|first2=Kate|publisher=Allen Lane|location=London|isbn=978-1-84614-039-6|year=2009|pages=91–101|url=http://www.equalitytrust.org.uk/why/evidence/obesity}}</ref> Maelezo mengi yametolewa yakilinganisha Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili na hadhi ya kijamii. Inadhaniwa mwilia mwilizo wa kumudu vyakula bora zaidi, nao huwa katika shinikizo zaidi la kusalia wembamba kutoka kwa jamii, na wana nafasi na matumaini makubwa ya kudumisha [[siha njema ya kimwili]]. Katika [[nchi zisizostawi]] inaaminika kuwa uwezo wa kumudu chakula, utumizi mkubwa wa nguvu katika kufanya kazi za sulubu, na tamaduni zinazothamini miili mikubwa huchangia katika kuleta mitindo hii.<ref name=McLaren2007/> Mitazamo inayoshikiliwa na watu kuhusu ukubwa wa mwili maishani pia inaweza kuchangia unene wa kupindukia. Uhusiano wa mabadiliko katika Kielezo cha Uzani wa Mwili kwa muda mrefu umeonekana miongoni mwa marafiki, ndugu na wachumba.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Christakis NA, [[James H. Fowler|Fowler JH]] |title=The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32 Years |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2007-07-26_357_4/page/370 |journal= New England Journal of Medicine|volume=357 |issue=4|pages=370–379 |year=2007 |pmid=17652652 |doi=10.1056/NEJMsa066082}}</ref> Stress and perceived low social status appear to increase risk of obesity.<ref name="spirit" /><ref>{{cite journal|author=Bjornstop P|title=Do stress reactions cause abdominal obesity and comorbidities?|journal=Obesity Reviews|volume=2|issue=2|pages=73–86|year=2001|doi=10.1046/j.1467-789x.2001.00027.x|pmid=12119665}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Goodman E, Adler NE, Daniels SR, Morrison JA, Slap GB, Dolan LM|title=Impact of objective and subjective social status on obesity in a biracial cohort of adolescents|journal=Obesity Reviews|volume=11|issue=8|pages=1018–26|year=2003|pmid=12917508|doi=10.1038/oby.2003.140}}</ref> Uvutaji sigara huathiri pakubwa uzani wa mtu. Watu wanaokoma kuvuta sigara huongeza uzito kwa wastani wa kilo 4.4&nbsp; 9.7&nbsp;lb) katika wanaume na kilo 5.0&nbsp;(11.0&nbsp;lb) katika wanawake kwa muda wa miaka kumi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Flegal KM, Troiano RP, Pamuk ER, Kuczmarski RJ, Campbell SM |title=The influence of smoking cessation on the prevalence of overweight in the United States |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=333 |issue=18 |pages=1165–70 |year=1995 |month=November |pmid=7565970 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199511023331801 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/333/18/1165 |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2003-04-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030405192136/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/333/18/1165 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Hata hivo mabadiliko katika viwango vya uvutaji yamekuwa na matokeo duni kwa viwango vya jumla vya unene wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chiolero A, Faeh D, Paccaud F, Cornuz J |title=Consequences of smoking for body weight, body fat distribution, and insulin resistance|journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=87 |issue=4 |pages=801–9 |date=1 April 2008|pmid=18400700|url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/87/4/801 }}</ref> Nchini Marekani, idadi ya watoto alionao mtu inahusiana na hatarisho lao la unene wa kupindukia. Hatari ya mwanamke huongezeka kwa 7% kwa kila mtoto, ilhali hatarisho la mwanamume huongezeka kwa 4%.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Weng HH, Bastian LA, Taylor DH, Moser BK, Ostbye T |title=Number of children associated with obesity in middle-aged women and men: results from the health and retirement study |journal=J Women's Health (Larchmt) |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=85–91 |year=2004|pmid=15006281 |doi=10.1089/154099904322836492}}</ref> Hii inaweza kuelezwa kwa kiasi fulani kutokana na ukweli kwamba kuwa na watoto wanaokutegemea hupunguza shughuli za kimwili kwa wazazi katika nchi za Ulaya na Marekani.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bellows-Riecken KH, Rhodes RE |title=A birth of inactivity? A review of physical activity and parenthood |journal=Prev Med |volume=46|issue=2 |pages=99–110 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=17919713 |doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2007.08.003}}</ref> Katika nchi zinazostawi, ukuaji wa miji unachangia katika kiwango kinachoongezeka cha unene wa kupindukia. Nchini [[Uchina]]viwango vya jumla vya unene wa kupindukia viko chini ya asilimia 5; hata hivyo, katika miji mingine, viwango vya unene wa kupindukia ni zaidi ya asilimia 20.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/media/en/gsfs_obesity.pdf |title=Obesity and Overweight |format=PDF|publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |accessdate=February 22, 2009}}</ref> [[Utapiamlo]] mwanzoni mwa maisha umeaminika kuchangia katika viwango vinavyoongezeka vya unene wa kupindukia katika[[nchi zinazostawi]].<ref name=DC2001>{{cite journal |author=Caballero B |title=Introduction. Symposium: Obesity in developing countries: biological and ecological factors |journal=J. Nutr. |volume=131 |issue=3 |pages=866S–870S |year=2001|month=March |pmid=11238776 |doi= |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/131/3/866S}}</ref>Mabadiliko ya endokrini yanayotokea katika vipindi vya utapiamlo yanaweza kuendeleza uhifadhiwaji wa mafuta mara tu chakula zaidi kiletacho nguvu kinapopatikana.<ref name=DC2001/> Sawa na data za [[epidemiolojia tambuzi|epidemiolojia tambuzi]], na tafiti nyingi huthibitisha kuwa unene wa kupindukia unahusiana na upungufu katika utambuzi. <ref name="Smith2011"> {{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00920.x|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00920.x/abstract|doi_brokendate=1-1-2012|author1=<Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.>}}</ref> Iwapo unene wa kupindukia husababisha upungufu katika utambuzi kwa vyovyote vile bado haijulikani kwa sasa. ===Vikolezo viambukizi=== Utafiti wa jinsi vikolezo viambukizi vinavyoathiri umetaboli ungali katika hatua zake za kwanza. [[Flora ya utumbo]] imeonekana kutofautiana kati ya watu wembamba na wale walio na unene wa kupindukia. Kuna ishara kuwa flora ya utumbo katika watu wanene kupindukia na wale wembamba inaweza kuathiri uwezo wa umetaboli. Mabadiliko haya dhahiri katika uwezo wa umetaboli yanaaminika kuchangia kwa kiwango kikubwa katika kuvuna nguvu zinazosababisha unene wa kupindukia. Iwapo tofauti hizi ndizo visababishi vya moja kwa moja au ndiyo matokeo ya unene wa kupindukia, bado haijabainishwa kwa kiasi kisichopotosha<ref>{{cite journal |author=DiBaise JK, Zhang H, Crowell MD, Krajmalnik-Brown R, Decker GA, Rittmann BE |title=Gut microbiota and its possible relationship with obesity |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mayo-clinic-proceedings_2008-04_83_4/page/460 |journal=Mayo Clinic proceedings. Mayo Clinic |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=460–9 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=18380992|doi=10.4065/83.4.460}}</ref> Uhusiano kati ya [[virusi]] na unene wa kupindukia umeonekana kwa wanadamu na spishi kadhaa za wanyama. Kiasi ambacho ushirikiano huu unaweza kuwa umechangia katika kuongezeka kwa kiwango cha unene wa kupindukia bado hakijabainishwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Falagas ME, Kompoti M |title=Obesity and infection |journal=Lancet Infect Dis |volume=6 |issue=7|pages=438–46 |year=2006 |month=July |pmid=16790384 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70523-0 |url=}}</ref> ==Pathofiziolojia== [[File:Fatmouse.jpg|thumb|alt=Panya wawili weupe wenye masikio yanayotoshana, macho meusi na pua za waridi. Hata hivyo upana wa mwili wa panya aliye kushoto ni takribani mara tatu zaidi ya ule wa panya wa kulia aliye na ukubwa wa kawaida.|Ulinganisho wa panya asiyeweza kutoa [[leptini]] na hatimaye kupelekea unene wa kupindukia (kushoto) na panya wa kawaida (kulia)]] Flier anafupisha taratibu nyingi za [[pathofiziolojia]] zinazohusika katika ukuaji na udhibiti wa unene wa kupindukia.<ref name="flier">{{cite journal | author=Flier JS | title=Obesity wars: Molecular progress confronts an expanding epidemic Molecular progress confronts an expanding epidemic | url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2004-01-23_116_2/page/337 | journal=Cell | year=2004 | pages=337–50 | volume=116 | issue=2 | pmid=14744442 | doi = 10.1016/S0092-8674(03)01081-X}}</ref> Kitengo hiki cha utafiti kilikuwa hakijaangaziwa hadi mwaka wa 1994[[leptini]] ilipogunduliwa. Tangu ugunduzi huu ulipofanyika, taratibu zingine nyingi za homoni zinazohusika katika udhibiti wa [[hamu ya kula]] na ulaji, mitindo ya uhifadhi ya [[tishu ya mafuta]] na ukuaji wa [[ukinzani kwa insulini zimefumbuliwa]]. Tangu kuvumbuliwa kwa leptini, [[grelin]], [[insulini]], [[oreksini]], [[PYY 3-36]], [[kolesistokinini]],[[adiponektini]], na vipengele vinginevyo zimechunguzwa. [[Adipokini]] ni chembe zinazoundwa na tishu ya mafuta; utendakazi wake unadhaniwa kubadilisha magonjwa mengi yanayohusiana na unene wa kupindukia. Inachukuliwa kuwa leptini na grelini hufanya kazi pamoja katika jinsi zinavyoathiri hamu ya kula; huku grelini, inayotolewa na tumbo, ikirekebisha uthibiti wa muda mfupi wa hamu ya kula (yaani kula wakati ambapo tumbo liko tupu na kukoma tumbo inapotanuka). Leptini hutolewa na tishu ya mafuta kuchochea hifadhi za mafuta mwilini na kupatanisha uthibiti wa muda mrefu wa hamu ya kula (yaani, kula kwa wingi ambapo hifadhi za mafuta ziko chini na kula kiasi kidogo zinapokuwa juu). Ingawa utoaji wa leptini unaweza kufaa katika kikundi kidogo cha watu wenye unene wa kupindukia walio na upungufu wa leptini, watu wengi wenye unene huu hufikiriwa kuwa wenye ukinzani wa leptini na wamepatikana kuwa na viwango vya juu vya leptini.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hamann A, Matthaei S |title=Regulation of energy balance by leptin |journal=Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes|volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=293–300 |year=1996 |pmid=8886745 |doi=10.1055/s-0029-1211457}}</ref> Ukinzani huu hufikiriwa kueleza kwa kiasi fulani sababu inayofanya utoaji wa leptini usionekane kufaa katika kukandamiza hamu ya kula kwa watu wengi walio na unene wa kupindukia.<ref name="flier"/> [[File:Leptin.png|thumb|kushoto|alt=Modeli ya mitazamo mitatu iliyo na jozi mbili za nguzo mkabala zilizopinda na kushikanishwa pamoja kwenye miisho na sehemu zingine zilizopangwa katika mistari.||Kielelezo cha molekuli ya leptini]] Ingawa leptini na grelini hutolewa pembezoni, zinadhibiti hamu ya kula kupitia jinsi zinavyoathiri[[mfumo mkuu wa neva]]. Hasa, leptini na grelini, na homoni zingine zinazohusiana na hamu ya kula huichochea [[hipothalamasi]], sehemu ya ubongo iliyo muhimu zaidi katika kudhibiti ulaji na utumiaji wa nguvu. Kuna mizunguko kadhaa katika hipothalamasi inayochangia kwenye jukumu lake katika kuongeza na kudumisha hamu ya kula, ambapo[[melanokotini]] ndiyo njia inayoeleweka vizuri sana.<ref name="flier"/> Mzunguko huu huanzia katika sehemu ya hipothalamasi iitwayo [[kiini akueti]], ambayo matokeo yake huenda kwenye [[hipothalamasi ya pembeni]] na [[hipothalamasi inayotambua shibe]], sehemu za ubongo zinazodhibiti kula na shibe mtawalia.<ref>{{cite book |author=Boulpaep, Emile L.; Boron, Walter F. |title=Medical physiologya: A cellular and molecular approach |url=https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000boro_a6j9 |publisher=Saunders|location=Philadelphia |year=2003 |page=[https://archive.org/details/medicalphysiolog0000boro_a6j9/page/n1227 1227]|isbn=0-7216-3256-4}}</ref> Kiini akueti kina makundi mawili tofauti ya [[nyuroni]].<ref name="flier"/> Kundi la kwanza hudhirisha [[nuropeptaidi Y]] na [[peptaidi inayohusiana na agouti]] kwa pamoja na kuchangia katika kuichochea hipothalamasi ya pembeni na kuikandamiza hipothalamasi inayotambua shibe. Kundi la pili hudhihirisha [[pro-opiomelanokotini]] na [[nakala inayodhitiwa na kokeni na amfetamini]] (NIKA) na huchangia katika kuichochea hipothalamasi inayotambua shibe na kuikandamiza hipothalamasi ya pembeni. Kwa hiyo, nyuroni za nuropetaidi Y/peptaidi inayohusiana na agouti (NPY/AgRP) huchochea kula na kuzuia kushiba, ilhali nuroni za POMC/NIKA huchochea kushiba na kuzuia kula. Makundi yote mawili ya nuroni za kiini akueti nuroni hudhibitiwa kwa kiasi fulani na leptini. Leptini hukandamiza kundi la nuropetaidi Y/peptaidi inayohusiana na agouti (NPY/AgRP) huku ikilichochea kundi la POMC/NIKA. Kwa hivyo, ukosefu wa uchochelezi wa leptini, iwe ni kutokana na ukosefu wa leptini au ukinzani kwa leptin, hupelekea kula zaidi na inaweza kusababisha unene wa kupindukia wa kijenetikia na wa kupatikana maishani.<ref name="flier"/> {{clear}} ==Afya ya umma== [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] (WHO) linatabiri kuwa hivi karibuni, [[uzito wa kupita kiasi]] na unene wa kupindukia unaweza kuchukua nafasi ya matatizo ya jadi ya [[afya ya umma]] kama vile [[utapiamlo]] na [[magonjwa ya kuambukiza]] kama visababishi vikuu vya afya duni.<ref>{{cite book |author=Loscalzo, Joseph; Fauci, Anthony S.; Braunwald, Eugene; Dennis L. Kasper; Hauser, Stephen L; Longo, Dan L. |title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine |url=https://archive.org/details/harrisonsprincip0000unse_b7u9 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical |location=|year=2008 |pages= |isbn=0-07-146633-9 |oclc=|doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Unene wa kupindukia ni tatizo la afya ya umma na la kisera kwa sababu yaueneaji wake, gharama na athari za kiafya.<ref>{{cite book | author=Satcher D | title=The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity | year=2001 | publisher=U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of Surgeon General | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44206/|isbn=978-0-16-051005-2}}</ref> Juhudi za afya ya umma hulenga kuelewa na kurekebisha mazingira yanayochangia kukithiri kwa unene wa kupindukia miongoni mwa watu. Suluhisho hutazamia kubadilisha mambo yanayosababisha utumiaji zaidi wa vyakula viletavyo nguvu na kukandamiza shughuli/mazoezi ya mwili. Juhudi ni programu za milo zinazofadhiliwa na serikali katika shule, kupunguza uuzaji wa[[chakula visivyo bora]] kwa watoto, <ref>{{cite news | author=Brook Barnes | title=Limiting Ads of Junk Food to Children |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/18/business/18food.html | work=New York Times | date=2007-07-18 |accessdate=2008-07-24}}</ref> na kupunguza upatikanaji wa vinywanji vyenye sukari katika shule.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.healthfinder.gov/news/newsstory.aspx?docID=625759 |title=Fewer Sugary Drinks Key to Weight Loss -healthfinder.gov |work=U.S.. Department of Health and Human Services |accessdate=Oct 18,2009 |archivedate=2012-11-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116045620/http://www.healthfinder.gov/news/newsstory.aspx?docID=625759 }}</ref> Juhudi zimefanywa katika uundaji wa mazingira ya miji ili kuongeza ufikiaji wa bustani na kutengeneza njia za waendao kwa miguu.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Brennan Ramirez LK | title=Indicators of activity-friendly communities: An evidence-based consensus process | journal=Am J Prev Med | year=2006 | month=December | issue=6 | pages=530–32 | pmid=17169714 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-preventive-medicine_2006-12_31_6/page/530|doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2006.07.026 | volume=31 | author-separator=, | author2=Hoehner CM | author3=Brownson RC |display-authors=3 | last4=Cook | first4=R | last5=Orleans | first5=C | last6=Hollander | first6=M | last7=Barker |first7=D | last8=Bors | first8=P | last9=Ewing | first9=R}}</ref> Nchi nyingi pamoja na vikundi vimechapisha ripoti zinazohusu unene wa kupindukia. Mnamo mwaka wa 1998, miongozo ya kwanza ya serikali ya shirikisho ya Marekani ilichapishwa kwa jina "Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults: The Evidence Report" (Mwongozo wa Kitabibu kuhusu Utambuzi, Utathmini na Matibabu ya Unene na Unene wa Kupindukia katika Watu Wazima).<ref>{{cite book |author=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute|title=Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults|publisher=International Medical Publishing, Inc |location=|year= 1998 |isbn=1-58808-002-1 |oclc=|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/obesity/ob_gdlns.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2006 [[Mfumo wa Unene wa Kupindukia wa Kanada]] ulichapisha "Canadian Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPG) on the Management and Prevention of Obesity in Adults and Children" [Taratibu za Kitabibu za Kanada zinazohusu Udhibiti na uzuiaji wa Unene wa Kupindukia kwa Watu Wazima na Watoto] Huu ni utaratibu wa kina unaozingatia ushahidi ili kushughulikia udhibiti na uzuiaji wa uzani wa kupita kiasi na unene wa kupindukia kwa watu wazima na watoto.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Lau DC, Douketis JD, Morrison KM, Hramiak IM, Sharma AM, Ur E |title=2006 Canadian clinical practice guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children summary |journal=CMAJ |volume=176 |issue=8|pages=S1–13 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17420481 |pmc=1839777|doi=10.1503/cmaj.061409 |url=http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/176/8/S1}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2004 nchini Uingereza, [[Chuo cha Mafizishiani cha Royal]], [[Kitengo cha Afya ya Umma]] na [[Chuo cha Pediatria na Afya ya Watoto]] vilitoa ripoti, “Kuhifadhi Matatizo", iliyodokeza kuhusu kuongezeka kwa tatizo la unene wa kupindukia nchini Uingereza. <ref>{{cite book |title=Storing up problems; the medical case for a slimmer nation |date=2004-02-11|publisher=Royal College of Physicians |location= London|isbn=1-86016-200-2 |author=}}</ref> Mwaka huohuo, Kamati Teule ya Afya ya Bunge la Uingereza ilichapisha "uchunguzi wake wa kina zaidi [...] uliowahi kufanywa kuhusu athari ya unene wa kupindukia kwa afya na jamii nchini Uingereza na njia mwafaka zinazoweza kutumiwa katika kutatua tatizo hili.<ref name =GB2004>{{cite book |author=Great Britain Parliament House of Commons Health Committee |title=Obesity– Volume 1 – HCP 23-I, Third Report of session 2003–04. Report, together with formal minutes|url=http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmselect/cmhealth/23/2302.htm|accessdate=2007-12-17|year=2004 |month=May|publisher=TSO (The Stationery Office)|location=London, UK|isbn=978-0-215-01737-6}}</ref> Mwaka wa 2006, [[Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Afya na Ubora wa Kitabibu]] ilitoa utaratibu wa kutambua na kutibu unene wa kupindukia na vilevile athari za kisera kwa mashirika yasiyo ya kiafya kama vile mabaraza ya mitaa<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG43NICEGuideline.pdf |title=Obesity: guidance on the prevention, identification, assessment and management of overweight and obesity in adults and children|publisher=[[National Health Services]] (NHS)|year= 2006|format=PDF |work=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence(NICE)|accessdate=April 8, 2009}}</ref> Ripoti iliyotolewa na Bwana [[Derek Wanless]] mwaka wa 2007 kwa [[Hazina ya Mfalme]] ilionya kuwa iwapo hatua zaidi hazitachukuliwa, unene wa kupindukia una uwezo wa kulemaza [[Huduma ya Afya ya Kitaifa]]kifedha.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wanless |first=Sir Derek |coauthors=John Appleby, Anthony Harrison, Darshan Patel|title=Our Future Health Secured? A review of NHS funding and performance|url=http://www.kingsfund.org.uk/research/publications/our_future.html|accessdate=2007-12-17 |year=2007 |publisher=The King's Fund|location=London, UK |isbn=1-85717-562-X}}</ref> Hatua za kina zinabuniwa ili kuthibiti viwango vinavyoongezeka vya unene wa kupindukia. Mfumo wa Sera ya Kukabiliana na Unene wa Kupindukia hugawanya hatua kwa sera za ‘juu’, sera za ‘katikati’ na sera za ‘chini’. Sera za ‘juu’ zinalenga kubadilisha jamii, sera za ‘kati’ hujaribu kubadilisha mienendo ya watutu ili kuzuia unene wa kupindukia nazo sera za ‘chini’ hujaribu kuwahudumia wale ambao tayari wameathirika.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sacks G, Swinburn B, Lawrence M|title=Obesity Policy Action framework and analysis grids for a comprehensive policy approach to reducing obesity|journal=Obes Rev |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=76–86 |year=2009 |month=January|pmid=18761640|doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00524.x |url=}}</ref> ==Udhibiti== [[File:Obesity Med2008.JPG|thumb|alt=Kifurushi cha kadibodi kinachotumika kupakia aina mbili za dawa zinazotumika kutibu unene wa kupindukia. Orlistat imeonyeshwa hapo juu chini ya jina la chapa la Xenical kwa kifurushi cheupe kilicho na nembo ya Roche kwa kona hapo chini upande wa kulia (jina Roche lililo kwenye pembe sita). Sibutramine iko hapo chini, chini ya chapa Meridia. Kifurushi kina rangi nyeupe upande wa juu na samawati upande wa chini zilizotenganishwa na utepe wa kupima. Herufi A ya Abbott iko kwenye nusu ya chini ya kifurushi.|kulia|[[Orlistat]] (Xenical), tiba inayotumika sana katika kutibu unene wa kupindukia, na [[sibutramine]](Meridia) dawa iliyoondolewa hivi karibuni kutokana na athari zake kwa moyo]] Matibabu makuu ya unene wa kupindukia ni [[kudhibiti jinsi unavyokula]] and [[mazoezi ya mwili]].<ref name=CADG2006>{{cite journal|author=Lau DC, Douketis JD, Morrison KM, Hramiak IM, Sharma AM, Ur E |title=2006 Canadian clinical practice guidelines on the management and prevention of obesity in adults and children summary |journal=CMAJ |volume=176 |issue=8|pages=S1–13 |year=2007 |month=April |pmid=17420481 |pmc=1839777 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.061409 |url=}}</ref>Mipango ya lishe inaweza kupelekea [[kupoteza uzito]]kwa kipindi cha muda mfupi<ref name=Strychar>{{cite journal |author=Strychar I |title=Diet in the management of weight loss |journal=CMAJ |volume=174 |issue=1 |pages=56–63 |year=2006 |month=January |pmid=16389240|pmc=1319349 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.045037 |url=http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/174/1/56}}</ref> lakini kudumisha kiwango hiki cha kupoteza uzito mara nyingi huwa vigumu na hivyo huhitaji kudumisha mwenendo wa maisha ya mazoezi ya kimwili na kula chakula kilicho na kiwango cha chini cha nguvu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shick SM, Wing RR, Klem ML, McGuire MT, Hill JO, Seagle H|title=Persons successful at long-term weight loss and maintenance continue to consume a low-energy, low-fat diet|journal=J Am Diet Assoc |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=408–13 |year=1998 |month=April |pmid=9550162|doi=10.1016/S0002-8223(98)00093-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Tate DF, Jeffery RW, Sherwood NE, Wing RR|title=Long-term weight losses associated with prescription of higher physical activity goals. Are higher levels of physical activity protective against weight regain? |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=954–9|date=1 April 2007|pmid=17413092 |url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/85/4/954}}</ref>Kufanikiwa kudumisha kiwango cha kupoteza uzani na mabadiliko katika mienenbo ni chini mno kati ya asilimia 2 - asilimia 20.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Wing, Rena R; Phelan, Suzanne|title=Science-Based Solutions to Obesity: What are the Roles of Academia, Government, Industry, and Health Care? Proceedings of a symposium, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, 10–11 March 2004 and Anaheim, California, USA, 2 October 2004 |journal=Am. J. Clin. Nutr. |volume=82 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=207S–273S |date=1 July 2005|pmid=16002825|url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/82/1/222S }}</ref>Mabadiliko ya kilishe na kimienendo ni muhimu katika kudhibiti uongezaji wa kupita kiasi wa uzani katika [[ujauzito]] na kuboresha hali ya mama na mtoto.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Thangaratinam|first=S|coauthors=Rogozinska, E; Jolly, K; Glinkowski, S; Roseboom, T; Tomlinson, JW; Kunz, R; Mol, BW; Coomarasamy, A; Khan, KS|title=Effects of interventions in pregnancy on maternal weight and obstetric outcomes: meta-analysis of randomised evidence|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|date=2012 May 16|volume=344|pages=e2088|pmid=22596383|pmc=3355191|doi=10.1136/bmj.e2088}}</ref> Aina moja ya dawa, [[Orlistat]] (Xenical), inapatikana kwa urahisi na imeidhinishwa kwa matumizi ya muda mrefu. Hata hivyo, kupoteza uzito ni jambo la kadri kwa wastani wa kilogramu 2.9 &nbsp;kg (6.4&nbsp;lb) kwa mwaka 1 hadi 4&nbsp;na kuna habari kidogo kuhusu jinsi dawa hizi zinavyoathiri matatizo ya muda mrefu ya unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Orli07>{{cite journal |author=Rucker D, Padwal R, Li SK, Curioni C, Lau DC |title=Long term pharmacotherapy for obesity and overweight: updated meta-analysis |journal=BMJ|volume=335 |issue=7631 |pages=1194–99 |year=2007 |pmid=18006966 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39385.413113.25|url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/335/7631/1194 |pmc=2128668}}</ref> Matumizi yake yanahusiana na viwango vya juu vya athari kwa utumbo <ref name=Orli07/> and concerns have been raised about negative effects on the kidneys.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wood|first=Shelley|title=Diet Drug Orlistat Linked to Kidney, Pancreas Injuries|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/740855?src=mp&spon=30|work=Medscape|publisher=Medscape News|accessdate=26 April 2011}}</ref> Aina zingine mbili za dawa pia zinapatikana [[Lorcaserin]](Belviq) hupelekea upotezaji wa uzito kwa wastani kilogramu 3.1&nbsp; (asilimia 3 ya uzani wa mwili) zaidi ya plasebo kwa muda wa mwaka mmoja.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bays|first=HE|title=Lorcaserin: drug profile and illustrative model of the regulatory challenges of weight-loss drug development|journal=Expert review of cardiovascular therapy|date=2011 Mar|volume=9|issue=3|pages=265–77|pmid=21438803|doi=10.1586/erc.10.22}}</ref> Mchanganyiko wa [[Phentermine/topiramate|phentermine na topiramate]] (Qsymia) pia ni bora kwa kiwango fulani.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bays HE, Gadde KM |title=Phentermine/topiramate for weight reduction and treatment of adverse metabolic consequences in obesity |journal=Drugs Today |volume=47 |issue=12 |pages=903–14 |year=2011 |month=December|pmid=22348915 |doi=10.1358/dot.2011.47.12.1718738 |url=}}</ref> Njia mwafaka zaidi ya kutibu unene wa kupindukia ni [[upasuaji wa kibariatriki]]. Upasuaji kwa mujibu wa unene mkali wa kupindukia unahusiana na upotezaji wa uzito kwa muda mrefu na upunguaji katika vifo kwa ujumla. Utafiti mmoja ulitambua upotezaji wa uzito wa kati wa asilimia 14 na 25 (kulingana na utaratibu uliofuatwa) kwa miaka 10&nbsp; na upunguaji wa asilimia 29 katika vifo vitokanavyo na unene huu ikilinganishwa na hatua za kawaida za upotezaji wa uzito.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sjöström L |title=Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality in Swedish obese subjects |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=357 |issue=8 |pages=741–52 |year=2007 |month=August|pmid=17715408 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa066254 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2007-08-23_357_8/page/740|author-separator=, |author2=Narbro K |author3=Sjöström CD|display-authors=3 |last4=Karason |first4=Kristjan |last5=Larsson |first5=Bo |last6=Wedel |first6=Hans |last7=Lystig|first7=Ted |last8=Sullivan |first8=Marianne |last9=Bouchard |first9=Claude}}</ref> Hata hivyo, kutokana na gharama yake na hatari ya matatizo, watafiti wanatafuta tiba zingine mwafaka ilhali zisizo na madhara. {{clear}} ==Epidemiolojia== {{Double image|right|World map of Male Obesity, 2008.svg|200|World map of Female Obesity, 2008.svg|200|World obesity prevalence among males (left) and females (right).<ref name=IOTF2008>{{cite web|url=http://www.iotf.org/database/documents/GlobalPrevalenceofAdultObesity16thDecember08.pdf |title=Global Prevalence of Adult Obesity |format=PDF |work=[[International Obesity Taskforce]] |accessdate=January 29, 2008}}</ref> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#ffff65|<5%}} {{legend|#fff200|5–10%}} {{legend|#ffdc00|10–15%}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ffc600|15–20%}} {{legend|#ffb000|20–25%}} {{legend|#ff9a00|25–30%}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|30–35%}} {{legend|#ff6e00|35–40%}} {{legend|#ff5800|40–45%}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff4200|45–50%}} {{legend|#ff2c00|50–55%}} {{legend|#cb0000|>55%}} {{Multicol-end}} |alt=A map of the world with countries colored to reflect the percentage of men who are obese. Obese males and females have higher prevalence (above 30%) in the U.S. and some Middle Eastern and Oceanian countries, medium prevalence in the rest of North America and Europe, and lower prevalence (<5%) in most of Asia and Africa.||}} Kabla ya [[karne ya 20]], unene wa kupindukia ulikuwa wa nadra;<ref name=Haslam2007/> in 1997 the WHO formally recognized obesity as a global epidemic.<ref name=Caballero/> As of 2005 the WHO estimates that at least 400&nbsp;million adults (9.8%) are obese, with higher rates among women than men.<ref name=WHO2009a>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/index.html |title=Obesity and overweight |work=World Health Organization |accessdate=April 8, 2009}}</ref> Kiwango cha unene wa kupindukia pia huongezeka kulingana na umri kwa angalau kufikia umri wa miaka 50 au 60&nbsp; <ref>Seidell 2005 p.5</ref> na unene mkali wa kupindukia nchini Marekani, Australia, na Canada unaongezeka haraka kuliko kiwango cha jumla cha unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=morbid2007/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Howard, Natasha J.|title=Severe obesity: Investigating the socio-demographics within the extremes of body mass index |journal=Obesity Research &Clinical Practice |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=51–59 |year=2008|month=March |pmid=|doi=10.1016/j.orcp.2008.01.001 |url= |first2=A |first3=T |first4=C |last2=Taylor |last3=Gill|last4=Chittleborough}}</ref><ref name=Tjepkema2005>{{cite book | author=Tjepkema M | chapter=Measured Obesity–Adult obesity in Canada: Measured height and weight | title=Nutrition: Findings from the Canadian Community Health Survey |publisher=Statistics Canada | date=2005-07-06 | location=Ottawa, Ontario |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-620-m/2005001/article/adults-adultes/8060-eng.htm}}</ref> Ijapokuwa uliwahi kuchukuliwa kama tatizo la nchi zilizo na mapato ya juu pekee, viwango vya unene wa kupindukia vinaongezeka ulimwenguni kote na kudhuru nchi zilizostaw na aidha zinazostawi<ref name=EuroG2008>{{cite journal |author=Tsigosa Constantine |title=Management of Obesity in Adults: European Clinical Practice Guidelines |journal=The European Journal of Obesity |volume=1 |year=2008 |month=April |pmid=20054170 |doi=10.1159/000126822 |url=http://www.gojaznost.org/gs/dodatak/OMTFManagementofObesityinAdults2008.pdf |first2=Vojtech |issue=2 |first3=Arnaud |first4=Nick |first5=Martin |first6=Elisabeth |first7=Dragan |first8=Maximo |first9=Gabriela |pages=106–16 |last2=Hainer |last3=Basdevant |last4=Finer |last5=Fried |last6=Mathus-Vliegen |last7=Micic |last8=Maislos |last9=Roman |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2012-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426034913/http://www.gojaznost.org/gs/dodatak/OMTFManagementofObesityinAdults2008.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref>.Ongezeko hili limeonekana sana katika maeneo ya miji.<ref name=WHO2009a/> Sehemu inayobakia ulimwenguni ambayo unene wa kupindukia sio jambo la kawaida ni[[mataifa ya kusini mwa sahara]].<ref name=HaslamJames/> {{clear}} ==Historia== [[File:Charles Mellin zugeschr - Porträt eines Herrn - Gemäldegalerie Berlin.jpg|thumb|wima|alt=Mwanamume mwenye unene zaidi wa kupindukia aliye na kidevu chenye sehemu mbili, masharubu, na kuvalia nguo nyeusi huku akiwa na kitara kwenye upande wake wa kushoto.|Katika[[Enzi za Kati]] na[[kipindi cha mvuvumko]], mara nyingi unene wa kupindukia ulionekana kama ishara ya utajiri na ulikuwa umekithiri kwa tabaka aali: ''The Tuscan General [[Alessandro del Borro]]'', attributed to Charles Mellin, 1645<ref name=Zach2003>{{cite journal |author=Zachary Bloomgarden |title=Prevention of Obesity and Diabetes |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=26 |pages=3172–3178 |year=2003|pmid= 14578257|doi= 10.2337/diacare.26.11.3172|url=http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/26/11/3172.full|issue=11}}</ref>]] [[File:Venus von Willendorf 01.jpg|thumb|wima|alt= Kisanamu kilichochongwa kutoka kwa jiwe kilionyesha mwanamke mwenye unene wa kupindukia.|''[[Venus of Willendorf]]'' kilichotengenezwa 24,000–22,000 BC]] [[Wagiriki]] ndio waliokuwa wa kwanza kutambua unene wa kupindukia kama tatizo la kiafya.<ref name=Haslam2007>{{cite journal|author=Haslam D |title=Obesity: a medical history |journal=Obes Rev |volume=8 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=31–6 |year=2007|month=March |pmid=17316298 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00314.x |url=}}</ref> [["Hippocrates]] aliandika kuwa "Unene wa kupindukia si ugonjwa kivyake tu, bali ni dalili ya magonjwa mengine".<ref name=HaslamJames/> Daktari Mhindi wa upasuaji [[Sushruta]] (karne ya 6 BCE) alihusisha unene wa kupindukia na kisukari na matatizo ya moyo.<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07/> He recommended physical work to help cure it and its side effects.<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07>{{cite web |url=http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |format=PDF |title=History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician –Teacher par Excellence |accessdate=2008-09-19 |work=Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar |publisher= |year=2007 |archivedate=2008-10-10 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf |=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010045900/http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf }}</ref>Katika historia ya watu, wanadamu wamekumbwa sana na ukosefu wa chakula.<ref>{{cite book |author=Theodore Mazzone; Giamila Fantuzzi |title=Adipose Tissue And Adipokines in Health And Disease (Nutrition and Health) |url=https://archive.org/details/adiposetissueadi0000unse |publisher=Humana Press|location=Totowa, NJ |year=2006 |page=[https://archive.org/details/adiposetissueadi0000unse/page/222 222] |isbn=1-58829-721-7 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>Kwa hivyo, kihistoria, unene wa kupindukia umeonekana kama ishara ya utajiri na ustawi. Ulikuwa umekithiri kwa maafisa wakuu barani Uropa katika [[Enzi za Kati]] na [[Kipindi cha Mvuvumko]]<ref name=Zach2003/> as well as in Ancient East Asian civilizations.<ref>Keller p. 49</ref> Kwa kuwepo kwa mwanzo wa [[mvuvumko wa viwanda]], iligunduliwa kuwa uwezo wa kijeshi na kiuchumi wa mataifa ulitegemea ukubwa wa mwili na nguvu za wanajeshi na wafanyikazi.<ref name=Caballero/> Kuongeza wastani wa kielezo cha uzito wa mwili kutoka kile kinachofikiriwa kuwa uzito wa chini hadi kwa kile kilicho anuwai ya kawaida kulichangia pakubwa katika ustawi wa jamii zilizo na viwanda.<ref name=Caballero/> Kutokana na hayo, kimo na uzito viliongezeka katika karne ya 19&nbsp; katika nchi zilizostawi. Katika karne ya 20, watu walipofikia kikamilifu uwezo wao wa kijenetiki wa kimo, uzito ulianza kuongezeka sana zaidi ya kimo na kupelekea unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Caballero/>Katika miaka ya 1950, kuongezeka kwa utajiri katika nchi zilizostawi kulipunguza vifo vya watoto. Hata hivyo, uzito ulipoongezeka, ugonjwa wa moyo na figo ulikithiri.<ref name=Caballero/><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.2105/AJPH.42.9.1116 | author=Breslow L |title=Public Health Aspects of Weight Control | journal=Am J Public Health Nations Health | year=1952 | month=September| volume=42 | issue=9 | pages=1116–20 | pmid=12976585 | pmc=1526346}}</ref> Katika kipindi hiki, kampuni za bima ziligundua uhusiano kati ya uzito na matarajio ya muda wa kuishi na hivyo basi zikaongeza malipo ya bima kwa walio na unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=HaslamJames/> Tamaduni nyingi katika historia zimeona unene wa kupindukia kama ambayo inatokana na makosa ya kimienendo. Mwigizaji aliyekuwa na ''obesus'' au mafuta katika[[uigizaji wa Kigriki]] aliwakilisha ulafi na utani. Katika nyakati za Ukristo, chakula kilichukuliwa kama njia inayoelekeza kwenye dhambi za [[uzembe]]na[[tamaa]].<ref name=Woodhouse/> Katika tamaduni za kisasa za Ulaya na Marekani, unene wa kupita kiasi unachukuliwa kama jambo lisilovutia na unene wa kupindukia mara nyingi huhusishwa na mambo kadhaa mabaya yasiyo na uasili. Watu wa umri tofauti wanaweza kufedheheshwa na kulengwa na wadhalimu au kutengwa na wenzao. Unene wa kupindukia kwa mara nyingine ni sababu ya ubaguzi<ref name=Bias2001>{{cite journal |author=Puhl R, Brownell KD |title=Bias, discrimination, and obesity|journal=Obes. Res. |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=788–805 |year=2001 |month=December |pmid=11743063|doi=10.1038/oby.2001.108 |url=}}</ref> Fahamu za umma katika jamii ya Ulaya na Marekani kuhusu uzito bora wa mwili zinatofautiana na zile zinazohusu uzito unaofikiriwa kuwa bora &nbsp;– na zote zimebadilika tangu mwanzo wa karne ya 20. Uzito unaochukuliwa kuwa bora umekuwa chini tangu miaka ya 1920. Marekani uliongezeka kwa asilimia 2 kutoka mwaka wa 1922 hadi 1999 ilhali wastani wa uzito wao ulipungua kwa asilimia 12.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rubinstein S, Caballero B |title=Is Miss America an undernourished role model? |journal=JAMA |volume=283|issue=12 |page=1569 |year=2000 |pmid=10735392 |doi= 10.1001/jama.283.12.1569|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_march-22-29-2000_283_12/page/1569}}</ref> Kwa upande mwingine, mitazamo ya watu kuhusu uzito bora imebadilika na kuchukua mkondo pinzani. Nchini Uingereza, uzito ambapo watu walijiona kuwa na uzito wa kupita kiasi ulikuwa juu kwa kiasi cha haja katika mwaka wa 2007 kuliko 1999.<ref name=John2008>{{cite journal|author=Johnson F, Cooke L, Croker H, Wardle J |title=Changing perceptions of weight in Great Britain: comparison of two population surveys |journal=BMJ |volume=337 |issue= |pages=a494 |year=2008 |pmid=18617488 |pmc=2500200 |doi= 10.1136/bmj.a494|url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/337/jul10_1/a494}}</ref> Mabadiliko haya yanaaminika kusababishwa na viwango vinavyoongezeka vya uadiposi (unene), hali inayopelekekea ukubalifu wa mafuta ya ziada mwilini kama jambo la kawaida.<ref name=John2008/> Unene wa kupindukia ungali unachukuliwa kuwa ishara ya utajiri na ufanisi katika sehemu nyingi za [[Afrika]]. Hili limekuwa jambo la kawaida hasa tangu kuzuka kwa janga la [[VVU]]lilianza. <ref name=HaslamJames/> ==Sanaa== Sanaa ya kwanza ya uchongaji iliyoleta mfano wa mwili wa binadamu kati ya miaka 20,000 - 35,000 &nbsp; iliyopita ilionyesha wanawake walio na unene wa kupindukia. Baadhi ya watu huihusisha [[sanamu ya Zuhura]]na juhudi za kusisitiza uwezo wa kuzaa ilhali wengine huhisi kuwa wao husimamia “unene” kwa watu wa wakati huo.<ref name=Woodhouse/> Hata hivyo, unene wa kupindukia haupo katika sanaa ya Wagiriki na Waroma, yamkini kwa kudumisha ulimbwende wao kwa mujibu wa kiasi. Haya yaliendelea katika sehemu kubwa ya historia ya ukristo barani Uropa ambapo wale tu walio na mapato ya chini wakichukuliwa kuwa wenye unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Woodhouse/> Katika [[Kipindi cha Mvuvumko]], baadhi ya watu katika tabaka la juu walianza kuuringia ukubwa wao jinsi inavyoonekana katika picha za Henry wa nane na Alessandro del Borro.<ref name=Woodhouse>{{cite journal |author=Woodhouse R |title=Obesity in art: A brief overview |journal=Front Horm Res |volume=36 |issue= |pages=271–86 |year=2008 |isbn=978-3-8055-8429-6|pmid=18230908 |doi=10.1159/000115370 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=nXRU4Ea1aMkC&pg=PA271&lpg=PA271&dq=Obesity+in+art:+a+brief+overview |series=Frontiers of Hormone Research}}</ref>[[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]] (1577–1640) alionyesha wanawake wenye miili mikubwa katika picha zake, ambapo anatoa neno [[Rubenesque]]. Hata hivyo, wanawake hawa bado walilidumisha umbo la shisha na uhusiano wake na uwezo wa kuzaa.<ref name=Fumento>{{cite book |author=Fumento, Michael |title=The Fat of the Land: Our Health Crisis and How Overweight Americans Can Help Themselves |url=https://archive.org/details/fatofland00mich |publisher=Penguin (Non-Classics) |year=1997|page=[https://archive.org/details/fatofland00mich/page/n153 126]|isbn=0-14-026144-3}}</ref> Katika karne ya 19 &nbsp; mitazamo kuhusu unene wa kupindukia ilibadilika katika nchi za Ulaya na Amerika. Baada ya karne kadhaa ambapo unene wa kupindukia ulihusiana na mali na hadhi ya kijamii katika jamii, wembamba ulianza kuonekana kama kipimo kifaacho.<ref name=Woodhouse/> ==Jamii na utamaduni== ===Athari za kiuchumi=== Pamoja na athari zake za kiafya, unene wa kupindukia husababisha matatizo mengi yakiwemo ugumu katika ajira <ref name="Puhl R. p.29">Puhl R., Henderson K., and Brownell K. 2005 p.29</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ehb.2009.01.008|author=Johansson E, Bockerman P, Kiiskinen U, Heliovaara M |title=Obesity and labour market success in Finland: The difference between having a high BMI and being fat |journal=Economics and Human Biology |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=36–45|year=2009 |pmid=19249259}}</ref> na gharama za juu za biashara. Athari hizi zinazikumba sekta zote za jamii kutoka kwa watu binafsi, hadi kwa mashirika, na hadi kwa serikali. Katika mwaka wa 2005, gharama za kimatibabu zinazoweza kuhusishwa na unene wa kupindukia nchini Marekani zilikuwa takribani dola bilioni &nbsp;190.2 &nbsp; au asilimia 20.6 ya gharama zote za kimatibabu,<ref name=medical-costs>{{cite journal|coauthors=John Cawley, Chad Meyerhoefer|title=The medical care costs of obesity: An instrumental variables approach|journal=Journal of Health Economics|year=2012|month=January|volume=31|issue=1|pages=219–230|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167629611001366|accessdate=2 August 2012|doi=10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.10.003|pmid=22094013|last1=Cawley|first1=J}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|author=Finkelstein EA, Fiebelkorn IA, Wang G |title=National medical spending attributable to overweight and obesity: How much, and who's paying |journal= Health Affairs|volume=Online |issue=May |pages=|date=1 January 2003|url=http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/content/full/hlthaff.w3.219v1/DC1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/economic_consequences.htm |title=Obesity and overweight: Economic consequences | publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] | date=22 May 2007 |accessdate=2007-09-05}}</ref> while the cost of obesity in Canada was estimated at CA$2 billion in 1997 (2.4% of total health costs).<ref name="CADG2006"/> Jumla ya gharama ya unene wa kupindukia nchini Kanada ilikuwa imekadiriwa kuwa dola bilioni 2 za Australia katika mwaka wa 2005. Waustralia walio na uzito wa kupita kiasi na wanene kupindukia pia walipokea dola za Australia bilioni 35.6 kama ruzuku kutoka kwa serikali.<ref name=MJA2009>{{Rejea jarida|title=The cost of overweight and obesity in Australia|url=http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/192_05_010310/col10841_fm.html|year=2009|author=Colagiuri, Stephen|journal=The Medical Journal of Australia|accessdate=2011-06-18|last2=Lee|first2=Crystal M. Y.|last3=Colagiuri|first3=Ruth|display-authors=4|author5=<Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.>|archive-date=2011-08-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110819110111/http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/192_05_010310/col10841_fm.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kadiri ya gharama ya bidhaa za lishe imekadiriwa kuwa kati ya dola bilioni 40&nbsp; hadi dola bilioni 100&nbsp&nbsp; nchini Marekani pekee.<ref>{{cite news | last = Cummings | first = Laura|title = The diet business: Banking on failure|publisher = BBC News| date = 5 February 2003| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/2725943.stm| accessdate = 25 February 2009}}</ref> Miradi ya kuzuia unene wa kupindukia imezinduliwa ili kupunguza gharama ya kutibu magonjwa yanayohusiana na unene huu. Hata hivyo, jinsi watu wanavyoendelea kuishi ndivyo wanavyogharamika zaidi. Kwa hivyo, watafiti huafiki kuwa kupunguza unene wa kupindukia kunaweza kuidumisha afya ya umma lakini huenda isipunguze gharama ya jumla ya afya..<ref>{{cite journal |author=van Baal PH |title=Lifetime Medical Costs of Obesity: Prevention No Cure for Increasing Health Expenditure |journal=PLoS Med. |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=e29 |year=2008 |month=February |pmid=18254654 |pmc=2225430 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050029 |url=http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050029 |author-separator=, |author2=Polder JJ |author3=de Wit GA |display-authors=3 |last4=Hoogenveen |first4=Rudolf T. |last5=Feenstra |first5=Talitha L. |last6=Boshuizen |first6=Hendriek C. |last7=Engelfriet |first7=Peter M. |last8=Brouwer |first8=Werner B. F. |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2015-01-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111110729/http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050029 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[File:Wide Chair.jpg|thumb|kushoto|alt= Kiti cha ziada kipana kando ya viti kadhaa vyenye ukubwa wa kawaida.|Ni sharti huduma ziwazingatie watu walio na unene wa kupindukia kwa vifaa maalumu kama vile viti vipana.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Bakewell J|title=Bariatric furniture: Considerations for use|journal=Int J Ther Rehabil|issue=7|pages=329–33|year=2007|url=http://www.ijtr.co.uk/cgi-bin/go.pl/library/article.cgi?uid=23858;article=IJTR_14_7_329_333|volume=14|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2011-10-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008202913/http://www.ijtr.co.uk/cgi-bin/go.pl/library/article.cgi?uid=23858;article=IJTR_14_7_329_333|dead-url=yes}}</ref>]] Unene wa kupindukia unaweza kusababisha fedheha ya kijamii na ugumu katika ajira.<ref name="Puhl R. p.29"/> Wakilinganishwa na wenzao walio na uzito wa kawaida, wafanyikazi walio na unene wa kupindukia kwa wastani wana viwango vya juu vya kutokuwa kazini kwao na huchukua likizo ya udhaifu mara kwa mara na kupelekea kuongezeka kwa gharama upande wa waajiri na kupunguka kwa tija.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Neovius K, Johansson K, Kark M, Neovius M|title=Obesity status and sick leave: a systematic review |journal=Obes Rev |volume=10|issue=1 |pages=17–27 |year=2009|month=January |pmid=18778315 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00521.x |url=}}</ref> Utafiti wa kuwachunguza wafanyikazi wa chuo kikuu cha Duke ulionyesha kuwa watu walio na kielezo cha uzito wa mwili zaidi ya 40 walijiandikisha kufidiwa katika [[fidia ya wafanyikazi]] mara mbili zaidi ya wale ambao kielezo chao cha uzito wa mwili kilikuwa 18.5-24.9. Pia siku zao za kutofika kazini kwao zilikuwa zaidi ya mara 12&nbsp; ikilinganishwa na wenzao wasio na kielezo cha juu cha uzito wa mwili. Majeraha ya mara kwa mara katika kikundi hiki yalitokana na kuanguka na kunyanyuka hivyo ikiathiri miguu, vifundo vya mikono au mikono, na migongo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ostbye T, Dement JM, Krause KM|title=Obesity and workers' compensation: Results from the Duke Health and Safety Surveillance System |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=167 |issue=8|pages=766–73|year=2007 |pmid=17452538 |doi=10.1001/archinte.167.8.766}}</ref> Bodi ya Bima ya Wafanyikazi katika Jimbo la Alabama nchini Marekani iliidhinisha mpango tata wa kuwatoza wafanyikazi walio na unene wa kupindukia dola 25 kila mwezi iwapo hawachukui hatua za kuupunguza uzito wao na kudumisha afya yao. Hatua hizi zilianza Januari 2010 na zinalenga wale walio na Kielezo cha Uzito wa Mwili cha zaidi ya kilo 35 &nbsp;kwa kila mita ² wanaokosa kuboresha afya yao baada ya mwaka mmoja.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/diet/news/20080825/alabama-obesity-penalty-stirs-debate |title=Alabama "Obesity Penalty" Stirs Debate |work=Don Fernandez |accessdate=April 5, 2009}}</ref> Utafiti fulani umeonyesha kuwa watu walio na unene wa kupindukia wana uwezekano mdogo wa kuajiriwa na pia wana uwezekano mdogo wa kupandishwa cheo.<ref name=Bias2001/> Watu hawa pia hulipwa mshahara wa chini kuliko wenzao wasio na unene huu wa kupindukia kwa kazi sawa. Wanawake na wanaume walio na unene wa kupindukia kwa wastani hupata asilimia 6 na 3 chini mtawalia.<ref>Puhl R., Henderson K., and Brownell K. 2005 p.30</ref> Nyanja mahususi kama vile shirika la ndege, afya na nyanja za vyakula, zina matatizo maalumu. Kutokana na viwango vinavyoongezeka vya unene wa kupindukia, mashirika ya ndege yanakumbwa na gharama ya juu ya mafuta na shinikizo la kuongeza upana wa viti.<ref>{{cite web | author=Lisa DiCarlo| url=http://www.forbes.com/2002/10/24/cx_ld_1024obese.html |title=Why Airlines Can't Cut The Fat|work=Forbes.com|date=2002-10-24 | accessdate=2008-07-23}}</ref> Katika mwaka wa 2000, uzito wa ziada wa abiria wenye unene wa kupindukia uliyagharimu mashirika ya ndege dola za Marekani milioni 275&nbsp;.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Dannenberg AL, Burton DC, Jackson RJ |title=Economic and environmental costs of obesity: The impact on airlines |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-preventive-medicine_2004-10_27_3/page/264 |journal=American journal of preventive medicine|volume=27 |issue=3 |page=264|year=2004 |pmid=15450642 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2004.06.004}}</ref> Ulimwengu wa afya umelazimika kuwekeza katika vifaa maalumu vya kuwashughulikia wagonjwa walio na unene zaidi wa kupindukia vikiwemo vifaa maalumu vya kunyanyua na [[ambyulensi ya kibariatriki]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Diet/obese-health-care-bariatric-ambulances/story?id=7981746|title=Who Should Pay for Obese Health Care?|author=Lauren Cox|publisher=ABC News|date=July 2, 2009|accessdate=2012-08-06}}</ref>Gharama za hoteli zimeongezwa na mahakama kwa shutma za kusababisha unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Govtrack>{{cite web | url=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-554 | title=109th U.S. Congress (2005–2006) H.R. 554: 109th U.S. Congress (2005–2006) H.R. 554: Personal Responsibility in Food Consumption Act of 2005 | publisher=GovTrack.us | accessdate=2008-07-24 | archivedate=2008-11-01 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101192335/http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-554 }}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2005, bunge la Marekani lilijadili utungaji sheria ya kuzuia kesi za raia dhidi ya sekta ya vyakula kwa mujibu wa unene wa kupindukia; hata hivyo, haikufanikiwa kuwa sheria..<ref name=Govtrack/> ===Ukubalifu wa ukubwa=== [[File:PresidentTaftTelephoneCrop.jpg|thumb|150px|kulia|kulia|Rais wa Marekani [[William Howard Taft]] alidhihakiwa mara nyingi kwa kuwa na uzito wa kupita kiasi]] Lengo kuu la vuguvugu la ukubalifu wa unene ni kupunguza ubaguzi dhidi ya watu walio na unene na uzito wa kupindukia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.capitalnaafa.org/whatisnaafa.html |title=What is NAAFA |work=[[National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance]] |accessdate=February 17, 2009 |archivedate=2009-03-12 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312001218/http://www.capitalnaafa.org/whatisnaafa.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.size-acceptance.org/mission.html |title=ISAA Mission Statement |work=[[International Size Acceptance Association]] |accessdate=February 17, 2009 |archive-date=2009-02-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225005852/http://www.size-acceptance.org/mission.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Hata hivyo, wengine katika vuguvugu hilo pia wanajaribu kupinga uhusiano uliothibitishwa kati ya unene wa kupindukia na athari mbaya za kiafya.<ref name=Pulver2007>{{cite book |author=Pulver, Adam |title=An Imperfect Fit: Obesity, Public Health, and Disability Anti-Discrimination Law |publisher=Social Science Electronic Publishing |location= |year=2007 |pages= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1316106|accessdate=January 13, 2009}}</ref> Kunayo mashirika kadhaa yanayoendeleza ukubalifu wa unene wa kupindukia. Umaarufu wa mashirika haya umeongezeka katika nusu ya hivi karibuni ya karne ya 20 &nbsp;.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Neumark-Sztainer D |title=The weight dilemma: a range of philosophical perspectives |journal=Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. |volume=23 Suppl 2 |issue= |pages=S31–7|year=1999 |month=March |pmid=10340803 |doi= 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800857|url=}}</ref>Shirika la Kitaifa la Kuendeleza Ukubalifu wa Unene]] nchini Marekani [[lilianzishwa mwaka wa 1969 na hujieleza kama shirika la haki za raia linalolenga kukomesha ubaguzi wa ukubwa.<ref>{{cite | author=National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance | url=http://www.naafaonline.com/dev2/ | title=We come in all sizes | publisher=NAAFA | year=2008 | accessdate=2008-07-29 | archivedate=2018-12-26 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226125112/https://www.naafaonline.com/dev2/%20 }}</ref> Hata hivyo, uhamasishaji juu ya unene umebaki harakati za pembeni.<ref>[http://www.bitchmagazine.org/article/big-trouble Big Trouble | Bitch Magazine<!--Bot-generated title-->] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bitchmagazine.org/article/big-trouble |date=20121226160246 }}, bitchmagazine.org</ref> [[Shirika la Kimataifa la Ukubalifu wa Ukubwa]]ni [[shirika lisilo la kiserikali]] lililoanzishwa mnamo mwaka wa 1997. Shirika hili ni la kimataifa na hueleza lengo lake kama kuendeleza ukubalifu wa ukubwa na kusaidia kukomesha ubaguzi kwa misingi ya uzito.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.size-acceptance.org/ |title=International Size Acceptance Association – ISAA |work=International Size Acceptance Association |accessdate=January 13, 2009 |archive-date=2009-01-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105165710/http://size-acceptance.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Vikundi hivi mara nyingi hupigania kutambulika kwa unene wa kupindukia kama ulemavu chini ya [[Sheria ya Wamarekani Walio na Ulemavu]] Hata hivyo, mfumo wa kisheria wa Marekani umeamua kuwa gharama zitakazokuwa za afya ya umma zinazidi faida za kueindeleza sheria hii ya dhidi ya ubaguzi kujumlisha unene wa kupindukia.<ref name=Pulver2007/> ==Unene wa utotoni== Kielezo cha Uzito wa Mwili mwafaka hutofautiana kulingana na umri na jinsia ya mtoto. Unene katika watoto na vijana huelezwa kama Kielezo cha Uzito wa Mwili cha zaidi ya &nbsp;[[asilimia]].<ref name="cdc.gov"/>95. Data ya marejeo yenye ndio mzingi wa asilimia hizi ni kutoka 1963 hadi 1994 na hivyo haijaathiriwa na ongezeko la kiwango cha unene cha hivi karibuni.<ref name="Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Wei R, Kuczmarski RL, Johnson CL 2001 1086–93"/> Unene wa utotoni umefika kiwango cha mlipuko katika karne ya 21 &nbsp;, kukiwa na ongezeko la kiwango katika nchi zimeendelea na zinazoendelea. Kima cha unene kwa wavulana chini Kanada imeongezeka kutoka 11% miaka ya 1980s hadi zaidi ya 30% miaka ya 1990, bali kwa kipindi cha muda huu kiwango kiliongezeka kutoka 4 hadi 14% katika watoto wa Brazili.<ref name=flynn2006/> Kama ilivyo na unene katika watu wazima, hali nyingi tofauti huchangia kwa viwango vingi ongezeko la unene utotoni. Ubadilishaji wa lishe na upungufu wa mazoezi ya mwili huaminika kuwa ndizo visababishi viwili vya hivi karibu muhimu zaidi vya ongezeko la viwango.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dollman J, Norton K, Norton L |title=Evidence for secular trends in children's physical activity behaviour |journal=Br J Sports Med |volume=39 |issue=12 |pages=892–7; discussion 897 |year=2005|month=December |pmid=16306494 |pmc=1725088 |doi=10.1136/bjsm.2004.016675 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-sports-medicine_2005-12_39_12/page/892}}</ref> Kwa sababu unene wa utotoni huendelea hadi wakati wa utu uzima na unahusishwa na magonjwa mengi yanayodumu, watoto walio wanene mara nyingi huchunguzwa[[shinikizo la juu la damu]], [[Ugonjwa wa kisukari]], [[hipalipidimia]], na [[ini yenye mafuta]].<ref name=CADG2006/> Matibabu yanayotumika kwa watoto hasa ni hatua ya hali ya maisha na mbinu za mwenendo, hata hivyo bidii za kuongezea mazoezi kwa watoto zimekuwa na mafanikio madogo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Metcalf|first=B.|coauthors=Henley, W.; Wilkin, T.|title=Effectiveness of intervention on physical activity of children: systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials with objectively measured outcomes (EarlyBird 54)|journal=BMJ|date=27 September 2012|volume=345|issue=sep27 1|pages=e5888–e5888|doi=10.1136/bmj.e5888}}</ref>Nchini Marekani, dawa hazikubaliwi na Muungano wa Chakula na Dawa kutumika katika kikundi hiki cha umri.<ref name=flynn2006>{{cite journal |author=Flynn MA |title=Reducing obesity and related chronic disease risk in children and youth: a synthesis of evidence with 'best practice' recommendations|journal=Obes Rev |volume=7 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=7–66 |year=2006 |month=February |pmid=16371076|doi=10.1111/j.1467-789X.2006.00242.x |url= |author-separator=, |author2=McNeil DA |author3=Maloff B |display-authors=3|last4=Mutasingwa |first4=D. |last5=Wu |first5=M. |last6=Ford |first6=C. |last7=Tough |first7=S. C.}}</ref> ==Katika wanyama== Unono katika [[mifugo]] ni jambo la kawaida katika nchi nyingi. Kiwango cha unono uliozidi katika mbwa kule Marekani ni kutoka 23% hadi 41%, 5.1% yao wakiwa ni wanono.<ref name=Lund2006>{{cite journal|author=Lund Elizabeth M.|title=Prevalence and Risk Factors for Obesity in Adult Dogs from Private US Veterinary Practices|journal=Intern J Appl Res Vet Med|volume=4|issue=2|pages=177–86|year=2006|pmid= |doi= |url=http://www.jarvm.com/articles/Vol4Iss2/Lund.pdf}}</ref>Rates of obesity in cats was slightly higher at 6.4%.<ref name= Lund2006/>Nchini Australia kiwango cha unene wa kupindukia katika mbwa kwa muktadha wa utabibu wa mifugo imepatikana kuwa 7.6%.<ref>{{cite journal |author=McGreevy PD, Thomson PC, Pride C, Fawcett A, Grassi T, Jones B|title=Prevalence of obesity in dogs examined by Australian veterinary practices and the risk factors involved|journal=Vet. Rec.|volume=156|issue=22|pages=695–702|year=2005|month=May |pmid=15923551|doi= |url=}}</ref> Hatari za unono kwa mbwa inahusiana na unene wa wamiliki; hata hivyo, hakuna uhusiano kama huo baina ya [[paka]] na wamiliki.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nijland ML, Stam F, Seidell JC|title= Overweight in dogs, but not in cats, is related to overweight in their owners|journal=Public Health Nutr|volume=13|issue= 1|pages= 1–5|year=2009|month=June|pmid=19545467|doi=10.1017/S136898000999022X|url= }}</ref> ==Tazama pia== *[[Jon Brower Minnoch]] *[[Manuel Uribe]] *[[Mayra Rosales]] *[[Walter Hudson]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Marejeo== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite journal | doi = 10.1079/BJN2002739 | last1 = Bhargava | first1 = Alok | last2 = Guthrie | first2 = J. | year = 2002 | title = Unhealthy eating habits, physical exercise and macronutrient intakes are predictors of anthropometric indicators in the Women's Health Trial: Feasibility Study in Minority Populations | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-nutrition_2002-12_88_6/page/719 | journal = British Journal of Nutrition | volume = 88 | issue = 6 | pages = 719–728 | pmid = 12493094 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Bhargava | first1 = Alok | year = 2006 | title = Fiber intakes and anthropometric measures are predictors of circulating hormone, triglyceride, and cholesterol concentration in the Women's Health Trial | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-nutrition_2006-08_136_8/page/2249 | journal = Journal of Nutrition | volume = 136 | issue = 8 | pages = 2249–2254 | pmid = 16857849 }} * Jebb S. and Wells J. Measuring body composition in adults and children In:{{cite book|author=Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J. Stock, William H. Dietz|title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=|year=2005|pages=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse/page/12 12]–28|isbn=1-4051-1672-2|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse}} * Kopelman P., Caterson I. An overview of obesity management In:{{cite book|author=Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J. Stock, William H. Dietz|title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=|year=2005|pages=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse/page/319 319]–326|isbn=1-4051-1672-2|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse}} * {{cite book |author=[[National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute]] (NHLBI) |title=Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults |publisher=International Medical Publishing, Inc |location= |year=1998 |pages= |isbn=1-58808-002-1 |oclc= |url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/obesity/ob_gdlns.pdf |format=PDF }} * {{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG43NICEGuideline.pdf|title=Obesity: guidance on the prevention, identification, assessment and management of overweight and obesity in adults and children|publisher=[[National Health Services]] (NHS)|year=2006|format=PDF|work=[[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]](NICE)|accessdate=April 8, 2009}} * Puhl R., Henderson K., and Brownell K. Social consequences of obesity In:{{cite book|author=Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J. Stock, William H. Dietz|title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=|year=2005|pages=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse/page/29 29]–45|isbn=1-4051-1672-2|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse}} * Seidell JC. Epidemiology — definition and classification of obesity In:{{cite book|author=Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J. Stock, William H. Dietz|title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location=|year=2005|pages=[https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse/page/3 3]–11|isbn=1-4051-1672-2|url=https://archive.org/details/clinicalobesityi02edunse}} * {{cite book | author=[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) | title=Technical report series 894: Obesity: Preventing and managing the global epidemic. | location=Geneva | publisher=World Health Organization | year=2000 | url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_894_(part1).pdf | format=PDF | isbn=92-4-120894-5 | access-date=2013-11-28 | archive-date=2015-05-01 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501075305/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_894_(part1).pdf | dead-url=yes }} {{Refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== {{Refbegin}} * {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Nutritional_and_Metabolic_Disorders/Obesity/}} * {{cite book |author=Fumento, Michael | authorlink=Michael Fumento | title=The Fat of the Land: Our Health Crises and How Overweight Americans can Help Themselves |url=https://archive.org/details/fatoflandourheal0000mich |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |year=1997|isbn=0-14-026144-3}} * {{cite book |author=Keller, Kathleen |title=Encyclopedia of Obesity |publisher=Sage Publications, Inc|location=Thousand Oaks, Calif |year=2008 |isbn=1-4129-5238-7 |oclc= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=aRp2rJrEqZsC&dq=IOTF+obesity+map|doi= |accessdate=}} * {{cite book |author=Kolata, Gina | authorlink=Gina Kolata |title=Rethinking Thin: The new science of weight loss –and the myths and realities of dieting |url=https://archive.org/details/rethinkingthinne0000kola_i1w5 |publisher=Picador |location= |year=2007 |pages= |isbn=0-312-42785-9}} * {{cite book|author=Kopelman, Peter G.|title=Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|location= |year=2005|page=493 |isbn=1-4051-1672-2|url=http://books.google.com/?id=u7RvldSr5M0C&pg=PA87&dq=80+percent+of+the+offspring+of+two+obese+parents+become+obese}} * {{cite book |author=Levy-Navarro, Elena |title=The Culture of Obesity in Early and Late Modernity |url=https://archive.org/details/cultureofobesity0000levy |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location= |year=2008 |pages= |isbn=0-230-60123-5}} * {{cite book |author=Pool, Robert |title=Fat: Fighting the Obesity Epidemic |url=https://archive.org/details/fatfightingobesi00pool |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=Oxford, UK |year=2001 |pages= |isbn=0-19-511853-7}} {{Refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{commonscat|Obesity}} {{Sister project links|display=Obesity}} * [http://www.refugees.org/uploadedfiles/Participate/National_Programs/Healthy_Refugees/Brochures/Swahili-Obesity.pdf Unene ni nini] {{Wayback|url=http://www.refugees.org/uploadedfiles/Participate/National_Programs/Healthy_Refugees/Brochures/Swahili-Obesity.pdf |date=20090331130222 }} * [http://www.refugees.org/uploadedfiles/Participate/National_Programs/Healthy_Refugees/Brochures/Swahili-ChildhoodObesity.pdf Unene utotoni] {{Wayback|url=http://www.refugees.org/uploadedfiles/Participate/National_Programs/Healthy_Refugees/Brochures/Swahili-ChildhoodObesity.pdf |date=20090331130208 }} * [https://dmoztools.net/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Nutritional_and_Metabolic_Disorders/Obesity/ Unene kwenye tovuti ya DMOZ] {{Wayback|url=https://dmoztools.net/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Nutritional_and_Metabolic_Disorders/Obesity/ |date=20171112194539 }} [[Jamii:Afya]] [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] [[Jamii:Chakula]] g98m3lr42f2mr5x86zn0zj5jgktk3gv 0 69852 1580148 1578193 2026-07-18T00:36:52Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580148 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease |Name = Migraine |Image = Migraine.jpg |Caption = Maumivu ya kipandauso yanaweza kumfanya mtu asiweze kutenda kazi yoyote. |DiseasesDB = 8207 <!-- note that the formatting in this parameter and in DiseasesDB_mult is done as such to allow the word "Migraine" to appear next to the first entry! --> |DiseasesDB_mult = (Migraine)<br />{{DiseasesDB2|31876}} ([[Basilar]])<br />{{DiseasesDB2|4693}} ([[Familial hemiplegic migraine|FHM]]) |ICD9 = {{ICD9|346}} |ICD10 = {{ICD10|G|43||g|40}} |OMIM = 157300 |MedlinePlus = 000709 |eMedicineSubj = neuro |eMedicineTopic = 218 |eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|neuro|517}} {{eMedicine2|emerg|230}} {{eMedicine2|neuro|529}} |MeshID = D008881 |}} '''Kipandauso''' ni tatizo linalotambulika kwa [[maumivu ya kichwa]] yanayojirudia tena makali hadi kiasi cha kupindukia na ambayo wakati mwingi huambatana na [[dalili]] nyingi za [[mfumo wa neva]]. [[Jina]] la [[Kiingereza]] "Migraine" limetoka katika [[neno]] la [[Kigiriki]] ἡμικρανία (''hemikrania''), "uchungu kwa upande mmoja wa kichwa",<ref>{{cite web |first1=Henry George |last1=Liddell |first2=Robert |last2=Scott |title=ἡμικρανία |date= |work=A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher= |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dh%28mikrani%2Fa}} on Perseus</ref> kutoka ἡμι- (''hemi-''), "nusu", na κρανίον (''kranion''), "[[fuvu la kichwa]]".<ref>{{cite book |first1=Kenneth |last1=Anderson |first2=Lois E. |last2=Anderson |first3=Walter D. |last3=Glanze |title=Mosby's Medical, Nursing, and Allied Health Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/mosbysmedicalnur0000unse_f8m9 |year=1994 |publisher=Mosby |isbn=978-0-8151-6111-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mosbysmedicalnur0000unse_f8m9/page/998 998] |edition=4th}}</ref> <!--Ishara na dalili --> Kwa kawaida, [[maumivu]] hayo huathiri sehemu moja ya [[kichwa]], huku kikidunda kwa [[muda]] wa [[saa]] 2 hadi 72. Dalili zinazohusiana na hali hii ni pamoja na [[kichefuchefu]], [[kutapika]], [[fotofobia]], [[haiparakusisi|fonofobia]] (ongezeko la usikivu dhidi ya sauti) na [[uchungu]] wake kwa kawaida huzidishwa na shughuli za kimwili.<ref name=ICHD2004>{{Rejea jarida|title=The International Classification of Headache Disorders: 2nd edition |journal=Cephalalgia |volume=24 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=9–160 |year=2004 |pmid=14979299 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2982.2004.00653.x |author1= Headache Classification Subcommittee of the International Headache Society}} [http://www.i-h-s.org/upload/ct_clas/ihc_II_main_no_print.pdf as PDF] {{Wayback|url=http://www.i-h-s.org/upload/ct_clas/ihc_II_main_no_print.pdf |date=20100331095113 }}</ref> Hadi [[thuluthi]] moja ya watu wenye [[ugonjwa]] wa kipandauso kinachoandamana na maumivu ya kichwa hupata [[Aura (dalili)|aura]]: ishara bandia ya matatizo ya [[macho]], [[hisia]], [[lugha]] au mwendo inayoashiria kuwa maumivu ya kichwa yatatokea punde.<ref name=ICHD2004/> <!--Kisababishi na utaratibu wa ugonjwa --> Kipandauso huaminika kutokea kufuatia mchanganyiko wa masuala ya [[Mazingira|kimazingira]] na [[jenetikia|kijeni]].<ref name=Lulli2007>{{cite journal|last=Piane|first=M|coauthors=Lulli, P; Farinelli, I; Simeoni, S; De Filippis, S; Patacchioli, FR; Martelletti, P|title=Genetics of migraine and pharmacogenomics: some considerations.|journal=The journal of headache and pain|date=2007 Dec|volume=8|issue=6|pages=334–9|pmid=18058067}}</ref>Thuluthi [[mbili]] za kesi hizo zinahusika na [[familia]].<ref name=Bart10/> Kiwango cha [[homoni]] kinachoshuka na kupanda pia kinaweza kuwa kisababishi cha ugonjwa huu: kipandauso huathiri [[wavulana]] kwa kiwango cha juu kidogo kuliko [[wasichana]] kabla ya [[kubalehe]], ingawa kinawaathiri [[wanawake]] mara [[mbili]] hadi [[tatu]] kuliko [[wanaume]],<ref name=Broner2009/><ref name=Stovner2007>{{Rejea jarida|author=Stovner LJ, Zwart JA, Hagen K, Terwindt GM, Pascual J |title=Epidemiology of headache in Europe |journal=European Journal of Neurology |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=333–45 |year=2006 |month=April |pmid=16643310 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-1331.2006.01184.x}}</ref> ila [[ujauzito]] unakipunguza.<ref name=Broner2009>{{Rejea jarida|author=Lay CL, Broner SW|title=Migraine in women |journal=Neurologic Clinics |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=503–11 |year=2009|month=May |pmid=19289228 |doi=10.1016/j.ncl.2009.01.002}}</ref> Utaratibu wa ugonjwa huu haujatambulika. Hata hivyo, hali hii inaaminika kuwa tatizo la [[mfumo wa neva]].<ref name=Bart10/> [[Nadharia]] ya msingi inahusiana na kuongezeka kwa [[uchangamfu]] wa [[koteksi ya serebramu]] na udhibiti usio wa kawaida wa maumivu ya [[nyuroni]] kwa [[kiiniseli cha trijemia]] cha [[mfumo wa ubongo]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dodick DW, Gargus JJ |title=Why migraines strike |journal=Sci. Am. |volume=299 |issue=2 |pages=56–63 |year=2008 |month=August |pmid=18666680 |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-migraines-strike |bibcode=2008SciAm.299b..56D |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0808-56}}</ref> <!--Udhibiti na epidemolojia --> [[Matibabu]] ya kwanza yanayopendekezwa ni [[dawa za kuondoa maumivu]] kama vile [[ibuprofen]] na [[acetaminophen]] ili [[kutuliza maumivu]] ya kichwa na [[antiemetic]] ili kutuliza kichefuchefu na kuepuka vichocheo. [[Dawa]] maalumu kama vile [[triptan]] au [[ergotamine]] zinaweza kutumika kwa watu wasiosaidiwa na dawa za kawaida za kuondoa maumivu. Zaidi ya [[asilimia]] 10 ya watu wote ulimwenguni huathiriwa na kipandauso wakati fulani [[Maisha|maishani]] mwao. {{TOC limit|3}} == Ishara na dalili == Kwa kawaida kipandauso hutokea pamoja na [[maumivu ya kichwa]] makali, yanayojisetiri na yanayojirudiarudia ambayo huhusishwa na dalili za mfumo unaojiongoza wa neva.<ref name=Bart10/><ref name=Prognosis2008/> Takriban asilimia 15-30 za wenye kipandauso hukabiliwa na [[aura]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Gutman|first=Sharon A.|title=Quick reference neuroscience for rehabilitation professionals : the essential neurologic principles underlying rehabilitation practice|year=2008|publisher=SLACK|location=Thorofare, NJ|isbn=9781556428005|pages=231|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Ea0czzNxpkQC&pg=PA231|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name=Gilmore2011/> lakini mara nyingi hupata kipandauso kisicho na dalili za aura.<ref name=HA24/> Ukali wa maumivu ya kichwa, muda yanayochukua na marudio yake hubadilika mara kwa mara.<ref name=Bart10/> Kipandauso kinachodumu zaidi ya saa 72 hujulikana kwa [[Kilatini]] kama [[status migrainosus]].<ref>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=ed. Jes Olesen ... [et|title=The headaches.|year=2006|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781754002|pages=512|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=F5VMlANd9iYC&pg=PA512&lpg=PA512|edition=3. ed.}}</ref> Kuna awamu nne zinazoweza kutokea kwa kipandauso, ingawa si sharti mtu azipitie zote :<ref name=ICHD2004/> # [[Dalili za awali]] ambazo hutokea saa au siku chache kabla ya maumivu ya kichwa # [[Aura (dalili)|aura]] hutangulia maumivu ya kichwa # [[Awamu ya maumivu]] ya kichwa. # [[Dalili za baadaye]], athari zinazofuatia kukabiliwa na kipandauso === Awamu ya dalili za awali === [[Dalili za awali]] hutokea kwa asilimia ~60 ya watu wanaopata kipandauso<ref name=Five2004>{{cite book|last=Rae-Grant|first=[edited by] D. Joanne Lynn, Herbert B. Newton, Alexander D.|title=The 5-minute neurology consult|year=2004|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780683307238|pages=26|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Atuv8-rVXRoC&pg=PA26}}</ref><ref name=Amin2009>{{cite book|last=Aminoff|first=Roger P. Simon, David A. Greenberg, Michael J.|title=Clinical neurology|year=2009|publisher=Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill|location=New York, N.Y|isbn=9780071664332|pages=85–88|edition=7th ed.}}</ref> zinazoanza kwa saa mbili hadi siku mbili kabla ya kuanza kwa maumivu au aura <ref name=Buzzi2005>{{cite journal|last=Buzzi|first=MG|coauthors=Cologno, D; Formisano, R; Rossi, P|title=Prodromes and the early phase of the migraine attack: therapeutic relevance.|journal=Functional neurology|date=2005 Oct-Dec|volume=20|issue=4|pages=179–83|pmid=16483458}}</ref> Dalili hizi zinajumuisha visa mbalimbali <ref>{{cite journal|last=Rossi|first=P|coauthors=Ambrosini, A; Buzzi, MG|title=Prodromes and predictors of migraine attack.|journal=Functional neurology|date=2005 Oct-Dec|volume=20|issue=4|pages=185–91|pmid=16483459}}</ref> pamoja na: mabadiliko kwa halihisi ya moyo, kukereka, [[mfadhaiko wa kimawazo|mfadhaiko]] au [[uforia (hisia)|uforia]], [[uchovu wa kimwili|uchovu]], kushaukia chakula fulani, kukazana misuli (hasa shingoni), uyabisi wa utumbo au kuhara, na kuchukia harufu au kelele.<ref name=Five2004/> Hali hii inaweza kutokea kwa watu wenye kipandauso chenye aura au kisicho na aura<ref name=Sam2009>{{cite book|last=Samuels|first=Allan H. Ropper, Martin A.|title=Adams and Victor's principles of neurology|url=https://archive.org/details/adamsvictorsprin00unse|year=2009|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=9780071499927|pages=Chapter 10|edition=9th ed.}}</ref> === Awamu ya aura === {|class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |- |[[Picha:Fortifikation (Migräne).jpg|150px|Enhancements reminiscent of a zigzag fort structure]]||[[Picha:Negatives Skotom (Brandenburger Tor Blaue Stunde) 1.jpg|150px|Negative scotoma, loss of awareness of local structures]] |- |[[Picha:Positives Skotom (Brandenburger Tor Blaue Stunde) 1.jpg|150px|Positive scotoma, local perception of additional structures]]||[[Picha:Gesichtsfeldausfall (Brandenburger Tor Blaue Stunde) 1.jpg|150px|Mostly one-sided loss of perception]] |} [[Aura (dalili)|aura]] ni hali ya [[neva za macho]] inayopita na hutokea kabla au wakati wa maumivu ya kichwa.<ref name=Amin2009/>Dalili hizi hutokea polepole kwa dakika kadhaa na kwa jumla hudumu kwa kipindi kisichopita dakika 60&nbsp;.<ref name=Tint2010/> Dalili hizi zinaweza kuwa za kuona, kuhisi au za kimwendo, na watu wengi hupata zaidi ya dalili moja.<ref name=HA44/> Athari za kuona ndizo zinazotokea mara nyingi zaidi, na hutokea kwa hadi visa asilimia 99 na zaidi, nusu yake vikiwa na hatari hizi pekee.<ref name=HA44/> Matatizo ya kuona mara nyingi huhusisha [[skotoma yenye vimulimuli]] (eneo la jicho lisiloona kwa sehemu ya kutazamia inayowaka).<ref name=Amin2009/> Tatizo hili kwa kawaida huanzia karibu na kiini cha sehemu ya kuona, kisha kusambaa kuelekea pande zote kwa mistari ya zigizagi inayofananishwa na nguzo au kuta.<ref name=HA44/> Kwa kawaida, mistari hii huwa nyeusi na nyeupe lakini watu wengine huona mistari yenye rangi.<ref name=HA44/> Baadhi ya watu hupoteza sehemu muhimu ya kuona inayojulikana kama [[hemianopsia]] huku wengine wakipata kiwaa.<ref name=HA44/> Aura ya kihisia ni aura ya pili kati ya aura zinazotokea mara nyingi huku ikitokea kwa asilimia 30-40 ya watu wenye aura.<ref name=HA44/> Mara nyingi hisia kama ya kudungwa kwa vipini- na-sindano huanzia kwa upande mmoja wa mkono kisha kuenea hadi sehemu ya pua na kinywa kwa upande uo huo.<ref name=HA44/> Kufa ganzi mara nyingi hutokea baada ya hisia ya mwasho na kupoteza [[hisia za ubinafsia]].<ref name=HA44/> Dalili zingine za awamu ya aura ni pamoja na: tatizo la kuzungumza, [[kisulisuli|hisia za dunia kuzunguka]], na mara nadra matatizo ya kimwendo.<ref name=HA44/> Kuwepo kwa dalili za kimwendo huashiria kuwa kuna kipandauso cha hemiplejia na udhaifu kudumu kwa zaidi ya saa moja, tofauti na aura zingine.<ref name=HA44/> Ni nadra kwa aura kudumu bila kufuatiwa na maumivu ya kichwa, <ref name=HA44>The Headaches Pg.407-419</ref>na hujulikana kama [[kipandauso kimya]]. === Awamu ya maumivu === Kwa kawaida maumivu ya kichwa huathiri upande mmoja, hudunda, na ukali wake huwa wa kadri hadi mkali mno.<ref name=Tint2010>{{cite book |author=Tintinalli, Judith E. |title=Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli)) |publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies |location=New York |year=2010 |pages=1116–1117 |isbn=0-07-148480-9 |oclc= |doi=|accessdate=}}</ref> Kwa kawaida hali hii huja polepole<ref name=Tint2010/> na huzidishwa kwa kujishugulisha sana.<ref name=ICHD2004/>Hata hivyo, kwa visa zaidi ya asilimia 40, maumivu yanaweza kuathiri pande zote mbili huku maumivu ya shingo yakihusishwa na hali hii.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tepper|first=edited by Stewart J. Tepper, Deborah E.|title=The Cleveland Clinic manual of headache therapy|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=9781461401780|pages=6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=uaG08nAKG_wC&pg=PA6}}</ref> Maumivu ya pande zote mbili huwa hasa kwa watu walio na kipandauso bila aura.<ref name=Amin2009/> Maumivu yasiyo ya kawaida yanaweza kutokea hasa kwa sehemu ya nyuma au ya juu ya kichwa.<ref name=Amin2009/> Kwa kawaida, maumivu hudumu kwa saa 4 hadi 72 kwa watu wazima<ref name=Tint2010/> ingawa katia watoto mara nyingi yanadumu kwa kipindi kisichozidi saa 1&nbsp;.<ref name=Bigal2010>{{cite journal|last=Bigal|first=ME|coauthors=Arruda, MA|title=Migraine in the pediatric population--evolving concepts.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_headache_july-august-2010_50_7/page/1130|journal=Headache|date=2010 Jul|volume=50|issue=7|pages=1130–43|pmid=20572878}}</ref> Marudio ya kukabiliwa na hali hii hubadilika mara kwa mara, kutoka visa vichache maishani hadi visa kadhaa kwa wiki, huku wastani ukiwa ni mara moja kwa mwezi .<ref>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=ed. Jes Olesen, ... [et|title=The headaches.|year=2006|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781754002|pages=238|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=F5VMlANd9iYC&pg=PA238|edition=3. ed.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Dalessio|first=edited by Stephen D. Silberstein, Richard B. Lipton, Donald J.|title=Wolff's headache and other head pain|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780195135183|pages=122|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=aJRV199FZcoC&pg=PA122|edition=7th ed.}}</ref> Mara nyingi maumivu huandamana na kichefuchefu, kutapika, [[fotofobia|usikivu dhidi ya mwanga]], [[fonofobia|usikivu dhidi ya sauti]], [[osmofobia|usikivu dhidi ya harufu]] , uchovu na kukereka.<ref name=Amin2009/> Kwa[[ateri ya basila|, kipandauso cha basila]], kipandauso chenye dalili za kinurolojia zinazohusiana na [[shina la ubongo]] au chenye dalili za kinurolojia kwenye pande zote za mwili,<ref name=Basil2009>{{cite journal|last=Kaniecki|first=RG|title=Basilar-type migraine.|journal=Current pain and headache reports|date=2009 Jun|volume=13|issue=3|pages=217-20|pmid=19457282}}</ref>athari za kawaida zikiwa ni pamoja na: [[kisulisuli (cha kimatibabu)|kuhisi kana kwamba dunia inazunguka]], wepesi wa kichwan, na kuwa na utatanishi.<ref name=Amin2009/> [[Kichefuchefu]] hutokea kwa takriban watu asilimia 90, huku takriban thuluthi moja wakitapika.<ref name=Walton2009>{{cite book|last=Walton|first=edited by Robert P. Lisak ... [et al.] ; foreword by John|title=International neurology : a clinical approach|year=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Chichester, UK|isbn=9781405157384|pages=670|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=L6_L75yvaPQC&pg=PA670}}</ref> Hivyo basi, watu wengi hutafuta chumba kitulivu chenye giza. <ref name=Walton2009/> Dalili zingine ni pamoja na: kiwaa, kufungana pua, kuhara, kukojoa kila mara, [[kuparara]], au kulowa jasho.<ref name=Joel1999>{{cite book|last=contributors|first=edited by Joel S. Glaser ; with 20|title=Neuro-ophthalmology|year=1999|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781717298|pages=555|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=eVU2CODGj98C&pg=PA555|edition=3rd ed.}}</ref> Uvimbe au uchungu kwenye ngozi ya sehemu ya juu ya kichwa, na shingo kuwa ngumu ni hali zinazoweza kutokea<ref name=Joel1999/> Dalili husika huwa nadra kwa watu wazee.<ref name=ElderlyBook2008/> === Dalili za baadaye === Athari za kipandauso zinaweza kudumu kwa siku kadhaa baada ya maumivu makuu kuisha; hii huitwa [[dalili za baadaye za kipandauso]]. Watu wengi hukisia kuwa na hisia za mwasho kwa eneo lililoathiriwa na kipandauso na wengine kusema wana ulemavu wa kifikra kwa siku chache baada ya maumivu ya kichwa. Mgonjwa anaweza kuchoka au kupata 'maruerue' na maumivu ya kichwa, matatizo ya kiutambuzi, dalili za tumbo na utumbo, mabadiliko ya kihisia, na udhaifu.<ref name="pmid16426278">{{Rejea jarida|author=Kelman L |title=The postdrome of the acute migraine attack |journal=Cephalalgia |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=214–20 |year=2006 |month=February |pmid=16426278 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2982.2005.01026.x}}</ref>Kwa muhtasari mmoja, " Baadhi ya watu hupata hisia ya uchangamfu usio wa kawaida baada ya kukabiliwa na hali hii, huku wengine wakiripoti kupata mfadhaiko na [[unyonge wa mwili]]."<ref>{{cite book |author=Halpern, Audrey L.; Silberstein, Stephen D. |chapter=Ch. 9: The Migraine Attack—A Clinical Description |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7326/ |editor=Kaplan PW, Fisher RS |title=Imitators of Epilepsy |publisher=Demos Medical |location=New York |year=2005 |isbn=1-888799-83-8 |pages= |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7321/ |edition=2nd |id=NBK7326}}</ref> == Kisababishi == Kisababishi halisi cha kipandauso hakijulikani<ref name=Rob10>{{cite journal |author=Robbins MS, Lipton RB |title=The epidemiology of primary headache disorders |journal=Semin Neurol |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=107–19 |year=2010 |month=April |pmid=20352581 |doi=10.1055/s-0030-1249220 }}</ref> Hata hivyo, kipandauso hukisiwa kuhusiana na mchanganyiko wa vipengele vya kimazingira na kijeni.<ref name=Lulli2007/> Hali hii hurithiwa kifamilia - kwa thuluthi mbili ya visa <ref name=Bart10/> na hutokea nadra kufuatia hitilafu moja ya kijeni.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Schürks|first=M|title=Genetics of migraine in the age of genome-wide association studies.|journal=The journal of headache and pain|date=2012 Jan|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–9|pmid=22072275|doi=10.1007/s10194-011-0399-0|pmc=3253157}}</ref>Baadhi ya [[matatizo ya kiakili|hali za kisaikolojia]] yanayohusishwa ni pamoja na: [[tatizo kuu la mfadhaiko|mfadhaiko]], [[[[tatizo la wasiwasi|wasiwasi]] na [[maradhi ya hisia mseto]]<ref name=HA26>The Headaches, Pg. 246-247</ref> as are many biological events or [[wikt:trigger|trigger]]s. === Jenetikia === Utafiti wa mapacha umedhihirisha uwezekano wa asilimia 34 hadi 51 wa vipengele vya kijeni kuathiri uwepo wa maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na kipandauso.<ref name=Lulli2007/> Uhusiano huu wa kijeni ni mkuu zaidi kwa watu wenye kipandauso chenye aura kuliko wale wasio.<ref name=HA24/>Kuwepo kwa aina maalum za jeni huongeza hatari kutoka kiasi kidogo hadi wastani.<ref name=Schurk2012/> [[Hitilafu ya jeni moja]] inayopelekea kipandauso ni ya nadra.<ref name=Schurk2012>{{cite journal|last=Schürks|first=M|title=Genetics of migraine in the age of genome-wide association studies.|journal=Tdate=2012 Jan|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–9|pmid=22072275}}</ref> Mojawapo ya hali hizi hujulikana kama [[kipandauso cha familia cha hemiplejia]], aina ya kipandauso chenye aura]] ambacho hurithiwa kwa njia ya [[autosomia kuu]] <ref>.cite journal|last=de Vries|first=B|coauthors=Frants, RR; Ferrari, MD; van den Maagdenberg, AM|title=Molecular genetics of migraine.|journal=Human genetics|date=2009 Jul|volume=126|issue=1|pages=115–32|pmid=19455354}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Montagna|first=P|title=Migraine genetics.|journal=Expert review of neurotherapeutics|date=2008 Sep|volume=8|issue=9|pages=1321–30|pmid=18759544he journal of headache and pain|}}</ref> Hitilafu hizi zinahusiana na aina za miundo ya jeni za protini zinazohusika kwa [[usafirishaji wa ioni]].<ref name=Amin2009/> Hitilafu nyingine inayosababisha kipandauso ni [[sindromu ya CADASIL]] au ateriofati yenye ukuu wa autosomia na yenye inifarakti na lukoensefalopathia chini ya koteksi.<ref name=Amin2009/> === Vichochezi === Kipandauso kinaweza kuanzishwa na vichochezi, huku baadhi ya watu wakiripoti kuwa hali hii huwa hatari tu kwa visa vichache<ref name=Bart10/> na wengine kwa visa vingine.<ref name=Trigger09/> Vitu vingi vimedaiwa kuwa vichochezi, ingawa uzito na umuhimu wa madai hayo haujadhibitishwa.><ref name=Trigger09>{{cite journal |author=Levy D, Strassman AM, Burstein R |title=A critical view on the role of migraine triggers in the genesis of migraine pain |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_headache_2009-06_49_6/page/953 |journal=Headache |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=953–7 |year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19545256 |doi=10.1111/j.1526-4610.2009.01444.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Martin PR |title=Behavioral management of migraine headache triggers: learning to cope with triggers |journal=Curr Pain Headache Rep |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=221–7 |year=2010 |month=June |pmid=20425190 |doi=10.1007/s11916-010-0112-z }}</ref>Kichochezi kinaweza kutokea na kudumu hadi saa 24 kabla ya dalili kuanza.<ref name=Bart10/> ==== Vipengele vya kifiziolojia ==== Vichochezi vilivyotajwa mara nyingi ni mfadhaiko, njaa na uchovu (vichochezi hivi huchangia kutokea kwa [[maumivu ya kichwa yanayotokana na mahangaiko]]).<ref name=Trigger09/>]] Kuna uwezekano mkubwa wa kipandauso kutokea siku zinazokaribiana na [[hedhi]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=MacGregor|first=EA|title=Prevention and treatment of menstrual migraine|journal=Drugs|date=2010-10-01|volume=70|issue=14|pages=1799–818|pmid=20836574|doi=10.2165/11538090-000000000-00000}}</ref>Athari zingine za kihomoni, kama vile [[hedhi ya kwanza]], [[na matumizi ya tembe za kuzuia mimba]], [[ujauzito]], muda unaokaribia ukomohedhi na[[ukomohedhi]] pia huhusishwa na kipandauso.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lay|first=CL|coauthors=Broner, SW|title=Migraine in women|journal=Neurologic Clinics|date=2009 May|volume=27|issue=2|pages=503–11|pmid=19289228|doi=10.1016/j.ncl.2009.01.002}}</ref> Athari hizi za kihomoni huhusika pakubwa kwa kutokea kwa kipandauso kisicho na aura.<ref name=HA25/> Kwa kawaida kipandauso hakitokei kwa [[trimesta ya pili ya ujauzito|ya pili]] na [[na trimesta ya tatu]] au kufuatia ukomohedhi.<ref name=Amin2009/> ==== Vipengele vya kilishe ==== Utafiti kuhusu vichochezi vinavyohusu lishe umegundua kuwa ushahidi hutegemea utathmini dhahania na hautilii maanani kuthibitisha au kukanusha kichochezi chochote.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rockett|first=FC|coauthors=de Oliveira, VR; Castro, K; Chaves, ML; Perla Ada, S; Perry, ID|title=Dietary aspects of migraine trigger factors.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nutrition-reviews_2012-06_70_6/page/337|journal=Nutrition reviews|date=2012 Jun|volume=70|issue=6|pages=337–56|pmid=22646127}}</ref><ref name="FoodHolzhammer">{{Rejea jarida|author=Holzhammer J, Wöber C |title=[Alimentary trigger factors that provoke migraine and tension-type headache] |language=German |journal=Schmerz |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=151–9 |year=2006|month=April |pmid=15806385 |doi=10.1007/s00482-005-0390-2}}</ref> Kuhusu vipengele maalum, hakuna ushahidi kuhusu jinsi [[tairamini]] inavyoathiri kipandauso<ref name="pmid14533654 ">{{Rejea jarida |doi=10.1016/S1081-1206(10)63523-5 |author=Jansen SC, van Dusseldorp M, Bottema KC, Dubois AE |title=Intolerance to dietary biogenic amines: a review |journal=Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology |volume=91 |issue=3 |pages=233–40; quiz 241–2, 296 |year=2003 |month=September |pmid=14533654 |url=http://openurl.ingenta.com/content?genre=article&issn=1081-1206&volume=91&issue=3&spage=233&epage=241 |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2007-02-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070226232424/http://openurl.ingenta.com/content?genre=article&issn=1081-1206&volume=91&issue=3&spage=233&epage=241 |dead-url=yes |https://web.archive.org/web/20070226232424/http://openurl.ingenta.com/content?genre=article&issn=1081-1206&volume=91&issue=3&spage=233&epage=241 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20070226232424/http://openurl.ingenta.com/content?genre=article&issn=1081-1206&volume=91&issue=3&spage=233&epage=241 }}</ref> nayo [[monosodium glutamate]] (MSG) imeripotiwa mara nyingi kuwa kichochezi cha kilishe<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Sun-Edelstein C, Mauskop A |title=Foods and supplements in the management of migraine headaches |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-journal-of-pain_2009-06_25_5/page/446 |journal=The Clinical Journal of Pain |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=446–52 |year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19454881 |doi=10.1097/AJP.0b013e31819a6f65}}</ref>, mara nyingi ushahidi hauafikiani na wazo hili.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Freeman M |title=Reconsidering the effects of monosodium glutamate: a literature review |journal=J Am Acad Nurse Pract |volume=18 |issue=10 |pages=482–6 |year=2006 |month=October |pmid=16999713 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-7599.2006.00160.x }}</ref> ==== Vipengele vya kimazingira ==== Vichochezi kwa mazingira ya ndani na nje ni thibithisho kuwa ushahidi wa kijumla ilikuwa duni, lakini ulishauri kuwa watu wenye kipandauso wachukue hatua za kuzuia kipandauso zinazohusiana na ubora wa hewa ya ndani na mwangaza.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Friedman DI, De ver Dye T |title=Migraine and the environment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_headache_2009-06_49_6/page/941 |journal=Headache |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=941–52 |year=2009 |month=June |pmid=19545255 |doi=10.1111/j.1526-4610.2009.01443.x }}</ref> Wazo kuwa vichochezi hivi hupatikana mara nyingi kwa watu werevu zaidi si kweli.<ref name=HA25/> == Pathofisiolojia == [[Picha:Cortical spreading depression.gif|thumb|Animation of [[cortical spreading depression]]]] Kipandauso kinaaminiwa kuwa tatizo la neva na mishipa<ref name=Bart10>{{cite journal |author=Bartleson JD, Cutrer FM |title=Migraine update. Utambuzi na matibabu |journal=Minn Med |volume=93 |issue=5 |pages=36–41 |year=2010 |month=May |pmid=20572569 }}</ref> pamoja na ushahidi unaothibitisha utaratibu wa kipandauso kuanzia ndani ya ubongo kisha kuenea hadi kwenye mishipa ya damu.<ref name=HA29>The Headaches Chp. 29, Pg. 276</ref> Baadhi ya watafiti huamini kuwa taratibu za ki[[niuroni]]huchangia pakubwa,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Goadsby|first=PJ|title=The vascular theory of migraine--a great story wrecked by the facts.|journal=Brain : a journal of neurology|date=2009 Jan|volume=132|issue=Pt 1|pages=6–7|pmid=19098031}}</ref> huku wengine wakiamini kuwa mishipa ya damu huchangia zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brennan|first=KC|coauthors=Charles, A|title=An update on the blood vessel in migraine.|journal=Current opinion in neurology|date=2010 Jun|volume=23|issue=3|pages=266–74|pmid=20216215}}</ref> Watafiti wengine huhisi kuwa athari zote mbili huhusika pakubwa.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dodick|first=DW|title=Examining the essence of migraine--is it the blood vessel or the brain? A debate.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_headache_2008-04_48_4/page/661|journal=Headache|date=2008 Apr|volume=48|issue=4|pages=661–7|pmid=18377395}}</ref> Kiwango kikubwa cha niurotransmita [[serotonini]], pia inayojulikana kama 5-hydroxytryptamine, inaaminiwa kuhusika.<ref name=HA29/> === Aura === [[Mfadhaiko unaosambaa kwenye koteksi]] au mfadhaiko wa kusambaa kwenye [[Aristides Leão|Leão]] ni mchipuko ghafla wa shughuli za kineva unaofuatiwa na kipindi kisicho na shughuli, hali inayopatikana kwa twatu wenye kipandauso chenye aura.<ref name=HA28>The Headaches, Chp. 28, pg 269-272</ref> Kuna maelezo mengi kuhusu kutokea kwa hali hii, ikiwa ni pamoja na uchochezi wa [[kipokezi cha NMDA]], hali inayopelekea kalisi kuingia kwenye seli.<ref name=HA28/> Baada mchipuko huu wa ghafla wa shughuli, mtiririko wa damu kuelekea [[koteksi ya serebramu]] kwa sehemu iliyoathirika hupungua kwa muda wa saa mbili hadi sita.<ref name=HA28/> Inaaminiwa kuwa uondoaji wa kingamizi unapoelekea kwenye sehemu ya chini ya ubongo, neva za uchungu kichwani na shingoni huchochewa.<ref name=HA28/> === Maumivu === Utaratibu halisi wa maumivu ya kichwa ambayo hutokea wakati wa kipandauso haujulikani.<ref name=Olesen2009>{{cite journal|last=Olesen|first=J|coauthors=Burstein, R; Ashina, M; Tfelt-Hansen, P|title=Origin of pain in migraine: evidence for peripheral sensitiyation.|journal=Lancet neurology|date=2009 Jul|volume=8|issue=7|pages=679–90|pmid=19539239}}</ref>. Ushahidi unaafiki jukumu la kimsingi wa sehemu za [[mfumo mkuu wa neva]] (kama vile [[shina la ubongo]] na [[diensefaloni]]) <ref>{{cite journal|last=Akerman|first=S|coauthors=Holland, PR; Goadsby, PJ|title=Diencephalic and brainstem mechanisms in migraine.|journal=Nature reviews. Neuroscience|date=2011-09-20|volume=12|issue=10|pages=570–84|pmid=21931334}}</ref> huku utafiti mwingine ukiafiki jukumu la uchochezi kwenye sehemu za pembeni( kama vile kupitia kwa[[neva za hisia]] zinayozingira [[mishipa ya damu]]ya kichwa na shingo).<ref name=Olesen2009/> Mishipa inayoweza kuathirika ni pamoja na: [[dura mata|ateri za dura]], [[Pia mata|ateri ya pia]] na ateri zilizo nje ya fuvu kama zile za [[ngozi ya kichwa]].<ref name=Olesen2009/> Jukumu la kupanuka kwa ateri, hususan zilizoko nje ya fuvu inaaminiwa kuwa muhimu <ref>{{cite journal|last=Shevel|first=E|title=The extracranial vascular theory of migraine--a great story confirmed by the facts.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_headache_2011-03_51_3/page/409|journal=Headache|date=2011 Mar|volume=51|issue=3|pages=409–17|pmid=21352215}}</ref> == Utambuzi == Utambuzi wa kipandauso hutegemea ishara na dalili.<ref name=Bart10/> [[uchunguzi wa kupiga picha kichwani|upigaji pichahufanywa]] mara nyingi ili kubainisha visababishi vingine vya maumivu ya kichwa.<ref name=Bart10/> Inaaminika kwamba idadi kubwa ya watu wenye hali hii hawajatambuliwa.<ref name=Bart10/> Utambuzi wa kipandauso bila aura unaweza kufanyika kwa kufuata kanuni ya "5, 4, 3, 2, 1; kulingana na [[International Headache Society]],,:<ref name=ICHD2004/> * Kukabiliwa na kipandauso'' chenye'' aura mara tano au zaidi—, makabiliano mawili yanatosha kufanya utambuzi. * Kipandauso kudumu kwa saa nne hadi siku tatu * Mawili au zaidi ya yafuatayo: ** Maumivu ya upande mmoja (yanayoathiri nusu ya kichwa); ** Kudundadunda; ** "Maumivu ya kadri hadi makali"; ** "Inayoongezeka kuwa chungu au inayotatiza shughuli za kila siku za mwili ." * Moja au zaidi ya haya: ** Kichefuchefu na/au kutapika; ** Usikivu dhidi ya mwanga ([[fotophobia]]) na usikivu dhidi ya sauti ([[fonofobia]]) Ikiwa mtu ataweza kukumbwa na hali mbili kati ya hizi: fotophobia, kichefuchefu, au kutoweza kufanya kazi/kusoma kwa siku moja, kuna uwezekano wa kuwa na kipandauso .<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cousins|first=G|coauthors=Hijazze, S; Van de Laar, FA; Fahey, T|title=Diagnostic accuracy of the ID Migraine: a systematic review and meta-analysis.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_headache_july-august-2011_51_7/page/1140|journal=Headache|date=2011 Jul-Aug|volume=51|issue=7|pages=1140–8|pmid=21649653|doi=10.1111/j.1526-4610.2011.01916.x}}</ref> Kwa watu wenye hali nne kati ya hali tano zifuatazo: maumivu ya kichwa ya kudundadunda, maumivu kudumu kwa saa 4–72, maumivu kwa upande mmoja wa kichwa, kichefuchefu au dalili zinazotatiza maisha ya mtu, uwezekano wa kipandauso ni asilimia 92<ref name=Gilmore2011/> Kwa watu wenye dalili hizi chini ya tatu uwezekano ni asilimia 17<ref name=Gilmore2011/> === Uainishaji === Mwaka 1988 ndio wakati wa kwanza kwa kipandauso kuainishwa kwa kina.<ref name=HA24>The Headaches, Pg 232-233</ref> Shirika la[[International Headache Society]] hivi karibuni walibadilisha uainishaji wao mwaka wa 2004.<ref name=ICHD2004/>Kulingana na uainishaji huu, kipandauso ni maumivu ya kimsingi ya kichwa yanayoandamana na aina ya maumivu ya kichwa]] yenye [[wasi wasi na [[maumivu ya kichwa mbalimbali]] na mengineyo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nappi|first=G|title=Introduction to the new International Classification of Headache Disorders.|journal=The journal of headache and pain|date=2005 Sep|volume=6|issue=4|pages=203–4|pmid=16362664}}</ref> Kipandauso kimeainishwa kwa vitengo saba (baadhi ya vitengo hivi vimegawanywa zaidi kwa vijitengo vingi): * Kipandauso bila aura au "kipandauso cha kawaida", kinahusisha maumivu ya kichwa yasiyoandamana na aura * Kipandauso chenye aura au "kipandauso maalum", kinahusisha maumivu ya kichwa yanayoandamana na aura. Kwa mara nadra, aura inaweza kutokea bila maumivu ya kichwa au kuandamana na maumivu ya kichwa yasiyohusika na kipandauso. Vijitengo vingine viwili ni [[kipandauso cha familia]] na [[kipandauso mtawanyiko]], ambapo mtu anapata kipandauso chenye aura na kinachoandamana na udhaifu wa kimwendo. Ikiwa jamaa kwa familia amewahi kupata hali hii, basi itaitwa "kipandauso cha kifamilia"; la sivyo kipandauso "mtawanyiko". Aina nyingine ni kipanduso cha aina ya basila , ambapo maumivu ya kichwa na aura huandamana na [[kigugumizi|ugumu wa kuongea]], [[kisulisuli (cha kimatibabu)|hisia ya kuwa dunia inazunguka]], [[tinitisi|kelele kama king'ora maskioni]] au dalili zingine nyingi zinazohusiana na shina la ubongo, lakini sio udhaifu wa kimwendo. Awali, aina hii iliaminiwa kufuatia spazimu ya [[ateri ya basila]], ateri inayosafirisha damu kwenye shina la ubongo.<ref name=Basil2009/> * Sindromu ya utotoni ambayo kwa kawaida ni kitangulizi cha kipandauso ni pamoja na [[sindromu ya msururu wa kutapika|msururu wa kutapika]] (vipindi vichache vya kutapika sana), [[kipanduso cha fumbatio]] (maumivu ya fumbatio, mara nyingi huandamana na kichefuchefu), na kisulisuli hafifu cha utotoni kinachotokea ghafla (kukabiliwa na kisulisuli mara chache). * [[Kipandauso cha retinali]] kinajumuisha maumivu ya kichwa yanayoandamana na kutoona vizuri au hata upofu wa jicho moja kwa siku chache. * Matatizo ya kipandauso ni maumivu ya kichwa na/au aura ambayo hudumu kwa muda mrefu au kutokea mara nyingi kuliko inavyokuwa kawaida au kuandamana na kifafa au kidonda kwenye ubongo. * Uwezekano wa kipandauso huashiriwa na hali zilizo na baadhi ya sifa za kipandauso, lakini hakuna ushahidi tosha wa kutambua kwa hakika kama ni kipanduso (wakati kuna matumizi ya dawa kupita kiasi kwa mfululizo). * Kipandauso sugu ni tatizo kufuatia vipandauso, na ni maumivu ya kichwa yanayothibitisha mbinu ya kiutambuzi wa ''maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na kipandauso'' na hujirudia baada ya muda mrefu. Hususan, siku 15 au zaidi kwa mwezi kwa kipindi cha zaidi ya miezi mitatu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Negro|first=A|coauthors=Rocchietti-March, M; Fiorillo, M; Martelletti, P|title=Chronic migraine: current concepts and ongoing treatments.|journal=European review for medical and pharmacological sciences|date=2011 Dec|volume=15|issue=12|pages=1401–20|pmid=22288302}}</ref> === Kipandauso cha fumbatio === Utambuzi wa [[kipandauso cha fumbatio]] umekumbwa na utata.<ref name=Abdo2002>{{cite book|last=Davidoff|first=Robert A.|title=Migraine : manifestations, pathogenesis, and management|year=2002|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|location=Oxford [u.a.]|isbn=9780195137057|page=81|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=PAdn6xC3KlAC&pg=PA81 |edition=2nd }}</ref> Baadhi ya utafiti umeonyesha kuwa visa vya kujirudia ya maumivu ya fumbatio yanaweza kuwa ni aina ya kipandauso <ref name=Abdo2002/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Russell|first=G|coauthors=Abu-Arafeh, I, Symon, DN|title=Abdominal migraine: evidence for existence and treatment options|journal=Paediatric drugs|year=2002|volume=4|issue=1|pages=1–8|pmid=11817981}}</ref> Au angalau ni kitangulizi cha kipandauso<ref name=HA24/> Visa hivi yanaweza au kutoweza kufuatiwa na dalili zinazoashiria kipandauso na kwa kawaida hudumu kwa dakika chache hadi saa kadhaa<ref name=Abdo2002/> Mara nyingi, visa hivi hutokea kwa watu wenye historia ya kipandauso maalumu kwa mtu binafsi au kwa familia.<ref name=Abdo2002/>Sindromu zingine zinazoaminika kuwa viashiria ni pamoja na:[[sindromu ya msururu wa kutapika]] na [[kutokea kwa ghafla kwa kisulisuli hafifu cha utotoni]] .<ref name=HA24/> === Dalili za kifisiolojia === Hali zingine zinazoweza kuleta dalili sawa na maumivu ya kichwa ya kipandauso ni pamoja na: [[maambukizi ya ateri ya panja]], [[maumivu ya kichwa upande mmoja]], [[klaukoma kali]], [[meningitisi]] na [[kuvuja damu kwenye sehemu ya chini ya araknoidi ya ubongo]].<ref name=Gilmore2011/> Kwa kawaida maambukizi ya ateri ya panja hutokea kwa watu wenye umri zaidi ya miaka 50 na huandamana na uchungu kwa [[Panja (anatomia)|panja]], maumivu ya kichwa ya upande mmoja hutambulika kwa kufungana kwa pua moja, machozi na maumivu makali kwa obiti [[obiti]], klaukoma kali huhusika na matatizo ya kuona, meningitisi na [[homa]]na kuvuja damu kwenye sehemu ya chini ya araknoidi ya ubongo.<ref name=Gilmore2011/> [[Maumivu ya kichwa kutokana na wasiwasi]] kwa kawaida hutokea kwa pande zote mbili, hayadhoofishi wala kulemaza sana.<ref name=Gilmore2011/> == Kinga == Matibabu ya kuzuia kipandauso ni pamoja na: dawa, lishe mbadala, kubadilisha mienendo ya maisha, na upasuaji. Kinga hupendekezwa kwa watu wenye maumivu ya kichwa kwa zaidi ya siku mbili kwa wiki, wasioweza kutibika kwa dawa za kupunguza makali au wenye maumivu makali yasiyoweza kudhibitiwa.<ref name=Gilmore2011/> Malengo ya hatua hizi ni kupunguza marudio, maumivu na/au muda wa kudumu wa kipandauso, na kuongeza ubora wa matibabu ya awali.<ref name="AFP0601">{{Rejea jarida|author=Modi S, Lowder DM |title=Medications for migraine prophylaxis |journal=American Family Physician |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=72–8 |year=2006 |month=January |pmid=16417067 |url=http://www.aafp.org/link_out?pmid=16417067}}</ref> Sababu nyingine ya kinga ni kuepuka [[maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na matumizi ya dawa kupita kiasi]]. Jambo hili ni tatizo linalotolea mara nyingi na linaweza kusababisha maumivu makali ya kichwa kila siku.<ref name="MOHlancet">{{Rejea jarida|author=Diener HC, Limmroth V |title=Medication-overuse headache: a worldwide problem |journal=Lancet Neurology |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=475–83 |year=2004 |month=August |pmid=15261608 |doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(04)00824-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pages=331–8 |doi=10.1517/14740338.1.4.331 |title=Medication overuse headaches – what is new? |year=2002 |last1=Fritsche |first1=Guenther |last2=Diener |first2=Hans-Christoph |journal=Expert Opinion on Drug Safety |volume=1 |issue=4 |pmid=12904133}}</ref> === Tiba === Matibabu ya kuzuia kipandauso yanakisiwa kuwa bora ikiwa yatapunguza visa au ukali wa kipandauso kwa asilimia 50<ref name="kaniecki">{{Rejea kitabu|author=Kaniecki R, Lucas S. |chapter=Treatment of primary headache: preventive treatment of migraine |title=Standards of care for headache diagnosis and treatment |location=Chicago |publisher=National Headache Foundation |year=2004 |pages=40–52}}</ref> Miongozo huwa na yamkini viwango thabiti kwa kutathmini [[topiramate]], [[divalproex]]/[[sodium valproate]], [[propranolol]] na[[metoprolol]] kama dawa zilizo na kiwano cha juu zaidi cha ushahidi kuhusu matumizi ya matibabu ya kwanza| [[yanayopendekezwakwanza]] .<ref name=Loder2012/> Mapendekezo kuhusu ubora ulitofautiana kuhusu [[gabapentin]].<ref name=Loder2012/> [[Timolol]] pia ni bora kwa kuzuia kipandauso na kupunguza makali na marudio yake huku [[frovatriptan]] ikizuia kipandauso kinachohusiana na hedhi<ref name=Loder2012>{{cite journal|last=Loder|first=E|coauthors=Burch, R; Rizzoli, P|title=The 2012 AHS/AAN guidelines for prevention of episodic migraine: a summary and comparison with other recent clinical practice guidelines.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_headache_2012-06_52_6/page/930|journal=Headache|date=2012 Jun|volume=52|issue=6|pages=930–45|pmid=22671714}}</ref> [[Amitriptyline]] na [[venlafaxine]] vile vile ni bora.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Silberstein|first=SD|coauthors=Holland, S; Freitag, F; Dodick, DW; Argoff, C; Ashman, E; Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society|title=Evidence-based guideline update: pharmacologic treatment for episodic migraine prevention in adults: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_2012-04-24_78_17/page/1337|journal=Neurology|date=2012-04-24|volume=78|issue=17|pages=1337–45|pmid=22529202}}</ref> [[Botox]] imegunduliwa kuwa bora kwa watu wenye kipandauso cha kudumu wala sio wenye kipandauso cha muda tu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Jackson JL, Kuriyama A, Hayashino Y |title=Botulinum toxin A for prophylactic treatment of migraine and tension headaches in adults: a meta-analysis |journal=JAMA |volume=307 |issue=16 |pages=1736–45 |year=2012 |month=April |pmid=22535858 |doi=10.1001/jama.2012.505 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2012-04-25_307_16/page/n79}}</ref> === Tiba mbadala === [[Picha:Butterbur.jpg|thumb|160px|[[Dawa ya Petasites|Petasites hybridus]] inayotolewa kwenye mizizi ya mti wa (butterbur) imedhibitishwa kuwa bora kwa kuzuia kipandauso.<ref>Pringsheim T, Davenport W, Mackie G, ''et al.'' Canadian Headache Society guideline for migraine prophylaxis. Can J Neurol Sci. 2012 Mar;39(2 Suppl 2):S1-59. PMID 22683887</ref>]] [[Akupancha]] ni matibabu bora ya kipandauso.<ref name="pmid21359919">{{cite pmid |21359919}}</ref> Matumizi ya akupancha "halisi" siyo bora kuliko matumizi ya akupancha "bandia". Hata hivyo, aina zote zimegunduliwa kuwa bora kuliko utunzanji kidesturi, kwani zinaandamana na mathara machache zaidi kuliko matumizi ya dawa ya profilaktiki.<ref name = Linde2009>{{cite journal |last1=Linde |first1=K |last2=Allais |first2=G |last3=Brinkhaus |first3=B |last4=Manheimer |first4=E|last5=Vickers |first5=A |last6=White |first6=AR |editor1-last=Linde |editor1-first=Klaus |title=Acupuncture for migraine prophylaxis|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Online) |issue=1 |pages=CD001218 |year=2009 |pmid=19160193|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001218.pub2 |pmc=3099267}}</ref> Tibamwili, tibamaungo, kupapasa na kupumzika huwa bora sawa na matumizi ya dawa ya [[propranolol]] au [[topiramate]] kwa kuzuia maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na kipandauso; hata hivyo mbinu iliyotumika kwa utafiti huu ina walakini.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=127–33 |doi=10.1007/s10194-011-0296-6 |pmc=3072494 |title=Manual therapies for migraine: A systematic review |year=2011 |last1=Chaibi |first1=Aleksander |last2=Tuchin |first2=Peter J. |last3=Russell |first3=Michael Bjørn |journal=The Journal of Headache and Pain |volume=12 |issue=2 |pmid=21298314}}</ref> Kuna ushahidi ulio na tashwishi wa ubora wa: [[magnisiamu]], [[enzaimu pacha Q10]], [[riboflavin]], [[Vitamini B12|vitamini B(12)]],<ref>{{cite journal |pages=297–312 |doi=10.1016/S0083-6729(04)69011-X |chapter=Role of Magnesium, Coenzyme Q10, Riboflavin, and Vitamin B12 in Migraine Prophylaxis |title=Vitamins &amp; Hormones Volume 69 |series=Vitamins & Hormones |year=2004 |last1=Bianchi |first1=A |last2=Salomone |first2=S |last3=Caraci |first3=F |last4=Pizza |first4=V |last5=Bernardini |first5=R |last6=Damato |first6=C |isbn=978-0-12-709869-2 |volume=69 |pmid=15196887 |journal=Vitamins and hormones}}</ref> and [[feverfew|Fever-few]], ingawa majaribio mwafaka yanafaa kufanywa ili kuthibitisha matokeo haya ya mwanzo.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=251–6 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-7599.2004.tb00447.x |title=Evidence-Based Use of Botanicals, Minerals, and Vitamins in the Prophylactic Treatment of Migraines |year=2004 |last1=Rios |first1=Juanita |last2=Passe |first2=Megan M. |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners |volume=16 |issue=6 |pmid=15264611}}</ref>Matumizi ya [[butterbur]] yamethibitiwa kuwa bora kati ya matibabu mbadala.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Holland|first=S|coauthors=Silberstein, SD; Freitag, F; Dodick, DW; Argoff, C; Ashman, E; Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache, Society|title=Evidence-based guideline update: NSAIDs and other complementary treatments for episodic migraine prevention in adults: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_neurology_2012-04-24_78_17/page/1346|journal=Neurology|date=2012-04-24|volume=78|issue=17|pages=1346–53|pmid=22529203}}</ref> === Vifaa na upasuaji === Vifaa vya kimatibabu kama vile [[bayomwitiko]] na [[vichochea neva]] vina manufaa fulani kwa kuzuia kipandauso, hasa wakati dawa ya kuzuia kipandauso zimetumika bila kuzingatia maagizo kama vile kutumia dawa kupita kiasi. Bayomwitiko husaidia watu kufahamu baadhi ya parameta za kifiziolojia ili waweze kuzidhibiti na kujaribu kutulia, hivyo inaweza kuwa bora kwa kutibu kipandauso.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=111–27 |doi=10.1016/j.pain.2006.09.007|title=Efficacy of biofeedback for migraine: A meta-analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pain_2007-03_128_1-2/page/111 |year=2007 |last1=Nestoriuc |first1=Yvonne |last2=Martin |first2=Alexandra |journal=Pain |volume=128 |pmid=17084028 |issue=1–2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=18726688 |year=2008|last1=Nestoriuc|first1=Y |last2=Martin |first2=A |last3=Rief |first3=W |last4=Andrasik |first4=F |title=Biofeedback treatment for headache disorders: A comprehensive efficacy review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_applied-psychophysiology-and-biofeedback_2008-09_33_3/page/125 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=125–40 |doi=10.1007/s10484-008-9060-3 |journal=Applied psychophysiology and biofeedback}}</ref> Uchochezi neva hutumia vichocheaneva vya kubandika vilivyo sawa na viongozamwendo vya kutibu kipandauso sugu huku matokeo bora yakiwepo hasa kwa visa vya kipandauso kikali<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=20816443 |year=2010 |last1=Schoenen |first1=J|last2=Allena |first2=M |last3=Magis |first3=D |title=Neurostimulation therapy in intractable headaches |volume=97|pages=443–50 |doi=10.1016/S0072-9752(10)97037-1 |journal=Handbook of clinical neurology / edited by P.J. Vinken and G.W. Bruyn |series=Handbook of Clinical Neurology |isbn=9780444521392}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=19732075 |year=2010|last1=Reed |first1=KL |last2=Black |first2=SB |last3=Banta Cj |first3=2nd |last4=Will |first4=KR |title=Combined occipital and supraorbital neurostimulation for the treatment of chronic migraine headaches: Initial experience |volume=30 |issue=3|pages=260–71 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2982.2009.01996.x |journal=Cephalalgia}}</ref> [[Upasuaji wa kipandauso]] , unaohusu kugandamua [[neva]] fulani kwa sehemu ya kichwa na shingo, inaweza kuwa chaguo kwa watu ambao afya yao haijaimarika kufuatia matibabu mengine.<ref name=Surgery2011>{{cite journal|last=Kung|first=TA|coauthors=Guyuron, B, Cederna, PS|title=Migraine surgery: a plastic surgery solution for refractory migraine headache|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery_2011-01_127_1/page/181|journal=Plastic and reconstructive surgery|date=2011 Jan|volume=127|issue=1|pages=181–9|pmid=20871488|doi=10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181f95a01}}</ref> == Udhibiti == Kuna njia tatu kuu za matibabu: kuepuka vichochezi, kudhibiti dalili kali za ghafla na kuzuia kwa kutumia dawa.<ref name=Bart10/> Dawa ni bora ikiwa itatumika punde tu mtu anapokabiliwa na hali hii.<ref name=Bart10/> Marudio ya kutumia dawa mara nyingi husababisha [[maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na matumizi ya dawa kupita kiasi]] na maumivu ya kichwa huzidi kuwa makali na kutokea mara nyingi zaidi.<ref name=ICHD2004/> Hii inaweza kutokea kwa [[triptani]], [[ergotamines]]na [[vitoa maumivu]] hasa [[vya aina ya]] narkotia.<ref name=ICHD2004/> === Viondoa maumivu === Matibabu ya kwanza yanayopendekezwa kwa watu wenye dalili zisizo kali hadi za wastani ni vitoa maumivu vya kawaida [[dawa ya inflamesheni isiyo na steroidi]] au mchanganyiko wa [[acetaminophen]], [[asidi ya asitilsalikiliki]] na [[kafeni]].<ref name=Gilmore2011>{{cite journal|last=Gilmore|first=B|coauthors=Michael, M|title=Treatment of acute migraine headache.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2011-02-01_83_3/page/271|journal=American family physician|date=2011-02-01|volume=83|issue=3|pages=271–80|pmid=21302868}}</ref> Dawa kadhaa za kutibu inflamesheni zisizo na steroidi zimetambulika kuwa bora. [[Ibuprofen]] imegunduliwa kupunguza maumivu kikamilifu kwa takriban nusu ya watu wanaoitumia<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rabbie R, Derry S, Moore RA, McQuay HJ |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=10 |issue= 10|pages=CD008039 |year=2010 |pmid=20927770 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008039.pub2 |editor1-last=Moore |editor1-first=Maura |title=Ibuprofen with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults}}</ref> [[Diclofenac]]imethibitiwa kuwa bora pia<ref>{{cite journal |author=Derry S, Rabbie R, Moore RA |title=Diclofenac with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=2 |issue= |pages=CD008783 |year=2012 |pmid=22336852 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008783.pub2 |url=}}</ref> [[Aspirin]] inaweza kupunguza maumivu wastani ya kipandauso hadi yaliyo makali huku ikiwa na ubora sawa na sumatriptan.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Kirthi V, Derry S, Moore RA, McQuay HJ |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=4 |issue= 4|pages=CD008041 |year=2010 |pmid=20393963 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008041.pub2 |editor1-last=Moore|editor1-first=Maura |title=Aspirin with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults}}</ref> [[Ketorolac]] inapatikana kwa muundo wa kudungia mishipani <ref name=Gilmore2011/> [[Paracetamol]] (pia inayojulikana kama acetaminophen), aidha ikiwa pekee au ikiwa imechanganywa na [[metoclopramide]] ni tiba nyingine yenye madhara machache.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Derry S, Moore RA, McQuay HJ |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=11 |issue= 11|pages=CD008040 |year=2010 |pmid=21069700 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008040.pub2 |editor1-last=Moore |editor1-first=Maura |title=Paracetamol (acetaminophen) with or without an antiemetic for acute migraine headaches in adults}}</ref> Kwa ujauzito, acetaminophen na metoclopramide huaminika kuwa dawa salama na bora zaidi hadi [[trimesta ya tatu ya ujauzito]].<ref name=Gilmore2011/> === Triptani === [[Triptani]], kama vile [[sumatriptan]], ni dawa bora ya kutibu maumivu na kichefuchefu hadi asilimia 75 ya watu.<ref name=Bart10/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Johnston MM, Rapoport AM |title=Triptans for the management of migraine |journal=Drugs |volume=70 |issue=12 |pages=1505–18 |year=2010 |month=August |pmid=20687618 |doi=10.2165/11537990-000000000-00000}}</ref> Dawa hizi hupendekezwa kutumika mwanzoni kwa watu wenye maumivu ya wastani hadi makali au kwa watu wenye dalili hafifu zisizotibika kwa vitoa maumivu vya kawaida.<ref name=Gilmore2011/> Njia za kutumia dawa hizi ni pamoja na kumeza, kudungia, [[kunyunyisia puani]], na kumumunya.<ref name=Bart10/> Kwa jumla, triptani zote zinaonekana kuwa bora huku zikiwa na madhara sawa. Hata hivyo, watu binafsi wanaweza kuafikiana na dawa maalum.<ref name=Gilmore2011/> Madhara mengi huwa si makal, kama vile wekundu usoni; ingawa, visa vichache vya [[iskemia ya miokadiumu]] vimeripotiwa.<ref name=Bart10/> Hivyo basi dawa hizi hazipendekezwi kwa watu wenye magonjwa ya [[mfumo wa moyo na mishipa]].<ref name=Gilmore2011/> Kwa historia, dawa hizi hazipendekezwi kwa watu wenye kipandauso cha basila, ingawa hakuna ushahidi maalum wa hatari unaothibitisha tahadhari hii.<ref name=Basil2009/> Dawa hizi hazipelekei uraibu wowote lakini zinaweza kusababisha maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na matumizi ya dawa kupita kiasi hasa zikitumiwa kwa zaidi ya siku 10 kwa mwezi.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tepper Stewart J. |last2=Tepper |first2=Deborah E. |title=Breaking the cycle of medication overuse headache |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_cleveland-clinic-journal-of-medicine_2010-04_77_4/page/236 |journal=Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=236–42 |year=2010 |month=April |pmid=20360117 |doi=10.3949/ccjm.77a.09147 |first1=S. J.}}</ref> === Ergotamini === [[Ergotamini]]na [[dihidroergotamini]] ni aina ya dawa za kitambo ambazo zingali zinapendekezwa kutumika kutibu kipandauso, za hivi punde zikiwa na muundo wa kunyunyisia pua na kudungia.<ref name=Bart10/> Dawa hizi zimethibitishwa kuwa bora sawa na triptani,<ref name=Kelly2012>{{cite journal|last=Kelley|first=NE|coauthors=Tepper, DE|title=Rescue therapy for acute migraine, part 1: triptans, dihydroergotamine, and magnesium.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_headache_2012-01_52_1/page/114|journal=Headache|date=2012 Jan|volume=52|issue=1|pages=114–28|pmid=22211870|doi=10.1111/j.1526-4610.2011.02062.x}}</ref> ni zaa bei nafuu zaidi,<ref>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=ed. Jes Olesen, ... [et|title=The headaches.|year=2006|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781754002|pages=516|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=F5VMlANd9iYC&pg=PA516|edition=3. ed.}}</ref> na huwa na madhara makali ambayo kawaida ni hafifu.<ref name=DHE2010/> Dawa hizi ni chaguo bora zaidi kwa watu wenye visa vikali ya kipandauso.<ref name=DHE2010>{{cite journal|last=Morren|first=JA|coauthors=Galvez-Jimenez, N|title=Where is dihydroergotamine mesylate in the changing landscape of migraine therapy?|journal=Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy|date=2010 Dec|volume=11|issue=18|pages=3085–93|pmid=21080856|doi=10.1517/14656566.2010.533839}}</ref> === Dawa nyingine === Metoclopramide ya kudungia mishipani au [[lidocaine]]ya kuingizia puani ni chaguo zingine zilizoko.<ref name=Gilmore2011/> Metoclopramide inapendekezwa kwa watu wanaoletwa hospitalini ili kupata usaidizi wa dharura.<ref name=Gilmore2011/> Kipimo kimoja cha [[dexamethasone]]ya kudungia mishipani kikiongezwa kwenye tiba iliyoafikiwa ya kipandauso huhusika kwa kupunguza kurejea kwa maumivu ya kichwa kwa asilimia 26 kwa saa 72 zinazofuata.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Colman I |title=Parenteral dexamethasone for acute severe migraine headache: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials for preventing recurrence |journal=BMJ |volume=336|issue=7657 |pages=1359–61 |year=2008 |month=June |pmid=18541610 |pmc=2427093|doi=10.1136/bmj.39566.806725.BE|author-separator=,|author2=Friedman BW|author3=Brown MD|display-authors=3|last4=Innes|first4=G. D|last5=Grafstein|first5=E.|last6=Roberts|first6=T. E|last7=Rowe|first7=B. H }}</ref> Njia ya kutibu mfululizo wa maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusiana na kipandauso kwa kutumia kunyoosha uti wa mgongo haina ushahidi wowote.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Posadzki|first=P|coauthors=Ernst, E|title=Spinal manipulations for the treatment of migraine: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials.|journal=Cephalalgia : an international journal of headache|date=2011 Jun|volume=31|issue=8|pages=964–70|pmid=21511952|doi=10.1177/0333102411405226}}</ref> Inapendekezwa kuwa dawa ya [[opioid]] na [[barbiturate]] isitumike<ref name=Gilmore2011/> == Prognosisi == Prognosisi ya muda mrefu kwa watu wenye kipandauso hubadilika mara kwa mara.<ref name=Prognosis2008>{{cite journal|last=Bigal|first=ME|coauthors=Lipton, RB|title=The prognosis of migraine.|journal=Current opinion in neurology|date=2008 Jun|volume=21|issue=3|pages=301–8|pmid=18451714|doi=10.1097/WCO.0b013e328300c6f5}}</ref> Watu wengi wenye kipandauso hupoteza wakati mwingi wa kufanya kazi kufuatia ugonjwa huu<ref name=Bart10/>. Hata hivyo, kwa kawaida hali hii si hatari sana<ref name=Prognosis2008/> na haihusishwi na kuongezeka kwa hatari ya kifo.<ref name=Death2011>{{cite journal|last=Schürks|first=M|coauthors=Rist, PM; Shapiro, RE; Kurth, T|title=Migraine and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=Cephalalgia : an international journal of headache|date=2011 Sep|volume=31|issue=12|pages=1301–14|pmid=21803936|doi=10.1177/0333102411415879}}</ref> Ugonjwa huu una mikondo minne mikuu: dalili kutoweka kabisa, dalili kuendelea huku zikipunguka wakati unapopita, dalili kuendelea kwa kiwango sawa na ukali uo huo au makabiliano kuzidi kuwa mabaya na kujirudia mara nyingi zaidi.<ref name=Prognosis2008/> Kipandauso chenye aura huonekana kuwa hatari ya[[kiharusi ya iskemia]]<ref name=Stroke2009>{{cite journal|last=Schürks|first=M|coauthors=Rist, PM; Bigal, ME; Buring, JE; Lipton, RB; Kurth, T|title=Migraine and cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|date=2009-10-27|volume=339|pages=b3914|pmid=19861375|pmc=2768778}}</ref> doubling the risk.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kurth|first=T|coauthors=Chabriat, H; Bousser, MG|title=Migraine and stroke: a complex association with clinical implications.|journal=Lancet neurology|date=2012 Jan|volume=11|issue=1|pages=92–100|pmid=22172624}}</ref>Kuwa kijana, mtu wa jinsia ya kike, kutumia[[vizuia mimba vyenye homoni]] na kuvuta sigara huongeza hatari ya kupata ugonjwa huu.<ref name=Stroke2009/>. Pia hatari hii huonekana kuwa na uhusiano na [[kupasuka kwa ateri ya seviksi]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rist|first=PM|coauthors=Diener, HC; Kurth, T; Schürks, M|title=Migraine, migraine aura, and cervical artery dissection: a systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=Cephalalgia : an international journal of headache|date=2011 Jun|volume=31|issue=8|pages=886–96|pmid=21511950|doi=10.1177/0333102411401634|pmc=3303220}}</ref> Kipandauso bila aura hakionekani kuwa kipengele.<ref name=Kurth2010>{{cite journal|last=Kurth|first=T|title=The association of migraine with ischemic stroke.|journal=Current neurology and neuroscience reports|date=2010 Mar|volume=10|issue=2|pages=133–9|pmid=20425238|doi=10.1007/s11910-010-0098-2}}</ref>. Uhusiano wa hali hii na matatizo ya moyo sio wazi, huku utafiti mmoja ukiafiki uhusiano huo. <ref name=Stroke2009/> Kwa ujumla, kipandauso hakionekani kuongeza hatari ya kufa kufuatia kiharusi au ugonjwa wa moyo.<ref name=Death2011/> Matibabu ya kipandauso kwa wenye kipandauso chenye aura yanaweza kuzuia kiharusi husika.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Weinberger|first=J|title=Stroke and migraine.|journal=Current cardiology reports|date=2007 Mar|volume=9|issue=1|pages=13–9|pmid=17362679}}</ref> == Epidemolojia == [[Picha:Migraine world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|[[Disability-adjusted life year]] for migraines per 100,000&nbsp;inhabitants in 2004 {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<45}} {{legend|#fff200|45–65}} {{legend|#ffdc00|65–85}} {{legend|#ffc600|85–105}} {{legend|#ffb000|105–125}} {{legend|#ff9a00|125–145}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|145–165}} {{legend|#ff6e00|165–185}} {{legend|#ff5800|185–205}} {{legend|#ff4200|205–225}} {{legend|#ff2c00|225–245}} {{legend|#cb0000|>245}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Kote ulimwenguni, kipandauso huathiri zaidi ya asilimia 10 ya watu <ref name=Rob10/> Kule Marekani, takriban asilimia 6 ya wanaume na asilimia 18 ya wanawake hupata kipandauso kila mwaka huku wakiwa na hatari ya daima ya asilimia 18 na 43 mtawalia.<ref name=Bart10/> Barani Uropa, kipandauso huathiri asilimia 12–28 ya watu maishani mwao huku takriban asilimia 6–15 ya wanaume wazima na asilimia 14–35 ya wanawake wazima wakipata angalau tukio moja kila mwaka.<ref name=Stovner2007/> Kima cha kipanduso ni chini kiasi barani Asia na Afrika ikilinganishwa na nchi za Magharibi.<ref name=HA25>The Headaches Pg. 238-240</ref><ref name=AsiaEpi2003>{{Rejea jarida|author=Wang SJ |title=Epidemiology of migraine and other types of headache in Asia |journal=Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=104–8 |year=2003|pmid=12583837|doi = 10.1007/s11910-003-0060-7}}</ref> Kipandauso sugu hutokea kwa takriban asilimia 1.4 ya watu hadi 2.2.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Natoli|first=JL|coauthors=Manack, A; Dean, B; Butler, Q; Turkel, CC; Stovner, L; Lipton, RB|title=Global prevalence of chronic migraine: a systematic review.|journal=Cephalalgia : an international journal of headache|date=2010 May|volume=30|issue=5|pages=599–609|pmid=19614702|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2982.2009.01941.x}}</ref> [[Picha:Migraine gender age.png|gumba|thumb|Visa vya ugonjwa wa kipandauso kwa umri na jinsia]] Takwimu hizi hutofautiana sana kwa umri: mara nyingi zaidi, kipandauso huanza kati ya umri wa miaka 15 na 24 na hutokea mara nyingi kwa watu wenye umri wa miaka 35 hadi 45.<ref name=Bart10/> Kwa watoto, takriban asilimia 1.7 ya watoto wenye umri wa miaka 7&nbsp;na asilimia 3.9 kwa wale wa kati ya miaka 7 na 15&nbsp; wana kipandauso, huku hali hii ikitokea mara nyingi kwa wavulana kabla ya [[kubalehe]].<ref name=Hershey2010>{{cite journal|last=Hershey|first=AD|title=Current approaches to the diagnosis and management of pediatric migraine.|journal=Lancet neurology|date=2010 Feb|volume=9|issue=2|pages=190–204|pmid=20129168}}</ref> Wakati wa kubaleghe, kipandauso hutokea mara nyingi kwa wanawake <ref name=Hershey2010/> na hali hii huendelea maishani, ikitokea mara mbili zaidi kwa wanawake wazee kuliko wanaume.<ref name=Pol2009/> Kipandauso bila aura hutokea mara nyingi zaidi kwa wanawake kuliko kipandauso chenye aura, ingawa aina hizi mbili hutokea kwa kiwango sawa kwa wanaume.<ref name=HA25/> Kwa [[kipindi kilichokaribia ukomohedhi]] mara nyingi dalili huzidi kabla ya kupunguka ukali.<ref name=Pol2009>{{cite journal|last=Nappi|first=RE|coauthors=Sances, G; Detaddei, S; Ornati, A; Chiovato, L; Polatti, F|title=Hormonal management of migraine at menopause.|journal=Menopause international|date=2009 Jun|volume=15|issue=2|pages=82–6|pmid=19465675}}</ref> Huku dalili zikitokomea kwa takriban thuluthi mbili ya wazee, dalili hizi hudumu kwa kati ya asilimia 3 na 10.<ref name=ElderlyBook2008>{{cite book|last=Malamut|first=edited by Joseph I. Sirven, Barbara L.|title=Clinical neurology of the older adult|year=2008|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781769471|pages=197|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=c1tL8C9ryMQC&pg=PA197|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> == Historia == [[Picha:Cruikshank - The Head Ache.png|thumb|''The Head Ache'', George Cruikshank (1819)]] Maelezo ya mwanzo ya yaliyozingatia kipandauso yamo kwa [[mafunjo ya Eber]], yaliyoandikwa takriban mwaka wa 1200&nbsp;BCE kwa kale za Misri<ref name=Miller2005>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Neil|title=Walsh and Hoyt's clinical neuro-ophthalmology.|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia, Pa.|isbn=9780781748117|pages=1275|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=9RA2ZOPRuhgC&pg=PA1275|edition=6th ed}}</ref> Kwa mwaka wa 200 BC, maandishi kutoka kwa [[Hippocrates|Shule ya madaktari ya Hippocrates]] yalieleza aura inayohusiana na kuona inayotokea kabla ya maumivu ya kichwa na kupata nafuu kidogo kufuatia kutapika.<ref name=Borsook2012>{{cite book|last=Borsook|first=David|title=The migraine brain : imaging, structure, and function|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780199754564|pages=3–11|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=5GVVJS_fCAkC&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3}}</ref> [[Picha:Trepanated skull of a woman-P4140363-black.jpg|thumb|left|A trepanated skull, from the [[Iron age]]. Mzunguko wa shimo kwa fuvu la kichwa unazingirwa na ukuaji wa tishu gumu kama mifupa kuashiria kuwa mtu huyo alipona baada ya upasuaji.]] Maelezo ya karneya pili ya [[Aretaeus of Cappadocia]] yaliainisha maumivu ya kichwa kwa aina tatu: sefalejia, sefalea na heterokrania.<ref name=Waldman2011>{{cite book|last=Waldman|first=[edited by] Steven D.|title=Pain management|year=2011|publisher=Elsevier/Saunders|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=9781437736038|pages=2122–2124|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=O6AojTbeXoEC&pg=PT2122&lpg=PT2122|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> [[Galen|Galen wa Pergamon]] alitumia neno hemikrania (nusu ya kichwa), ambapo neno kipandauso hatimaye lilikopwa.<ref name=Waldman2011/> Galen pia alipendekeza kuwa maumivu huanzia kwenye meninjesi na mishipa ya damu kichwani.<ref name=Borsook2012/>Hapo awali, kipanduso kilikuwa kimeainishwa kwa aina mbili zinazotumika hata sasa - kipandauso chenye aura(''migraine ophthalmique'') na kipanduso bila aura (''migraine vulgaire'') kwa mwaka wa 1887 na Louis Hyacinthe Thomas Mkutubi Mfaransa.<ref name=Borsook2012/> [[Utoboaji]], yaani kutoboa tundu kwa hiari kwenye fuvu la kichwa, ulifanyika hata mwaka wa 7,000&nbsp;BCE.<ref name=Miller2005/> Huku baadhi ya watu wakipona, wengi wao huenda walikufa kufuatia maambukizi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mays|first=eds. Margaret Cox, Simon|title=Human osteology : in archaeology and forensic science|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge [etc.]|isbn=9780521691468|pages=345|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=-UqAnk-n7wgC&pg=PA345|edition=Repr.}}</ref> Tendo hili liliaminika kufanya kazi kwa kupitia "kufungulia mapepo watoroke".<ref>{{cite book|last=Colen|first=Chaim|title=Neurosurgery|year=2008|publisher=Colen Publishing|isbn=9781935345039|pages=1|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=zHg53Gw0JrAC&pg=PA1}}</ref> [[Kwa karne ya 17, William Harvey]] alipendekeza utoboaji tundu kama matibabu ya kipandauso.<ref>{{cite book|last=Daniel|first=Britt Talley|title=Migraine|year=2010|publisher=AuthorHouse|location=Bloomington, IN|isbn=9781449069629|pages=101|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=YSoSECeCudIC&pg=PA101&lpg=PA101}}</ref> Huku majaribio mengi ya matibabu ya kipandauso yakifanyika, ni mpaka mwaka 1868 ambapo matumizi ya dutu ambazo hatimaye ziliweza kuwa bora yalianza.<ref name=Borsook2012/> Dutu hizi ni[[erogoti]] ya kuvu ambapo dawa ya ergotamine ilitolewa kwa mwaka wa 1918.<ref name=Hanson2011>{{cite journal|last=Tfelt-Hansen|first=PC|coauthors=Koehler, PJ|title=One hundred years of migraine research: major clinical and scientific observations from 1910 to 2010.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_headache_2011-05_51_5/page/752|journal=Headache|date=2011 May|volume=51|issue=5|pages=752–78|pmid=21521208}}</ref> [[Methysergide]]ilitolewa mwaka wa 1959, na triptani ya kwanza, [[sumatriptan]], kutolewa mwaka wa 1988.<ref name=Hanson2011/> Kufuatia utafiti mwafaka, dawa bora za kukinga kipandauso zilipatikana na kuthibitishwa kwa karne ya 20.<ref name=Borsook2012/> == Jamii na Utamaduni == Kipandauso ni chanzo kikuu cha gharama ya kimatibabu na kukosa matokeo mema kazini. Imekadiriwa kwamba kipandauso ni ugonjwa wenye gharama kali mno kati ya magonjwa mengine yanayohusika na mfumo wa neva kwa Jumuiya ya Ulaya, ukigharimu zaidi ya bilioni €27 kwa mwaka<ref name=EU2008>{{cite journal|last=Stovner|first=LJ|coauthors=Andrée, C; Eurolight Steering, Committee|title=Impact of headache in Europe: a review for the Eurolight project.|journal=The journal of headache and pain|date=2008 Jun|volume=9|issue=3|pages=139–46|pmid=18418547}}</ref> Huko Marekani gharama ya moja kwa moja imekadiriwa kuwa [[Dolar ya Marekani|dola]] [[bilioni]] 17.<ref name=EcoUSA2008>{{cite journal|last=Mennini|first=FS|coauthors=Gitto, L; Martelletti, P|title=Improving care through health economics analyses: cost of illness and headache.|journal=The journal of headache and pain|date=2008 Aug|volume=9|issue=4|pages=199–206|pmid=18604472}}</ref>. Takriban asilimia 10 ya gharama hii ni ya triptani.<ref name=EcoUSA2008/> Gharama isiyo ya moja kwa moja ni takriban dola bilioni 15 za Marekani, ambapo kukosa kazi ni kipengele kikuu.<ref name=EcoUSA2008/> Ubora wa wanaoweza kuendelea na kazi licha ya kuwa na kipandauso hupunguka kwa takriban theluthi moja. <ref name=EU2008/> Mathara mabaya mara nyingi pia hutokea kwa familia ya mtu.<ref name=EU2008/> == Utafiti == [[Peptidi]] inayohusiana na jeni ya kidhibiti kalisi imethibitiwa kuhusika kwa pathojenesisi ya maumivu yanayohusiana na kipandauso.<ref name=Gilmore2011/> Vipokezi pinzani vya peptidi inayohusiana na jeni ya kidhibiti kalisi, kama vile [[olcegepant]] na [[telcagepant]], vimechunguzwa kwa utafiti wa'' [[vitro]]]'' na kwa utafiti wa kiafya ya matibabu ya kipandauso.<ref name="pmid18808506">{{Rejea jarida|author=Tepper SJ, Stillman MJ |title=Clinical and preclinical rationale for CGRP-receptor antagonists in the treatment of migraine |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_headache_2008-09_48_8/page/1259 |journal=Headache |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=1259–68 |year=2008 |month=September |pmid=18808506 |doi=10.1111/j.1526-4610.2008.01214.x }}</ref> Mwaka wa 2011, kampuni ya Merck ilisitisha [[awamu ya III ya majaribio ya kimatibabu]] ya uchunguzi wao wa dawa ya [[telcagepant]].<ref name=telcagepant>{{cite web|last=Merck & Co., Inc.|title=SEC Annual Report, Fiscal Year Ending Dec 31, 2011|url=http://www.merck.com/investors/financials/form-10-k-2011.pdf|publisher=SEC|accessdate=21 May 2012|page=65|date=February 28, 2012|format=PDF|archivedate=2013-08-27|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6JBJX4a8R?url=http://www.merck.com/investors/financials/form-10-k-2011.pdf}}</ref><ref name=NCT01315847>{{ClinicalTrialsGov|NCT01315847|Position Emission Tomography Study of Brain CGRP Receptors After MK-0974 Administration (MK-0974-067 AM1)}}</ref> == Tanbihi== {{Reflist|2}} == Marejeo== * {{cite book|last=Olesen|first=Jes|title=The headaches.|year=2006|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781754002|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=F5VMlANd9iYC&|edition=3. ed.}} == Viungo vya nje == * {{DMOZ|/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Neurological_Disorders/Headaches/Migraine/}} [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] ig5jipbyddpa4ko3y9472xd0ct9xqja 0 69855 1580038 1578213 2026-07-17T23:21:39Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580038 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Pneumonia | Image = PneumonisWedge09.JPG |Alt = A black and white X-ray picture showing a triangle white area on the left side. A circle highlights the area. | Caption = A chest X-ray showing a very prominent wedge-shape [[bacterial pneumonia]] in the right lung. | Alt = An X-ray: showing a white wedge in the right lung field of a chest X-ray. | DiseasesDB = 10166 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|J|12||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|13||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|14||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|15||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|16||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|17||j|09}}, {{ICD10|J|18||j|09}}, {{ICD10|P|23||p|20}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|480}}-{{ICD9|486}}, {{ICD9|770.0}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | MedlinePlus = 000145 | eMedicineSubj = search | eMedicineTopic = pneumonia | MeshID = D011014 }} <!--Ufafanuzi na kisababishi--> '''Nimonia''' (kutoka [[Kiingereza]] "Pneumonia") ni hali ya [[Inflamesheni|kuvimba]] kwa [[pafu]] inayoathiri hasa vifuko vya hewa viitwavyo [[alveoli]].<ref name=RespText09>{{cite book|last=McLuckie|first=[editor] A.|title=Respiratory disease and its management|url=https://archive.org/details/respiratorydisea0000mclu|year=2009|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-1-84882-094-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/respiratorydisea0000mclu/page/51 51]}}</ref><ref name=AcuteCare09>{{cite book |author=Leach, Richard E. |title=Acute and Critical Care Medicine at a Glance |edition=2nd |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2009 |isbn=1-4051-6139-6 |url= http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7u_wu5VCsVQC&pg=PT168|accessdate=2011-04-21}}</ref> Husababishwa na [[maambukizi]] ya [[virusi]] au [[bakteria]] na kwa nadra kwa [[vimelea]], baadhi ya [[dawa]] na [[magonjwa]] mengine kama [[ugonjwa wa kinga nafsia]].<ref name=RespText09/> <!--Dalili, uzuiaji na matibabu--> [[Dalili]] hasa ni [[kikohozi]], [[maumivu ya kifua]], [[joto]] jingi [[Mwili|mwilini]] na [[upumuaji mgumu]]. Vifaa vya [[utambuzi wa kiafya|utambuzi]] ni [[eksirei]] na ukuzaji wa vimelea vya [[makohozi]]. [[Chanjo]] za kuzuia baadhi ya aina za nimonia zipo. [[Matibabu]] hutegemea kisababishi cha msingi. Nimonia inayotazamiwa ya bakteria hutibiwa kwa [[antibiotiki]]. Iwapo nimonia hiyo ni kali, mwathiriwa hulazwa [[Hospitali|hospitalini]]. <!--Prognosisi na epidemolojia--> Kila mwaka, nimonia huathiri takriban watu milioni 450&nbsp; ambao ni asilimia saba ya idadi kamili ya watu duniani na husababisha takriban vifo milioni 4&nbsp;. Ingawa nimonia ilichukuliwa na [[William Osler]] katika karne ya ¹⁹ kuwa "nahodha wa visababishi vya vifo",<ref>{{cite book|last=Osler|first=William|title=Principles and Practice of Medicine, 4th Edition|year=1901|publisher=D. Appleton and Company|location=New York|pages=108|url=http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www/html/people/osler/PPM4th/OP400067.htm|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2007-07-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708201758/http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www/html/people/osler/PPM4th/OP400067.htm|dead-url=yes}}</ref> majilio ya tiba ya antibiotiki na chanjo katika karne ya²⁰ yameendeleza kuongoka.<ref name=Lancet11/>Hata hivyo katika nchi zinazostawi, na kwa wazee sana na wachanga sana na walio na [[ugonjwa sugu|wanaougua mara kwa mara]], nimonia bado ndicho kisababishi kikuu cha vifo.<ref name=Lancet11/><ref>{{cite book|last=George|first=Ronald B.|title=Chest medicine : essentials of pulmonary and critical care medicine|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=9780781752732|pages=353|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZzlX2zJMbdgC&pg=PA353|edition=5th ed.}}</ref> == Ishara and dalili == {|class="wikitable" align="right" !colspan=2| Kiwango cha kutokea kwa dalili<ref name=Tint10/> |- ! Dalili !! Kiwango cha kutokea |- | Kikohozi ||<center>asilimia 79–91</center> |- | Uchovu || <center>asilimia 90</center> |- | Kiwango cha juu cha joto || <center>asilimia 71–75</center> |- | Upungu wa pumzi || <center>asilimia 67–75</center> |- | maKohozi || <center>asilimia 60–65</center> |- | Maumivu ya kifua || <center>asilimia 39–49</center> |- |} [[File:Symptoms of pneumonia.svg|thumb|left|alt=Mchoro wa mwili wa binadamu ukionyesha dalili kuu za nimonia|300px|Dalili kuu za nimonia ya kuambukiza]] Watu walio na nimonia ya kuambukiza mara nyingi huwa na [[kikohozi|kikohozi chenye kohozi]], [[joto jingi mwilini]] pamoja na[[kutetemeka|baridi inayotetemesha]],[[upungufu wa pumzi]], [[maumivu ya kifua]] makali wakati wa kuvuta pumzi, na ongezeko la [[kiwango cha kupumua]].<ref name=BMJ06/> Kwa wazee, ishara inayoonekana sana inaweza kuwa kuchanganyikiwa. Kwa watoto chini ya miaka mitano, ishara na dalili hasa ni joto jingi mwilini, kikohozi, upumuaji wa haraka au mgumu.<ref name=Develop11/> Joto jingi mwilini si mahususi kabisa kwa sababu hutokea katika maradhi mengine mengi, na hali hii inaweza kukosa kwa walio na ugonjwa mkali sana au[[utapiamlo]]. Zaidi ya hayo, kikohozi hukosa mara nyingi kwa watoto wenye umri wa chini ya miezi miwili<ref name=Develop11/> Ishara na dalili zaidi kali ni:[[sinosisi ya kati|ngozi yenye rangi ya bluu kidogo]], kiu kilichopungua, matukutiko, kutapika kunakoendelea, halijoto iliyopungua sana au iliyozidi sana, au [[kiwango kilichopungua cha fahamu]].<ref name=Develop11/><ref name=Clinic2011/> Visa vya nimonia ya bakteria na ya virusi hujitokeza kwa dalili sawa.<ref name=WHOPrevent2012/> Visababishi vingine huhusishwa na sifa bainifu za kiafya zinazotokea sana bali zisizo maalum. Nimonia inayosababishwa na ''[[Legionella]]'' inaweza kutokea pamoja na maumivu ya fumbatio, [[kuhara]], au kuchanganyikiwa,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Darby|kwanza=J|coauthors=Buising, K|title=Could it be Legionella?|journal=Australian family physician|date=Oktoba 2008 |volume=37|issue=10|pages=812–5|pmid=19002299}}</ref> ilhali nimonia inayosababishwa na ''[[Streptokokasi numoniae]]'' huhusishwa na makohozi yenye rangi ya kutu,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ortqvist|first=A|coauthors=Hedlund, J, Kalin, M|title=Streptococcus pneumoniae: epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical features|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_seminars-in-respiratory-and-critical-care-medicine_2005-12_26_6/page/563|journal=Seminars in respiratory and critical care medicine|date=December 2005|volume=26|issue=6|pages=563–74|pmid=16388428|doi=10.1055/s-2005-925523}}</ref> na nimonia inayosababishwa na ''[[Klebsiella]]''inaweza kuwa na makohozi yenye damu ambayo mara nyingi huelezwa kama "jeli ya zambarau".<ref name=Tint10>{{cite book |author=Tintinalli, Judith E.|title=Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli))|publisher=McGraw-Hill Companies|location=New York|year=2010|pages=480 |isbn=0-07-148480-9 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref> Makohozi yenye damu (yaitwayo[[hemoptisisi]]) pia yanaweza kutokea katika [[kifua kikuu]], nimonia isiyo na gram, usaha kwenye mapafu na aidha mara nyingi katika[[bronkitisi kali]].<ref name=Clinic2011/> Nimonia ya ''maikoplasma'' inaweza kutokea kwa kuhusiana na [[limfadenopathi ya seviksi |kuvimba kwa tezi za shingo]], [[arthralgia|maumivu ya jointi]], au [[otitisi ya kati|maambukizi kwenye sikio la kati]].<ref name=Clinic2011/> Nimonia ya virusi hujitokeza sana kwa [[kukoroma]] kuliko nimonia ya bakteria.<ref name=WHOPrevent2012/> == Visababishi == [[File:Streptococcus pneumoniae.jpg|thumb|alt=Vitu vitatu vya mviringo mmoja sehemu yake ya nyuma ikiwa nyeusi| bakteria ''[[sreptokokasi numoniae]]'', kisababishi kikuu cha nimonia, ikionyeshwa kwa picha ya [[hadubini ya elektroni]]]] Nimonia hutokana hasa na maambukizi yanayosababishwa na [[bakteria]] au [[virusi]] na kwa viwango vidogo na [[kuvu]] na[[parasiti]]. Ingawa kuna zaidi ya aina 100 za ajenti za maambukizi zilizogunduliwa, ni chache tu zinahusika kwa vingi vya visa. Maambukizi yanayohusisha mchanganyiko wa virusi na bakteria yanaweza kutokea kwa hadi asilimia 45 ya maambukizi kwa watoto na asilimia 15 ya maambukizi kwa watu wazima.<ref name=Lancet11/> Huenda ajenti inayosababisha isiweze kubainishwa katika takriban nusu ya visa licha ya kupima kwa makini.<ref name=EBMED05/> Wakati mwingine neno''nimonia'' hutumika sana kwa ugonjwa wowote unaotokana na [[inflamesheni]] ya mapafu (inayosababishwa kwa mfano na [[magonjwa ya kinga nafsia]], kuchomwa na kemikali au athari za dawa); hata hivyo kwa usahihi zaidi, inflamesheni hii huitwa[[nimonitisi]].<ref name="isbn0-7234-3200-7">{{cite book |author=Lowe, J. F.; Stevens, Alan |authorlink=|editor= |others= |title=Pathology |edition=2nd |publisher=Mosby |location=St. Louis |year=2000 |page=197 |isbn=0-7234-3200-7|oclc= |doi= |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AfVxLi4QTZQC&pg=PA197|accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Snydman|first=editors, Raleigh A. Bowden, Per Ljungman, David R.|title=Transplant infections|year=2010|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-58255-820-2|page=187|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NWa4FJv-eBYC&pg=PA447|edition=3rd}}</ref> Ajenti zinazoambukiza zilikuwa zimegawanya kihistoria katika "za kawaida" na "zisizo kawaida" kwa msingi wa zilivyodhaniwa kujitokeza lakini ushahidi haujaunga mkono tofauti hii, kwa hivyo haitiliwi mkazo tena.<ref name=M32/> Hali na visababishi vya hatari vinavyopelea nimonia ni: uvutaji, ukosefu wa kinga mwilini, ulevi [[ugonjwa sugu wa kufunga kwa mapafu]], [[ugonjwa sugu wa figo]], na [[ugonjwa wa ini]].<ref name=Clinic2011/> Utumizi wa tiba zinazokandamiza asidi – kama vile [[kinza pampu ya protoni]] au [[H2 blockers]]- unahusishwa na ongezeko la hatari<ref>{{cite journal|last=Eom|first=CS|coauthors=Jeon, CY; Lim, JW; Cho, EG; Park, SM; Lee, KS|title=Use of acid-suppressive drugs and risk of pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne|date=22 February 2011|volume=183|issue=3|pages=310–9|pmid=21173070|doi=10.1503/cmaj.092129|pmc=3042441}}</ref> ya nimonia. Uzee pia hupelekea nimonia.<ref name=Clinic2011/> === Bakteria === Bakteria ndizo kisababishi kikuu cha [[nimonia iambukizayo katika jamii]], ambapo ''[[Streptokokasi numoniae]]'' ilionekana kuhusika katika takriban asilimia 50 ya visa.<ref name=Rad07/><ref name=EOP10>{{cite journal |author=Anevlavis S | coauthors = Bouros D |title=Community acquired bacterial pneumonia|journal=Expert Opin Pharmacother |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=361–74 |year=2010|monthi=February|pmid=20085502|doi=10.1517/14656560903508770 }}</ref> Bakteria zingine zinazohusika sana ni: ''[[Himofilasi influenzae]]'' katika asilimia 20, ''[[klamidofila numoniae]]'' katika asilimia 13, na ''[[Maikoplasma numoniae]]'' katika asilimia 3 ya visa;<ref name=Rad07/> ''[[Stafilokokasi aureasi]]''; ''[[Moraksela kataralisi]]''; ''[[Lejionela numofila]]'' na [[Basili isiyo na gram]].<ref name=EBMED05/> Aina kadhaa za maambukizi [[yenye ukinzani kwa dawa|yanayokinza dawa]] yaliyo hapo juu yamezidi kutokea sana, yakiwemo ''Streptokokasi numoniae'' kinzani na [[stafilokokasi aureasi-kinzani kwa methicillin]].<ref name=Clinic2011/> Ueneaji wa vimelea huendelezwa visababishi vya hatari vinapokuwa.<ref name=EBMED05/> [[Ulevi]] unahusiana na''Streptokokasi numoniae'', [[vimelea vya anerobi]] na ''Kifuakikuu cha maikobakteria''; uvutaji huendeleza athari za''Streptokokasi numoniae'', ''Himofilasi influenzae'', ''Moraksela kataralisi'', na ''Legionella numofila''. Kutangamana na ndege kunahusiana na ''[[Klamidia sitasi]]''; wanyama wa shambani na ''[[Kosiela baneti]]''; aspiresheni ya vitu vya tumboni na [[vimelea vya anerobi]]; nayo [[faibrosi ya uvimbe]] na ''[[Seudomona erujinosa]]'' na ''Stafilokokasi aureasi''.<ref name=EBMED05/>''Streptokokasi numoniae'' hutokea sana katika majira ya baridi,<ref name=EBMED05/> na inapaswa kushukiwa kwa watu wanaopumua kiasi kikubwa cha [[vimelea vya anerobi]].<ref name=Clinic2011/> === Virusi === Kwa watu wazima, [[virusi]] huchangia takriban thuluthi moja<ref name =Lancet11/> na kwa watoto taktiban asilimia 15 ya visa vya nimonia.<ref name=M31/> Ajenti zinazoshukiwa sana ni: [[virusi vya raino]], [[virusi vya korona]], [[virusi vya influenza]],[[virusi vya kupumua vya sinsitia]], [[virusi vya adeno]], na [[virusi vya parainfluenza].<ref name=Lancet11/><ref name=Viral09/> [[Virusi vya hepesi simpleksi]] havisababishi nimonia sana, isipokuwa kwa vikundi kama vile: watoto wachanga, watu walio na saratani, waliopokea ogani za mwili, na watu walio na majeraha makubwa ya moto.<ref name=Text2010>{{cite book|last=Behera|first=D.|title=Textbook of pulmonary medicine|year=2010|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Pub.|location=New Delhi|isbn=8184487495|pages=391–394|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=0TbJjd9eTp0C&pg=PA391|edition=2nd }}</ref> Watu [[waliopokea ogani]] au wale ambao kwa njia nyingine [[miili yao imepoteza uwezo wa kujikinga na maradhi]] huwa na viwango vikubwa vya nimonia ya [[virusi vya kuvimba kwa seli]]`.<ref name=M31/><ref name=Text2010/> Walio na maambukizi ya virusi wanaweza kuambukizwa tena na bakteria''Streptokokasi numoniae'', ''Stafilokokasi aureasi'', au ''Himofilasi influenzae'', hasa panapokuwa na matatizo mengine ya kiafya.<ref name=Clinic2011/><ref name=M31/> Virusi tofauti huzidi katika vipindi tofauti vya mwaka, kwa mfano katika msimu wa influenza, influenza inaweza kuchangia zaidi ya nusu ya visa vyote vya virusi.<ref name=M31/> Milipuko ya virusi vingine pia hutokea mara chache, vikiwemo ''[[virusi vya hanta]]'' na ''[[virusi vya korona]]''.<ref name=M31/> === Kuvu === Nimonia ya kuvu haitokei sana, lakini hutokea sana kwa watu [[wasio na kinga mwilini|wenye mfumo dhaifu wa kingamwili]] kutokana na[[UKIMWI]], [dawa zinazozuia utendaji kazi wa kingamwili]], au matatizo mengine ya kiafya.<ref name=EBMED05/><ref name=Fungus2009>{{cite book|last=Maskell|first=Nick|title=Oxford desk reference.|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780199239122|pages=196|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=MfEUkzQQ1BEC&pg=PA196|coauthors=Millar, Ann}}</ref> Mara nyingi husababishwa na ''[[Histoplasmosisi|Histoplasma capsulatum]]'', blastomaisesi, ''[[Kryptokokasi niofomani]]'', ''[[Numosisitisi jirovesi]]'', na ''[[Koksidiodi imitisi]]''. [[Histoplasmosisi]] hutokea sana katika [[Ghuba ya Mississippi |Bonde la mto wa Mississippi]], na [[koksidioidomikosi]] hutokea sana katika [[Kusini magharibi mwa Marekani]].<ref name=EBMED05/> Idadi ya visa imekuwa ikiongezeka katika nusu ya mwisho ya karne ya 20 kutokana na ongezeko la usafiri na viwango vya ukandamizaji kinga kwa watu.<ref name=Fungus2009/> === Parasiti === Aina tofauti za [[parasiti]] zinaweza kuathiri mapafu, zikiwemo: ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'', ''[[Strongiloidi stakoralisi]]'',''[[Minyoo mviringo]]'', na ''[[Plasmodiamu malariae]]''.<ref name=M37>Murray and Nadel (2010). Chapter 37.</ref> Vimelea hivi huingia mwilini kupitia mgusano wa moja kwa moja wa ngozi, kumeza au kupitia mdudu ambaye ni vekta.<ref name=M37/>Isipokuwa ''[[Paragonimasi westamani]]'', parasiti nyingi haziathiri mapafu hasa, bali huhusisha mapafu baadaye baada ya sehemu zingine.<ref name=M37/> Parasiti zingine, hasa zile za jenera ya ''mnyoo wa Askaris'' na''Strongiloidi '' huchochea mwitiko mkali wa [[esinofili]], ambao unaweza kusababisha [[nimonia ya kiesinofili]].<ref name=M37/> Katika maambukizi mengine, kama vile malaria, kuhusika kwa mapafu hutokana hasa na inflamesheni inayochochewa na saitokini.<ref name=M37/> Katika [[ulimwengu uliostawi]], maambukizi haya hutokea sana kwa watu wanaorudi kutoka safarini au kwa wahamiaji. <ref name=M37/> Dunani kote, maambukizi haya hutokea sana kwa wasio na kingamwili.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vijayan|first=VK|title=Parasitic lung infections.|journal=Current opinion in pulmonary medicine|date=2009 May|volume=15|issue=3|kurasa=274–82|pmid=19276810}}</ref> === Yenye asili isiyojulikana === Nimonia ya tishu za mapafu yenye asili isiyojulikana au nimonia isiyoambukiza<ref>{{cite book|first=ed. in chief Richard K. Root. Eds. Francis Waldvogel|title=Clinical infectious diseases : a practical approach|year=1999|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|location=New York, NY [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-19-508103-9|page=833|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zvCOpighJggC&pg=PA833}}</ref> ni aina ya[[ugonjwa wa mapafu unaosambaa]]. Nao ni: [[uharibikaji unaosambaa wa alveolasi]], [[nimonia ya organizing]], [[nimonia ya tishu za mapafu isiyo dhahiri]], [[nimonia ya limfosaiti ya tishu za mapafu]], [[nimonia ya kupukutika kwa tabaka la juu la tishu ya epithelia ya mapafu]], [[ugonjwa wa kupumua wa bronkiolitisi wa tishu za mapafu]], na [[nimonia ya kufanyika kunakoendelea kwa kovu kwenye tishu za mapafu]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Volume editors, Ulrich Costabel|title=Diffuse parenchymal lung disease : ... 47 tables|url=https://archive.org/details/diffuseparenchym00cost|year=2007|publisher=Karger|location=Basel|isbn=978-3-8055-8153-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/diffuseparenchym00cost/page/n4 4]|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}</ref> == Pathofisiolojia == [[File:New Pneumonia cartoon.jpg|thumb|alt=Mchoro wa mapafu ya binadamu ukiwa na mviringo mtupu upande wa kushoto ukiwakilisha alveola ya kawaida na mwingine kulia ukionyesha alveola iliyojaa kiowevu kama katika nimonia|Nimonia hujaza [[alveolasi|alveoli]] za mapafu kwa kiowevu na kuzuia oksijeni kuingia. Alveolasi iliyo upande wa kushoto ni kawaida, ilhali iliyo upande wa kulia imejaa kiowevu kutokana na nimonia.]] Mara nyingi nimonia huanza kama [[maambukizi ya sehemu ya juu ya mfumo wa upumuaji]] yanayoenea kwenye sehemu ya chini ya mfumo wa upumuaji.<ref name=PedNA09>{{cite journal|last=Ranganathan|first=SC|coauthors=Sonnappa, S|title=Pneumonia and other respiratory infections|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_pediatric-clinics-of-north-america_2009-02_56_1/page/135|journal=Pediatric clinics of North America|date=February 2009 |volume=56|issue=1|pages=135–56, xi|pmid=19135585|doi=10.1016/j.pcl.2008.10.005}}</ref> === Ya virusi === Virusi vinaweza kulifikia pafu kwa njia nyingi tofauti. Virusi vya kupumua vya sinsitia huenezwa hasa watu wanapogusa vitu vilivyoambukizwa na kisha waguse macho au pua zao.<ref name=M31>Murray and Nadel (2010). Chapter 31.</ref>Maambukizi mengine ya virusi hutokea matone kwenye hewa yaliyoambukizwa yakivutwa ndani hadi mapafuni kupitia kinywani au puani.<ref name=Clinic2011/>Virusi vinapofika kwenye sehemu ya juu ya njia ya hewa, vinaweza kwenda hadi kwa mapafu ambapo huvamia seli kwenye kuta za njia za hewa, alveoli au [[parenkaima za mapafu]].<ref name=M31/> Virusi vingine kama vya ukambi na hepesi simpleksi vinaweza kufika kwa mapafu kupitia kwa damu.<ref name=Gary2010>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=editors, Gary R. Fleisher, Stephen Ludwig ; associate editors, Richard G. Bachur ... [et|title=Textbook of pediatric emergency medicine|year=2010|publisher=Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health|location=Philadelphia|isbn=1605471593|pages=914|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=a7CqcE1ZrFkC&pg=PA914|edition=6th ed.}}</ref> Uvamizi wa virusi hivi kwa mapafu unaweza kusababisha viwango tofauti vya vifo vya seli.<ref name=M31/> Mfumo wa kingamwili ukijaribu kuitika kwa maambukizi haya, uharibifu zaidi wa mapafu unaweza kutokea.<ref name=M31/> [[Seli nyeupe za damu]], hasa [[seli za mononuklea]], kwa kawaida husababisha inflamesheni hii.<ref name=Gary2010/> Pamoja na kuharibu mapafu, virusi vingi huathiri [[ogani (anatomia)|ogani]] zingine wakati huo huo na kukatiza shughuli zingine za mwilini. Virusi pia huufanya mwili kuwa mwepesi wa kuathiriwa na maambukizi ya bakteria; kwa njia hii nimonia ya bakteria inaweza kutokea kama ugonjwa [[ambatani]]<ref name=Viral09>{{cite journal|author=Figueiredo LT |title=Viral pneumonia: epidemiological, clinical, pathophysiological and therapeutic aspects |journal=J Bras Pneumol |volume=35 |issue=9 |pages=899–906 |year=2009 |month=September |pmid=19820817|doi=10.1590/S1806-37132009000900012}}</ref> === Ya bakteria === Bakteria nyingi huingia kwa mapafu kupitia [[Aspiresheni]] ndogo ndogo za vimelea vinavyoishi katika koo au pua.<ref name=Clinic2011/> Nusu ya watu wenye afya huwa na asipiresheni hizi wanapolala.<ref name=M32/> Ijapokuwa koo huwa na bakteria kila wakati, [[kali|zenye uwezo wa kuambukiza]] huishi hapo nyakati fulani tu na katika hali fulani.<ref name=M32/> Aina chache za bakteria kama ''[[maikobkteria ya kifua kikuu]]'' na ''[[Legionella numofila]]'' hufika kwenye mapafu kwa matone madogo ya hewani yaliyoambukizwa .<ref name=Clinic2011/> Bakteria zinaweza pia kuenea kupitia kwa damu.<ref name=WHOPrevent2012/> Zinapofika mapafuni, zinaweza kuvamia nafasi zilizo kati ya seli na kati ya alveoli, ambapo [[makrofeji]] na [[nutrofili]] ([[seli nyeupe za damu]] zinazolinda) hujaribu kuzilemaza.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hammer|first=edited by Stephen J. McPhee, Gary D.|title=Pathophysiology of disease : an introduction to clinical medicine|url=https://archive.org/details/pathophysiologyo0000unse_q2x0|year=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=0071621679|pages=Chapter 4|edition=6th ed.}}</ref> Nutrofili pia hutoa [[sitokini]], na kusababisha uamsho wa kijumla wa mfumo wa kingamwili.<ref name=Fein2006>{{cite book|last=Fein|first=Alan|title=Diagnosis and management of pneumonia and other respiratory infections|year=2006|publisher=Professional Communications|location=Caddo, OK|isbn=1884735630|pages=28–29|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=hKdcHK719qgC&pg=PA28|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Hii ndiyo inayosababisha joto jingi mwilini, kutetemeka, na uchovu unaoshuhudiwa katika nimonia ya bakteria.<ref name=Fein2006/> Nutrofili, bakteria, na viowevu kutoka kwa mishipa ya damu iliyo karibu hujaa katika alveoli na kusababisha konsolidesheni ionekanayo kwa eksirei ya kifua.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kumar|first=Vinay|title=Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease.|year=2010|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=1416031219|pages=Chapter 15|edition=8th ed.}}</ref> == Utambuzi == {{listen | filename =Crackles pneumoniaO.ogg | title = Crackles | description = Crackles heard in the lungs of a person with pneumonia using a stethoscope. | format = [[Ogg]] }} Nimonia hutambuliwa hasa kwa msingi wa mchanganyiko wa ishara zinazoonekana na kwa [[eksirei ya kifua]].<ref name=Diag10>{{cite journal|last=Lynch|first=T|coauthors=Bialy, L, Kellner, JD, Osmond, MH, Klassen, TP, Durec, T, Leicht, R, Johnson, DW|title=A systematic review on the diagnosis of pediatric bacterial pneumonia: when gold is bronze|journal=PLoS ONE|date=2010-08-06|volume=5|issue=8|pages=e11989|pmid=20700510|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0011989|pmc=2917358|editor1-last=Huicho|editor1-first=Luis}}</ref>Hata hivyo, inaweza kuwa vigumu kudhibitisha kisababishi hasa, kwa sababu hakuna kipimo mahususi kinachoweza kutofautisha kati ya nimonia itokanayo na bakteria na isiyotokana na bakteria.<ref name=Lancet11/><ref name=Diag10/> [[Shirika La Afya Duniani]] limefafanua kiafya nimonia ya watoto kwa msingi wa [[kikohozi]] au upumuaji mgumu na kiwango cha haraka cha kupumua, kujivuta ndani kwa kifua, au kiwango kilichopungua cha fahamu.<ref name=WHOBook/> Kiwango cha haraka cha kupumua hufafanuliwa kama zaidi ya pumzi 60 kwa kila dakika kwa watoto chini ya umri wa miezi 2, pumzi 50 kwa dakika kwa watoto wa umri wa miezi 2 hadi mwaka 1, au zaidi ya pumzi 40 kwa dakika kwa watoto wa umri wa mwaka 1 hadi miaka 5.<ref name=WHOBook>{{cite book|last=Ezzati|first=edited by Majid|title=Comparative quantification of health risks|year=2004|publisher=Organisation mondiale de la santé|location=Genève|isbn=978-92-4-158031-1|page=70|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ACV1jEGx4AgC&pg=PA70|coauthors=Lopez, Alan D., Rodgers, Anthony, Murray, Christopher J.L.}}</ref> Kwa watoto, kiwango kilichoongezeka cha kupumua na kujivuta ndani kwa sehemu ya chini ya kifua ni [[kiwango cha hisi na umaalum|vyepesi kuhisi]] kuliko kusikiza [[milio]] ya kifua kwa [[stethoskopu]].<ref name=Develop11/> Kwa watu wazima, uchunguzi hauhitajiki katika visa visivyo vikali<ref name=BTS09/>: kuna hatari ndogo sana ya nimonia iwapo [[ishara muhimu]] zote na [[oskalitesheni ya kifua|oskalitesheni]] ni za kawaida.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Saldías|first=F|coauthors=Méndez, JI, Ramírez, D, Díaz, O|title=[Predictive value of history and physical examination for the diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a literature review]|journal=Revista medica de Chile|date=April 2007|volume=135|issue=4|pages=517–28|pmid=17554463}}</ref> Kwa watu wanaohitaji kulazwa hospitalini, [[oksimetiri ya mpwito wa ateri]], [[radiografia ya kifua]] na [[vipimo vya damu]]—vikiwemo [[hesabu kamili ya damu]], [[elektroliti za seramu]], kiwango cha [[protini inayoathiri C]] na hata [[vipimo vya utendaji kazi wa ini]]—vimependekezwa.<ref name=BTS09/> Utambuzi wa [[maradhi mithili ya influenza]] unaweza kufanywa kwa msingi wa ishara na dalili; hata hivyo, udhibitishaji wa maambukizi ya influenza huhitaji kupima.<ref name=ILI05>{{cite journal|last=Call|first=SA|coauthors=Vollenweider, MA, Hornung, CA, Simel, DL, McKinney, WP|title=Does this patient have influenza?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2005-02-23_293_8/page/987|journal=JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association|date=2005-02-23|volume=293|issue=8|pages=987–97|pmid=15728170|doi=10.1001/jama.293.8.987}}</ref> Kwa hivyo, matibabu mara nyingi hutegemea kuwepo kwa influenza katika jamii au [[Kipimo cha haraka cha utambuzi wa influenza|kipimo cha haraka cha influenza]].<ref name=ILI05/> ===Uchunguzi wa mwili === [[Uchunguzi wa mwili]] wakati mwingine unaweza kuonyesha [[hipotensheni|shinikizo la chini la damu]], [[takikadia|udundaji wa kasi wa moyo kuliko kawaida]] au [[uingizaji wa oksijeni (wa kitiba)|kiwango cha juu sana cha oksijeni]] kidogo.<ref name=Clinic2011/> Kiwango cha kupumua kinaweza kuwa haraka kuliko kawaida na hii inaweza kutokea siku moja au mbili kabla ya ishara zingine.<ref name=Clinic2011/><ref name=M32/> Kipimo cha kifua kinaweza kuwa cha kawaida lakini kionyeshe upanukaji uliopungua wa kifua kwenye upande ulioathiriwa. Sauti kali za pumuzi kutoka kwa njia kubwa za hewa zinazopitishwa kwenye pafu lililovimba huitwa upumuaji wa [[bronkasi|bronkioli]], na husikika kwa [[oskalitesheni]] kwa [[stethoskopu]].<ref name=Clinic2011/> [[milio]] (miparuzo) inaweza kusikika kwenye sehemu iliyoathiriwa wakati wa [[kuvuta hewa ndani|uvutaji pumzi]].<ref name=Clinic2011/> [[Ugongaji (matibabu)|ugongaji]] unaweza kutoa sauti iliyofifia kwenye pafu lililoathiriwa, na [[rizonansi ya sauti|rizonansi ya sauti]] iliyoongezeka badala ya iliyopungua hutofautisha nimonia na [[efusheni ya plura]].<ref name=BMJ06/> === Upigaji picha === [[File:CT scan of the chest, demonstrating right-sided pneumonia.jpg|thumb|alt=Picha yenye rangi nyeusi na nyeupe ikionyesha ogani za ndani jinsi ilivyotolewa na skani ya CT. Mahali ambapo weusi ungetarajiwa kwenye upande wa kushoto, sehemu nyeupe yenye vijiti vyeusi huonekana.|Skani ya CT ya kifua ikionyesha nimonia ya upande wa kulia (upande wa kushoto wa picha).]] [[Radiografu ya kifua]] hutumiwa mara kwa mara kwa utambuzi.<ref name=Develop11/> Kwa watu walio na ugonjwa usio mkali, upigaji picha huhitajika kwa wale tu walio na uwezekano wa kupata matatizo, wale ambao hawajapata nafuu bada ya matibabu, au wale ambao kisababishi hakijulikani.<ref name=Develop11/><ref name=BTS09>{{cite journal|last=Lim|first=WS|coauthors=Baudouin, SV, George, RC, Hill, AT, Jamieson, C, Le Jeune, I, Macfarlane, JT, Read, RC, Roberts, HJ, Levy, ML, Wani, M, Woodhead, MA, Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care, Committee|title=BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009|journal=Thorax|date=October 2009 |volume=64 |issue=Suppl 3|pages=iii1–55|pmid=19783532|doi=10.1136/thx.2009.121434}}</ref> Iwapo mtu ni mgonjwa kiasi kwamba anahitaji kulazwa hospitalini, radiografu ya kifua imependekezwa.<ref name=BTS09/> Matokeo hayalingani na ukali wa ugonjwa kila wakati na hayatofautishi kikamilifu kati ya maambuki ya bakteria na ya virusi.<ref name=Develop11/> Nimonia inavyoonyeshwa kwa eksirei inaweza kuainishwa kama [[nimonia ya lobu]], [[nimonia ya bronko]], na [[nimonia ya tishu za mapafu]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Helms|first=editors, William E. Brant, Clyde A.|title=Fundamentals of diagnostic radiology|publisher=Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9781608319114|pages=435|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=o_4eoeOinNgC&pg=PA435|edition=4th ed.}}</ref> Nimonia isababishwayo na backeria, inayoambukiza kwa jamii huonyesha [[konsolidesheni ya pafu]] ya moja ya [[Sehemu za bronkasi na mapafu|lobu ya vipande vya pafu]] inayojulikana kama nimonia ya lobu.<ref name=Rad07/>Hata hivyo, matokeo yanaweza kuwa tofauti, na mitindo mingine hutokea sana katika aina zingine za nimonia.<ref name=Rad07/> Nimonia ya aspiresheni inaweza kujitokeza na hali ya kutopitisha mwanga kwenye pande zote mbili hasa kwenye sehemu ya chini ya mapafu na upande wa kulia.<ref name=Rad07/> Radiografu za nimonia ya virusi zinaweza kuonekana kuwa kawaida, zimepanuka zaidi, zina sehemu za madoa pande zote mbili, au zinajitokeza sawa na nimonia ya bakteria yenye konsolidesheni ya lobu. <ref name=Rad07/> Huenda matokeo ya radiolojia yasiwepo mwanzoni mwa ugonjwa huo hasa kukiwa na ukosefu wa maji mwilini; au huenda ikawa vigumu kufasiliwa kwa wale walio na [[unene wa kupindukia|unene sana]], au historia ya ugonjwa wa mapafu.<ref name=Clinic2011/> [[Picha za kuchanganua]] zinaweza kutoa habari zaidi katika visa visivyo dhahiri.<ref name=Rad07/> === Mikrobiolojia === Kwa wagonjwa wanaotibiwa katika jamii, kutambua ajenti inayosababisha hugharimu sana na hakubadilishi matibabu.<ref name=Develop11/> Kwa watu wasiopata nafuu baada ya matibabu, [[ukuzaji wa vimelea vya makohozi]] unafaa kuzingatiwa, na ukuzaji wa ''[[maikobakteria za Kifuakikuu]]'' unafaa kufanywa kwa watu walio na kikohozi sugu chenye makohozi .<ref name=BTS09/> Kupimwa kwa vimelea vingine mahususi kunaweza kupendekezwa wakati wa milipuko ya maradhi kwa mujibu wa afya ya umma.<ref name=BTS09/> Kwa wale waliolazwa hospitalini kutokana na ugonjwa mkali, ukuzaji wa vimelea vya makohozi na [[vya damu]] umependekezwa,<ref name=BTS09/> na vile vile kupima mkojo kwa [[antijeni]] za ''Legionella'' na ''Streptokokasi''.<ref name=IDSA2007/> Maambukizi ya virusi yanaweza kudhibitishwa kupitia ugunduzi wa virusi au antijeni zake kwa [[kukuza vimelea au tishu]] au kipimo cha [[msururu wa athari za polima]], miongoni mwa mbinu zingine.<ref name=Lancet11/> Ajenti inayosababisha hali hii hubainishwa katika asilimia 15 tu ya visa kwa vipimo vya mara kwa mara vya mikrobiolojia.<ref name=BMJ06/> === Uainishaji === [[Nimonitisi]] ni [[inflamesheni]] ya pafu; nimonia ni nimonitisi, huwa kutokana na maambukizi lakini wakati mwingine huwa isiyo ya kuambukiza iliyo na hali zaidi ya [[konsolidesheni ya mapafu]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Stedman's medical dictionary.|url=https://archive.org/details/stedmansmedicald00sted_3|year=2006|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-6450-6|edition=28th}}</ref>Nimonia mara nyingi huainishwa kulingana na ilipopatikana au jinsi ilivyopatikana: [[nimonia inayoambukiza kwa jamii|inayopatikana kwa jamii]],[[nimonia ya aspiresheni |aspiresheni]], [[nimonia inayohusiana na huduma za afya|inayohusiana na huduma za afya]], [[nimonia inayoambukiza hospitalini|inayoambukiza hospitalini]], na [[nimonia inayohusiana na chombo cha kupitisha hewa]].<ref name=Rad07>{{cite journal|last=Sharma|first=S|coauthors=Maycher, B, Eschun, G|title=Radiological imaging in pneumonia: recent innovations|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|date=May 2007|volume=13|issue=3|pages=159–69|pmid=17414122|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3280f3bff4}}</ref> Pia inaweza kuainishwa kulingana na sehemu ya pafu iliyoathiriwa: [[nimonia ya lobu]], [[nimonia ya bronkasi]] na [[nimonia kali ya tishu za mapafu]];<ref name=Rad07/> au kulingana na kimelea kinachosababisha.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dunn|first=L|title=Pneumonia: classification, diagnosis and nursing management|journal=Nursing standard (Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain) : 1987)|date=2005 June 29-July 5|volume=19|issue=42|pages=50–4|pmid=16013205}}</ref> Nimonia kwa watoto inaweza pia kuainishwa kulingana na ishara na dalili kama isiyo kali, kali, au kali sana.<ref>{{cite book|last=organization|first=World health|title=Pocket book of hospital care for children : guidelines for the management of common illnesses with limited resources.|year=2005|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=978-92-4-154670-6|page=72|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xbkbRG5XYxsC&pg=PA72}}</ref> === Utambuzi tofauti === Magonjwa kadhaa yanaweza kujitokeza kwa ishara na dalili sawa na za nimonia kama: [[ugonjwa sugu wa kufunga kwa mapafu]], [[pumu]], [[edema ya mapafu]], [[bronkektasisi]], [[saratani ya mapafu]], na [[emboli ya mapafu]].<ref name=BMJ06/> Tofauti na nimonia, pumu na ugonjwa sugu wa kufunga kwa mapafu hujitokeza hasa kwa [[mkoromo]], edema ya mapafu hujitokeza kwa [[elektrokadiogramu]] isiyo ya kawaida, saratani na bronkektasisi hujitokeza kwa kikohozi cha kipindi kirefu, na emboli ya mapafu hujitokeza kwa mauvimu makali ya mwanzo ya kifua na [[upungufu wa pumzi]].<ref name=BMJ06/> == Uzuiaji == Uzuiaji huhusisha [[uchanjaji]], hatua za kimazingira na matibabu yafaayo ya matatizo mengine ya kiafya.<ref name=Develop11/> Huaminika kuwa kama hatua zinazofaa za uzuiaji zingekuwa zimeanzishwa kote ulimwenguni, vifo vya watoto vinaweza kupunguzwa kwa 400,000 na kama matibabu yafaayo yangepatikana kwa wote, vifo vya utotoni vinaweza kupunguzwa kwa vifo 600,000 zaidi.<ref name=WHOPrevent2012/> === Uchanjaji === [[Uchanjaji]] huzuia dhidi ya nimonia fulani za bakteria na za virusi kwa watoto na watu wazima. [[Chanjo ya influenza]] ni bora dhidi ya influenza A na B.<ref name=Lancet11/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Jefferson|first=T|coauthors=Di Pietrantonj, C, Rivetti, A, Bawazeer, GA, Al-Ansary, LA, Ferroni, E|title=Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=2010-07-07|issue=7|pages=CD001269|pmid=20614424|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001269.pub4|editor1-last=Jefferson|editor1-first=Tom}}</ref> [[Taasisi ya Udhibiti na Uzuiaji wa Magonjwa]] imependekeza uchanjaji wa kila mwaka kwa kila mtu aliye na umri wa miezi 6&nbsp; na zaidi.<ref>{{cite web|title=Seasonal Influenza (Flu)|url=http://www.cdc.gov/flu/|work=Center for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=29 June 2011}}</ref> Kuwapa wahudumu wa afya kingamaradhi hupunguza hatari ya nimonia ya virusi miongoni mwa wagonjwa wao.<ref name=IDSA2007>{{cite journal|last=Mandell|first=LA|coauthors=Wunderink, RG; Anzueto, A; Bartlett, JG; Campbell, GD; Dean, NC; Dowell, SF; File TM, Jr; Musher, DM; Niederman, MS; Torres, A; Whitney, CG; Infectious Diseases Society of, America; American Thoracic, Society|title=Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults|journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=1 March 2007 |volume=44 |issue=Suppl 2|pages=S27–72|pmid=17278083|doi=10.1086/511159}}</ref> Milipuko ya influenza inapotokea, dawa kama vile [[amantadine]] au[[rimantadine]] zinaweza kusaidia kuzuia ugonjwa huo.<ref name=jefferson>{{cite journal |author=Jefferson T | coauthors = Deeks JJ, Demicheli V, Rivetti D, Rudin M |title=Amantadine and rimantadine for preventing and treating influenza A in adults|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=3 |pages=CD001169 |year=2004 |pmid=15266442|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001169.pub2|editor1-last=Jefferson |editor1-first=Tom}}</ref> Haijulikani kama [[zanamivir]] au [[oseltamivir]] ni bora kwa sababu kampuni inayotengeneza oseltamivir imedinda kutoa data ya majaribio kwa uchanganuzi wa kibinafsi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jefferson|first=T|coauthors=Jones, MA; Doshi, P; Del Mar, CB; Heneghan, CJ; Hama, R; Thompson, MJ|title=Neuraminidase inhibitors for preventing and treating influenza in healthy adults and children|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews |date=18 January 2012|volume=1|pages=CD008965|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008965.pub3|pmid=22258996|editor1-last=Jefferson|editor1-first=Tom}}</ref> Chanjo dhidi ya ''[[Hemofilasi influenzae]]'' na ''[[Streptokokasi nimoniae]]'' zina ushahidi dhabiti wa kuunga mkono matumizi yake.<ref name=PedNA09/> Kuwapa watoto chanjo dhidi ya ''streptokokasi numoniae'' kumepelekea kupungua kwa visa vya maambukizi haya kwa watu wazima kwa sababu wengi wao hupata maambukizi kutoka kwa watoto. [[Chanjo ya polisakaraidi ya numokokasi|Chanjo ya '' Streptokokasi nimoniae'']] ya watu wazima ipo na imeweza kupunguza hatari ya [[ugonjwa vamizi wa numokokasi]]. <ref>{{citejournal|last=Moberley|first=SA|coauthors=Holden, J, Tatham, DP, Andrews, RM|title=Vaccines for preventing pneumococcal infection in adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=2008-01-23|issue=1|pages=CD000422|pmid=18253977|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000422.pub2|editor1-last=Andrews|editor1-first=Ross M}}</ref> Chanjo zingine zinazokinga dhidi ya nimonia ni: [[Chanjo ya kifaduro|kifaduro]], [[chanjo ya tetekuwanga|tetekuwanga]], na [[chanjo ya ukambi|ukambi]].<ref name=CDCPrev2012/> === Nyingine === [[Kusitisha uvutaji wa sigara]]<ref name=BTS09/> na kupunguza [[uchafuzi wa hewa]] vyumbani, kama vile kupika kwa kuni vyumbani au[[mavi|samadi]], yote yamependekezwa.<ref name=Develop11/><ref name=WHOPrevent2012/> Uvutaji wa sigara unaonekana kuwa ndicho kisababishi kikuu cha nimonia ya numokokasi kwa watu wazima wenye afya. <ref name=IDSA2007/> Usafi wa mikono na kukohoa kwenye mkono wa nguo kunaweza pia kuwa njia bora ya uzuiaji.<ref name=CDCPrev2012/> Uvaaji wa [[barakoa za upasuaji]] kwa walio wagonjwa pia unaweza kuzuia maradhi.<ref name=IDSA2007/> Kutibu maradhi fiche (kama vile [[VVU/UKIMWI]], [[kisukari melitasi]], na [[utapiamlo]]) ipasavyo kunaweza kupunguza hatari ya nimonia.<ref name=WHOPrevent2012>{{cite web|title=Pneumonia (Fact sheet N°331)|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs331/en/|work=World Health Organization|date=August 2012}}</ref><ref name=CDCPrev2012>{{cite web|title=Pneumonia Can Be Prevented — Vaccines Can Help|url=http://www.cdc.gov/features/Pneumonia/|work=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=22 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Gray|first=DM|coauthors=Zar, HJ|title=Community-acquired pneumonia in HIV-infected children: a global perspective|journal=Current opinion in pulmonary medicine|date=May 2010|volume=16|issue=3|pages=208–16|pmid=20375782|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283387984}}</ref>Kwa watoto wa umri wa chini ya miezi 6&nbsp;kunyonya bila kupewa chakula kingine chochote hupunguza hatari na ukali wa ugonjwa.<ref name=WHOPrevent2012/> Kwa walio na VVU/UKIMWI na idadi ya CD4 chini ya seli 200 kwa kila uL, antibiotiki iitwayo [[trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole]] hupunguza hatari ya ''[[Nimonia ya numosisitisi]]''<ref>{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=L|coauthors=Cattamanchi, A; Davis, JL; den Boon, S; Kovacs, J; Meshnick, S; Miller, RF; Walzer, PD; Worodria, W; Masur, H; International HIV-associated Opportunistic Pneumonias (IHOP), Study; Lung HIV, Study|title=HIV-associated Pneumocystis pneumonia|journal=Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society|date=June 2011 |volume=8|issue=3|pages=294–300|pmid=21653531|doi=10.1513/pats.201009-062WR|pmc=3132788}}</ref>huenda ikawa ni ya kufaa kwa walio na kingamwili dhaifu lakini wasio na VVU.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Green H, Paul M, Vidal L, Leibovici L |title=Prophylaxis for Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in non-HIV immunocompromised patients|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD005590 |year=2007 |pmid=17636808|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005590.pub2 |url= |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Hefziba}}</ref> Kuwachunguza wanawake wajawazito kwa [[Streptokokasi ya kundi B]] na ''[[Klamidia trakomatisi]]'', na kutoa matibabu kwa [[antibiotiki]], ikihitajika, hupunguza viwango vya nimonia kwa watoto wachanga;<ref>{{cite journal|last=Taminato|first=M|coauthors=Fram, D; Torloni, MR; Belasco, AG; Saconato, H; Barbosa, DA|title=Screening for group B Streptococcus in pregnant women: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Revista latino-americana de enfermagem|date=November–December 2011|volume=19|issue=6|pages=1470–8|pmid=22249684}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Darville|first=T|title=Chlamydia trachomatis infections in neonates and young children|journal=Seminars in pediatric infectious diseases|date=October 2005|volume=16|issue=4|pages=235–44|pmid=16210104|doi=10.1053/j.spid.2005.06.004}}</ref> mbinu za kuzuia maambukizi ya VVU kutoka kwa mama hadi kwa mtoto huenda zikafaa pia.<ref>{{cite book|title=Global Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Pneumonia (GAPP)|year=2009|publisher=World Health Organization|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2009/WHO_FCH_CAH_NCH_09.04_eng.pdf|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2013-10-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017001256/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2009/WHO_FCH_CAH_NCH_09.04_eng.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>Efusheni ya mdomo na koo la watoto wachanga waliochafuliwa kwa [[kiowevu cha amnioni]] chenye [[mekoniamu]] haijaweza kupunguza kiwango cha [[nimonia ya aspiresheni]] na huenda ikasababisha madhara,<ref name=Rog2009>{{cite journal|last=Roggensack|first=A|coauthors=Jefferies, AL; Farine, D; Basso, M; Delisle, MF; Hudon, L; Mundle, WR; Murphy-Kaulbeck, LC; Ouellet, A; Pressey, T|title=Management of meconium at birth|journal=Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology Canada : JOGC = Journal d'obstetrique et gynecologie du Canada : JOGC|date=April 2009 |volume=31|issue=4|pages=353–4, 355–7|pmid=19497156}}</ref> hivyo basi, tendo hili halipendekezwi katika hali nyingi.<ref name=Rog2009/> Kwa wazee wadhaifu, huduma nzuri ya afya ya mdomoni inaweza kupunguza hatari ya nimonia ya aspiresheni.<ref>{{cite journal|last=van der Maarel-Wierink|first=CD|coauthors=Vanobbergen, JN; Bronkhorst, EM; Schols, JM; de Baat, C|title=Oral health care and aspiration pneumonia in frail older people: a systematic literature review|journal=Gerodontology|date=6 March 2012|pmid=22390255|doi=10.1111/j.1741-2358.2012.00637.x|pages=no}}</ref> == Udhibiti == {|class="wikitable" align="right" |- !colspan=2| CURB-65 |- ! Symptom!! Points |- | '''C'''onfusion ||<center>1</center> |- | '''U'''rea>7&nbsp; mmol/l ||<center>1</center> |- | '''R'''espiratory rate>30 ||<center>1</center> |- | [[Shinikizo la damu|S'''B'''P]] <90mmHg, D'''B'''P<60mmHg||<center>1</center> |- | Age>='''65''' ||<center>1</center> |- |} Kwa kawaida, antibiotiki za mdomoni, kupumzika, dawa za [[analijesiki]], na viowevu ni bora kwa afueni kamili.<ref name=BTS09/> Hata hivyo, walio na matatizo mengine ya kiafya, wazee au walio na tatizo kubwa la kupumua wanaweza kuhitaji utunzaji wa hali ya juu. Ikiwa dalili zitaendelea kuzorota, nimonia hiyo haiwezi kuisha kwa matibabu ya nyumbani, au matatizo yatokee, huenda kulazwa hospitalini kukahitajika.<ref name=BTS09/> Kote ulimwengumi, takriban asilimia 7-13 ya visa kwa watoto hupelekea kulazwa hospitalini<ref name=Develop11/>ilhali katika nchi zilizostawi, kati ya asilimia 22 na 42 ya watu wazima walio na nimonia waliyopata katika jamii hulazwa.<ref name=BTS09/> Matokeo ya [[CURB-65]] ni muhimu kwa kuamua hitaji la kulazwa kwa watu wazima.<ref name=BTS09/> Ikiwa matokeo ni 0 au 1 watu wanaweza kudhibitiwa nyumbani kikamilifu, yakiwa 2, kulazwa hospitalini kwa muda mfupi au utunzaji zaidi wa kufuatilia wa karibu unahitajika. Yakiwa 3-5, kulazwa hospitalini kunapendekezwa.<ref name=BTS09/> Kwa watoto walio na [[Disnia|tatizo la kupumua]] au kiwango cha oksijeni chini ya asilimia 90 wanafaa kulazwa hospitalini.<ref name=PIDS11>{{cite journal|last=Bradley|first=JS|coauthors=Byington, CL, Shah, SS, Alverson, B, Carter, ER, Harrison, C, Kaplan, SL, Mace, SE, McCracken GH, Jr, Moore, MR, St Peter, SD, Stockwell, JA, Swanson, JT|title=The Management of Community-Acquired Pneumonia in Infants and Children Older Than 3 Months of Age: Miongozo ya Mazoezi ya Kimatibabu yaliyotolewa na Chama cha Magonjwa ya Watoto Ambukizi na Chama cha Magonjwa Ambukizi cha Marekani|journal=Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America|date=2011-08-31|pmid =21880587|volume= 53|issue= 7|pages= e25–76|doi=10.1093/cid/cir531}}</ref> Manufaa ya [[fiziotherapi ya kifua]] kwa nimonia bado hayajabainishwa. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Yang|first=M|coauthors=Yuping, Y, Yin, X, Wang, BY, Wu, T, Liu, GJ, Dong, BR|title=Chest physiotherapy for pneumonia in adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews |date=2010-02-17|issue= 2|pages=CD006338|pmid=20166082|doi= 10.1002/14651858.CD006338.pub2 |editor1-last=Dong|editor1-first=Bi Rong}}</ref>[[Uingizaji hewa kwa mashine|Uingizaji hewa kwa barakoa]] huenda ukawanufaisha waliolazwa kwenye [[kitengo cha wagonjwa mahututi]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Y|coauthors=Fang, C; Dong, BR; Wu, T; Deng, JL|title=Oxygen therapy for pneumonia in adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews |date=14 March 2012|volume=3|pages=CD006607|pmid=22419316|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006607.pub4|editor1-last=Dong|editor1-first=Bi Rong}}</ref>[[Dawa ya kikohozi]] ya kununuliwa madukani haijaweza kusaidiaref <ref name=Chang2012>{{cite journal |author=Chang CC, Cheng AC, Chang AB |title=Over-the-counter (OTC) medications to reduce cough as an adjunct to antibiotics for acute pneumonia in children and adults |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=2 |issue= |pages=CD006088 |year=2012 |pmid=22336815|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006088.pub3 |editor1-last=Chang |editor1-first=Christina C}}</ref> wala matumizi ya [[zinki]] kwa watoto.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haider|first=BA|coauthors=Lassi, ZS; Ahmed, A; Bhutta, ZA|title=Zinc supplementation as an adjunct to antibiotics in the treatment of pneumonia in children 2 to 59 months of age|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews |date=5 October 2011|issue=10|pages=CD007368|pmid=21975768|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007368.pub2|editor1-last=Bhutta|editor1-first=Zulfiqar A}}</ref>Hakuna ushahidi wa kutosha wa [[mukolitiki]].<ref name=Chang2012/> === Ya bakteria === [[Antibiotiki]] huboresha matokeo kwa walio na nimonia ya bakteria.<ref name=CochraneTx10/> Aina ya antibiotiki mwanzoni hutegemea hali ya mtu aliyeathiriwa, kama vile umri, afya yake wakati huo, na eneo ambapo maambukizi yalipatikana. Nchini Uingereza [[Tiba ya jarabati|matibabu ya jarabati]] pamoja na [[amoxicillin]] yamependekezwa kama awamu ya kwanza ya [[nimonia inayoambukiza katika jamii]], pamoja na [[doxycycline]] au [[clarithromycin]] kama aina mbadala.<ref name=BTS09/> [[Kaskazini mwa Marekani]], ambapo aina mahususi za nimonia inayoambukiza katika jamii hutokea sana, [[macrolide]] (kama vile [[azithromycin]] au[[erythromycin]]), na doxycycline zimechukua mahali pa amoxicillin kama awamu ya kwanza ya matibabu kwa watu wazima wasiolazwa hospitalini.<ref name=EOP10/><ref name=Lutfiyya>{{cite journal |author=Lutfiyya MN | coauthors = Henley E, Chang LF, Reyburn SW |title=Diagnosis and treatment of community-acquired pneumonia |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=442–50 |year=2006|month=February |pmid=16477891 |url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/2006/0201/p442.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> Kwa watoto walio na dalili ndogo au kiasi, amoxicillin husalia katika awamu ya kwanza.<ref name=PIDS11/> Matumizi ya [[fluoroquinolones]] katika visa visivyo tata yamewekewa vikwazo kwa sababu ya madhara yake na kusababisha upinzani kwa mujibu wa kutokuwa kwao na faida kubwa ya kimatibabu.<ref name=EOP10/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Eliakim-Raz|first=N|coauthors=Robenshtok, E; Shefet, D; Gafter-Gvili, A; Vidal, L; Paul, M; Leibovici, L|title=Empiric antibiotic coverage of atypical pathogens for community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews |date=12 September 2012|volume=9|pages=CD004418|pmid=22972070|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004418.pub4|editor1-last=Eliakim-Raz|editor1-first=Noa}}</ref>Muda wa matibabu kikawaida umekuwa siku saba hadi kumi, lakini ushaidi unaoongezeka unaonyesha kuwa yale ya muda mfupi (siku tatu hadi tano) vile vile ni bora.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Scalera NM | coauthors = File TM |title=How long should we treat community-acquired pneumonia? |journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=177–81 |year=2007|month=April |pmid= 17496577|doi= 10.1097/QCO.0b013e3280555072}}</ref> Iliyopendekezwa kwa [[nimonia inayoambukiza hospitalini]] ni awamu ya tatu na ya nne ya [[cephalosporins]], [[carbapenem]], [[fluoroquinolones]], [[aminoglycosides]], na[[vancomycin]].<ref name=HAPGuideline>{{cite journal |author=[[American Thoracic Society]]; [[Infectious Diseases Society of America]] |title=Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-respiratory-critical-care-medicine_2005-02-15_171_4/page/388 |journal=Am J Respir Crit Care Med |volume=171 |issue=4 |pages=388–416 |year=2005|month=February |pmid=15699079 |doi=10.1164/rccm.200405-644ST}}</ref>Mara kwa mara antibiotiki hizi hupewa [[kitiba ndani ya mshipa|ndani ya mshipa]] na kutumiwa kwa mchanganyiko.<ref name=HAPGuideline/>kwa wale wanaotibiwa hospitalini, zaidi ya asilimia 90 hupata nafuu baada ya antibiotiki za kwanza.<ref name=M32/> === ya virusi === [[Vizuia nuraminidesi]] vinaweza kutumiwa kutibu [[nimonia ya virusi]] inayosababishwa na virusi vya influenza ([[influenza A]] na[[influenza B]]).<ref name=Lancet11/> Hakuna tiba za [[dawa inayodhibiti virusi|kinzavirusi]] maalum zinazopendekezwa kwa aina zingine za nimonia za virusi zinazoambukiza katika jamii vikiwemo [[SARS|virusi vya korona vya SARs]], [[virusi vya adeno]], [[virusi vya hanta]], na [[virusi vya parainfluenza]].<ref name=Lancet11/> Influenza A inaweza kutibiwa kwa [[rimantadine]] au [[amantadine]], ilhali influenza A au B inaweza kutibiwa kwa [[oseltamivir]], [[zanamivir]] au [[peramivir]].<ref name=Lancet11/>Dawa hizi zina matokeo bora zikianzishwa katika saa 48 za kuanza kwa dalili.<ref name=Lancet11/> Aina nyingi za influenza A ya [[H5N1]], ambayo pia hujulikana kama [[homa ya ndege]] zimeonyesha ukinzani kwa rimantadine na amantadine.<ref name=Lancet11/> Matumizi ya antibiotiki kwa nimonia ya virusi yanapendekezwa na baadhi ya wataalam kwa kuwa ni vigumu kufutilia mbali maambukizi yanayotatiza ya bakteria<ref name=Lancet11/> [[Shirika la Kifua la Uingereza]] linapendekeza kuwa antibiotiki zisitumiwe kwa ugonjwa usio mkali.<ref name=Lancet11/> Matumizi ya [[kotikosteroidi]] yana utata.<ref name=Lancet11/> === Aspiresheni === Kwa ujumla, [[numonitisi ya kemikali|numonitisi ya aspiresheni]] hutibiwa kwa kiasi kwa antibiotiki za [[nimonia ya aspiresheni]] tu.<ref name=PA2011>{{cite journal|last=Marik|first=PE|title=Pulmonary aspiration syndromes|journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine|date=May 2011|volume=17|issue=3|pages=148–54|pmid=21311332|doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e32834397d6}}</ref> Aina ya antibiotiki itakayotumiwa itategemea mambo kadhaa, yakiwemo kimelea kinachodhaniwa kusababisha na iwapo nimonia iliambukiza kwenye jamii au katika mazingira ya hospitali. Aina zinazotumika sana ni [[clindamycin]], mchanganyiko wa [[beta-lactam]] na[[metronidazole]], au [[aminoglycoside]].<ref name=OConnor>{{cite journal |author=O'Connor S |title=Aspiration pneumonia and pneumonitis |journal=Australian Prescriber |volume=26 |issue=1 |year=2003 |pages=14–7 |url=http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/26/1/14/7 |access-date=2013-11-28 |archive-date=2009-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090709074607/http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/26/1/14/7/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Kotikosteroidi]] hutumika wakati mwingine kwa nimonia ya aspiresheni, lakini kuna ushahidi mdogo wa kuthibitisha ubora wazo.<ref name=PA2011/> == Prognosi == Kwa matibabu, aina nyingi za nimonia ya bakteria zitadhibitiwa katika siku 3-6&nbsp;.<ref name=Behera2010>{{cite book|last=Behera|first=D.|title=Textbook of pulmonary medicine|year=2010|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Pub.|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788184487497|pages=296–297|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=0TbJjd9eTp0C&pg=PA296|edition=2nd}}</ref>Huchukua majuma machache kabla ya dalili nyingi kuisha. <ref name=Behera2010/> Matokeo ya eksirei huonyesha kuisha kabisa katika majuma manne na kiwango cha vifo kupungua (chini ya asilimia 1).<ref name=Clinic2011/><ref name=C6/> Kwa wazee au watu walio na matatizo mengine ya mapafu, kupona kunaweza kuchukua zaidi ya majuma 12&nbsp;.<!-- <ref name=Clinic2011/> --> Kwa watu wanaohitaji kulazwa hospitalini, kiwango cha vifo kinaweza kuwa juu hadi kama asilimia 10 na kwa wale wanaohitaji uangalizi makini, kinaweza kufika asilimia 30-50.<ref name=Clinic2011/> Nimonia ndiyo [[maambukizi ya hospitalini|maambukizi yanayopatikana hospitalini]] yanayotokea sana yanayosababisha kifo.<ref name=M32>Murray and Nadel (2010). Chapter 32.</ref> Kabla ya majilio ya antibiotiki, kiwango cha vifo kilikuwa asilimia 30 kwa waliolazwa hospitalini.<ref name=EBMED05/> Matatizo yanaweza kutokea hususan kwa wazee na walio na matatizo mengine ya kiafya.<ref name=C6/> Haya yanaweza kuwa haya miongoni mwa mengine: [[empiema]], [[usaha kwenye mapafu]], [[kuvimba na kuziba kwa bronkioli]], [[sindromu ya matatizo makali ya upumuaji]], [[sepsisi]], na kuzorota kwa matatizo mengine ya kiafya.<ref name=C6>Cunha (2010). Pages6-18.</ref> === Kanuni za utabiri wa kiafya === Kanuni za utabiri wa kiafya zimewekwa ili kutabiri kwa usahihi zaidi matokeo katika nimonia.<ref name=M32/> Kanuni hizi hutumika katika kuamua iwapo mtu huyo atalazwa hospitalini au la.<ref name=M32/>kutabiri * [[Kielelezo cha ukali wa nimonia]] (au ''alama ya PSI '')<ref name=M32/> * Alama ya [[CURB-65]], inayozingatia ukali wa dalili, magonjwa mengine yoyote <ref>{{cite journal|last=Rello|first=J|title=Demographics, guidelines, and clinical experience in severe community-acquired pneumonia.|journal=Critical care (London, England)|year=2008|volume=12 Suppl 6|pages=S2|pmid=19105795}}</ref> === Efusheni ya plura, empiema, na jipu=== [[File:Pleural effusion.jpg|thumb|alt=Eksirei inayoonyesha kifua kilicholazwa kwa mlalo. Eneo jeusi upande wa chini ambalo ndilo pafu la kulia ni dogo na eneo jeupe chini yake la efusheni ya mapafu. Kuna mishale miekundu inayoonyesha ukubwa wazo. [[efusheni ya plura]]: inavyoonekana kwenye eksirei ya kifua. Mshale A unaonyesha kiasi cha kiowevu katika upande wa kulia wa kifua. Mshale B unaonyesha upana wa pafu la kulia. Ukubwa wa pafu ni mdogo kwa sababu ya kujikusanya kwa kiowevu kwenye pafu.]] Katika nimonia [[efusheni ya plura|kujikusanya kwa kiowevu]] inaweza kutokea kwenye [[kaviti ya plura|nafasi inayozingira pafu]].<ref name=Yu2011>{{cite journal|last=Yu|first=H|title=Management of pleural effusion, empyema, and lung abscess.|journal=Seminars in interventional radiology|date=2011 Mar|volume=28|issue=1|pages=75–86|pmid=22379278}}</ref> Wakati mwingine, vimelea vitaambukiza kiowevu hiki na kusababisha [[empiema ya plura|empiema]].<ref name=Yu2011/> Ili kutofautisha empiema na [[efusheni ya paranimonia]], kiowevu hicho kinaweza kuchukuliwa kwa sindano ([[thorasentesisi]]), na kuchunguzwa.<ref name=Yu2011/> Ikithibitishwa kuwa kuna empiema, ufyonzaji kikamilifu wa kiowevu ni muhimu, mara nyingi kwa [[tyubu ya kifua|katheta ya ufyonzaji]].<ref name=Yu2011/> katika visa vikali vya empiema huenda [[uponoaji koteksi |upasuaji]] ukahitajika.<ref name=Yu2011/> Kiowevu chenye maabukizi kisipofyonzwa, maambukizi yanaweza kukithiri kwa sababu antibiotiki hazipenyi vizuri kwenye kaviti ya plura. Ikiwa kiowevu hakina maambukizi, kinahitaji kufyonzwa ikiwa kinasababisha dalili au kinabaki kilivyo tu.<ref name=Yu2011/> Kwa hali nadra sana, bakteria kwenye pafu zitatengeneza kibonge cha kiowevu chenye maambukizi kiitwacho [[jipu la pafu]].<ref name=Yu2011/> Jipu kwenye pafu huonekana kwa eksirei ya kifua lakini mara kwa mara huitaji uchunguzi wa kielektroniki wa CT ya kifua ili kuthibitisha utambuzi.<ref name=Yu2011/>Kwa kawaida jipu hutokea katika [[nimonia ya aspiresheni]], na mara kwa mara huwa na aina nyingi tofauti za bakteria. Antibiotiki za muda mrefu hufaa mara nyingi kwa kutibu jipu la pafuni, lakini wakati mwingine ni lazima jipu hilo lifyonzwe kwa [[upasuaji|mpasuaji]] au[[Utatuzi wa kiradiolojia|mrediolojia]].<ref name=Yu2011/> === Matatizo ya upumuaji na mzunguko wa damu === Nimonia inaweza kusababisha matatizo ya upumuaji kwa kuchochea [[sindromu ya matatizo makali ya upumuaji]], inayotokana na mchanganyiko wa maambukizi na inflamesheni<!-- <ref name=M31/> -->Mapafu hujaa kiowevu kwa haraka na kushupaa.<!-- <ref name=M31/> --> Kushupaa huku pamoja na ugumu mkubwa wa kuchukua oksijeni kutokana na kiowevu cha tundu la mapafu kunaweza kuhitaji vipindi virefu vya [[uingizaji hewa kwa mitambo]] ili kuongoka.<ref name=M31/> [[Sepsisi]] ni tatizo linaloweza kutokea katika nimonia lakini hutokea tu kwa watu walio na kingamwili dhaifu au[[kiwango cha chini cha splenizimu]].<!-- <ref name=C250/> --> Vimelea vinavyohusika sana ni ''Streptokokasi numoniae'', ''Haemofilasi influenzae'' na '' Klebsiela Numoniae''.<!-- <ref name=C250/> --> Visababishi vingine vya dalili vinavyopaswa kuzingatiwa ni kama [[infakti ya miokadia]] au [[kuziba kwa ateri za mapafu]].<ref name=C250>Cunha (2010). Pages 250-251.</ref> == Epidemiolojia == [[Image:Lower respiratory infections world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|225px|alt=A map of the world with a far bit of dark-red in Africa, orange colors in parts of Asia and South America, and yellow in Europe and North America|[[Age adjustment|Age-standardized]] death rate: [[lower respiratory tract infection]]s per 100,000&nbsp;inhabitants in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html |title=WHO Disease and injury country estimates |year=2004 |publisher = [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) |accessdate=11 November 2009}}</ref> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<100}} {{legend|#fff200|100–700}} {{legend|#ffdc00|700–1400}} {{legend|#ffc600|1400–2100}} {{legend|#ffb000|2100–2800}} {{legend|#ff9a00|2800–3500}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|3500–4200}} {{legend|#ff6e00|4200–4900}} {{legend|#ff5800|4900–5600}} {{legend|#ff4200|5600–6300}} {{legend|#ff2c00|6300–7000}} {{legend|#cb0000|>7000}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Nimonia ni maradhi yanayotokea sana yanayoathiri takriban milioni 450&nbsp; za watu kwa mwaka na yanayotokea katika kila sehemu ya dunia.<ref name=Lancet11>{{cite journal|last=Ruuskanen|first=O|coauthors=Lahti, E, Jennings, LC, Murdoch, DR|title=Viral pneumonia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_april-9-15-2011_377_9773/page/1264|journal=Lancet|date=2011-04-09|volume=377|issue=9773|pages=1264–75|pmid=21435708|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61459-6}}</ref>Ni kisababishi kikubwa cha vifo katika kila rika ambapo husababisha milioni 4&nbsp; (asilimia saba ya vifo vyote duniani) kila mwaka.<ref name=Lancet11/><ref name=CochraneTx10/> Viwango ni vya juu zaidi kwa watoto chini ya miaka mitano na watu wazima walio na umri wa zaidi ya miaka 75&nbsp;.<ref name=Lancet11/> Hutokea takriban mara tano zaidi katika [[ulimwengu unaostawi]] kuliko katika[[ulimwengu uliostawi]].<ref name=Lancet11/> Nimonia ya virusi huchangia takriban visa milioni 200&nbsp;.<ref name=Lancet11/> Nchini Marekani, katika mwaka wa 2009, nimonia ilikuwa <sup>kisababishi </sup> cha 8 kati ya visababishi vinavyoongoza vya vifo.<ref name=Clinic2011>{{cite journal|last=Nair|first=GB|coauthors=Niederman, MS|title=Community-acquired pneumonia: an unfinished battle|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-clinics-of-north-america_2011-11_95_6/page/1143|journal=The Medical clinics of North America|date=November 2011|volume=95|issue=6|pages=1143–61|pmid=22032432|doi=10.1016/j.mcna.2011.08.007}}</ref> === Watoto === Katika mwaka wa 2008, nimonia ilitokea katika takriban watoto milioni 156&nbsp; (milioni 151&nbsp; katika ulimwengu unaostawi na milioni 5&nbsp; katika ulimwengu uliostawi).<ref name=Lancet11/> Ilisababisha vifo milioni 1.6 &nbsp; au asilimia 28-34 ya vifo vya waliokuwa chini ya miaka mitano, ambapo asilimia 95 vilitokea katika ulimwengu unaostawi.<ref name=Lancet11/><ref name=Develop11>{{cite journal|last=Singh|first=V|coauthors=Aneja, S|title=Pneumonia — management in the developing world|journal=Paediatric respiratory reviews|date=March 2011 |volume=12|issue=1|pages=52–9|pmid=21172676|doi=10.1016/j.prrv.2010.09.011}}</ref>Nchi zilizoathiriwa pakubwa na ugonjwa huu ni: India (milioni 43&nbsp;), Uchina (milioni 21&nbsp;) na Pakistan (milioni 10&nbsp;).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rudan|first=I|coauthors=Boschi-Pinto, C, Biloglav, Z, Mulholland, K, Campbell, H|title=Epidemiology and etiology of childhood pneumonia|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|date=May 2008|volume=86|issue=5|pages=408–16|pmid=18545744|doi=10.2471/BLT.07.048769|pmc=2647437}}</ref> Ndicho kisababishi kikuu cha vifo vya watoto katika [[nchi zenye mapato ya chini]].<ref name=Lancet11/><ref name=CochraneTx10>{{cite journal |author=Kabra SK |coauthors = Lodha R, Pandey RM |title=Antibiotics for community-acquired pneumonia in children |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=3 |issue= 3|pages=CD004874 |year=2010 |pmid=20238334 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004874.pub3 |editor1-last=Kabra|editor1-first=Sushil K }}</ref>Vingi vya vifo hivi hutokea katika kipindi cha [[mara tu baada ya kuzaliwa|uchanga]]. [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] linakadiria kuwa kimoja kati ya vifo vitatu vya watoto wachanga hutokana na nimonia.<ref name=garenne>{{cite journal|author=Garenne M | coauthors = Ronsmans C, Campbell H |title=The magnitude of mortality from acute respiratory infections in children under 5 years in developing countries |journal=World Health Stat Q |volume=45 |issue=2–3 |pages=180–91 |year=1992|pmid=1462653 }}</ref> Takriban nusu ya vifo hivi vinaweza kuzuiliwa kinadharia, kwa sababu husababishwa na bakteria ambayo chanjo yake thabiti ipo.<ref>{{cite journal |author=WHO |title=Pneumococcal vaccines. WHO position paper|journal=Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. |volume=74 |issue=23 |pages=177–83 |year=1999 |pmid=10437429 }}</ref> == Historia == [[Image:WPA Pneumonia Poster.jpg|thumb|alt=Bango lililo na papa katikati na lenye maandishi "Nimonia Hushambulia Kama Papa Mla Watu Akiongozwa na Samaki Rubani wake ambaye ni Mafua"|kushoto| bango la [[Utawala wa Maendeleo ya Kazi|UMK]], 1936/1937]] Nimonia imekuwa ungonjwa wa kawaida katika historia ya binadamu.<ref name=History03>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=Ralph D. Feigin ... [et|title=Textbook of pediatric infectious diseases|year=2003|publisher=W. B. Saunders|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7216-9329-3|page=299|edition=5th|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=G6k0tpPMRsIC&pg=PA299}}</ref> Dalili zilielezwa na [[Hippocrates]] (c. 460 BC – 370 BC):<ref name=History03/>"Kwa hivyo athari za perinimonia na kuvimba kwa plura zinapaswa kuchunguzwa: Ikiwa kiwango cha juu cha joto ni kikali, na ikiwa kuna maumivu kwa mojawapo ya pande au pande zote, na ikiwa kuna kikohozi akipumua nje, na sputa ya inayotolewa ni ya rangi ya kimanjano au samawati au vile vile iwe nyepesi, yenye povu na yenye rangi nyingi, au kuwa na sifa nyingine yoyote tofauti na za kawaida... Nimonia inapofikia upeo wake, hali hiyo huwa imezidi utatuzi asipotibiwa na ni mbaya akiwa na disnia na mkojo mwepesi na wenye harufu kali, na jasho likitoka shingoni na kichwani, kwani jasho kama hili ni baya, inavyotokana na ukosefu wa hewa, miparuzo na ukali wa ugonjwa unaokithiri".<ref name=hippo>Hippocrates ''On Acute Diseases'' [[s:On Regimen in Acute Diseases|wikisource link]]</ref> Hata hivyo, Hippocrates aliita nimonia ugonjwa "uliopewa jina na watu wa kale". Pia aliripoti matokeo ya efusheni ya ufyonzaji wa empiema. [[Maimonides]] (1135–1204 AD) alitoa wazo: "Dalili za kimsingi zinazotokea katika nimonia na zisizo na upungufu ni kama zifuatazo: kiwango cha juu cha joto kisicho kikali, maumivu ya mchomo [[ya plura]] kwenye upande, pumzi fupi za haraka, [[mpwito wa ateri]] usio wa kawaida na kikohozi".<ref name=maimo>Maimonides, ''Fusul Musa'' ("''Pirkei Moshe''").</ref> Maelezo haya ya kiafya yanafanana na yale yaliyo katika vitabu vya kiada vya kisasa na yaliangazia ukubwa wa maarifa ya kitabibu kupitia[[Enzi za kati]] hadi katika karne <sup>ya</sup> 19. [[Edwin Klebs]] ndiye aliyekuwa wa kwanza kuchunguza na kuona bakteria kwenye njia za hewa za watu waliofariki kutokana na nimonia katika mwaka wa 1875.<ref name=klebs>{{cite journal |author=Klebs E |title=Beiträge zur Kenntniss der pathogenen Schistomyceten. VII Die Monadinen|journal=Arch. Exptl. Pathol. Parmakol. |volume=4 |issue=5/6 |pages=40–488 |date=1875-12-10}}</ref> Utafiti wa kwanza uliotambua visababishi viwili vikuu vya nimonia ya bakteria''Streptokokasi numoniae'' na ''Klebsiela numoniae '' ulifanywa na [[Carl Friedländer]]<ref name=fried>{{cite journal |author=Friedländer C |title=Über die Schizomyceten bei der acuten fibrösen Pneumonie |journal=Virchow's Arch pathol. Anat. U. Physiol. |volume=87 |issue=2 |pages=319–324 |date=1882-02-04|doi=10.1007/BF01880516}}</ref> na [[Albert Fränkel (1848-1916)|Albert Fränkel]]<ref name=fraenkel>{{cite journal|author=Fraenkel A |title=Über die genuine Pneumonie, Verhandlungen des Congress für innere Medicin |journal=Dritter Congress|volume=3 |pages=17–31 |date=1884-04-21}}</ref> katika mwaka wa 1882 na 1884 mtawalia. Utafiti wa kwanza wa Friedländer ulitanguliza [[upakaji wa gram|Doa la gram]], uchunguzi wa kimsingi wa maabarani ambao bado unatumiwa kutambua na kuainisha bakteria. Makala ya [[Christian Gram]] yaliyoeleza utaratibu huu katika mwaka wa 1884 yalisaidia kutofautisha hizo bakteria mbili na kudhibitisha kuwa nimonia inaweza kusababishwa na zaidi ya kimelea kimoja.<ref name=gram>{{cite journal |author=Gram C |title=Über die isolierte Färbung der Schizomyceten in Schnitt- und Trocken-präparaten |journal=Fortschr. Med |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=185–9|date=1884-03-15}}</ref>+/` 3 [[William Osler]], anayejulikana kama, "baba wa uganga wa kisasa", alitambua vifo na ulemavu unaosababishwa na nimonia huku akiieleza kama "nahodha wa visababishi vya vifo" katika mwaka wa 1918 kwa sababu ilikuwa imezidi [[kifua kikuu]] kama mojawapo ya visababishi vikuu vya vifo wakati huo. Msemo huu ulianzishwa na [[John Bunyan]] akirejelea "uharibifu" (kifua kikuu)<ref>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=edited by J.F. Tomashefski, Jr ... [et|title=Dail and Hammar's pulmonary pathology.|year=2008|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-0-387-98395-0|page=228|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=j-eYLc1BA3oC&pg=PA228|edition=3rd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=William Osler, Thomas McCrae |title=The principles and practice of medicine: designed for the use of practitioners and students of medicine |publisher=D. Appleton |year=1920 |page=78|edition=9th |quote=[http://books.google.com/books?lr=&id=JLTgoEc9QOAC&q=Captain+of+the+Men+of+Death&pgis=1#search_anchor One of the most widespread and fatal of all acute diseases, pneumonia has become the "Captain of the Men of Death," to use the phrase applied by John Bunyan to consumption.]}}</ref> Osler pia alieleza nimonia kama "rafiki ya mzee" kwa sababu mara nyingi kifo kilikuwa cha haraka na kisicho na maumivu kulipokuwa na njia nyingi za kufa polepole zenye maumivu.<ref name=EBMED05>{{cite journal|last=Ebby|first=Orin|title=Community-Acquired Pneumonia: From Common Pathogens To Emerging Resistance|journal=Emergency Medicine Practice|year=2005|month=Dec|volume=7|issue=12|url=https://www.ebmedicine.net/topics.php?paction=showTopic&topic_id=118}}</ref> Uvumbuzi zaidi katika miaka ya 1900 uliboresha matokeo kwa waliokuwa na nimonia. Kwa majilio ya [[penicillin]] na antibiotiki zingine, mbinu za kisasa za upasuaji, na uangalizi makini wa wagonjwa katika karne^ya 20, vifo vitokanavyo na nimonia vilivyokuwa vimefika asilimia 30 vilipungua sana katika ulimwengu uliostawi. Uchanjaji wa watoto wachanga dhidi ya ''[[Haemofilasi influenzae]]'' B ulianza katika mwaka wa 1988 na kusababisha kupungua pakubwa kwa visa baadaye.<ref name=adams>{{cite journal |author=Adams WG| coauthors = Deaver KA, Cochi SL, ''et al.'' |title=Decline of childhood Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) disease in the Hib vaccine era |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_1993-01-13_269_2/page/6|journal=JAMA |volume=269 |issue=2 |pages=221–6 |year=1993 |month=January |pmid=8417239|doi=10.1001/jama.269.2.221}}</ref> Uchanjaji dhidi ya ''Streptokokasi numoniae'' kwa watu wazima ulianza katika mwaka wa 1977 na kwa watoto katika mwaka wa 2000, na kusababisha kupungua sawa.''<ref name=whit>{{cite journal |author=Whitney CG | coauthors = Farley MM, Hadler J,''et al.'' |title=Decline in invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of protein-polysaccharide conjugate vaccine|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2003-05-01_348_18/page/n41 |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=348 |issue=18 |pages=1737–46 |year=2003 |month=May |pmid=12724479 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa022823}}</ref> == Jamii na Utamaduni == Kutokana na ongezeko la ugonjwa katika nchi zinazostawi na kiwango cha chini cha uhamasishaji mdogo kuhusu ugonjwa huo katika nchi zilizostawi, jamii ya afya ya kimataifa imetenga tarehe ¹²Novemba kuwa [[Siku ya Nimonia Ulimwenguni]], siku ambapo wananchi wanaojali na watunga sera huchukua hatua dhidi ya ugonjwa huo.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Pneumonia Day Official Website|url=http://worldpneumoniaday.org/|work=World Pneumonia Day Official Website|publisher=Fiinex|accessdate=13 August 2011|archivedate=2011-09-02|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902154617/http://worldpneumoniaday.org/}}</ref> Gharama ya kiuchumi ulimwenguni ya nimonia inayoambukiza kutoka kwa jamii imekadiriwa kuwa dola bilioni 17&nbsp;.<ref name=Clinic2011/> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist|2}} == Marejeo == * {{cite book|first=John F. Murray|title=Murray and Nadel's textbook of respiratory medicine.|url=https://archive.org/details/murraynadelstext0002unse|year=2010|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=1416047107|edition=5th}} *{{cite book|last=Cunha|first=edited by Burke A.|title=Pneumonia essentials|year=2010|publisher=Physicians' Press|location=Sudbury, MA|isbn=0763772208|edition=3rd ed.|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=VVgmFAbnrUgC&printsec=frontcover}} ==Viungo vya nje== * {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Respiratory_Disorders/Pneumonia/}} [[jamii:maradhi ya kuambukiza]] [[Jamii:magonjwa ya bakteria]] [[jamii:mapafu]] 9lb9xnryi1wxzmazgsmmh76jpoq9b5u 0 69858 1580051 1578156 2026-07-17T23:29:27Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580051 wikitext text/x-wiki {{unganisha|Uzazi wa mpango}} {{Infobox disease |Name = Udhibiti wa uzazi |Image= Opened Oral Birth Control.jpg |Caption= [[Vidonge vya kuzuia uzazi]] | ICD10= | ICD9 = | ICD9unlinked = | MeshID = D003267 | LOINC= | other_codes= |MedlinePlus= | eMedicine= }} '''Udhibiti wa uzazi''' (pia '''udhibiti wa uwezo wa kuzaa''' au '''kontraseptivu''') ni juhudi za kuratibu [[uzazi]] kwa sababu mbalimbali. Upangaji, utoaji na utumiaji wa udhibiti wa uzazi huitwa [[uzazi wa mpango]].<ref name=OED2012>{{cite book|title=Oxford English Dictionary|year=June 2012 (online)|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/19395}}</ref><ref name=WHO-health-topic>{{cite web|last=World Health Organization (WHO)|title=Family planning|url=http://www.who.int/topics/family_planning/en/|work=Health topics|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)}}</ref> Kwa kuacha nafasi kati ya mimba na mimba, udhibiti wa uzazi unaweza ukaboresha matokeo ya kuzaa kwa wanawake wazima na kuishi kwa watoto wao.<ref name="pmid22784533"/> Katika ulimwengu unaokua mapato ya wanawake, [[rasilimali]], [[ukubwa wa mwili|uzito]] na [[elimu]] kwa watoto wao na afya huboreshwa kwa kupunguza idadi ya watoto. Udhibiti wa uzazi huweza kuongeza mapema [[ukuaji wa uchumi]] kwa sababu ya watoto wachache wanaokutegemea, wanawake wengi kushiriki katika [[utendakazi]], na matumizi madogo ya rasilimali haba, ingawa idadi ya watoto ikipungua mno, baada ya muda wazalishaji wachache wanabebeshwa mzigo wa kutunza wazee wengi, inavyotokea katika [[nchi zilizoendelea]]. Kwa kuwa suala hilo linahusu [[binadamu]] na [[uhai]] wake, linahitaji kukabiliwa kwa upana kuanzia maana ya [[utu]], [[mwili]], [[jinsia]], [[upendo]], [[uzazi]] n.k. Kumbe hapa zinazungumziwa tu mbinu au vifaa vinavyotumika pengine kuzuia au kuua [[mimba]], yaani [[teknolojia]] katika [[ngono]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Birth control|url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=53351|work=MedicineNet|accessdate=9 August 2012|archivedate=2012-08-06|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806234913/http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=53351}}</ref> Jambo nyeti zaidi ni suala la [[mimba]] ya [[binadamu]] kuwa binadamu tayari, kiasi kwamba nchi nyingi zinaipatia [[haki]] fulanifulani, k.mf. ile ya kurithi. Kwa msingi huo, baadhi ya watu wanatetea uhai wa binadamu kuanzia mimba ilipotungwa na kulaumu baadhi ya vifaa vya udhibiti wa uzazi kuwa viuamimba na kusababisha vifo vya mamilioni. ==Hali ya sasa== Mbinu za kudhibiti uzazi zimetumika tangu kale, lakini zile zinazofaulu zaidi zilipatikana katika [[karne ya 20]]<ref name=Hopkins2010>{{cite book|last=Hurt|first=K. Joseph, ''et al.''(eds.)|title=The Johns Hopkins manual of gynecology and obstetrics.|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-60547-433-5|page=232|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=4Sg5sXyiBvkC&pg=PR232|edition=4th|coauthors=Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland|date=2012-03-28}}</ref> zikichangia mabadiliko katika jamii na utamaduni ambayo wengine wanayaita [[mmomonyoko wa maadili]] ambao unachangia hata uenezi wa [[ukimwi]] na [[maradhi]] mengine. Ni kwamba kati ya vifaa hivyo, [[kondomu ya kike]] na [[kondomu ya kiume]] zinaweza pia kupunguza [[maambukizi]] ya [[magonjwa ya zinaa]], ukiwemo ukimwi, lakini vingine vingi sivyo. Watu wanaofanya ngono wakijua mimba haitapatikana, kwa kujisikia salama upande huo pengine wanasahau hatari ya kuambukizwa maradhi hayo.<ref name="pmid22423463">{{cite journal |last1 = Taliaferro | first1 = L. A. |last2 = Sieving | first2 = R. |last3 = Brady | first3 = S. S. |last4 = Bearinger | first4 = L. H. |title = We have the evidence to enhance adolescent sexual and reproductive health--do we have the will? |journal = Adolescent medicine: state of the art reviews |volume = 22 |issue = 3 |pages = 521–543, xii |year = 2011 |pmid = 22423463}}</ref><ref name="pmid22341164">{{cite journal |last1 = Chin |first1 = H. B. |last2 = Sipe |first2 = T. A. |last3 = Elder |first3 = R. |last4 = Mercer |first4 = S. L. |last5 = Chattopadhyay |first5 = S. K. |last6 = Jacob |first6 = V. |last7 = Wethington |first7 = H. R. |last8 = Kirby |first8 = D. |last9 = Elliston |first9 = D. B. |doi = 10.1016/j.amepre.2011.11.006 |title = The Effectiveness of Group-Based Comprehensive Risk-Reduction and Abstinence Education Interventions to Prevent or Reduce the Risk of Adolescent Pregnancy, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, and Sexually Transmitted Infections |journal = American Journal of Preventive Medicine |volume = 42 |issue = 3 |pages = 272–294 |year = 2012 |pmid = 22341164 |pmc = |url = http://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(11)00906-8/abstract |access-date = 2013-11-28 |archive-date = 2020-01-02 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200102180246/https://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(11)00906-8/abstract |dead-url = yes }}</ref> Pamoja na hayo, [[dini]] na [[tamaduni]] nyingine huchukulia mbinu hizo kuwa hazifaii kimaadili na kisiasa, na wataalamu wengine wa [[afya]] wanasisitiza madhara ya matumizi yake hasa kwa [[mwanamke]] na [[mazingira]]. Mbinu zinazofaulu zaidi kudhibiti uzazi ni kuondoa kabisa uwezo wa kuzaa kwa kumhasi [[mwanamume]], kwa [[kufunga uzazi]] kwa njia ya [[vasektomi]] kwa wanaume na [[ukataji wa neli]] kwa wanawake. Halafu kuna [[vitanzi]] (IUD) na [[vipandikizi]], [[kontraseptivu za homoni]] zikiwa ni pamoja na [[Dawa za kunywa zilizochanganywa|dawa za kunywa]], [[Doa la Kontraseptivu|doa]], [[pete ya uke]], na [[Depo-Provera|sindano]]. Mbinu nyingine zinazofaulu ni pamoja na [[Uzuiaji mimba wa kizuizi|kizuizi]] kama vile [[kondomu]], [[(kontraseptivu) za daframu|daframu]] na [[sponji ya kontraseptivu]] na [[mbinu ya mafunzo ya uzazi]]. Mbinu zinazofaulu kidogo zaidi ni [[spemesidi|dawa ya kuua mbegu]] na [[mbinu ya kukatiza ngono]] kwa [[mwanamume]] kabla hajamimina [[shahawa|mbegu]] katika [[tumbo la uzazi]]. Ufungaji uzazi, ingawa hufaulu zaidi, hauwezeshi kuurudisha tena kwa hakika; mbinu nyingine zinaweza kuurudisha, lakini mara nyingi baada ya kuziacha mwanamke anakuta utaratibu wa [[hedhi]] umeathirika.<ref name=WHO_FP2011/> Baada ya kuzaliwa kwa mtoto, mwanamke asiyenyonyesha tu anaweza kuwa mjamzito mapema kuanzia wiki nne hadi sita. Njia zingine za kudhibiti uzazi zinaweza kuanzishwa baada ya kuzaa, ilhali zingine hungoja hadi miezi sita. Kwa wanaonyonyesha mbinu za projestini tu hupendekezwa kuliko kontraseptivu za kunywa. Kwa waliofikisha [[ukomohedhi]] imependekezwa kuwa waendelezwe kwa mwaka mmoja baada ya hedhi ya mwisho.<ref name=WHO_FP2011p260>{{cite book|first=World Health Organization Department of Reproductive Health and Research|title=Family planning : a global handbook for providers : evidence-based guidance developed through worldwide collaboration.|year=2011|pages=260-300|publisher=WHO and Center for Communication Programs|location=Geneva, Switzerland|isbn=978-0-9788563-7-3|url=http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|edition=Rev. and Updated ed.|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2013-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054335/http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Udhibiti wa uzazi wa dharura]] unaweza kuua mimba hadi siku chache baada ya ngono. Tofauti na mbinu za kiteknolojia, [[sayansi]] inawezesha kuzuia mimba bila madhara kwa mwanamke ikipendekeza mbinu zinazoelekeza kufanya [[tendo la ndoa]] wakati asipoweza kupata mimba. Kati ya mbinu hizo, ya kuaminika zaidi ni ile ya kupima [[ute wa uke]] iliyogunduliwa na [[John Billings]] katika [[miaka ya 1950]] na kuboreshwa pamoja na [[mke]] wake [[Evelyn Billings]] hadi kifo chao ([[2007]] na [[2013]]).<ref name="trials">[http://www.woomb.org/bom/trials/index.html Trials of the Billings Ovulation Method] {{Wayback|url=http://www.woomb.org/bom/trials/index.html |date=20051105043554 }} The Billings Method, Dr. Evelyn Billings & Ann Westmore, 2000, p. 215.</ref><ref name="brown">[http://www.woomb.org/bom/science/ovarian.html Ovarian Activity and Fertility and the Billings Ovulation Method] {{Wayback|url=http://www.woomb.org/bom/science/ovarian.html |date=20051226124346 }}: Dr. James B. Brown, 2000.</ref><ref name="cervix">Teaching the Billings Ovulation Method, Dr E. L. Billings AM, MB BS, DCH (London), 2001.</ref> Wengine huchukulia [[kujinyima ngono]] kama njia ya kudhibiti uzazi kwa vijana, ila wengine wanaona mafundisho ya [[usafi wa moyo]] yatumiwapo bila vifaa yanaweza kuongeza mimba kutokana na udhaifu wa wahusika<ref name="pmid12065267">{{cite journal |author=DiCenso A, Guyatt G, Willan A, Griffith L|title=Interventions to reduce unintended pregnancies among adolescents: systematic review of randomised controlled trials |journal=BMJ|volume=324 |issue=7351|pages=1426 |year=2002 |month=June |pmid=12065267 |pmc=115855 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18923389">{{cite journal|last1 = Duffy | first1 = K. |last2 = Lynch | first2 = D. A. |last3 = Santinelli | first3 = J. |doi = 10.1038/clpt.2008.188 |title = Government Support for Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage Education |journal = Clinical Pharmacology &#38; Therapeutics |volume = 84 |issue = 6 |pages = 746–748|year = 2008|pmid = 18923389 |pmc = |url = http://www.nature.com/clpt/journal/v84/n6/full/clpt2008188a.html}}</ref> na wanadai kuwa [[mafunzo ya ngono]] kwa undani pamoja na upatikanaji wa vifaa hupunguza idadi za mimba zisizotarajiwa katika kundi hilo.<ref name="pmid22764559">{{Rejea jarida|last1 = Black | first1 = A. Y. |last2 = Fleming | first2 = N. A. |last3 = Rome | first3 = E. S. |title = Pregnancy in adolescents |journal = Adolescent medicine: state of the art reviews |volume = 23 |issue = 1 |pages = 123–138, xi |year = 2012 |pmid = 22764559}}</ref><ref name="pmid22764557">{{cite journal |last1 = Rowan | first1 = S. P. |last2 = Someshwar | first2 = J. |last3 = Murray | first3 = P. |title = Contraception for primary care providers|journal = Adolescent medicine: state of the art reviews |volume = 23 |issue = 1 |pages = 95–110, x–xi|year = 2012 |pmid = 22764557}}</ref> Ilhali aina zote za udhibiti wa uzazi zinaweza kutumiwa na vijana,<ref name=WHO_FP2011p260/> udhibiti wa uzazi usio wa kudumu unaotenda kazi kwa muda mrefu kama vile vipandikizi, vitanzi na pete za ukeni zinafaa kupunguza idadi ya mimba za vijana bila kuzuia uzazi baadaye.<ref name="pmid22764557"/> Takribani milioni 222&nbsp;ya wanawake wanaokusudia kuzuia mimba katika [[nchi zinazoendelea]] hawatumii teknolojia ya kudhibiti mimba.<ref name="Guttmacher2012">{{cite web|title=Costs and Benefits of Contraceptive Services: Estimates for 2012|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/AIU-2012-estimates.pdf|work=United Nations Population Fund|pages=1|format=pdf|date=June 2012}}</ref> Utumiaji wa vifaa vya kudhibiti uzazi katika nchi hizo umepunguza idadi ya [[vifo vya kina mama]] kwa asilimia 40 (takribani vifo 270,000 vilizuiwa mwaka [[2008]]) na ungezuia asilimia 70 iwapo masharti yote yangetimizwa.<ref name="pmid22784533">{{cite journal|last=Cleland|first=J|coauthors=Conde-Agudelo, A; Peterson, H; Ross, J; Tsui, A|title=Contraception and health.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_july-14-20-2012_380_9837/page/149|journal=Lancet|date=2012 Jul 14|volume=380|issue=9837|pages=149-56|pmid=22784533}}</ref> Kwa kuacha nafasi kati ya mimba na mimba, udhibiti wa uzazi unaweza kuboresha matokeo ya kuzaa kwa wanawake wazima na kuishi kwa watoto wao.<ref name="pmid22784533"/> Katika ulimwengu unaokua mapato ya wanawake, [[rasilimali]], [[ukubwa wa mwili|uzito]] na [[elimu]] kwa watoto wao na afya huboreshwa kwa kupunguza uzazi. Udhibiti wa uzazi huongeza [[ukuaji wa uchumi]] kwa sababu ya watoto wachache wanaokutegemea, wanawake wengi kushirikia katika [[utendakazi]], na matumizi madogo ya rasilimali haba. ==Mbinu== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+Chance of pregnancy during first year of use:<ref name=Hopkins2010/><ref name=CDC2013>{{cite journal|last=Division of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health|first=Promotion|title=U.s. Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2013: adapted from the world health organization selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2nd edition.|journal=MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control|date=2013 Jun 21|volume=62|issue=RR-05|pages=1-60|pmid=23784109|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6205a1.htm?s_cid=rr6205a1_w}}</ref> ! Mbinu !! Matumizi ya kawaida !! Matumizi kamili |- | No birth control || 85% || 85% |- | Combination pill || 8% || 0.3% |- | Progestin-only pill || 13% || 1.1% |- | Sterilization (female) || 0.5%|| 0.5% |- | Sterilization (male) || 0.15% || 0.10% |- | Condom (female) || 21% ||5% |- | Condom (male) || 18% || 2% |- | Copper IUD || 0.8% || 0.6% |- | Hormone IUD ||0.2% || 0.2% |- | Patch || 8% || 0.3% |- | Vaginal ring || 9% || 0.3% |- | Depo Provera || 3-6% || 0.2% |- | Implant || 0.05% || 0.05% |- |Diaphragm and spermicide || 12% || 6% |- | Withdrawal || 27% || 4% |- | Standard days method || ~12-25% || ~1-9% |- | Billings ovulation method || ~1-5% || ~0-2.9% |- | Lactational amenorrhea method || 0-7.5%<ref name=Vander2003>{{cite journal|last=Van der Wijden|first=C|coauthors=Kleijnen, J; Van den Berk, T|title=Lactational amenorrhea for family planning.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2003|issue=4|pages=CD001329|pmid=14583931}}</ref>||<2%<ref name=Blenning2005/> |} Kufaulu kwa mbinu huelezwa kama asilimia ya wanawake wanaoshika mimba wanapoitumia njia hiyo kwa muda wa mwaka mmoja<ref>{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Gordon Edlin, Eric Golanty, Kelli McCormack|title=Essentials for health and wellness|year=2000|publisher=Jones and Bartlett|location=Sudbury, Mass.|isbn=9780763709099|page=161|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=_0H4iyS_DFwC&pg=PA162|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> na wakati mwingine kama kiwango cha kufeli cha maisha kati ya mbinu zinazofaa zaidi, kama vile, [[ukataji wa neli]].<ref name=Dew2012>{{cite book|last=Edmonds|first=edited by D. Keith|title=Dewhurst's textbook of obstetrics & gynaecology|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2012|location=Chichester, West Sussex|isbn=9780470654576|page=508|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=HfakBRceodcC&pg=PA508|edition=8th ed.}}</ref> Mbinu zinazofaulu kiteknolojia ni zile ambazo hutenda kazi kwa muda mrefu na hazihitaji ziara za kuendeleza utunzaji wa afya.<ref name=Will2012/> Ufungaji wa uzazi, homoni zinazotiwa mwilini, na vifaa vinavyotiwa ndani ya uterasi huwa na kiwango cha kufeli kwa mwaka wa kwanza chini ya asilimia 1.<ref name=Will2012/> Dawa za kontraseptivu za homoni, madoa au pete, na mbinu ya lactational amenorrhea (LAM), inapotumiwa ipasavyo pia inaweza kuwa na kiwango cha kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza chini ya asilimia 1 (au kwa lactational amenorrhea (LAM), miezi ya sita ya kwanza).<ref name=Will2012/> Kwa kutumia, viwango vya kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza ni vya juu, katika kiwango cha asilimia 3-9, kwa sababu ya matumizi mabaya.<ref name=Will2012/> Mbinu zingine kama vile mafunzo ya uzazi, kondomu, daframu, na spematosidi huwa na viwango vya juu zaidi vya kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza hata kwa matumizi sahihi.<ref name=Will2012/> Ingawa mbinu zote za teknolojia ya kudhibiti uzazi zinaweza kuathiri afya, watetezi wake wanasema hatari ni chache kuliko zile za [[mimba]] hasa wakati wa kujifungua.<ref name=Will2012>{{cite book|last=Hoffman|first=Barbara|title=Williams gynecology|url=https://archive.org/details/williamsgynecolo0000unse|year=2012|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|location=New York|isbn=978-0071716727|page=Chapter 5|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Baada ya kuacha au kutoa njia nyingi za kudhibiti uzazi, pamoja na kontraseptivu za kunywa, IUD, dawa za kutia mwilini na sindano, idadi ya mimba kwa miaka inayofuata ni sawa na wasiotumia udhibiti wa uzazi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mansour|first=D|coauthors=Gemzell-Danielsson, K; Inki, P; Jensen, JT|title=Fertility after discontinuation of contraception: a comprehensive review of the literature|journal=Contraception|date=2011 Nov|volume=84|issue=5|pages=465–77|pmid=22018120|doi=10.1016/j.contraception.2011.04.002|ref=harv}}</ref> Kwa walio na matatizo maalumu ya afya, mbinu za kudhibiti uzazi zinaweza kuhitaji uchunguzi zaidi.<ref name=WHO2009_10/> Kwa kina mama wenye afya, njia nyingi za kudhibiti uzazi hazipaswi kufanyiwa [[uchunguzi wa tiba]] ikiwa ni pamoja na dawa za kudhibiti uzazi, udhibiti wa uzazi unaoweza kudungwa au kutiwa mwilini, na kondomu.<ref>{{cite book|last=Department of Reproductive Health and Research, Family and Community|title=Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use.|year=2004|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=9241562846|page=Chapter 31|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241562846.pdf|edition=2 ed.|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2013-07-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718091826/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241562846.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Hasa, [[uchunguzi wa pelvisi]], [[uchunguzi wa matiti]], au uchunguzi wa damu kabla ya kutumia dawa za kudhibiti uzazi hauonekani kuathiri matokeo na hivyo hauhitajiki.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tepper|first=NK|coauthors=Curtis, KM; Steenland, MW; Marchbanks, PA|title=Physical examination prior to initiating hormonal contraception: a systematic review.|journal=Contraception|date=2013 May|volume=87|issue=5|pages=650-4|pmid=23121820}}</ref><ref name=WHO_FP2011p10/> [[Shirika la Afya Ulimwenguni]] katika 2009 lilichapisha kwa undani orodha ya njia ya tiba ya kubaini kufaulu kwa kila aina ya udhibiti wa uzazi.<ref name=WHO2009_10>{{cite book|last=Organization|first=World Health|title=Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use|year=2009|publisher=Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=9789241563888|page=1-10|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563888_eng.pdf|edition=4th ed.|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2012-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709230021/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563888_eng.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Homoni=== [[Kontraseptivu za homoni]] hutenda kazi kwa kuzuia [[uovuleshaji]] na [[utungaji mimba wa binadamu|utungaji mimba]].<ref name="Nelson 2011">{{cite book|last1=Nelson|first1=Anita L.|last2=Cwiak|first2=Carrie|year=2011|chapter=Combined oral contraceptives (COCs)|editor1-last=Hatcher|editor1-first=Robert A.|editor2-last=Trussell|editor2-first=James|editor3-last=Nelson|editor3-first=Anita L.|editor4-last=Cates|editor4-first=Willard Jr.|editor5-last=Kowal|editor5-first=Deborah|editor6-last=Policar|editor6-first=Michael S. (eds.)|title=Contraceptive technology|edition=20th revised|location=New York|publisher=Ardent Media|pages=249–341|isbn=978-1-59708-004-0|issn=0091-9721|oclc=781956734}}</ref> Hupatikana kwa aina tofautitofauti ikiwa ni pamoja na [[kontraseptivu za kunywa |tembe za kunywa]], dawa za kutia mwilini chini ya ngozi, [[kontraseptivu za kudungwa |sindano]], [[kontraseptivu za doa|madoa]], [[IUD za homoni |IUD]] na [[Pete ya uke]]. Kwa sasa zinazopatikana ni za wanawake tu. Kuna aina mbili za dawa za kunywa [[Tembe za kontraseptivu za kunywa zilizochanganywa]] na [[tembe zilizo na projestojeni tu]].<ref name="Ammer 2009a">{{cite book|last=Ammer|first=Christine|year=2009|chapter=oral contraceptive|title=The encyclopedia of women's health|edition=6th|location=New York|publisher=Facts On File|isbn=978-0-8160-7407-5|pages=312–315|chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=_MRDimrELCIC&pg=PA312&vq=oral+contraceptive}}</ref>Zinapotumiwa wakati wa ujauzito, haziongezi hatari ya [[kuharibika kwa mimba]] wala kusababisha [[matatizo ya kuzaa]].<ref name=WHO_FP2011p10/> <!--Zilizochanganywa--> Kontraseptivu za homoni zilizochanganywa huhusishwa kidogo na ongezeko la [[thrombasi ya vena|vena]] na [[thrombasi ya ateri|madonge ya damu ya ateri]]; hata hivyo, hatari ni kidogo kuliko inayohusishwa na mimba.<ref name=Review2011>{{cite journal|last=Brito|first=MB|coauthors=Nobre, F, Vieira, CS|title=Hormonal contraception and cardiovascular system|journal=Arquivos brasileiros de cardiologia|date=2011 Apr|volume=96|issue=4|pages=e81–9|pmid=21359483|doi=10.1590/S0066-782X2011005000022|ref=harv}}</ref> Kwa sababu ya hatari, hazipendekezwi kwa wanawake walio na umri wa zaidi ya miaka 35&nbsp;amabao huendelea kuvuta [[sigara]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kurver|first=MJ|coauthors=van der Wijden, CL; Burgers, J|title=[Summary of the Dutch College of General Practitioners' practice guideline 'Contraception'].|journal=Nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde|date=2012|volume=156|issue=41|pages=A5083|language=Ducth|pmid=23062257}}</ref> Athari kwa hamu ya kufanya ngono hutofautiana, huku kukiwa na ongezeko au kupungua kwa wachache lakini hakuna athari kwa wengi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Burrows|first=LJ|coauthors=Basha, M; Goldstein, AT|title=The effects of hormonal contraceptives on female sexuality: a review.|journal=The journal of sexual medicine|date=2012 Sep|volume=9|issue=9|pages=2213-23|pmid=22788250}}</ref> Kontraseptivu za kunywa zilizochanganywa hupunguza hatari ya [[saratani ya ovari]] na [[saratani ya endometriu]] na haibadilishi hatari ya [[saratani ya matiti]].<ref name=Shulman2011/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Havrilesky|first=LJ|coauthors=Moorman, PG; Lowery, WJ; Gierisch, JM; Coeytaux, RR; Urrutia, RP; Dinan, M; McBroom, AJ; Hasselblad, V; Sanders, GD; Myers, ER|title=Oral Contraceptive Pills as Primary Prevention for Ovarian Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_obstetrics-and-gynecology_2013-07_122_1/page/139|journal=Obstetrics and gynecology|date=2013 Jul|volume=122|issue=1|pages=139-147|pmid=23743450}}</ref> Mara nyingi hubadilisha hedhi na [[dismenorea|mkakamao wa hedhi uliyo na maumivu]].<ref name=WHO_FP2011p10>{{cite book|first=World Health Organization Department of Reproductive Health and Research|title=Family planning : a global handbook for providers : evidence-based guidance developed through worldwide collaboration.|year=2011|pages=1-10|publisher=WHO and Center for Communication Programs|location=Geneva, Switzerland|isbn=978-0-9788563-7-3|url=http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|edition=Rev. and Updated ed.|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2013-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054335/http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Dozi za chini za estrojeni zinazopatikana kwenye pete ya ukeni zinaweza kupunguza hatari ya uchungu wa matiti, [[kichefuchefu]], na maumivu ya kichwa yanayohusishwa na bidhaa zilizo na dozi ya juu ya estrojeni.<ref name=Shulman2011>{{cite journal|last=Shulman|first=LP|title=The state of hormonal contraception today: benefits and risks of hormonal contraceptives: combined estrogen and progestin contraceptives.|journal=American journal of obstetrics and gynecology|date=2011 Oct|volume=205|issue=4 Suppl|pages=S9-13|pmid=21961825}}</ref> <!--Progestini--> [[Tembe zilizo na projestini tu]], sindano na vifaa vya kuzuia mimba vinavyotiwa ndani ya uterasi havihusishwi na ongezeko la hatari ya kuganda kwa damu na vinaweza kutumiwa na wanawake waliokuwa na mgando wa damu hapo awali katika vena zao.<ref name=Review2011/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Mantha|first=S.|coauthors=Karp, R.; Raghavan, V.; Terrin, N.; Bauer, K. A.; Zwicker, J. I.|title=Assessing the risk of venous thromboembolic events in women taking progestin-only contraception: a meta-analysis|journal=BMJ|date=7 August 2012|volume=345|issue=aug07 2|pages=e4944–e4944|doi=10.1136/bmj.e4944|ref=harv|pmid=22872710|pmc=3413580}}</ref> Kwa walio na historia ya kuganda kwa damu katika ateri, mbinu za kudhibiti uzazi zisizo na homoni au zilizo na projestini tu kando na zile za sindano zinapaswa kutumiwa.<ref name=Review2011/> Tembe zilizo na projestini tu zinaweza kuboresha dalili za hedhi na zinaweza kutumiwa na kina mama wanaonyonyesha kwa kuwa haziathiri [[unyonyeshaji|kutengenezwa kwa maziwa]].<!-- <ref name="pmid21961819"/> -->Hedhi isiofuatana inaweza kushuhudiwa kwa kutumia njia zilizo na projestini tu, huku baadhi ya wanaotumia wakiripoti [[amenorea|kutopata hedhi]].<ref name="pmid21961819">{{cite journal|last=Burke|first=AE|title=The state of hormonal contraception today: benefits and risks of hormonal contraceptives: progestin-only contraceptives.|journal=American journal of obstetrics and gynecology|date=2011 Oct|volume=205|issue=4 Suppl|pages=S14-7|pmid=21961819}}</ref> Projestini, [[drospirenoni]] na [[desogestreli]] hupunguza athari za [[androjeni]] lakini huongeza hatari ya kuganda kwa damu na hivyo haifai sana.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rott|first=H|title=Thrombotic risks of oral contraceptives.|journal=Current opinion in obstetrics & gynecology|date=2012 Aug|volume=24|issue=4|pages=235-40|pmid=22729096}}</ref> Kiwango cha kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza kwa projestini ya sindano, [[Depo-Provera]], hakijaafikiwa huku idadi ikiwa kutoka asilimia 1<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]]|year=2005|title=Depo-Provera U.S. Prescribing Information|url=http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2005/020246s013lbl.pdf|accessdate=2007-06-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070615203907/http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2005/020246s013lbl.pdf|archivedate=2007-06-15}}</ref>hadi asilimia 6.<ref name=Will2012/> ===Kizuizi=== [[File:Kondom.jpg|thumb|[[kondomu]] ya wanaume iliyofunguliwa.]] [[Kontraseptivu za kizuizi]] ni vifaa vinavyojaribu kuzuia [[mimba]] kwa kuzuia [[mbegu ya kiume]] kuingia katika [[uterasi]].<ref name=Neinstein2008/> Huwa ni pamoja na [[kondomu ya kiume]], [[kondomu ya kike]], [[kofia ya seviksi]], [[daframu (kontraseptivu)|daframu]], na [[sponji ya kontraseptivu]] iliyo na [[spemisidi]].<ref name=Neinstein2008>{{cite book|last=Neinstein|first=Lawrence|title=Adolescent health care : a practical guide|year=2008|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781792561|page=624|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=XIzo5uo3XIQC&pg=PA624|edition=5th ed.}}</ref> Ulimwenguni, kondomu ndiyo njia ya kawaida sana ya kudhibiti uzazi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chaudhuri|title=Practice Of Fertility Control: A Comprehensive Manual|year=2007|publisher=Elsevier India|isbn=9788131211502|page=88|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=pzanxKlcU74C&pg=PA88|edition=7th}}</ref>[[Kondomu ya kiume]] huvalishwa kwa [[uume]] iliyosimama na kuzuia mbegu za kiume zilizotolewa kuingia mwili wa anayefanya ngono naye.<ref name=Hamil2012/> Kondomu za kisasa mara nyingi hutengenezwa kwa [[lateksi]], lakini nyingine hutengenezwa kwa nyenzo kama vile [[polyurethane]], au matumbo ya [[kondoo]].<ref name=Hamil2012>{{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Richard|title=Pharmacology for nursing care|publisher=Elsevier/Saunders|location=St. Louis, Mo.|isbn=9781437735826|page=799|year=2012|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=_4SwO2dHcAIC&pg=PA799|edition=8th ed.}}</ref> [[Kondomu ya kike]] pia hupatikana, mara nyingi iliyotengenezwa kwa [[nitrile]], lateksi au poliyourethani.<ref>{{cite book|title=Facts for life|year=2010|publisher=United Nations Children's Fund|location=New York|isbn=9789280644661|page=141|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=GAFgWda-2NMC&pg=PA141|edition=4th ed.}}</ref> Kondomu za kiume huwa na faida kwa sababu ni bei nafuu, rahisi kutumika, na huwa na athari chache.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pray|first=Walter Steven|title=Nonprescription product therapeutics|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781734981|page=414|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=XU1sMK1djVAC&pg=PA414|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Nchini [[Japani]] takribani asilimia 80 ya wachumba wanaotumia udhibiti wa uzazi hutumia kondomu ilhali nchini [[Ujerumani]] kiwango hiki ni takribani asilimia 25,<ref name=Ebe2010>{{cite book|last=Eberhard|first=Nieschlag,|title=Andrology Male Reproductive Health and Dysfunction|year=2010|publisher=Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg|location=[S.l.]|isbn=9783540783558|page=563|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=mEgckDNkonUC&pg=PA563|edition=3rd ed.}}</ref> na nchini [[Marekani]] ni asilimia 18.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barbieri|first=Jerome F.|title=Yen and Jaffe's reproductive endocrinology : physiology, pathophysiology, and clinical management|year=2009|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=9781416049074|page=873|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=NudwnhxY8kYC&pg=PA873|edition=6th ed.}}</ref> Kondomu za wanaume na daframu iliyo na spemisidi huwa na kiwango sawa cha kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza kwa asilimia 15 na 16 mtawalia.<ref name=Hopkins2010/> Inapotumiwa ipasavyo huwa bora zaidi ikiwa na kiwango cha kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza kwa asilimia 2 huku daframu ikiwa na kiwango cha kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza kwa asilimia 6.<ref name=Hopkins2010/> Kondomu huwa na faida nyingine ya kusaidia kuzuia kuenea kwa maambukizi mengine ya ngono kama vile [[VVU/UKIMWI]].<ref name=WHO_FP2011>{{cite book|first=World Health Organization Department of Reproductive Health and Research|title=Family planning : a global handbook for providers : evidence-based guidance developed through worldwide collaboration.|year=2011|publisher=WHO and Center for Communication Programs|location=Geneva, Switzerland|isbn=978-0-9788563-7-3|url=http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|edition=Rev. and Updated ed.|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2013-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054335/http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Sponji za kontraseptivu huunganisha kizuizi na spemisidi.<ref name=Will2012/> Kama daframu, huingizwa ukeni kabla ya ngono na inapaswa kuwekwa juu ya [[seviksi]] kwa matokeo bora.<ref name=Will2012/> Kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza hulingana na iwapo mwanamke amewahi kuzaa au la, ikiwa asilimia 24 kwa wale wamewahi kuzaa na asilimia 12 kwa wale hawajawahi kuzaa.<ref name=Will2012/> Sponji inaweza kuingizwa hadi masaa 24&nbsp; kabla ya kufanya ngono na inapaswa kuachwa pale kwa angalau masaa sita baadaye.<ref name=Will2012/> Athari ya aleji<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kuyoh|first=MA|coauthors=Toroitich-Ruto, C; Grimes, DA; Schulz, KF; Gallo, MF|title=Sponge versus diaphragm for contraception: a Cochrane review.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_contraception_2003-01_67_1/page/15|journal=Contraception|date=2003 Jan|volume=67|issue=1|pages=15-8|pmid=12521652}}</ref> na athari zingine kali kama vile [[sindromu ya mshtuko wa sumu]] zimeripotiwa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Organization|first=World Health|title=Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use|year=2009|publisher=Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=9789241563888|page=88|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=pouTfH33wF8C&pg=PA88|edition=4th ed.}}</ref> ===Vitanzi=== [[Vitanzi]] (IUD) huwa vifaa vidogo vilivyo na umbo la 'T'-, ambavyo huwa na shaba au levonorgestrel, iliyoingizwa ndani ya uterasi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Chaudhuri|title=Practice Of Fertility Control: A Comprehensive Manual (7Th Edition)|year=2007|publisher=Elsevier India|isbn=9788131211502|page=95|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=pzanxKlcU74C&pg=PA95}}</ref> Ni aina ya [[udhibiti wa uzazi wa muda mrefu]]. Kiwango cha kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza kwa kutumia IUD ya shaba ni takribani asilimia 0.8 ilhali IUD ya levonorgestrel huwa na kiwango cha kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza cha asilimia 0.2.<ref name=Hopkins2010/> Kati ya aina za kudhibiti uzazi pamoja na dawa zinazotiwa mwilini matokeo yake huwa ya kuridhisha kwa wanaotumia<ref name=Comm2012>{{cite journal|last=Committee on Adolescent Health Care Long-Acting Reversible Contraception Working Group, The American College of Obstetricians and|first=Gynecologists|title=Committee opinion no. 539: adolescents and long-acting reversible contraception: implants and intrauterine devices.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_obstetrics-and-gynecology_2012-10_120_4/page/983|journal=Obstetrics and gynecology|date=2012 Oct|volume=120|issue=4|pages=983-8|pmid=22996129}}</ref>, hasa kwa vijana<ref name=Comm2012/> na wale ambao hawajawahi kuzaa.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Black|first=K|coauthors=Lotke, P; Buhling, KJ; Zite, NB; Intrauterine contraception for Nulliparous women: Translating Research into Action (INTRA), group|title=A review of barriers and myths preventing the more widespread use of intrauterine contraception in nulliparous women.|journal=The European journal of contraception & reproductive health care : the official journal of the European Society of Contraception|date=2012 Oct|volume=17|issue=5|pages=340-50|pmid=22834648}}</ref> IUD haziathiri [[unyonyeshaji]] na zinaweza kuingishwa baada ya kuzaa.<ref name=Gabbe2012>{{cite book|last=Gabbe|first=Steven|title=Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies|year=2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9781455733958|page=527|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=x3mJpT2PkEUC&pg=PA527}}</ref> Zinaweza pia kutumiwa baada ya [[uavyaji mimba]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Steenland|first=MW|coauthors=Tepper, NK; Curtis, KM; Kapp, N|title=Intrauterine contraceptive insertion postabortion: a systematic review.|journal=Contraception|date=2011 Nov|volume=84|issue=5|pages=447-64|pmid=22018119}}</ref> Zinapotolewa, hata baada ya kutumika kwa muda mrefu, uwezo wa kuzaa hurudi kama kawaida mara moja.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hurd|first=[edited by] Tommaso Falcone, William W.|title=Clinical reproductive medicine and surgery|year=2007|publisher=Mosby|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780323033091|page=409|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=fOPtaEIKvcIC&pg=PA409}}</ref> Ilhali IUD za shaba zinaweza kuongeza hedhi na kusababisha mikakamo iliyo na maumivu zaidi,<ref name=Grimes2007>{{Rejea jarida | author = Grimes, D.A., MD | title = "Intrauterine Devices (IUDs)" In:Hatcher, RA; Nelson, TJ; Guest, F; Kowal, D | journal = Contraceptive Technology 19th ed. | location = New York |publisher = Ardent Media | year = 2007 }}</ref> IUD za homoni zinaweza kupunguza hedhi au kutokuwepo kwa hedhi yote kwa pamoja.<ref name=Gabbe2012/> Athari nyingine zinaweza kuwa ni pamoja na kutoka (asilimia 2 hadi 5) &ndash; na kwa nadra, kushuka kwa uterasi (chini ya asilimia 0.7).<ref name=Gabbe2012/><ref name=Marnach2013>{{cite journal|last=Marnach|first=ML|coauthors=Long, ME; Casey, PM|title=Current issues in contraception.|journal=Mayo Clinic proceedings. Mayo Clinic|date=2013 Mar|volume=88|issue=3|pages=295-9|pmid=23489454}}</ref> Kuwa na mikakamo kunaweza kutibiwa kwa [[NSAID]].<ref name=Marnach2013/> Matatizo mengine yanazidi kujitokeza <ref>https://www.mwananchi.co.tz/mw/habari/makala/afya/madaktari-wataja-sababu-kitanzi-kupotelea-mwilini-4436504</ref>. Kufikia 2007, IUD ndizo aina za kudhibiti uzazi zisizo za kudumu zinazotumika sana, zikiwa na zaidi ya watu milioni 180&nbsp;wanaozitumia kote ulimwenguni.<ref name=Darney2010>{{cite book|last=Darney|first=Leon Speroff, Philip D.|title=A clinical guide for contraception|year=2010|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia, Pa.|isbn=9781608316106|page=242-243|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=f5XJtYkiJ0YC&pg=PT425|edition=5th ed.}}</ref><ref name=Darroch2013/> Hapo awali aina ya kifaa kinachotiwa ndani ya uterasi ([[Kinga ya Dalkon]]) kilihusishwa na ongezeko la hatari ya [[ugonjwa wa inflamesheni ya pelvisi]]; hata hivyo, hatari haihusishwi na aina za kisasa kwa wale wasio na maambukizi ya zinaa karibu na wakati wa kuingishwa.<ref name="guttmacher2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/10/4/gpr100419.html|title=Popularity Disparity: Attitudes About the IUD in Europe and the United States|publisher=Published by[http://www.guttmacher.org/archive/GPR.jspGuttmacher Policy Review] Published Fall 2007|accessdate=2010-04-27|archive-date=2010-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307124351/http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/10/4/gpr100419.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Kufunga uzazi=== [[Ufungaji uzazi kwa upasuaji]] hupatikana kwa njia ya [[kufunga uzazi]] kwa wanawake na [[vasektomi]] kwa wanaume.<ref name=Hopkins2010/> Hakuna athari kuu za muda mrefu, na kufunga uzazi hupunguza hatari ya [[saratani ya ovari]].<ref name=Hopkins2010/> uwezekano wa athari za muda mfupi zinazotokana na vasektomi huwa chini ya mara ishirini na tano kuliko ufungaji uzazi wa mwanamke.<ref name=Hopkins2010/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Adams CE, Wald M |title=Risks and complications of vasectomy |journal=Urol. Clin. North Am. |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=331–6|year=2009 |month=August |pmid=19643235 |doi=10.1016/j.ucl.2009.05.009 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_urologic-clinics-of-north-america_2009-08_36_3/page/331}}</ref> Baada ya vasektomi kunaweza kuwa na uvimbe na maumivu ya korodani ambayo kwa kawaida huisha baada ya wiki moja au mbili.<ref>{{cite book |author=Hillard, Paula Adams |title=The 5-minute obstetrics and gynecology consult |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2008 |pages=265 |isbn=0-7817-6942-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=fOoFIQOdIhkC&pg=PA265}}</ref> Kwa kufunga uzazi wa mwanamke athari hutokea kwa asilimia 1 hadi 2 za taratibu kukiwa na athari kali kwa kawaida zinazosababishwa na [[ganzi]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Hillard, Paula Adams |title=The 5-minute obstetrics and gynecology consult |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2008 |pages=549 |isbn=0-7817-6942-6|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=fOoFIQOdIhkC&pg=PA549}}</ref> Kati ya mbinu hizi hakuna inayokinga dhidi ya maambukizi ya zinaa.<ref name=Hopkins2010/> Wanawake wengine hujuta baadaye: takribani asilimia 5 ya walio na umri wa zaidi ya 30, na takribani asilimia 20 walio na umri wa chini ya 30 .<ref name=Hopkins2010/> Wanaume huwa na uwezekano mdogo wa kujuta kwa sababu ya ufungaji uzazi (<asilimia5); huku walio na umri mdogo, walio na watoto wachanga au bila, na ndoa zinazoyumbayumba zikiongeza hatari.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hatcher|first=Robert|title=Contraceptive technology|year=2008|publisher=Ardent Media|location=New York, N.Y.|isbn=9781597080019|page=390|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=txh0LpjjhkoC&pg=PA390|edition=19th ed.}}</ref> Katika uchunguzi mmoja wa watu waliowahi kuwa na watoto, asilimia 9 walisema kuwa hawangepata watoto tena iwapo wangefunga uzazi tena.<ref>{{cite book|last=Moore|first=David S.|title=The basic practice of statistics|year=2010|publisher=Freeman|location=New York|isbn=9781429224260|page=25|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=JOMQKI8zj_EC&pg=PR25|edition=5th ed.}}</ref> Ingawaje ufungaji uzazi huchukuliwa kuwa utaratibu wa kudumu,<ref name=Deff2011/> inawezekana kujaribu [[kurejesha uzazi]] kwa kuunganisha tena [[neli ya falopia]] au [[kupindua vasektomi]] ili kutoa [[vasa diferentia]]. Hamu ya wanawake kutaka kurejesha huhusishwa mara nyingi na kubadilisha kwa mwanamume.<ref name=Deff2011/> Viwango vya kufaulu kupata mimba baada ya kurejesha uzazi huwa kati ya asilimia 31 hadi 88, huku athari ikiwa ni pamoja na ongezeko la hatari ya [[mimba bandia]].<ref name=Deff2011>{{cite journal|last=Deffieux|first=X|coauthors=Morin Surroca, M; Faivre, E; Pages, F; Fernandez, H; Gervaise, A|title=Tubal anastomosis after tubal sterilization: a review.|journal=Archives of gynecology and obstetrics|date=2011 May|volume=283|issue=5|pages=1149-58|pmid=21331539}}</ref> Idadi ya wanaume ambao huomba kurejesha ni kati ya asilimia 2 na 6.<ref name=Shri2010>{{cite journal|last=Shridharani|first=A|coauthors=Sandlow, JI|title=Vasectomy reversal versus IVF with sperm retrieval: which is better?|journal=Current opinion in urology|date=2010 Nov|volume=20|issue=6|pages=503-9|pmid=20852426}}</ref> Kiwango cha mwanaume kufaulu kupata mtoto mwingine baada ya kurejesha ni kati ya asilimia 38 na 84; huku kiwango cha kufaulu kikiwa chini kulingana na muda kati ya utaratibu wa kwanza na kurejesha.<ref name=Shri2010/> [[Kutolewa kwa mbegu za kiume]] kukifuatiwa na [[utungisho katika vitro]] pia kunaweza kuwa njia nyingine.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nagler|first=HM|coauthors=Jung, H|title=Factors predicting successful microsurgical vasectomy reversal.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_urologic-clinics-of-north-america_2009-08_36_3/page/383|journal=The Urologic clinics of North America|date=2009 Aug|volume=36|issue=3|pages=383-90|pmid=19643240}}</ref> ===Mbinu za kitabia=== Mbinu za kitabia ni pamoja na kufanya ngono kwa kuzuia mbegu kuingia katika njia ya uzazi ya mwanamke, wakati wowote au wakati kuna uwezekano wa kuwepo kwa kijiyai.<ref name=Grim2004/> Inapotumiwa ipasavyo kiwango cha kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza kinaweza kuwa takribani asilimia 3.4, hata hivyo, isipotumiwa ipasavyo viwango vya kufeli mwaka wa kwanza vinaweza kuwa takribani asilimia 85.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Ruth|title=Breastfeeding : a guide for the medical professional.|year=2010|publisher=Saunders|location=Philadelphia, Pa.|isbn=9781437707885|page=673|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=jhQ2zHnKEKwC&pg=PA673|edition=7th ed.}}</ref> ====Mafundisho ya uzazi==== [[Mbinu ya mafundisho ya uzazi]] huhusisha ubainishaji wa siku za kushika mimba katika [[kipindi cha hedhi]] na kuepuka ngono siku hizo.<ref name=Grim2004/> Mbinu hizo ni pamoja na kuchunguza [[halijoto]], [[ute wa uke]], au siku ya hedhi.<ref name=Grim2004>{{cite journal|last=Grimes|first=DA|coauthors=Gallo, MF; Grigorieva, V; Nanda, K; Schulz, KF|title=Fertility awareness-based methods for contraception.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2004 Oct 18|issue=4|pages=CD004860|pmid=15495128}}</ref> Huwa na kiwango cha kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza kwa kati ya asilimia 1 na 5; viwango vya kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza baada ya matumizi bora hulingana na mfumo uliotumiwa na huwa asilimia 0 hadi 2.9.<ref name="trials"/> Thibitisho linalozingatiwa na makadirio haya, hata hivyo, ni hafifu kwa kuwa watu wengi wanaojaribu kuzitumia huacha mapema.<ref name=Grim2004/> Ulimwenguni, hutumiwa na takribani asilimia 3.6 ya wachumba.<ref name=Sivin2010/> Iwapo itazingatia pia halijoto na ishara zingine kuu, njia hii huitwa symptothermal. Viwango vya mimba zisizotarajiwa vimeripotiwa kati ya asilimia 1 na 20 kwa wanaotumia symptothermal.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pallone|first=SR|coauthors=Bergus, GR|title=Fertility awareness-based methods: another option for family planning.|journal=Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine : JABFM|date=2009 Mar-Apr|volume=22|issue=2|pages=147-57|pmid=19264938}}</ref> ====Kukatiza ngono==== [[Mbinu ya kukatiza ngono]], ni shughuli ya kukatiza kufanya ngono ("kuvuta nje") kabla ya kumwaga mbegu za kiume.<ref name=WHO2009_100>{{cite book|last=Organization|first=World Health|title=Medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use|year=2009|publisher=Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=9789241563888|page=91-100|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563888_eng.pdf|edition=4th ed.|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2012-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709230021/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241563888_eng.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Hatari kuu ya kukatiza ngono ni kuwa mwanaume anaweza kutotoa kwa usahihi au kwa wakati unaofaa.<ref name=WHO2009_100/> Viwango vya kufeli katika mwaka wa kwanza huwa kati ya asilimia 4 inapotumiwa ipasavyo hadi asilimia 27 isipotumiwa ipasavyo.<ref name=WHO2009_10/> Haichukuliwi kuwa udhibiti wa uzazi na baadhi ya weledi wa afya.<ref name=Will2012/> Kuna dhibitisho ndogo kuhusu idadi ya mbegu za kiume katika [[kiowevu kabla ya kumwaga]].<ref name=Jones2009>{{cite journal|last=Jones|first=RK|coauthors=Fennell, J; Higgins, JA; Blanchard, K|title=Better than nothing or savvy risk-reduction practice? The importance of withdrawal.|journal=Contraception|date=2009 Jun|volume=79|issue=6|pages=407-10|pmid=19442773}}</ref> Ilhali baadhi ya uchunguzi haukupata mbegu,<ref name=Jones2009/> jaribio moja liligundua kuwepo kwa mbegu kwa watu 10 kutoka kwa 27 ya waliojitolea.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Killick|first=SR|coauthors=Leary, C; Trussell, J; Guthrie, KA|title=Sperm content of pre-ejaculatory fluid.|journal=Human fertility (Cambridge, England)|date=2011 Mar|volume=14|issue=1|pages=48-52|pmid=21155689}}</ref> Mbinu ya kukatiza ngono hutumiwa na takribani wachumba asilimia 3.<ref name=Sivin2010>{{cite journal|last=Freundl|first=G|coauthors=Sivin, I; Batár, I|title=State-of-the-art of non-hormonal methods of contraception: IV. Natural family planning.|journal=The European journal of contraception & reproductive health care : the official journal of the European Society of Contraception|date=2010 Apr|volume=15|issue=2|pages=113-23|pmid=20141492}}</ref> ====Kujinyima ngono==== Ingawa makundi mengine hukubaliana na [[kujinyima ngono]], hii humaanisha kuepuka shughuli zote za ngono, katika muktadha wa kudhibiti uzazi neno hili humaanisha kujinyima ngono inayohusisha ukeni.<ref name="ppabst">{{cite web|title=Abstinence|work=Planned Parenthood|year=2009|url=http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/abstinence-4215.htm|accessdate=2009-09-09|archive-date=2009-09-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090910053822/http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/abstinence-4215.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kujinyima ngono hufaulu kwa asilimia 100 katika kuzuia mimba; hata hivyo, si kila anayekusudia hujinyima shughuli zote za ngono, na katika idadi nyingi za watu huwa na hatari nyingi za mimba kutokana na ngono isiyokubaliwa.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.02.001 |title=The limits of abstinence-only in preventing sexually transmitted infections |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-adolescent-health_2005-04_36_4/page/269 |year=2005 |last1=Fortenberry |first1=J. Dennis |journal=Journal of Adolescent Health |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=269–70 |pmid=15780781 |ref=harv}}, which cites:<br/> {{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.01.005 |title=After the promise: The STD consequences of adolescent virginity pledges |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-adolescent-health_2005-04_36_4/page/271 |year=2005|last1=Brückner |first1=Hannah |last2=Bearman |first2=Peter |journal=Journal of Adolescent Health |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=271–8 |pmid=15780782|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Nonconsensual Sex Undermines Sexual Health| journal = Network| year = 2005 | volume = 23 | url =http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/Network/v23_4/nt2341.htm| author = Kim Best | issue = 4|ref=harv}}</ref> Watafiti mbalimbali wanasema [[elimu ya kujinyima ngono]] haipunguzi [[mimba za vijana]],<ref name="pmid22341164" /><ref name=Ott2007>{{cite journal|last=Ott|first=MA|coauthors=Santelli, JS|title=Abstinence and abstinence-only education|journal=Current opinion in obstetrics & gynecology|date=2007 Oct|volume=19|issue=5|pages=446–52|pmid=17885460|doi=10.1097/GCO.0b013e3282efdc0b|ref=harv}}</ref> ambazo huwa nyingi kwa wanaopewa elimu ya kujinyima ngono, ikilinganishwa na wale wanaopewa elimu ya ngono. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Duffy|first=K|coauthors=Lynch, DA; Santelli, J|title=Government support for abstinence-only-until-marriage education.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-pharmacology-and-therapeutics_2008-12_84_6/page/746|journal=Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics|date=2008 Dec|volume=84|issue=6|pages=746-8|pmid=18923389}}</ref><ref name=Ott2007/> Baadhi ya mamlaka hupendekeza kuwa wanaojinyima ngono wawe na mbinu nyingine za kutumia (kama vile kondomu au tembe za kontraseptivu za dharura).<ref>{{cite book |author=Kowal D|year=2007|chapter=Abstinence and the Range of Sexual Expression|editor=Hatcher, Robert A., et al. |title=Contraceptive Technology|edition=19th rev. |pages=81–86 |location=New York |publisher=Ardent Media |isbn=0-9664902-0-7}}</ref> [[Ngono isiyo ya kuingiliana]] na [[ngono ya mdomo]] bila ngono ya ukeni pia wakati mwingine hutumiwa, ingawa baada ya [[ashiki]] kupata nguvu, pengine ni vigumu kujizuia katika kuishia katika [[tendo la ndoa]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Feldmann | first1 = J. |last2 = Middleman | first2 = A. B. |title = Adolescent sexuality and sexual behavior |journal = Current opinion in obstetrics & gynecology |volume = 14 |issue = 5 |pages = 489–493 |year = 2002 |pmid = 12401976| url =http://journals.lww.com/co-obgyn/Abstract/2002/10000/Adolescent_sexuality_and_sexual_behavior.8.aspx}}</ref> Ingawa kwa kawaida huzuia mimba, ujauzito bado unaweza kupatikana kwa [[ngono ya katikati ya miguu]] na mbinu nyingine za ngono ambapo uume huwa karibu na ukeni (kusugua viungo vya uzazi, na kutoka kwa uume kutoka kwa [[ngono ya unyeo]]) ambapo mbegu ya kiume yanaweza kumwagika karibu na ukeni halafu yanaweza kupitia viowevu vinavyolainisha uke.<ref>{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=R. Murray|title=Sex and the American teenager seeing through the myths and confronting the issues|year=2009|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Education|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=9781607090182|page=81|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=gM9EFgsJHyoC&pg=PA81}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Edlin|first=Gordon|title=Health & Wellness.|year=2012|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=9781449636470|page=213|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=csGk6j5rlN0C&pg=PA213}}</ref> ====Unyonyeshaji==== [[Mbinu ya amenorea ya unyonyeshaji]] huhusisha matumizi ya [[utasa asili wa baada ya kuzaa]] wa mwanamke na unaweza kuendelezwa kwa [[kunyonyesha]].<ref name=Blackburn2007>{{cite book|last=Blackburn|first=Susan Tucker|title=Maternal, fetal, & neonatal physiology : a clinical perspective|year=2007|publisher=Saunders Elsevier|location=St. Louis, Mo.|isbn=9781416029441|page=157|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=2y6zOSQcn14C&pg=PA157|edition=3rd ed.}}</ref> Hii kwa kawaida huhitaji kutokuwepo kwa [[hedhi|damu ya hedhi]], kunyonyesha tu mtoto mchanga, na mtoto aliye chini ya miezi sita.<ref name=Blenning2005>{{cite journal|last=Blenning|first=CE|coauthors=Paladine, H|title=An approach to the postpartum office visit.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2005-12-15_72_12/page/2491|journal=American family physician|date=2005 Dec 15|volume=72|issue=12|pages=2491-6|pmid=16370405}}</ref> [[Shrika la Afya Ulimwenguni]] hueleza kuwa iwapo kunyonyesha ndio njia ya pekee ya mtoto kupata chakula, kiwango cha kufeli katika miezi sita ya kwanza baada ya kuzaa ni asilimia 2.<ref>{{cite web |title=WHO 10 facts on breastfeeding |work=World Health Organization|month=April |year=2005|url=http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/breastfeeding/facts/en/index2.html}}</ref> Majaribio yametambua viwango vya kufeli kuwa kati ya asilimia 0 hadi 7.5.<ref name=Vander2003/> Viwango vya kufeli huongezeka hadi asilimia 4-7 katika mwaka moja na asilimia 13 katika miaka miwili.<ref name=Fritz2012>{{cite book|last=Fritz|first=Marc|title=Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility|year=2012|isbn=9781451148473|page=1007-1008|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=KZLubBxJEwEC&pg=PA1007}}</ref> Kulisha watoto, kubembeleza badala ya kutunza, matumizi ya [[mpira wa watoto]], na kulisha chakula kigumu vyote huongeza kiwango chake cha kufeli. <ref>{{cite book|last=Swisher|first=Judith Lauwers, Anna|title=Counseling the nursing mother a lactation consultant's guide|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|location=Sudbury, MA|isbn=9781449619480|page=465-466|url=http://books.google.it/books?id=2X0_Takcr_wC&pg=PA465|edition=5th ed.}}</ref> Kwa wale wanaonyonyesha, takribani asilimia 10 hupata hedhi kabla ya miezi tatu na asilimia 20 kabla ya miezi sita.<ref name=Fritz2012/> Kwa wanaonyonyesha, uwezo wa kuzaa unaweza kurudi wiki nne baada ya kuzaa.<ref name=Fritz2012/> ===Dharura=== Mbinu za [[udhibiti wa uzazi wa dharura]] ni dawa (tembe za asubuhi) au vifaa vinavyotumika baada ya ngono kwa matarajio ya kuua mimba.<ref name=Gizzo2012>{{cite journal|last=Gizzo|first=S|coauthors=Fanelli, T; Di Gangi, S; Saccardi, C; Patrelli, TS; Zambon, A; Omar, A; D'Antona, D; Nardelli, GB|title=Nowadays which emergency contraception? Comparison between past and present: latest news in terms of clinical efficacy, side effects and contraindications.|journal=Gynecological endocrinology : the official journal of the International Society of Gynecological Endocrinology|date=2012 Oct|volume=28|issue=10|pages=758-63|pmid=22390259}}</ref> Hutenda kazi kwa kuzuia uovulesheni au utungaji mimba.<ref name=Hopkin2012>{{cite book|title=The Johns Hopkins Manual of Gynecology and Obstetrics|year=2012|isbn=9781451148015|page=391|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=4Sg5sXyiBvkC&pg=PR241|edition=4th|chapter=Fertility Control:Contraception, Sterilization, and Abortion}}</ref> Baadhi ya njia hupatikana, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[Yuzpe regimen|dozi ya juu ya tembe za kudhibiti uzazi]], [[levonorgestrel]], [[mifepristone]], [[ulipristal]] na IUD.<ref name=CochEmerg2012>{{cite journal|last=Cheng|first=L|coauthors=Che, Y; Gülmezoglu, AM|title=Interventions for emergency contraception.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2012 Aug 15|volume=8|pages=CD001324|pmid=22895920}}</ref> tembe za [[levonorgestrel]] hupunguza uwezekano wa mimba kwa asilimia 70 (kiwango cha mimba asilimia 2.2) inapotumiwa kati ya siku 3&nbsp; baada ya ngono bila kinga au kufeli kwa kondomu.<ref name=Gizzo2012/>[[Ulipristal]] hupunguza uwezekano wa mimba kwa asilimia 85 (kiwango cha mimba hadi asilimia 1.4) hadi siku 5&nbsp; na inaweza kuwa bora kuliko levonorgestrel.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Richardson|first=AR|coauthors=Maltz, FN|title=Ulipristal acetate: review of the efficacy and safety of a newly approved agent for emergency contraception.|journal=Clinical therapeutics|date=2012 Jan|volume=34|issue=1|pages=24-36|pmid=22154199}}</ref><ref name=CochEmerg2012/><ref name=Gizzo2012/> [[Mifepristone]] pia huwa bora zaidi kuliko levonorgestrel ilhali IUD za shaba ndizo njia bora zaidi.<ref name=CochEmerg2012/> IUD zinaweza kutiwa siku 5&nbsp; baada ya ngono na kuzuia takribani asilimia 99 ya mimba (kiwango cha mimba cha asilimia 0.1 hadi 0.2).<ref name=Hopkin2012/><ref>{{cite web|title=Update on Emergency Contraception|url=http://www.arhp.org/Publications-and-Resources/Clinical-Proceedings/EC/Effectiveness|publisher=Association of Reproductive Health Professionals|accessdate=20 May 2013|date=March 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511124153/http://www.arhp.org/Publications-and-Resources/Clinical-Proceedings/EC/Effectiveness|archivedate=2013-05-11|=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511124153/http://www.arhp.org/Publications-and-Resources/Clinical-Proceedings/EC/Effectiveness}}</ref> Hii huzifanya kuwa aina mbinu bora zaidi wa kudhibiti uzazi kwa dharura.<ref name=Cleland2012>{{cite journal |author=Cleland K, Zhu H, Goldstruck N, Cheng L, Trussel T |year=2012 |title=The efficacy of intrauterine devices for emergency contraception: a systematic review of 35 years of experience |journal=Human Reproduction |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=1994–2000|doi=10.1093/humrep/des140 |pmid=22570193 |ref=harv}}</ref> Kupeana tembe za asubuhi kwa kina mama mapema haiathiri kiwango cha maambukizi ya ngono, matumizi ya kondomu, viwango cha mimba, au tabia hatari ya ngono.<ref name="pmid17894132">{{cite journal |author=Kripke C |title=Advance provision for emergency oral contraception|journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=76 |issue=5 |pages=654 |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17894132 |doi= |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2007-09-01_76_5/page/n57}}</ref><ref name="pmid21923590">{{cite journal |author=Shrader SP, Hall LN, Ragucci KR, Rafie S |title=Updates in hormonal emergency contraception|journal=Pharmacotherapy |volume=31 |issue=9 |pages=887–95 |year=2011 |month=September |pmid=21923590 |doi=10.1592/phco.31.9.887 |url=}}</ref> Mbinu zote huwa na athari chache.<ref name=CochEmerg2012/> ===Kinga mbili=== Kinga mbili ni matumizi ya mbinu zinazozuia maambukizi ya zinaa na mimba.<ref>{{cite journal |author= |title=Dual protection against unwanted pregnancy and HIV / STDs |journal=Sex Health Exch |volume= |issue=3 |pages=8 |year=1998 |pmid=12294688 |doi=|url=}}</ref> Hii inaweza kuwa kwa kodomu pekee au pamoja na mbinu nyingine ya kudhibiti uzazi au kwa kuepuka [[ngono|ngono ya kuingiliana]].<ref name=Cates2002>{{cite journal|author=Cates, W., Steiner, M. J.|year=2002|title=Dual Protection Against Unintended Pregnancy and Sexually Transmitted Infections: What Is the Best Contraceptive Approach?|journal=Sexually Transmitted Diseases|volume=29|issue=3|pages=168–174|url=http://journals.lww.com/stdjournal/Fulltext/2002/03000/Dual_Protection_Against_Unintended_Pregnancy_and.7.aspx|doi=10.1097/00007435-200203000-00007|pmid=11875378|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=International Planned Parenthood Federation|year=May 2000|title=Statement on Dual Protection against Unwanted Pregnancy and Sexually Transmitted Infections, including HIV|url=http://www.ippf.org/NR/rdonlyres/534B49A6-4C25-4853-BD8E-527E02FCD5A1/0/IMAPstatementmay2000.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2013-11-28|archivedate=2012-02-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225124142/http://www.ippf.org/NR/rdonlyres/534B49A6-4C25-4853-BD8E-527E02FCD5A1/0/IMAPstatementmay2000.pdf}}</ref> Iwapo mimba ni hoja kuu kutumia njia zote mbili kwa wakati mmoja kunakubalika,<ref name=Cates2002/> na aina zote mbili zimependekezwa kwa wale wanaotumia dawa isiyo na [[chunusi]][[isotretinoini]], kwa sababu ya hatari kuu ya [[matatizo ya uzazi]] itumiwapo wakati wa ujauzito.<ref name=Gupta2011>{{cite book|last=Gupta|first=Ramesh C.|title=Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=jGHRR32wz5MC|date=2011-02-25|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-382032-7|page=105}}</ref> <center><gallery align="center" perrow="5"> File:Condom unrolled durex.jpg|An unrolled male [[latex]][[condom]]|alt=an unrolled condom File:Préservatif féminin.jpg|A polyurethane [[female condomu]]|alt=a female condom File:Contraceptive diaphragm.jpg|A [[Diaphragm (contraceptive)| Diaphragm]] vaginal-cervical[[Barrier contraception|barrier]], in its case with a [[Quarter (United States coin)|quarter U.S coin]] |alt=a diaphragm File:Éponge spermicide.jpg|A [[contraceptive sponge]] set inside its open package|alt=a contraceptive sponge File:Plaquettes de pilule.jpg|Aina tatu za [[Combined oral contraceptive pill|birth control pills]] alender oriented packaging|alt=birth control pill packages File:BirthControlPatch.JPG|A transdermal [[contraceptive patch]]|alt=a contraceptive patch File:NuvaRing in hand.jpg|A [[NuvaRing]] vaginal ring|alt=a vaginal ring File:Mirena IntraUterine System.jpg|A hormonal [[intrauterine device]] (IUD) against a background showing placement in the [[uterus]]|alt=a hormonal intrauterine device File:Emergency_contraceptive.jpg| A split dose of two [[emergency contraceptive]] pills (most morning after pills now only require one)|alt=emergency contraceptive pills File:Geburtenkontrollkette.jpg|A [[CycleBeads]], used for estimating fertility based on days since menstruation |alt=a birth control chain calendar necklace </gallery></center> ==Athari== ===Afya=== [[File:Maternal mortality rate worldwide.jpg |thumb|alt=maternal mortality rate map|Maternal mortality rate as of 2010<ref name=CIA2010>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html?countryName=Australia&countryCode=as&regionCode=aus&rank=156#asCountry Comparison: Maternal Mortality Rate] {{Wayback|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html?countryName=Australia&countryCode=as&regionCode=aus&rank=156#asCountry |date=20121108112903 }} in [[:en:The World Factbook|The CIA World Factbook]]</ref>]] Matumizi ya kontraseptivu katika [[nchi zinazoendelea]] umekadiriwa kupunguza idadi ya [[vifo vya kina mama]] kwa asilimia 40 (takribani vifo 270,000 vilizuiliwa mwaka 2008) na ungepunguza asilimia 70 ya vifo iwapo matakwa yote ya udhibiti wa uzazi yangetimizwa.<ref name="pmid22784533"/> Faida hizi hupatikana kwa kupunguza idadi ya mimba zisizotarajiwa ambazo husababisha [[uavyaji mimba]] usiokuwa salama na kwa kuzuia mimba kwa walio na hatari kuu.<ref name="pmid22784533"/> Udhibiti wa uzazi huboresha kuishi kwa mtoto katika ulimwengu unaokua kwa kuacha nafasi kubwa kati ya mimba.<ref name="pmid22784533"/> Katika idadi hii ya watu matokeo huwa mabaya zaidi mama anaposhika mimba kati ya miezi kumi na nane ya baada ya kujifungua.<ref name="pmid22784533"/><ref name=Shol2010>{{cite journal|last=Sholapurkar|first=SL|title=Is there an ideal interpregnancy interval after a live birth, miscarriage or other adverse pregnancy outcomes?|journal=Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology : the journal of the Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology|date=2010 Feb|volume=30|issue=2|pages=107-10|pmid=20143964}}</ref> Kuchelewesha mimba baada ya [[kuharibika kwa mimba]] hata hivyo hakuonekani kupunguza hatari na wanawake hushauriwa kujaribu kushika mimba katika hali hii wakati wowote wanapokuwa tayari.<ref name=Shol2010/> [[Mimba za utotoni]], yaani za wasichana wadogo, huwa katika hatari kuu ya matokeo mabaya pamoja na [[kuzaa kabla ya wakati]], [[kuzaa mtoto aliye na uzito wa chini]] na [[vifo vya watoto wachanga|kifo cha mtoto]].<ref name="pmid22764559"/> Nchini Marekani asilimia 82 ya mimba kwa walio kati ya miaka 15 na 19 ni zile zisizopangwa.<ref name=Marnach2013 /> [[Mafundisho ya ngono]] kwa kina na utumiaji wa kontraseptivu huwa bora katika idadi ya mimba katika kikundi hiki cha umri.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lavin|first=C|coauthors=Cox, JE|title=Teen pregnancy prevention: current perspectives.|journal=Current opinion in pediatrics|date=2012 Aug|volume=24|issue=4|pages=462-9|pmid=22790099}}</ref> ===Faida=== [[File:Countriesbyfertilityrate.svg|thumb|left|alt=fertility rate map|Countries by [[fertility rate]] as of 2012. {{col-begin}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ffc600|7–8}} {{legend|#ffc600|6–7}} {{legend|#ffc600|5–6}} {{legend|#ffc600|4–5}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ffc600|3–4}} {{legend|#00FF00|2–3 Children}} {{legend|#20DFD8|1–2 Children}} {{legend|#35B0E3|0–1 Children}} {{col-end}}]] Katika nchi zinazokua, udhibiti wa uzazi hukusudia [[ongezeko la uchumi]] kwa sababu ya kuwepo kwa watoto wachache wategemezi na hivyo mama hushiriki kazi. Mapato ya wanawake, rasilimali, [[uzito wa mwili]], na kielelezo cha mwili na usomaji wa watoto vinaweza vikaongezeka kukiwa na udhibiti wa uzazi. Kwa kila dola inayotumiwa, Umoja wa Mataifa hukadiria kuwa karibu dola mbili hadi sita huwekezwa.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Carr|first=B|coauthors=Gates, MF; Mitchell, A; Shah, R|title=Giving women the power to plan their families.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_july-14-20-2012_380_9837/page/80|journal=Lancet|date=2012 Jul 14|volume=380|issue=9837|pages=80-2|pmid=22784540}}</ref> Huwekezaji huu huhusiana na uzuiaji wa mimba zisizopangwa na upunguzaji wa maradhi ya kuambukiza.<ref name=Tsui2010/> Ilhali mbinu zote zinaleta manufaa ya kifedha, matumizi ya IUD za shaba zilisaida katika uwekezaji.<ref name=Tsui2010>{{cite journal |author=Tsui AO, McDonald-Mosley R, Burke AE |title=Family planning and the burden of unintended pregnancies |journal=Epidemiol Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=152–74 |year=2010|month=April |pmid=20570955 |pmc=3115338 |doi=10.1093/epirev/mxq012 |url= |ref=harv}}</ref> Kufikia mwaka [[2012]] gharama yote ya matibabu ya ujauzito, kuzaa na utunzaji wa mtoto mchanga nchini Marekani ni takribani dola 21,000 kwa kuzaa kupitia uke na dola 31,000 kupitia [[upasuaji]].<ref name=NYT2013>{{cite news|last=Rosenthal|first=Elisabeth|title=American Way of Birth, Costliest in the World|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/01/health/american-way-of-birth-costliest-in-the-world.html|newspaper=New York Times|date=June 30th,2013}}</ref> Katika nchi nyingi gharama huwa chini ya nusu.<ref name=NYT2013/> Kwa mtoto aliyezaliwa mwaka [[2011]], familia ya kawaida nchini Marekani hutumia dola 235,000 kwa zaidi ya miaka 17 kumlea.<ref name=USDAChildExpense>{{cite web|title = Expenditures on Children by Families, 2011|publisher = United States Department of Agriculture, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion|url = http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/ExpendituresonChildrenbyFamilies.htm|accessdate = 2013-11-28|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080308082505/http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/ExpendituresonChildrenbyFamilies.htm|archivedate = 2008-03-08| = https://web.archive.org/web/20080308082505/http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/ExpendituresonChildrenbyFamilies.htm}}</ref> ==Uenezi== [[File:SOWM2010 modern contraception.svg|thumb|alt=prevalence of modern birth control map|Asilimia ya wanawake wanaotumia teknolojia katika kupanga uzazi (mwaka 2010). {{col-begin}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#000000|6%}} {{legend|#550000|12%}} {{legend|#aa0000|18%}} {{legend|#ff0000|24%}} {{legend|#ff5500|30%}} {{legend|#dddd00|36%}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#55aa00|42%}} {{legend|#55aa00|48%}} {{legend|#55aa00|54%}} {{legend|#55aa00|60%}} {{legend|#55aa00|66%}} {{legend|#55aa00|72%}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#aa0000|78%}} {{legend|#aa0000|84%}} {{legend|#aa0000|86%}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{col-end}}]] Kote ulimwenguni, kufikia mwaka [[2009]], karibu asilimia 60 ya waliokuwa wameolewa na kupata watoto walitumia udhibiti wa uzazi.<ref name=Darroch2013/> Namna ambavyo mbinu mbalimbali hutiwa hutofautiana katika nchi.<ref name=Darroch2013/> Mbinu ya kawaida katika nchi zilizoendelea ni kondomu na dawa ya kumeza, ilhali barani Afrika ni dawa ya kumeza na kule Amerika Kusini na Asia ni ufungaji wa uzazi.<ref name=Darroch2013>{{cite journal|last=Darroch|first=JE|title=Trends in contraceptive use.|journal=Contraception|date=2013 Mar|volume=87|issue=3|pages=259-63|pmid=23040137}}</ref> Katika nchi zinazoendelea, asilimia 35 ya udhibiti wa uzazi ni kupitia ufungaji wa uzazi wa kike, asilimia 30 ni kupitia IUD, asilimia 12 ni kupitia dawa ya kumeza, asilimia 11 ni kupitia kondomu, na asimia 4 ni kupitia ufungaji uzazi wa kiume.<ref name=Darroch2013/> Wakati inatumika mara chache kwa nchi zilizoendelea kuliko zile zinazoendelea, kufikia mwaka [[2007]] wanawake zaidi ya milioni 180, walikuwa wakitumia IUD&nbsp;<ref name=Darney2010/> Uepukanaji wa ngono wakati wa kuwa na uwezo wa kupata mimba unatumiwa na wanawake wanaoendelea kuzaa karibu asilimia 3.6, na kutumika sana kwa asilimia 20 kule Amerika Kusini.<ref name=Dar2010p315>{{cite book|last=Darney|first=Leon Speroff, Philip D.|title=A clinical guide for contraception|year=2010|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia, Pa.|isbn=1-60831-610-6|page=315|edition=5th}}</ref> Kufikia mwaka [[2005]], asilimia 12 ya wachumba walikuwa wanatumia mbinu ya kiume ya kuzuia mimba (mojawapo KATI ya kondomu au utoaji wa mrija wa mbegu), hali nyingi zikiwa katika nchi zilizoendelea.<ref name=Naz2009/> Matumizi ya kudhibiti uzazi kwa kutumia njia ya wanaume imepungua kati ya mwaka wa 1985 na 2009.<ref name=Darroch2013/> Matumizi ya dawa za kuzuia mimba kwa wanawake [[Kusini mwa Jangwa la Sahara]] yameongezeka kutoka karibu asilimia 5 mwaka [[1991]] hadi karibu asilimia 30 mwaka [[2006]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cleland|first=JG|coauthors=Ndugwa, RP; Zulu, EM|title=Family planning in sub-Saharan Africa: progress or stagnation?|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|date=2011 Feb 1|volume=89|issue=2|pages=137-43|pmid=21346925}}</ref> Kufika mwaka [[2012]], asilimia 57 ya wanaoendelea kuzaa wanataka kuepukana na ujauzito (milioni 867 kati ya 1520&nbsp;<ref name=Dar2013/> Hata hivyo wanawake karibu milioni 222 hawakuweza kupata udhibiti wa kuzaa, milioni 53&nbsp;wakiwa Kusini mwa Jangwa la Sahara na milioni 97&nbsp;wakiwa Asia.<ref name=Dar2013>{{cite journal|last=Darroch|first=JE|coauthors=Singh, S|title=Trends in contraceptive need and use in developing countries in 2003, 2008, and 2012: an analysis of national surveys.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_may-18-24-2013_381_9879/page/1756|journal=Lancet|date=2013 May 18|volume=381|issue=9879|pages=1756-1762|pmid=23683642}}</ref> Hii inasababisha milioni 54&nbsp;ya mimba zisizopangwa na vifo 80,000 hivi vya kina mama kila mwaka.<ref name=Darroch2013/> Baadhi ya sababu za wanawake kutokuwa na huduma ya udhibiti ni sababu za kidini na kisiasa,<ref name=Hopkins2010/> ilhali [[umaskini]] huchangia pia.<ref name=Rasch2011/> Kwa sababu ya sheria za [[utoaji mimba]] Kusini mwa Jangwa la Sahara, wengi hutafuta watoaji mimba wasiokuwa na kibali [[kwa mimba zisizopangwa]], inayosababisha karibu asimilia 2-4 ya [[utoaji mimba unaoitwa si salama]] kila mwaka.<ref name=Rasch2011>{{cite journal|last=Rasch|first=V|title=Unsafe abortion and postabortion care -an overview.|journal=Acta obstetricia et gynecologica Scandinavica|date=2011 Jul|volume=90|issue=7|pages=692-700|pmid=21542813}}</ref> ==Historia == [[File:Silphium.jpg|thumb|alt=ancient coin depicting silphium|Ancient silver coin from [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] depicting a stalk of [[silphium]]]] [[Ebers Papyrus]] ya [[Misri]] kutoka 1550&nbsp; na [[Kahun Papyrus]] kutoka 1850&nbsp;KK zina maelezo kuhusu udhibiti wa kuzaa, matumizi ya asali, matawi na nyuzi za pamba ya [[acacia]] zinazowekwa ukeni ili zizuie mbegu ya kiume.<ref name=History2010/><ref name=Lipsey2005>{{cite book|last1=Lipsey |first1= Richard G.|last2=Carlaw |first2=Kenneth|last3=Bekar |first3=Clifford|chapter=Historical Record on the Control of Family Size|chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=tSrGTMtBv50C&pg=PA335|pages=335–40|title=Economic Transformations: General Purpose Technologies and Long-Term Economic Growth|publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005|isbn=978-0-19-928564-8}}</ref> Michoro ya zamani ya Misri yanaonyesha matumizi ya [[kondomu]].<ref name=Ebe2010/> Hali ya kutoa kiungo cha kiume wakati wa tendo la ndoa (kwa [[Kilatini]] [[coitus interruptus]]), inasimuliwa na [[Kitabu cha Mwanzo]] kama njia ya kudhibiti uzazi wakati [[Onan]] "hutoa mbegu za kiume" (kumwaga) chini ili asimpatie mtoto [[mjane aliyemrithi|bibi ya kakaye aliyekufa]], [[Tamar (Mwanzo)|Tamar]].<ref name=History2010>{{cite book|last=Cuomo|first=Amy|chapter=Birth control|editor-last=O'Reilly|editor-first=Andrea|title=Encyclopedia of motherhood|year=2010|publisher=Sage Publications|location=Thousand Oaks, Calif.|isbn=9781412968461|pages=121–126|chapterurl=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pcxqzal4bEYC&pg=PA124}}</ref> Inaaminika kuwa hapo zamani nchini [[Ugiriki]][[silphium]] ilitumiwa kudhibiti uzazi, kwa sababu ya kudumu na ubora wake, ulivunwa hadi ukaisha.<ref>{{cite book|author=unspecified|chapter=Herbal contraceptives and abortifacients|editor-last=Bullough|editor-first=Vern L.|title=Encyclopedia of birth control|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=9781576071816|pages=125–128|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=XuX-MGTZnJoC&pg=PA125}}</ref> Katika Ulaya ya leo, juhudi za kutoa mimba unachukuliwa kama uovu na [[Kanisa Katoliki]].<ref name=History2010/> Inaaminika kuwa wanawake hadi leo bado hutumia baadhi ya mbinu za kudhibiti uzazi kama vile coitus interruptus na kuingiza mizizi ya lily na rue katika ukeni (na, zaidi ya hayo, uuaji wa mtoto mchanga baada ya kuzaliwa).<ref>{{cite book|last=McTavish|first=Lianne|chapter=Contraception and birth control|editor-last=Robin|editor-first=Diana|title=Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance : Italy, France, and England|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=9781851097722|pages=91–92|chapterurl=http://books.google.ca/books?id=OQ8mdTjxungC&pg=PA91}}</ref> [[Casanova]] (1725-1798), wakati wa [[kuchipuka upya kwa Italia]] alielezea jinsi ya kutumia ngozi ya kondoo kuzuia ujauzito; hata hivyo, upatikanaji wa kondomu haikutokea hadi karne ya 20.<ref name=History2010/> Mwaka 1909, Richard Richter alitengeneza kifaa cha kuweka ndani ya uterasi kutokana na uzi nyororo ya utumbo, ambacho kilitengenezwa zaidi na kuuza nchini Ujerumani na [[Ernst Gräfenberg]] mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1920.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fritz|first1=Marc A.|last2=Speroff|first2=Leon|year=2011|chapter=Intrauterine contraception|title=Clinical gynecologic endocrinology and infertility|edition=8th|location=Philadelphia|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|pages=1095–1098|isbn=978-0-7817-7968-5|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KZLubBxJEwEC&pg=RA1-PA1095}}</ref> Mnamo 1916 [[Margaret Sanger]] alifungua kituo cha kwanza cha kudhibiti uzazi nchini Marekani iliyosababisha akamatwe.<ref name=History2010/>Mwanamke huyo alikuwa pia mtetezi wa [[ubaguzi wa rangi]] na kulenga kupunguza [[Wanegro]] na wengineo<ref name="Marshall">{{cite book | author = Marshall, Robert G. | coauthors = Donovan, Chuck | title = Blessed Are the Barren: The Social Policy of Planned Parenthood | url = https://archive.org/details/blessedarebarren0000mars_j2g5 | authorlink = Robert G. Marshall | year = 1991 | month = October | publisher = Ignatius Press | location = Fort Collins, CO | isbn = 0-89870-353-0; ISBN 978-0-89870-353-5 }}</ref><ref name="NPR">{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14650805|title=Minority Anti-Abortion Movement Gains Steam|date=September 24, 2007|publisher=NPR|accessdate=2009-01-17}}</ref><ref group="note">A typical pro-life publication critical of Sanger is: Franks, Angela, ''Margaret Sanger's eugenic legacy: the control of female fertility'', McFarland, 2005</ref> Hii ilifuatiwa na kituo cha kwanza barani Ulaya mwaka [[1921]], kilichofunguliwa na [[Marie Stopes]].<ref name=History2010/> [[Gregory Pincus]] na [[John Rock (Mwanasayansi wa Marekani)|John Rock]] kwa msaada wa [[Planned Parenthood Federation of America]] walitengeneza vidonge vya dawa vya kudhibiti uzazi miaka ya 1950 iliyoanza kuuzwa kwa umma [[miaka ya 1960]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Poston|first=Dudley|title=Population and Society: An Introduction to Demography|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139489386|page=98|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=CR-EXq4y8XAC&pg=PA98}}</ref> [[Dawa za kutoa mimba]] zilianza kutumika badala ya [[utoaji mimba]] kwa njia ya upasuaji kwa kuwepo kwa [[prostaglandin analogue|prostaglandin analog]] na kuwepo kwa [[mifepristone]] [[miaka ya 1980]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kulier|first1=Regina|last2=Kapp|first2=Nathalie|last3=Gülmezoglu|first3=A. Metin|last4=Hofmeyr|first4=G. Justus|last5=Cheng|first5=Linan|last6=Campana|first6=Aldo|date=November 9, 2011|title=Medical methods for first trimester abortion|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|issue=11|page=CD002855|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002855.pub4|pmid=22071804|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002855.pub4/abstract;jsessionid=2D7DDA98B31CD7DACB8391192770991C.d04t01}}</ref> ==Jamii na utamaduni== ===Hali ya sheria=== Baadhi ya maafikiano kuhusu [[Haki za Kibinadamu]] yanadai serikali zitoe huduma na maelezo ya upangaji uzazi.<!-- <ref name="hrintlaw"/> --> Hii ilijumuisha mahitaji ya kutengeneza mpango wa kitaifa wa kupanga uzazi, kuondoa sheria zinazozuia huduma ya kupanga uzazi, kuhakikisha kuna aina mbalimbali za mbinu salama na bora za kupanga uzazi, kuhakikisha kuna wahudumu wa afya waliohitimu na vifaa vya afya kwa bei nafuu, na kubuni utaratibu wa kukagua mpango zilizoidhinishwa.<!-- <ref name="hrintlaw"/> --> Serikali ikikosa kutekeleza inaweza kulaumiwa kwa kuvunja sheria za kimataifa.<ref name="hrintlaw">{{cite journal | author = Cottingham J., Germain A., Hunt P. | year = 2012 |title = Use of human rights to meet the unmet need for family planning | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_july-14-20-2012_380_9837/page/172| journal = The Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9837| pages = 172–180 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60732-6 | pmid = 22784536 | ref = harv }}</ref> Miungano ya Kimataifa yalizindua kikundi cha ''Every Woman Every Child'' kinachoshughulikia taratibu za kina mama za kupata dawa za kuzuia mimba.<!-- <ref name=Gutt2012/> --> Shughuli hii inalenga kuongeza wanawake wanaotumia mbinu mpya za kuzuia mimba kwa milioni 120 katika nchi zilizo maskini kufikia mwaka [[2020]].<!-- <ref name=Gutt2012/> --> Vile vile, wanataka kuruhusu hata wasichana wadogo wajitafutie dawa za kuzuia mimba bila ruhusa ya wazazi.<ref name=Gutt2012>{{cite journal|coauthors=Susheela Singh and Jacqueline E. Darroch|title=Adding It Up: Costs and Benefits of Contraceptive Services Estimates for 2012|journal=Guttmacher Institute and United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), 201|year=2012|month=June|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/AIU-2012-estimates.pdf}}</ref> ===Mtazamo wa kidini=== [[Dini]] zinatofautiana sana kuhusu [[maadili]] ya udhibiti wa uzazi.<ref name=Srikanthan2008>{{cite journal|last=Srikanthan|first=A|coauthors=Reid, RL|title=Religious and cultural influences on contraception|url=http://www.jogc.org/abstracts/full/200802_WomensHealth_1.pdf|journal=Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology Canada – Journal d'obstetrique et gynecologie du Canada (JOGC)|date=2008 Feb|volume=30|issue=2|pages=129–37|pmid=18254994|ref=harv|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2013-10-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004213236/http://www.jogc.org/abstracts/full/200802_WomensHealth_1.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> [[Kanisa Katoliki]] hukubali tu [[uzazi wa mpango]] kwa njia za kisayansi bila teknolojia,<ref name="pope1">{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html|title=Humanae Vitae: Encyclical of Pope Paul VI on the Regulation of Birth|author=Pope Paul VI|authorlink=Pope Paul VI|date=1968-07-25|accessdate=2006-10-01|publisher=Vatican}}</ref> ingawa waumini wengi hukubali na kutumia mbinu nyingine.<ref>{{cite book|editor=Rosemary Skinner Keller|author=Rosemary Radford Ruether|authorlink=Rosemary Radford Ruether|title=Encyclopedia of women and religion in North America|chapter=Women in North American Catholicism|chapterurl=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EoJrHDirVQUC&pg=PA127|year=2006|publisher=Indiana Univ. Press|location=Bloomington, Ind. [u.a.]|isbn=978-0-253-34686-5|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EoJrHDirVQUC|page=[http://books.google.ca/books?id=EoJrHDirVQUC&pg=PA132132]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Bob Digby|title=Heinemann 16-19 Geography: Global Challenges Student Book 2nd Edition|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-_c7JP6vzd4C|year=2001|publisher=Heinemann|isbn=978-0-435-35249-3|page=[http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=–_c7JP6vzd4C&pg=PA158158]|author=Bob Digby et.al.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rengel|first=Marian|title=Encyclopedia of birth control|year=2000|publisher=Oryx Press|location=Phoenix, Ariz|isbn=978-1-57356-255-3|page=202|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=dx1Kz-ezUjsC&pg=PA202}}</ref> Miongoni mwa [[Waprotestanti]] kuna mitazamo tofauti kutoka wale wasiokubali hadi wanaokubali mbinu zote za kudhibiti uzazi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bennett|first=Jana Marguerite|title=Water is thicker than blood : an Augustinian theology of marriage and singleness|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-531543-1|page=178|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=bQF4j8nv1VQC&pg=PA178}}</ref> Mtazamo wa [[Uyahudi]] hutoka kwa madhehebu kali ya [[Waorthodoksi wa Kiyahudi]] hadi kwa [[Wayahudi wa mageuzi]]<ref name="jew_BC">{{cite book | title=Birth Control in Jewish Law| url=https://archive.org/details/nlsiu.296.3.fel.26549| last=Feldman| first=David M.|year=1998| publisher=Jason Aronson| location=Lanham, MD| isbn=0-7657-6058-4}}</ref> Katika [[Uislamu]] dawa za kupanga uzazi zinakubalika ikiwa hazidhuru afya, ingawa matumizi yake hukataliwa na wengine.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Khalid Farooq Akbar| title=Family Planning and Islam: A Review| journal=Hamdard Islamicus|volume=XVII| issue= 3|url=http://muslim-canada.org/family.htm| ref=harv}}</ref> [[Kurani]] haitoi maelezo yoyote kuhusiana na [[uadilifu]] wa kupanga uzazi, lakini zina maelezo yanyohimiza [[kuzaa|watoto]]. Mtume [[Muhammad]] huripotiwa kuwa "alioa na kuzaa".<ref>Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, Muhammad Saleh Al-Munajjid. ''[[IslamOnline]]''.</ref> [[Wahindu]] wanaweza kutumia upangaji uzazi wa kawaida na wa kisasa.<ref name="hindu_BC">{{cite web|url=http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/chaplaincy/hindu.cfm|title=Hindu Beliefs and Practices Affecting Health Care|accessdate=2006-10-06|publisher=University of Virginia Health System|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515044827/http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/chaplaincy/hindu.cfm|archivedate=2007-05-15}}</ref> Mtazamo wa kawaida wa wafuasi wa [[Buddha]] ni kuwa uzuiaji wa mimba unakubalika, lakini utoaji baada ya kutungwa mimba haikubaliki.<ref name="buddhist_BC">{{cite web|url=http://web.singnet.com.sg/~alankhoo/MoreQA.htm#Abortion|title=More Questions & Answers on Buddhism: Birth Control and Abortion|accessdate=2008-06-14|publisher=Alan Khoo|archivedate=2008-05-30|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530023240/http://web.singnet.com.sg/~alankhoo/MoreQA.htm#Abortion|=https://web.archive.org/web/20080530023240/http://web.singnet.com.sg/~alankhoo/MoreQA.htm#Abortion}}</ref> === Siku ya Ulimwengu ya kupanga uzazi === Tarehe [[26 Septemba]] ni [[Siku ya Ulimwengu ya kupanga uzazi]], iliyotengwa kwa uhamasishaji na uboreshaji wa elimu kuhusu afya ya kuzaa na ngono, ikiwa na lengo la ''dunia ambayo mimba inahitajika.''<ref name=WorldContraceptionDay>{{cite web|url =http://www.your-life.com/en/home/world-contraception-day/|title =World Contraception Day|accessdate =|archivedate =2014-08-18|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20140818081827/http://www.your-life.com/en/home/world-contraception-day/| =https://web.archive.org/web/20140818081827/http://www.your-life.com/en/home/world-contraception-day/}}</ref> Inasaidiwa na kikundi cha Serikali na Mashirika ya kimataifa yasiyo ya kiserikali, ikijumuisha baraza la Asian Pacific Council kuhusu Uzuiaji mimba, Centro Latinamericano Salud y Mujer, European Society of Contraception and Reproductive Health, [[German Foundation for World Population]], International Federation of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, [[International Planned Parenthood Federation]], [[Marie Stopes International]], [[Population Services International]], [[Population Council]], [[United States Agency for International Development]] (USAID), na [[Women Deliver]].<ref name=WorldContraceptionDay/> ===Dhana zisizo sahihi=== Kuna idadi kadhaa ya matatizo ya kawaida kulingana na ngono na ujauzito.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hutcherson|first=Hilda|title=What your mother never told you about s.e.x|year=2002|publisher=Perigee Book|location=New York|isbn=9780399528538|page=201|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=xu8tb2o66iIC&pg=PA201|edition=1st Perigee ed.}}</ref> [[Usafishaji]] baada ya kufanya ngono si mbinu mwafaka wa kupanga uzazi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rengel|first=Marian|title=Encyclopedia of birth control|year=2000|publisher=Oryx Press|location=Phoenix, Ariz|isbn=9781573562553|page=65|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=dx1Kz-ezUjsC&pg=PA65}}</ref> Vile vile, huhusishwa na baadhi ya matatizo ya kiafya na kwa hivyo haipendekezwi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Cottrell|first=BH|title=An updated review of of evidence to discourage douching.|journal=MCN. The American journal of maternal child nursing|date=2010 Mar-Apr|volume=35|issue=2|pages=102-7; quiz 108-9|pmid=20215951}}</ref> Wanawake wanaweza kuwa wajawazito mara ya kwanza anaposhiriki ngono<ref>{{cite book|last=Alexander|first=William|title=New Dimensions In Women's Health - Book Alone|year=2013|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers|isbn=9781449683757|page=105|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=GVPHhIM3IZ0C&pg=PA105|edition=6th}}</ref> na katika hali yoyote ya ngono.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sharkey|first=Harriet|title=Need to Know Fertility and Conception and Pregnancy|year=2013|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=9780007516865|page=17|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Mc7qlSypV6UC&pg=PP17}}</ref> Kuna uwezekano, ingawa si rahisi, kuwa mjamzito wakati wa hedhi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Strange|first=Mary|title=Encyclopedia of women in today's world|year=2011|publisher=Sage Reference|location=Thousand Oaks, Calif.|isbn=9781412976855|page=928|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=bOkPjFQoBj8C&pg=PA928}}</ref> ==Utafiti== ===Wanawake=== Uboreshaji wa upangaji uzazi kwa mbinu zinazoendelea zinahitajika, kwa sababu karibu nusu ya wanaopata mimba kwa bahati mbaya wanatumia upangaji uzazi wakati huo.<ref name=Will2012/> Baadhi ya mbinu tofauti tofauti za uzuiaji mimba zinachunguzwa, ikijumuisha pamoja kondomu bora ya wanawake, [[SILCS daframu|daftramu]], doa lililo na projesteroni pekee, na pete ya ukeni iliyo na projesteroni refu.<ref name=Jensen2011>{{cite journal|last=Jensen|first=JT|title=The future of contraception: innovations in contraceptive agents: tomorrow's hormonal contraceptive agents and their clinical implications.|journal=American journal of obstetrics and gynecology|date=2011 Oct|volume=205|issue=4 Suppl|pages=S21-5|pmid=21961821}}</ref> Pete ya ukeni huwa bora kwa miezi 3 au 4 na inapatikana katika baadhi ya maeneo duniani.<ref name=Jensen2011/> Kuna mbinu kadha za kutekeleza uangamizaji wa vimelea kwa kuchunguza seviksi.<!-- <ref name=Cast2010/> --> Moja inahusisha uwekaji wa [[quinacrine]] ndani ya uterasi inayosababisha kovu na kutoweza kupata mimba.<!-- <ref name=Cast2010/> --> Ingawa utaratibu huo ni rahisi na haihitaji upasuaji, kuna wasiwasi kuhusu madhara ya muda mrefu.<ref name=Cast2010>{{cite journal|last=Castaño|first=PM|coauthors=Adekunle, L|title=Transcervical sterilization.|journal=Seminars in reproductive medicine|date=2010 Mar|volume=28|issue=2|pages=103-9|pmid=20352559}}</ref> Bidhaa nyingine ya, [[polidocanol]], inayofanya kazi sawa inachunguzwa.<ref name=Jensen2011/> Kifaa kinachoitwa [[Essure]], inayopanuka na kufunga inapowekwa ndani ya fallopio, ilikubaliwa Marekani mwaka wa 2002.<ref name=Cast2010/> ===Wanaume=== Mbinu za kiume za kudhibit uzazi zinajumuisha kondomu, ukataji na utoaji wa mrija.<ref name=Glasier2010>{{cite journal|last=Glasier|first=A|title=Acceptability of contraception for men: a review.|journal=Contraception|date=2010 Nov|volume=82|issue=5|pages=453-6|pmid=20933119}}</ref> Wanaume kati ya asilimia 25 na 75 wanaoweza kuzalisha hutumia homoni za kudhibiti uzazi ikiwa wanaweza kupata.<ref name=Glasier2010/><ref name=Naz2009/> Idadi ya mbinu za homoni na zisizo za homoni zinafanyiwa majaribio,<ref name=Naz2009>{{cite journal|last=Naz|first=RK|coauthors=Rowan, S|title=Update on male contraception.|journal=Current opinion in obstetrics & gynecology |date=2009 Jun |volume=21 |issue=3|pages=265-9|pmid=19469045}}</ref> na kuna baadhi ya utafiti unaochunguza uwekezano wa [[chanjo ya kontraseptivu]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Naz|first=RK|title=Antisperm contraceptive vaccines: where we are and where we are going?|journal=American journal of reproductive immunology (New York, N.Y. : 1989)|date=2011 Jul|volume=66|issue=1|pages=63-70|pmid=21501281}}</ref> Mbinu ya upasuaji wa kugeuza inayochunguzwa ni [[reversible inhibition of sperm under guidance]] (RISUG) inayojumuisha huiingizaji wa polymer gel, [[styrene maleic anhydride]] kwa [[dimethyl sulfoxide]], katika [[vas deferens]].<!-- <ref name=Naz2009/> --> Ukidungwa sindano na sodium bicarbonate hutoa dawa na hurudisha uwezo wa kuzaa tena.<!-- <ref name=Naz2009/> --> Nyingine ni [[intravas device]] inayohusisha uwekaji wa [[Polyurethane|urethane]] ndani ya [[vas deferens]] ili izuie.<!-- <ref name=Naz2009/> --> Mchanganyiko wa [[androgen]] na [[progestin]] huleta matumaini, kwa [[selective androgen receptor modulator]].<ref name=Naz2009/>[[Ultrasound]] na mbinu za kupasha moto makende zimefanyiwa uchunguzi wa kwanza.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ojeda |first=edited by Willaim J. Kovacs, Sergio R. |title=Textbook of endocrine physiology |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780199744121 |page=262|year=2011|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=vrTslOGdBysC&pg=PA262|edition=6th ed.}}</ref> ==Wanyama== [[Upakaji]], unayojumuisha utoaji wa baadhi ya sehemu za [[viungo vya uzazi]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Ackerman|first=[edited by] Lowell|title=Blackwell's five-minute veterinary practice management consult|year=2007|publisher=Blackwell Pub.|location=Ames, Iowa|isbn=9780781759847|page=80|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=26FZVV40aWwC&pg=PA80|edition=1st ed.}}</ref> ni mbinu inayofanywa mara nyingi kwa [[wanyama]]. [[Hifadhi za wanyama]] huhitaji taratibu hizi kama mkataba wa kuchukua.<ref>{{cite book|last=Millar|first=Lila|title=Infectious Disease Management in Animal Shelters|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9781119949459|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=n8NbuhrrFd8C&pg=PT58}}</ref> Udhibiti wa uzazi huchukuliwa kama njia mbadala ya kupunguza [[idadi ya wanyama wa mwituni]].<ref name="Boyle 2009">{{cite web|last=Boyle|first=Rebecca|date=March 3, 2009|title=Birth control for animals: a scientific approach to limiting the wildlife population explosion|work=Popular Science|location=New York|publisher=[http://www.popsci.com/about-usPopSci.com]|url=http://www.popsci.com/environment/article/2009-03/birth-control-animals?single-page-view=true}}</ref> [[Chanjo za kontraseptivu]] zimepatikana kuwa na ubora kwa idadi fulani ya wanyama.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kirkpatrick|first=JF|coauthors=Lyda, RO; Frank, KM|title=Contraceptive vaccines for wildlife: a review.|journal=American journal of reproductive immunology (New York, N.Y. : 1989)|date=2011 Jul|volume=66|issue=1|pages=40-50|pmid=21501279}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Levy|first=JK|title=Contraceptive vaccines for the humane control of community cat populations.|journal=American journal of reproductive immunology (New York, N.Y. : 1989)|date=2011 Jul|volume=66|issue=1|pages=63-70|pmid=21501281}}</ref> ==Tazama pia== *[[Uzazi wa mpango]] ==Marejeo== {{Reflist|2}} ==Kusoma zaidi== * Speroff, Leon; Darney, Philip D. (November 22, 2010). [http://books.google.com/books?id=f5XJtYkiJ0YC&lpg=PP1&ots=VIRzj4boJR&dq=isbn%3A9781608316106&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false''A clinical guide for contraception''] (5th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-1-60831-610-6. * Stubblefield, Phillip G.; Roncari, Danielle M. (December 12, 2011). [http://books.google.com/books?id=P3erI0J8tEQC&lpg=PP1&ots=l3vsNGaDD2&dq=editions%3AytqC2tqT5BIC&pg=PA247#v=onepage&q&f=false"Family Planning"], pp.&nbsp;211–269, in Berek, Jonathan S. (ed.) ''Berek & Novak's Gynecology, 15th ed.'' Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, ISBN 978-1-4511-1433-1. * Jensen, Jeffrey T.; Mishell, Daniel R. Jr. (March 19, 2012). [http://books.google.com/books?id=X5KT_w6Nye8C&lpg=PP1&pg=PA215#v=onepage&f=false"Family Planning: Contraception, Sterilization, and Pregnancy Termination"], pp.&nbsp;215–272, in Lentz, Gretchen M.; Lobo, Rogerio A.; Gershenson, David M.; Katz, Vern L. (eds.) ''Comprehensive Gynecology, 6th ed.'' Philadelphia: Mosby Elsevier, ISBN 978-0-323-06986-1. ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Contraception}} *{{dmoz|Health/Reproductive_Health/Birth_Control/}} *{{cite book|first=World Health Organization Department of Reproductive Health and Research and Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health|title=Family planning : a global handbook for providers : evidence-based guidance developed through worldwide collaboration.|year=2011|publisher=WHO and Center for Communication Programs|location=Geneva, Switzerland|isbn=978-0-9788563-7-3|url=http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|edition=Rev. and Updated ed.|access-date=2013-11-28|archive-date=2013-09-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054335/http://www.fphandbook.org/sites/default/files/hb_english_2012.pdf|url-status=dead}} *{{cite journal|last=Division of Reproductive Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health|first=Promotion|title=U.s. Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2013: adapted from the world health organization selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2nd edition.|journal=MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control|date=2013 Jun 21|volume=62|issue=RR-05|pages=1-60|pmid=23784109|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6205a1.htm?s_cid=rr6205a1_w}} *{{cite web|title=Birth Control Comparison Chart|url=http://www.birth-control-comparison.info/|publisher=Cedar River Clinics}} *[http://www.who.int/rhem/procurement/en/Bulk procurement of birth conrtol] by the World Health Organization [[Jamii:Afya]] lnlgkknpi12smtasel09y0y0z8g9tkk 0 69993 1580267 1481274 2026-07-18T02:03:38Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580267 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Jehoiakim-Eliakim.jpg|thumb|200px|Mfalme Yehoyakimu alivyochorwa na [[Guillaume Rouillé]] katika ''Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum'' mwaka 1553.]] '''Yehoyakimu''' (kwa [[Kiebrania]] '''יְהוֹיָקִים''', Yehoyakim, "Yule ambaye [[YHWH]] amemuinua") ([[635 KK]] - [[597 KK]]) alikuwa mtu wa [[ukoo wa Daudi]] aliyetawala [[ufalme wa Yuda]] kwa miaka 11 ([[608 KK]] hadi [[kifo]] chake)<ref name="Dan Cohn-Sherbok 1996">Dan Cohn-Sherbok, ''The Hebrew Bible'', Continuum International, 1996, page x. {{ISBN|0-304-33703-X}}</ref> baada ya [[ndugu|mdogo]] wake [[Yehoahazi wa Yuda|Shallumu]]. [[Mtoto|Mwana]] wa pili ([[Mambo ya Nyakati I|1Nya]] 3:15) wa [[mfalme Yosia]], kabla hajatawazwa na [[Farao]] [[Neko II]] wa [[Misri]],<ref name=lipshits>{{cite journal|author=Oded Lipschits|url=http://www.jhsonline.org/Articles/article_23.pdf|year=2002|title="Jehoiakim Slept with his Fathers…" (II Kings 24:6) – Did He?|website=fontes.lstc.edu|access-date=2018-12-08|archive-date=2018-06-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602121030/http://jhsonline.org/Articles/article_23.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> aliitwa '''Eliakimu''' (אֶלְיָקִים, Eliakim). Alikataa kufuata maelekezo ya [[nabii Yeremia]] hata akathubutu kuchana na kuchoma [[maandishi]] aliyotumiwa naye ([[Yer]] 36:1-32). Zaidi tena, alimuua [[nabii Uria]] kwa kutoa [[ujumbe]] wa namna hiyohiyo kutoka kwa [[Mungu]] (Yer 26:20-23)<ref>James Maxwell Miller, John Haralson Hayes, ''A History of Ancient Israel and Judah'' (Westminster John Knox Press, 1986) page 404–405.</ref>. Alifariki huku mji wa [[Yerusalemu]] umezingirwa na [[jeshi]] la [[Nebukadneza II]] wa [[Babuloni]]. Badala yake alitawazwa mwanae [[Mfalme Yekonia|Yekonia]]. ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} ==Vyanzo== * http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8562-jehoiakim * {{cite book | last = King| first = Philip J <!--| author-link = Philip J. King --> | title = Jeremiah: An Archaeological Companion | url = https://archive.org/details/jeremiaharchaeol0000phil| publisher = Westminster John Knox Press| year= 1993}} * {{cite book | title = The Nelson Study Bible | url = https://archive.org/details/nelsonstudybible0000unse_h7t6 | year = 1997 | publisher = Thomas Nelson, Inc. | isbn = 9780840715999 | ref = {{sfnref|The Nelson Study Bible|1997}} }} {{Watawala wa Israeli ya Kale}} {{mbegu-mtu-Biblia}} [[Jamii:Waliofariki 597 KK]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Biblia]] [[Jamii:Wafalme wa Yuda]] lawdjb5fm97ush6svtsw0x3de5v128g 0 70146 1580086 1578054 2026-07-17T23:57:30Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580086 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Pumu | Image = AsthmaInhaler.jpg | Alt = Fluticasone metered dose inhaler | Caption = Peak flow meters are used to measure the [[peak expiratory flow]]rate, important in both monitoring and diagnosing asthma.<ref name=GINA_2011_page18>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=18}}</ref> | DiseasesDB = 1006 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|J|45||j|40}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|493}} | ICDO = | OMIM = 600807 | MedlinePlus = 000141 | eMedicineSubj = article | eMedicineTopic = 806890 | MeshID = D001249 | GeneReviewsID = | GeneReviewsName = }} '''Pumu''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''[[w:Asthma|asthma]]'') ni [[ugonjwa]] wa kudumu wa [[uvimbe]] wa [[koromeo|makoromeo]] ulio na sifa za [[dalili]] zinazobadilika na kujirudia, [[hewa]] kuzibwa na [[bronkospasimu]].<ref name=NHLBI07p11-12>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|pp=11–12}}</ref> Dalili ni pamoja na [[kukoroma]], [[kukohoa]], kujikaza kwa [[kifua]], na [[kukosa pumzi]].<ref name=bts2009p4>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=4}}</ref> Inashukiwa kusababishwa na [[jenetikia]] pamoja na hali ya [[mazingira]].<ref name=Martinez_geneenvir>{{cite journal |author=Martinez FD |title=Genes, environments, development and asthma: a reappraisal |url=https://archive.org/details/european-respiratory-journal_2007-01_29_1/page/179 |journal=Eur Respir J |volume=29|issue=1 |pages=179–84 |year=2007 |pmid=17197483 |doi=10.1183/09031936.00087906}}</ref> Kwa kawaida huzingatia mtindo wa dalili, matokeo baada ya matibabu ya muda, na [[spirometri]].<ref name=lemanske>{{cite journal |author=Lemanske RF, Busse WW|title=Asthma: clinical expression and molecular mechanisms|journal=J. Allergy Clin. Immuno. |volume=125 |issue=2 Suppl 2 |pages=S95–102 |year=2010|month=February|pmid=20176271 |pmc=2853245 |doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2009.10.047 }}</ref> Imeainishwa kulingana na idadi ya dalili, wingi wa kupumua kwa nguvu ([[Spirometri|FEV1]]), na [[idadi ya juu ya kupumua]].<ref name=Yawn2008/> Inaweza pia kuainishwa kama [[Atopi|atopiki]] (ya nje) au isiyo ya atopiki (ya ndani)<ref name=RobbinsCotran2010/> ambapo atopi inarejelea maelekezo ya kuanzia type 1 hypersensitivity.<ref>{{cite book | title=Stedman's Medical Dictionary | url=https://archive.org/details/stedmansmedicald0000sted_u1n5 | publisher=Lippincott Williams and Wilkins | edition=28 | year=2005 |isbn=0-7817-3390-1 }}</ref> Dalili kali hutibiwa na [[Beta2-adrenergic agonist]] ya kuvuta (kama vile [[salbutamol]]) na kotikosteroidi za [[mdomo]].<ref name=NHLBI07p214>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=214}}</ref> Katika visa vikali kotikosteroidi za mishipa, [[salfeti ya magnesia]] na ulazwaji [[hospitali|hospitalini]] unaweza kuhitajika.<ref name=NHLBI07p373>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|pp=373–375}}</ref> Dalili zinaweza kuzuiwa kwa kujiepusha na visababishi, kama vile [[alajeni]]<ref name="NHLBI07p169">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|pp=169–172}}</ref> na [[mwasho|vitu vinavyowasha]], na kwa kutumia kotikosteroidi za kuvuta.<ref name=GINA_2011_page71>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=71}}</ref> [[Beta-adrenoceptor agonist zinazofanya kazi kwa muda mrefu]] (LABA) au [[leukotriene antagonist]] inaweza kutumika kando ya kotikosteroidi iwapo dalili za ugonjwa hazitadhibitiwa.<ref name=GINA_2011_page33>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=33}}</ref> Uenezi umeongezeka tangu mwaka [[1970]]. Kufikia [[2011]], watu [[milioni]] 235–300 walikuwa wameathiriwa ulimwenguni,<ref name=WHO2011/><ref name=GINA_2011_page3/> ikijumuisha takribani [[Kifo|vifo]] 250,000.<ref name=GINA_2011_page3>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=3}}</ref> {{TOC limit|limit=3}} ==Ishara na dalili== {{listen | filename = Wheeze2O noise reduced.ogg | title = Wheezing | maelezo = Sauti ya kukoroma kama inavyosikika kwa stethoskopu. | format = [[Ogg]] }} Ugonjwa huu huwa na visa vya kujirudia vya [[kukoroma]], [[upungufu wa pumzi]], kujikaza kwa kifua, na [[kukohoa]].<ref name=GINA2011p2>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|pp=2–5}}</ref> [[Makohozi]] yanaweza kutoka mapafuni, lakini kwa kawaida huwa vigumu kuyatoa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jindal|first=editor-in-chief SK|title=Textbook of pulmonary and critical care medicine|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-93-5025-073-0|page=242|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=EvGTw3wn-zEC&pg=PA242}}</ref> Ukiendelea kupata nafuu yanaweza kutokea uchafu kama [[usaha]] kwa sababu ya kiwango cha juu cha [[seli nyeupe]] za [[damu]] ziitwazo [[esinofili]].<ref>{{cite book|last=George|first=Ronald B.|title=Chest medicine : essentials of pulmonary and critical care medicine|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0-7817-5273-2|page=62|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZzlX2zJMbdgC&pg=PA62|edition=5th ed.}}</ref> Dalili huwa mbaya zaidi [[usiku]] na mapema [[asubuhi]] au kwa athari ya mazoezi au [[baridi]].<ref name=bts2009p14>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=14}}</ref> Baadhi ya watu wenye ugonjwa huu ni nadra kwa kawaida kuhisi dalili, kwa athari za visababishi, ilhali wengine wanaweza kuwa na dalili zinazotambulika na zinazoendelea.<ref name=GINA2011_p8-9>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|pp=8–9}}</ref> ===Hali zinazohusiana=== Hali kadhaa za afya hutokea mara nyingi kwa walio na pumu ikiwa ni pamoja na: [[ugonjwa wa ucheuaji wa astro-esophajeli]] (GERD), [[rhinosinusitisi]], na [[apnea inayosumbua wakati wa kulala]].<ref name=Boulet2009>{{cite journal |author=Boulet LP |title=Influence of comorbid conditions on asthma |url=https://archive.org/details/european-respiratory-journal_2009-04_33_4/page/897 |journal=Eur Respir J |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=897–906 |year=2009|month=April |pmid=19336592 |doi=10.1183/09031936.00121308 }}</ref> Matatizo ya kisaikolojia huwa ya kawaida<ref name=Boulay2011>{{cite journal|last=Boulet|first=LP|coauthors=Boulay, MÈ|title=Asthma-related comorbidities.|journal=Expert review of respiratory medicine|date=2011 Jun|volume=5|issue=3|pages=377–93|pmid=21702660}}</ref> na [[wasiwasi]] unaotokea kati ya asilimia 16–52 na [[tatizo la sununu]] katika [[asilimia]] 14–41.<ref name=Andrew2010>{{cite book|last=editors|first=Andrew Harver, Harry Kotses,| title=Asthma, health and society a public health perspective|year =2010|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-0-387-78285-0|page=315|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=nkP8_h_ewLMC&pg=PA315}}</ref> Hata hivyo, haijulikani iwapo ugonjwa huu husababisha matatizo ya kisaikolojia au iwapo matatizo ya kisaikolojia husababisha pumu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Thomas|first=M|coauthors=Bruton, A; Moffat, M; Cleland, J|title=Asthma and psychological dysfunction.|journal=Primary care respiratory journal : journal of the General Practice Airways Group|date=2011 Sep|volume=20|issue=3|pages=250–6|pmid=21674122}}</ref> ==Visababishi== Ugonjwa huu husababishwa na mchanganyiko wa mwingiliano mgumu na usioeleweka kikamilifu wa kimazingira na kijenetiki.<ref name=Martinez_geneenvir/><ref>{{cite journal | last=Miller |first=RL | coauthors=Ho SM|title=Environmental epigenetics and asthma: current concepts and call for studies | journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine| volume=177 | issue=6 | pages=567–573 | year=2008 | month=March | pmid=18187692|doi=10.1164/rccm.200710-1511PP | pmc=2267336 }}</ref> Masuala haya huathiri ukali wake na matokeo yake baada ya matibabu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Choudhry S, Seibold MA, Borrell LN "et al." |title=Dissecting complex diseases in complex populations: asthma in latino americans |journal=Proc Am Thorac Soc |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=226–33|year=2007 |pmid=17607004 |doi=10.1513/pats.200701-029AW |pmc=2647623}}</ref> Inaaminika kuwa ongezeko la hivi karibuni la ugonjwa huu unasababishwa na kubadilika kwa masuala ya [[kiepijenetiki]] ([[kuridhika]] kando na yanayohusiana na [[Mfuatano wa DNA]]) na kubadilika kwa mazingira ya kuishi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dietert|first=RR|title=Maternal and childhood asthma: risk factors, interactions, and ramifications.|journal=Reproductive toxicology (Elmsford, N.Y.)|date=2011 Sep|volume=32|issue=2|pages=198–204|pmid=21575714}}</ref> ===Mazingira=== Masuala mengi ya kimazingira yamehusishwa na kutokea kwa pumu na maumivu ikiwa ni pamoja na: alejeni, kuchafuka kwa hewa na kemikali zingine za kimazingira.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kelly|first=FJ|coauthors=Fussell, JC|title=Air pollution and airway disease.|journal=Clinical and experimental allergy : journal of the British Society for Allergy and Clinical Immunology|date=2011 Aug|volume=41|issue=8|pages=1059–71|pmid=21623970}}</ref> [[Uvutaji sigara na ujauzito|Kuvuta sigara wakati wa ujauzito]] na baada ya kuzaa huhusishwa na hatari kuu za dalili zinazofanana na za pumu.<ref name=GINA2011_p6>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=6}}</ref> [[alama ya kiwango cha chini cha ubora wa hewa|aina ya hewa]], kutoka kwa magari barabarani au ngazi za juu za [[ozoni]] ,<ref name=GINA2011_p61>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=61}}</ref> zimehusishwa na kutokea kwa pumu na ongezeko la ukali wake.<ref name=Gold>{{cite journal |author=Gold DR, Wright R |title=Population disparities in asthma |journal=Annu Rev Public Health|volume=26 |pages=89–113|year=2005 |pmid=15760282|doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144528 }}</ref> Hatari ya [[mchanganyiko wa ogani fukivu]] inaweza kuchochea kutokea kwa pumu; [[uhatarisho wa fomadeidi]], kwa mfano, huwa na ushirikiano halisi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McGwin|first=G|coauthors=Lienert, J; Kennedy, JI|title=Formaldehyde exposure and asthma in children: a systematic review.|journal=Environmental health perspectives|date=2010 Mar|volume=118|issue=3|pages=313–7|pmid=20064771}}</ref> Pia, [[fithaleti]] katika [[PVC]] huhusishwa na ugonjwa huu kwa watoto na watu wazima<ref>{{cite journal |author= Jaakkola JJ, Knight TL. |title= The role of exposure to phthalates from polyvinyl chloride products in the development of asthma and allergies: a systematic review and meta-analysis|url= https://archive.org/details/sim_environmental-health-perspectives_2008-07_116_7/page/845 |journal= Environ Health Perspect |volume=116 |issue=7 |pages=845–53 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid= 18629304 |pmc= 2453150 |doi= 10.1289/ehp.10846 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bornehag|first=CG|coauthors=Nanberg, E|title=Phthalate exposure and asthma in children.|journal=International journal of andrology|date=2010 Apr|volume=33|issue=2|pages=333–45|pmid=20059582}}</ref> kama ilivyo kwa viwango vya juu vya [[hatari ya endotoksini]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Liu AH|title=Something old, something new: indoor endotoxin, allergens and asthma |journal=Paediatr Respir Rev|volume=5|issue=Suppl A |pages=S65–71 |year=2004 |pmid=14980246|doi=10.1016/S1526-0542(04)90013-9 }}</ref> <!--Alejeni--> Pumu huhusishwa na uhatarisho wa alejeni za ndani ya nyumba.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ahluwalia|first=SK|coauthors=Matsui, EC|title=Mazingira ya ndani ya nyumba na athari zake kwa athma ya utotoni.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2011 Apr|volume=11|issue=2|pages=137–43|pmid=21301330}}</ref> Alejeni za kawaida za ndani ni pamoja na: [[wadudu wa vumbi]], [[mende]], magamba ya wanyama, na kuvu.<ref name=Arshad>{{cite journal|last=Arshad|first=SH|title=Does exposure to indoor allergens contribute to the development of asthma and allergy?|journal=Current allergy and asthma reports|date=2010 Jan|volume=10|issue=1|pages=49–55|pmid=20425514}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Custovic|first=A|coauthors=Simpson, A|title=The role of inhalant allergens in allergic airways disease.|journal=Journal of investigational allergology & clinical immunology : official organ of the International Association of Asthmology (INTERASMA) and Sociedad Latinoamericana de Alergia e Inmunologia|year=2012|volume=22|issue=6|pages=393–401; qiuz follow 401|pmid=23101182}}</ref> Juhudi za kupunguza wadudu wa vumbi zimepatikana kutofaa.<ref name=Gotzsche2008/> Maambukizi fulani yanayohusiana na upumuaji yanaweza kuongeza hatari ya kupata pumu yanapopatikana utotoni kama vile:<ref name=NHLBI07p11>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=11}}</ref>''[[virusi vya sinksia vya upumuaji]]'' na ''[[virusi vya rhino]]''.<ref name=M38/> Hata hivyo maambukizi mengine yanaweza kupunguza hatari.<ref name=M38/> ====Nadharia ya usafi==== [[Nadharia ya usafi]] hujaribu kuelezea viwango vya kuongezeka kwa pumu kote ulimwenguni kama matokeo ya moja kwa moja na yasiyokusudiwa ya kupungua kwa hatari wakati wa utotoni, hadi kwa bakteria na virusi visivyo na maambukizi.<ref>{{cite journal| last=Ramsey | first=CD |coauthors=Celedón JC | title=The hygiene hypothesis and asthma | journal=Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine| volume=11 | issue=1 | pages=14–20 | month=January | year=2005 |pmid=15591883 | doi=10.1097/01.mcp.0000145791.13714.ae }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bufford | first=JD | coauthors=Gern JE | title=The hygiene hypothesis revisited |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_immunology-and-allergy-clinics-of-north-america_2005-05_25_2/page/247 |journal=Immunology and Allergy Clinics of North America | volume=25 | issue=2 |pages=247–262 | month=May |year=2005 | pmid=15878454 | doi=10.1016/j.iac.2005.03.005}}</ref> Imependekezwa kuwa kupungua kwa hatari ya bakteria na virusi sehemu yake ni kwa sababu ya kuongezeka kwa usafi na kupungua kwa ukubwa wa familia katika jamii za kisasa.<ref name=Brook2013>{{cite journal|last=Brooks|first=C|coauthors=Pearce, N; Douwes, J|title=The hygiene hypothesis in allergy and asthma: an update.|journal=Current opinion in allergy and clinical immunology|date=2013 Feb|volume=13|issue=1|pages=70–7|pmid=23103806}}</ref> Ushahidi unaodhibitisha nadharia ya usafi ni pamoja na viwango vya chini vya pumu kwa mashamba na maboma yaliyo na wanyama vipenzi.<ref name=Brook2013/> Matumizi ya [[antibiotiki]] mapema maishani yamehusishwa na kutokea kwa pumu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Murk|first=W|coauthors=Risnes, KR, Bracken, MB|title=Prenatal or early-life exposure to antibiotics and risk of childhood asthma: a systematic review.|journal=Pediatrics|date=2011 Jun|volume=127|issue=6|pages=1125–38|pmid=21606151|doi=10.1542/peds.2010-2092}}</ref> Pia, kuzaa kwa njia ya [[operesheni ya Siza]] huhusishwa na ongezeko la hatari (lililokadiriwa kwa asilimia 20–80) ya pumu—ongezeko hili la hatari linahusishwa na ukosefu wa kudhibiti bora wa bakteria ambao mtoto mchanga angepata kutoka kwa njia inayopitia kwenye njia ya uzazi.<ref>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=72}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Neu|first=J|coauthors=Rushing, J|title=Cesarean versus vaginal delivery: long-term infant outcomes and the hygiene hypothesis.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinics-in-perinatology_2011-06_38_2/page/321|journal=Clinics in perinatology|date=2011 Jun|volume=38|issue=2|pages=321–31|pmid=21645799}}</ref> Kuna uhusiano kati ya pumu na kiwango cha utajiri.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Von Hertzen|first=LC|coauthors=Haahtela, T|title=Asthma and atopy -the price of affluence?|journal=Allergy|date=2004 Feb|volume=59|issue=2|pages=124–37|pmid=14763924}}</ref> ===Jenetikia=== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+ CD14-endotoxin interaction based on CD14 SNP C-159T<ref name=Martinez_CD14 /> |- ! Endotoxin levels !! CC genotype !! TT genotype |- ! High exposure | Low risk || High risk |- ! Low exposure |High risk || Low risk |} [[Historia]] ya [[familia]] ni suala la hatari huku [[jeni]] nyingi tofauti zikihusishwa.<ref name=El2010>{{cite book|last=Elward|first=Graham Douglas, Kurtis S.|title=Asthma|year=2010|publisher=Manson Pub.|location=London|isbn=978-1-84076-513-7|pages=27–29|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=gS4BsugTBvoC&pg=PA27}}</ref> Iwapo mmoja wa [[pacha|mapacha]] ataathiriwa, uwezekano wa mwingine kuwa na ugonjwa ni takriban asilimia 25.<ref name=El2010/> Kufikia mwisho wa [[2005]], jeni zilikuwa zimehusishwa na pumu katika idadi sita au zaidi za watu zilizotengana ikiwa ni pamoja na:''[[Glutathione S-transferase Mu 1|GSTM1]]'', ''[[Interleukin 10|IL10]]'',''[[CTLA-4]]'', ''[[SPINK5]]'',''[[Leukotriene C4 synthase|LTC4S]]'', ''[[Interleukin-4 receptor|IL4R]]'' na ''[[ADAM33]]'' kati ya zingine.<ref name=Hoffjan/> Nyingi za jeni hizi zinahusiana na [[mfumo wa kingamwili]] au urekebishaji wa [[inflamesheni]]. Hata kati ya orodha ya jeni zilizodhibitishwa na uchunguzi uliorudiwa, matokeo hayajawa sawa kati ya idadi zote za watu zilizotathminiwa.<ref name=Hoffjan /> Mwaka wa 2006 zaidi ya [[jeni]] 100 zilihusishwa na pumu katika uchunguzi wa [[muungano wa jeni]] moja pekee;<ref name=Hoffjan>{{cite journal|author=Ober C, Hoffjan S |title=Asthma genetics 2006: the long and winding road to gene discovery |journal=Genes Immun |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=95–100 |year=2006 |pmid=16395390|doi=10.1038/sj.gene.6364284 }}</ref> mengi yanaendelea kutambuliwa.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Halapi|first=E|coauthors=Bjornsdottir, US|title=Overview on the current status of asthma genetics.|journal=The clinical respiratory journal|date=2009 Jan|volume=3|issue=1|pages=2–7|pmid=20298365}}</ref> Baadhi ya tofauti ya jenetikia unaweza kusababisha ugonjwa unapounganishwa na hatari ya kimazingira.<ref name=Martinez_geneenvir /> Kwa mfano [[upolimofi moja ya nunukliotaidi]] katika eneo la [[CD14]] na hatari ya [[endotoksini]] (zao la bakteria). Hatari ya endotoksini unaweza kupatikana kutoka kwa vyanzo kadhaa vya kimazingira ikiwa ni pamoja na moshi wa tobako, mbwa na mashamba. Hatari ya pumu, kisha husababishwa na jenetiki ya mtu na kiwango cha hatari ya endotoksini.<ref name=Martinez_CD14>{{cite journal |author=Martinez FD |title=CD14, endotoxin, and asthma risk: actions and interactions |journal=Proc Am Thorac Soc |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=221–5 |year=2007|pmid=17607003 |doi=10.1513/pats.200702-035AW |pmc=2647622}}</ref> ===Hali ya tiba=== Seti ya [[kizema ya atopi]], [[aleji ya mafua]] na pumu huitwa atopi.<ref name="Bolognia"/> Suala la hatari kuu zaidi la kupata ugonjwa ni historia ya [[atopi|ugonjwa wa atopi]];<ref name=NHLBI07p11/> huku pumu ikitokea kwa kiwango cha juu kwa walio na [[kizema]] au [[mafua|mafua ya mzio]].<ref name=GINA2011_p4>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=4}}</ref> Ugonjwa huu umehusishwa na [[Churg–Strauss syndrome]], ugonjwa wa kipekee wa kingamwili na [[vaskulitisi]]. Watu binafsi walio na aina fulani za [[utikaria]] pia wanaweza kuhisi dalili za pumu.<ref name="Bolognia">{{cite book |author=Rapini, Ronald P.; Bolognia, Jean L.; Jorizzo, Joseph L.|title=Dermatology: 2-Volume Set |publisher=Mosby |location=St. Louis |year=2007|isbn=1-4160-2999-0 }}</ref> Kuna uhusiano kati ya [[unene]] na hatari ya ugonjwa huku zikiwa zimeongezeka miaka iliyopita hivi karibuni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Beuther DA |title=Recent insight into obesity and asthma |journal=Curr Opin Pulm Med|volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=64–70|year=2010 |month=January |pmid=19844182 |doi=10.1097/MCP.0b013e3283338fa7}}</ref><ref name=holguin>{{cite journal |author=Holguin F, Fitzpatrick A |title=Obesity, asthma, and oxidative stress|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-physiology_2010-03_108_3/page/754 |journal=J. Appl. Physiol. |volume=108 |issue=3 |pages=754–9 |year=2010|month=March |pmid=19926826|doi=10.1152/japplphysiol.00702.2009 }}</ref> Masuala kadhaa yanaweza kusababisha ikiwa ni pamoja na kupungua kwa utendakazi wa upumuo kwa sababu ya ongezeko la mafuta na hasa kwa kuwa tishu ya adiposi husababisha hali ya pro-inflamesheni.<ref name="Woods 2009">{{cite journal |author=Wood LG, Gibson PG |title=Masuala ya chakula husababisha innate immune activation katikia athma |journal=Pharmacol. Ther.|volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=37–53 |year=2009|month=July |pmid=19375453|doi=10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.03.015 }}</ref> Dawa za [[Beta blocker]] kama vile [[propranolol]] zinaweza kusababisha ugonjwa kwa walio na uwepesi wa kuipata.<ref>{{cite journal|author=O'Rourke ST |title=Antianginal actions of beta-adrenoceptor antagonists |journal=Am J Pharm Educ |volume=71|issue=5 |pages=95|year=2007 |month=October |pmid=17998992 |pmc=2064893 }}</ref> [[Cardioselective beta-blockers]], hata hivyo, huonekana kuwa salama kwa walio na ugonjwa mdogo au wa kiasi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Salpeter|first=S|coauthors=Ormiston, T; Salpeter, E|title=Cardioselective beta-blocker use in patients with reversible airway disease.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|year=2001|issue=2|pages=CD002992|pmid=11406056}}</ref> Dawa zingine zinazoweza kusababisha matatizo ni [[ASA]], [[NSAID]], na [[vizuizi vya enzaimu anjiotensini-badilishi]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Covar|first=RA|coauthors=Macomber, BA; Szefler, SJ|title=Medications as asthma trigers.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_immunology-and-allergy-clinics-of-north-america_2005-02_25_1/page/169|journal=Immunology and allergy clinics of North America|date=2005 Feb|volume=25|issue=1|pages=169–90|pmid=15579370}}</ref> ===Ongezeko=== Baadhi ya watu huwa na pumu tulivu kwa majuma au miezi kisha kuwa kali kwa ghafla. Watu tofauti huathirika kwa njia tofauti na masuala mbalimbali.<ref name=Baxi2010>{{cite journal |author=Baxi SN, Phipatanakul W |title=The role of allergen exposure and avoidance in asthma |journal=Adolesc Med State Art Rev |volume=21 |issue=1|pages=57–71, viii–ix |year=2010 |month=April |pmid=20568555 |pmc=2975603 }}</ref> Watu wengi binafsi wanaweza kupata ongezeko kali kutokana na baadhi ya maajenti sababishi.<ref name=Baxi2010/> Visababishi vya kinyumbani vya ugonjwa huu ni pamoja na [[vumbi]], [[magamba]] ya mnyama (hasa manyoya ya paka na mbwa), mende [[alejeni]] na [[kuvu]].<ref name=Baxi2010/> [[marashi]] ni kisababishi cha kawaida cha mashambulizi kali kwa kina mama na watoto. [[Ambukizo]] la [[virusi|virusi]] na bakteria la trakti ya juu ya kupumua unaweza kuongeza ugonjwa.<ref name=Baxi2010/> Mfadhaiko wa kisaikolojia [[(kibiolojia)|mfadhaiko]] unaweza kuzidisha dalili—inakisiwa kuwa mfadhaiko hubadilisha mfumo wa kingamwili na hivyo huongeza athari ya inflamesheni ya njia ya hewa kutokana na alejeni na vitu ambavyo huwasha.<ref name=Gold/><ref name="Chen2007">{{cite journal |author=Chen E, Miller GE |title=Stress and inflammation in exacerbations of asthma|journal=Brain Behav Immun. |volume=21 |issue=8 |pages=993–9|year=2007 |pmid=17493786|doi=10.1016/j.bbi.2007.03.009|pmc=2077080}}</ref> ==Pathofisiolojia== [[File:Asthma.jpg|thumb|alt=Sehemu ya tishu ya njia ya hewa inayoonyesha ukuta ulio na doa la waridi na kamasi ya rangi nyeupe uliojaa upande wa ndani|Kizuizi cha mwanya wa [[bronkioli]] kutoka mucoid exudate, [[goblet cell]] [[metaplasia]], na epitheliumu [[utando msingi]] unaovimba kwa mtu aliye na pumu.]] Pumu husababishwa na uvimbe kwa njia za hewa ikifuatiwa na mikazo katika eneo hilo [[msuli mdogo]].<!-- <ref name=GINA2011p2/> --> Hii pamoja na visababishi vingine husababisha maumivu yanayotokana na njia ya hewa iliyonyembamba na dalili za hali ya juu za kukoroma.<!-- <ref name=GINA2011p2/> --> Uwembamba unaweza kurudi hali yake ya kawaida bila matibabu<!-- <ref name=GINA2011p2/> --> Mara kwa mara njia za hewa hujibadilisha.<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Mabadiliko ya njia za hewa ni pamoja na ongezeko kwa [[esinofili]] na kunenepa kwa [[lamina lililofanana na neti]].<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Msuli wa njia za hewa inaweza kuwa kubwa kwa ukali na kuongezeka kwa idadi ya tezi ya miukosi.<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Aina zingine za seli zilizohusika ni pamoja na: [[T lymphocytes]], [[macrophages]], na [[nutrofili]].<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Pia kunaweza kuwa na vijenzi vya [[mfumo wa kinga]] pamoja na: [[cytokines]], [[chemokines]], [[histamine]], na [[leukotrienes]] miongoni mwa zingine.<ref name=M38/> ==Utambuzi== Pumu umetambulika vizuri, ilhali hakuna ufafanuzi hata moja ulioidhinishwa.<ref name=M38/> Inafafanuliwa na [[Uvumbuzi wa Kidunia wa Pumu]] kama "ulemavu mkali wa inflamesheni katika njia za hewa ambapo seli mingi na elementi za seli huwa na jukumu. Inflamesheni kali inahusishwa na mwitikio uliozidi wa njia ya hewa zinazosababisha matukio ya kukoroma, kushindwa kupumua, mikazo kifuani na kukohoa hasa usiku au asubuhi na mapema. Matukio haya kwa kawaida yanahusiana na kutapakaa kwa hewa mwilini lakini mtiririko wa hewa uliozuiwa ambao unabadilika kwa pafu ambayo mara kwa mara inaweza kurudi kwa hali ya kawaida bila matibabu au na matibabu".<ref name=GINA2011p2 /> Kwa sasa hakuna uchunguzi maalum na utambuzi unaofanana hasa uliokatika muundo wa dalili na mwitikio kwa tiba muda unapoendelea.<ref name=lemanske/><ref name=M38/> Utambuzi unapaswa kushukiwa ikiwa kuna: ukoromaji unaotokea mara kwa mara, kukohoa au kupumua kwa ugumu na hizi dalili hutokea au kuzidi kwa sababu ya mazoezi, maambukizi ya virusi, alejeni au hewa chafu.<ref name=NAEPP42>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=42}}</ref> Kisha [[Spirometry]] hutumika kuthibitisha utambuzi.<ref name=NAEPP42/> Utambuzi kwa watoto waliochini ya miaka sita ni vigumu kwa sababu ni wadogo kufanyiwa spirometry.<ref name=GINA2011p20>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=20}}</ref> ===Spirometry=== [[Spirometry]] inapendekezwa ili isaidie utambuzi na udhibiti.<ref name="AAAAIfive">{{Citation|author1=American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology|author1-link=American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology|date=|title=Five things physicians and patients should question|publisher=[[American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology]]|work=Choosing wisely: an initiative of the [[ABIM Foundation]]|page=|url=http://choosingwisely.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/5things_12_factsheet_AAAAI.pdf|accessdate=August 14, 2012|archive-date=2012-11-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103151124/http://choosingwisely.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/5things_12_factsheet_AAAAI.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref name="NIHasthmaguide">{{cite book |author=Third Expert Panel on the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma |title=Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma |year=2007 |publisher=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (US) |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7232/}}</ref> Hii ndio uchunguzi bora wa pumu.<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Ikiwa [[FEV1]] kilichopimwa na mbinu hii kitakuwa bora na zaidi ya asilimia 12 kufuatiliwa na utoaji wa kipanua bronkasi kama vile [[sabutamoli]], husaidia kwa utambuzi.<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Hata hivyo inaweza kuwa sawa kwa walio na historia ya ugonjwa isiyokali, isiyojitokeza.<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> [[Kiwango cha hewa mtu anaweza kuvuta kwa pumzi moja]] inaweza kusaidia kutofautisha pumu [[COPD]].<ref name=M38/> Ni muhimu kufuatilia spirometry kila mwaka moja au mbili ili kufuatilia jinsi ugonjwa unavyodhibitiwa.<ref name=NHLBI07p58>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=58}}</ref> ===Njia nyingine=== [[Kipimo]] cha [[tatizo la methacholine]] kinahusisha kuvuta hewa ya kuongeza viwango vya dutu vinavyosababisha njia ya hewa kuwa nyembamba katika eneo linalochangia kupata magonjwa.<!-- <ref name=M38/> --> Ikiwa hakuna dalili inamaanisha hana ugonjwa; ikiwa ana dalili, hata hivyo, si ya ugonjwa hasa.<ref name=M38/> Ushahidi mwingine unaochangia ni: tofauti ya asilimia ≥20 kwa [[kiwango cha mwisho cha kupumua]] angalau siku tatu kwa wiki kwa wiki mbili, uboreshaji kwa asilimia ≥20 ya kiwango cha kupumua ukifuatiliwa na matibabu ya sabutamoli, kotikosteroidi ya kuvuta au prinisoni, au upungufu wa asilimia ≥20 ya kifaa cha kupima hewa kutoka kwa mapafu ikifuatiliwa na hatari ya kisababishi.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Pinnock H, Shah R |title=Asthma |journal=BMJ |volume=334 |issue=7598 |pages=847–50|year=2007 |pmid=17446617 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39140.634896.BE |pmc=1853223}}</ref> Kipimo cha kiwango cha juu cha kupumua hubadilika zaidi kuliko ya spirometry, hata hivyo, haijakubaliwa kwa utambuzi wa mara kwa mara.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP2007p59/> --> Inaweza kuwa ya manufaa ya kujitathmini kila siku kwa wale walio na ugonjwa uliokali kiasi hadi kwa iliyokali na kutathmini matokeo yanayofaa kwa matibabu mapya.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP2007p59/> --> Inaweza pia kuwa ya manufaa ya kuongoza kwa matibabu kwa walio na hali ya kuongezeka kwa ukali wa ugonjwa.<ref name=NAEPP2007p59>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=59}}</ref> ===Uainishaji=== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:1em; text-align:center" |+ Clinical classification (≥ 12 years old)<ref name=Yawn2008/> |- ! scope="col" style="width:6em;" | Severity ! scope="col" style="width:4em;" | Symptom frequency ! scope="col" style="width:4em;" | Night time symptoms ! scope="col" style="width:4em;" | %FEV₁ of predicted ! scope="col" style="width:4em;" | FEV₁ Variability ! scope="col" style="width:4em;" | SABA use |- ! scope="row" | Intermittent | ≤2/week | ≤2/month | ≥80% | <20% | ≤2 days/week |- ! scope="row" | Mild persistent | >2/week | 3–4/month | ≥80% | 20–30% | >2 days/week |- ! scope="row" | Moderate persistent | Daily | >1/week | 60–80% | >30% | daily |- ! scope="row" | Severe persistent | Continuously | Frequent (7×/week) | <60% | >30% | ≥twice/day |} Ugonjwa huu huainishwa kulingana na dalili inavyojitokeza mara kwa mara, kutoka kwa pumzi inayotolewa nje ([[spirometry|FEV₁]]), na [[kiwango cha mwisho cha kupumua]].<ref name=Yawn2008>{{cite journal |author=Yawn BP |title=Factors accounting for asthma variability: achieving optimal symptom control for individual patients |journal=Primary Care Respiratory Journal |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=138–147 |month=September |year=2008 |url=http://www.thepcrj.org/journ/vol17/17_3_138_147.pdf |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5nySCf5x8?url=http://www.thepcrj.org/journ/vol17/17_3_138_147.pdf |archivedate=2010-03-04 |pmid=18264646 |doi=10.3132/pcrj.2008.00004 |access-date=2014-01-09 |dead-url=no }}</ref> Pumu inaweza kuainishwa kama atopi (iliyo ya nje) au isiyo ya atopi (iliyo ya ndani), kwa kuzingatia iwapo dalili zimechochewa na alejeni (atopi) au la (zisizo za atopi).<ref name="RobbinsCotran2010">{{cite book |editor1-last=Kumar|editor1-first=Vinay |editor2-last=Abbas |editor2-first=Abul K |editor3-last=Fausto|editor3-first=Nelson |editor4-last=Aster |editor4-first=Jon |title=Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease |publisher=Saunders |edition=8th |year=2010|isbn=978-1-4160-3121-5 |page=688 |oclc=643462931 }}</ref> Pumu unapoainishwa kulingana na ukali, kwa sasa hakuna mbinu halisi ya kuainisha vikundi vidogo mbalimbali vya ugonjwa huu zaidi ya mfumo huu.<ref name=Moore2010>{{cite journal |author=Moore WC, Pascual RM |title=Update in asthma 2009 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-respiratory-critical-care-medicine_2010-06-01_181_11/page/1181 |journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine |volume=181 |issue=11 |pages=1181–7 |year=2010 |month=June|pmid=20516492 |doi=10.1164/rccm.201003-0321UP}}</ref> Kutafuta njia za kutambua vikundi vidogo vinavyoitikia vyema kwa aina tofauti za matibabu ni lengo muhimu la utafiti wa pumu.<ref name=Moore2010/> Ingawa pumu ni hali kali [[pingamizi ya ugonjwa wa pafu|pingamizi]], haichukuliwi kama sehemu ya [[ugonjwa kali unaopinga mapafu]] kwa kuwa jina hili linahusu mchanganyiko wa magonjwa zisizoweza kurudi katika hali iliyosawa kama vile [[bronkektasisi]],[[bronkitisi kali]], na [[emphysema]].<ref name="Self, Timothy 2009">{{cite book|editor=Mary Anne Koda-Kimble, Brian K Alldredge, et al. |author1=Self, Timothy|author2=Chrisman, Cary |author3=Finch, Christopher |title=Applied therapeutics: the clinical use of drugs |edition=9th |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |year=2009 |chapter=22. Asthma |oclc=230848069 }}</ref> Tofauti na magonjwa haya, kizuizi cha njia ya hewa huweza kurudi katika hali yake ya kawaida; hata hivyo, isipotibiwa, inflamesheni kali kutokana na pumu huweza kusababisha mapafu kuwa na kizuizi kisichorudi kwa hali yake ya kawaida kwa sababu ya njia ya hewa kupata muundo mwingine.<ref name=Delacourt2004>{{cite journal |last=Delacourt|first=C|title=Conséquencesbronchiques de l'asthme non traité|trans_title=Bronchial changes in untreated asthma |journal=Archives de Pédiatrie|volume=11 |issue=Suppl. 2 |pages=71s–73s|month=June |year=2004 |pmid=15301800}}</ref> Tofauti na [[emphysema]], ugonjwa huu huathiri bronkia, sio [[alveoli]].<ref name=Schiffman2009>{{cite web |url=http://www.medicinenet.com/chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease_copd/article.htm |title=Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |first=George |last=Schiffman |date=18 December 2009 |publisher=MedicineNet |accessdate=2 September 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828011049/http://www.medicinenet.com/chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease_copd/article.htm |archivedate=2010-08-28 |deadurl=no }}</ref> ====Kuzidi kwa pumu==== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+ Severity of an acute exacerbation<ref name=BTS58/> |- ! style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;" | Near-fatal | colspan="2" style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;" | High [[Arterial blood gas|PaCO₂]] and/or requiring mechanical ventilation |- ! rowspan="9" style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;" | Life threatening</br>(any one of) |- ! Clinical signs ! Measurements |- | Altered [[level of consciousness]] | [[Peak flow]]< 33% |- | Exhaustion | [[Oxygen saturation]]< 92% |- | [[Arrhythmia]] | [[Arterial blood gas|PaO₂]]< 8 kPa |- | Low [[blood pressure]] | "Normal" PaCO₂ |- | [[Cyanosis]] | |- | Silent chest | |- | Poor respiratory effort | |- ! rowspan="5" style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;" | Acute severe</br>(any one of) |- | colspan="2" | Peak flow 33–50% |- | colspan="2" | Respiratory rate ≥ 25 breaths per minute |- | colspan="2" | Heart rate ≥ 110 beats per minute |- | colspan="2" | Unable to complete sentences in one breath |- ! rowspan="3" style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray; border-bottom: 3 px solid darkgray;"| Moderate | colspan="2" style="border-top: 3px solid darkgray;" | Worsening symptoms |- | colspan="2" | Peak flow 50–80% best or predicted |- | colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 3 px solid darkgray;" | No features of acute severe asthma |} Ugonjwa kali uliozidi huitwa ''shambulizi la pumu''. Dalili zinazotambulika ni [[upungufu wa hewa]], [[kukorota|ukorotaji]], na [[kujikaza kwa kifua]].<ref name=M38/> Wakati hizi ni dalili za kwanza za ugonjwa,<ref name=Barnes2008>{{cite book|last=Barnes |first=PJ |chapter=Asthma |title=Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine|url=https://archive.org/details/harrisonsprincip00asfa |editor1-last=Fauci|editor1-first=Anthony S |editor2-last=Braunwald|editor2-first=E, |editor3-last=Kasper|editor3-first=DL |location=New York|publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2008 |edition=17th|isbn=978-0-07-146633-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/harrisonsprincip00asfa/page/1596 1596]–1607}}</ref> baadhi ya watu huonyesha kwa [[kukohoa]], na katika hali kali, mwendo wa kupumua unaweza kuwa umeharibika sana kiasi kwamba ukoromaji hausikiki.<ref name=BTS58/> Dalili zinzazotokea wakati wa shambulizi la ugonjwa ni pamoja na matumizi zinazosaidia [[misuli]] za kupumua ([[sternocleidomastoid]] na [[misuli ya scalene]] za shingo), kunaweza kuwa na [[pulsus paradoxus|mpwito wa moyo wa kifumbo]] (mpwito uliodhaifu wakati wa kuvuta hewa na ulio na nguvu wakati wa kutoa hewa), na kuvimba kwa kifua.<ref name=Maitre1995>{{cite journal |author=Maitre B, Similowski T, Derenne JP |title=Physical examination of the adult patient with respiratory diseases: inspection and palpation |journal=Eur. Respir. J. |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=1584–93 |year=1995 |month=September |pmid=8575588 |url=http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/8/9/1584.long |access-date=2014-01-09 |archive-date=2015-04-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429223309/http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/8/9/1584.long |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[sinosisi|rangi ya bluu]] ya ngozi na kucha inaweza kutokea kutokana na ukosefu wa oksijeni.<ref name=Werner2001>{{cite journal|last=Werner |first=HA |title=Status asthmaticus in children: a review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2001-06_119_6/page/n47 |journal=Chest |volume=119 |issue=6|pages=1596–1607 |year=2001|month=June|pmid=11399724|doi=10.1378/chest.119.6.1913 }}</ref> Katika hali ya maumivu usio kali [[kiwango cha mwisho cha kupumua]] ni ≥200&nbsp;ya lita moja kwa dakika au asilimia ≥50 ya utabiri uliobora.<ref name=Shiber2006>{{cite journal |author=Shiber JR, Santana J|title=Dyspnea |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-clinics-of-north-america_2006-05_90_3/page/453|journal=Med. Clin. North Am. |volume=90|issue=3 |pages=453–79 |year=2006|month=May|pmid=16473100 |doi=10.1016/j.mcna.2005.11.006 }}</ref> Wastani wake unafasiliwa kama kati ya 80 na 200&nbsp;ya lita moja kwa dakika au asilimia 20 na 50 ya utabiri uliobora bali iliokali inafasiliwa kama ≤&nbsp;80 ya lita kwa dakika au asilimia ≤25 ya utabiri uliobora.<ref name=Shiber2006/> [[Pumu iliyo kali mno]], ulioitwa hali ya kuwa na pumu kali mbeleni, na inayoendelea kwa muda mrefu, ni ugonjwa kali uliozidi ambao hautibii na matibabu ya kawaida ya kipanua koromeo na kotikosteroidi.<ref name=Shah2012/> Nusu ya hali hizi zimesababishwa na maambukizi kutoka kwa mengine yaliyosababishwa na alejeni, hewa chafu, ukosefu wa dawa au kuzitumia kwa njia isiyofaa.<ref name=Shah2012>{{cite journal|last=Shah|first=R|coauthors=Saltoun, CA|title=Chapter 14: Athma uliokali mno (hali ya kuwa na athma kali, na inayoendelea kwa muda mrefu).|journal=Allergy and asthma proceedings : the official journal of regional and state allergy societies|date=2012 May–Jun|volume=33 Suppl 1|pages=S47-50|pmid=22794687}}</ref> [[Pumu ya brittle]] ni aina ya ugonjwa unaotambuliwa na mashambulizi makali yanayorudi.<ref name=BTS58>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=54}}</ref> Aina ya kwanza ya ugonjwa wa brittle ni ugonjwa ulio tofauti na mtiririko wa upeo mpana, licha ya makali ya dawa. Aina ya pili ya ugonjwa wa brittle ni ugonjwa ulio na usuli uliothibitiwa kwa njia inayofaa na ukali wa ghafla.<ref name=BTS58/> ====Yanayosababisha na mazoezi ==== Zoezi linaweza kusababisha [[kuminya bronkasi]] kwa wote walio na wasio kuwa na ugonjwa.<ref name=EIB2012>{{cite journal|last=Khan|first=DA|title=Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction: burden and prevalence.|journal=Allergy and asthma proceedings : the official journal of regional and state allergy societies|date=2012 Jan–Feb|volume=33|issue=1|pages=1–6|pmid=22370526}}</ref> Hutokea kwa watu wengi walio na pumu na hadi asilimia 20 ya watu wasio kuwa na ugonjwa.<ref name=EIB2012/> Hutokea mara nyingi kwa wanariadha wa tabaka la juu, kwa viwango vinavyobadilika kutoka asilimia 3 kwa wanaoshiriki katika mashindano ya [[bobsled]] hadi asilimia 50 kwa [[wanariadha wa baiskeli]] na asilimia 60 kwa [[cross-country skiing]].<ref name=EIB2012/> Ingawa inaweza kutokea katika hali yoyote ya hewa ni ya kawaida zaidi wakati hewa ni kavu na baridi.<ref name=GINA_2011_page17>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=17}}</ref> Beta2-agonists ya kuvuta inaonekana kuwa haileti mabadiliko katika matokeo ya wanariadha wasiokuwa na pumu<ref>{{cite journal|last=Carlsen|first=KH|coauthors=Anderson, SD; Bjermer, L; Bonini, S; Brusasco, V; Canonica, W; Cummiskey, J; Delgado, L; Del Giacco, SR; Drobnic, F; Haahtela, T; Larsson, K; Palange, P; Popov, T; van Cauwenberge, P; European Respiratory, Society; European Academy of Allergy and Clinical, Immunology; GA(2)LEN,|title=Treatment of exercise-induced asthma, respiratory and allergic disorders in sports and the relationship to doping: Part II of the report from the Joint Task Force of European Respiratory Society (ERS) and European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) in cooperation with GA(2)LEN.|journal=Allergy|date=2008 May|volume=63|issue=5|pages=492–505|pmid=18394123}}</ref> hata hivyo dozi za kumeza zinaweza kuboresha uvumilivu na nguvu.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kindermann|first=W|title=Do inhaled beta(2)-agonists have an ergogenic potential in non-asthmatic competitive athletes?|journal=Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.)|year=2007|volume=37|issue=2|pages=95–102|pmid=17241101}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Pluim|first=BM|coauthors=de Hon, O; Staal, JB; Limpens, J; Kuipers, H; Overbeek, SE; Zwinderman, AH; Scholten, RJ|title=β₂-Agonists and physical performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.|journal=Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.)|date=2011 Jan 1|volume=41|issue=1|pages=39–57|pmid=21142283}}</ref> ====Kazini==== Pumu unaotokea (au kuzidishwa na) mazingira ya kazini, hurejelewa kama [[magonjwa ya kazini]].<ref name=Baur2012/> Hata hivyo hali nyingi haziripotiwi au kutambuliwa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kunnamo|first=ed.-in-chief: Ilkka|title=Evidence-based medicine guidelines|year=2005|publisher=Wiley|location=Chichester|isbn=978-0-470-01184-3|page=214|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=frYEiHYtOv0C&pg=PA214}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kraft|first=editors, Mario Castro, Monica|title=Clinical asthma|year=2008|publisher=Mosby / Elsevier|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-323-07081-2|pages=Chapter 42|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=y9WYwLVn7pgC&pg=PT1185}}</ref> Inakadiriwa kuwa asilimia 5-25 ya ugonjwa huu kwa watu wazima huhusiana na mahali pa kazi.<!-- <ref name=Baur2012/> --> Maajenti karibu mia moja wamehusishwa na ya kawaida ikiwa: [[isocyanates]], nafaka na uchafu wa mbao, [[colophony]], [[soldering flux]], [[ulimbo wa mpira]], wanyama, na [[aldehydes]].<!-- <ref name=Baur2012/> --> Uajiri uliohusishwa na hatari kubwa ya matatizo inajumuisha: wale ambao [[wanajipaka rangi]], waokaji na watengenezao chakula, wauguzi, wafanyikazi wa kemikali, wanaofanyakazi na wanyama, [[wati weko]], watengenezaji nywele na wafanyikazi wa mabao.<ref name=Baur2012>{{cite journal|last=Baur|first=X|coauthors=Aasen, TB; Burge, PS; Heederik, D; Henneberger, PK; Maestrelli, P; Schlünssen, V; Vandenplas, O; Wilken, D; ERS Task Force on the Management of Work-related, Asthma|title=The management of work-related asthma guidelines: a broader perspective.|journal=European respiratory review : an official journal of the European Respiratory Society|date=2012 Jun 1|volume=21|issue=124|pages=125–39|pmid=22654084}}</ref> ===Utambuzi tofauti=== Hali zingine zinaweza kusababisha dalili zinazofanana na za pumu.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP46/> --> Kwa watoto, magonjwa mengine ya njia ya hewa kama vile [[mzio wa pua]] na [[sinositisi]] zinapaswa kuangiliwa pia kama visababishi vinavyofunga njia ya hewa ikijumuisha: [[Kifaa_kigeni#Kwa njia za hewa|kitu kigeni mwilini]], [[tracheal stenosis]] au [[laryngotracheomalacia]], [[vizingo vya utomvu]], hurefushwa [[Tezi]] au uzito wa shingo.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP46> --> Kwa watu wazima, [[COPD]], [[kutofanya kazi kwa moyo]], uzito wa hewa kupita, vile vile dawa za kukomesha athiri ya ACE zinapaswa kuangaliwa.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP46> --> Kwa watu wote [[kutofanya kazi kwa mshipi wa sauti]] inaweza kutokea pia.<ref name=NAEPP46>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=46}}</ref> [[Pumu zibifu wa kudumu]] inaweza kuwa na ugonjwa huu na inaweza kutokea kama tatizo la kudumu. Katika umri wa miaka 65 watu wengi walio na ugonjwa wa njia ya hewa iliyofunganga watakuwa na pumu na COPD. Kati hali hii, COPD inaweza kutofautishwa kwa nutrofili nyingi katika njia ya hewa, inayoongezwa na ukubwa wa ukuta, na kuongezeka kwa msuli mdogo bronkia. Hata hivyo, kiwango hiki cha kuchunguza haiwezi kutekelezwa kwa sababu COPD na pumu huwa na kanuni sawa za usimamizi: kotikosteroidi, kuwepo kwa beta agonists, na hatua za kuacha kuvuta sigara.<ref name=Gibson>{{cite journal |author=Gibson PG, McDonald VM, Marks GB |title=Asthma in older adults |journal=Lancet |volume=376|issue=9743 |pages=803–13 |year=2010 |month=September |pmid=20816547|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61087-2 }}</ref> Hukaribiana na pumu kwa dalili, huhusiana na uvutaji wa sigara, umri mkubwa, kutobadilika kwa dalili baada ya kuweka kipanua bronkasi, na upungufu wa kuwepo kwa atopi katika familia.<ref name=Hargreave>{{cite journal |author1=Hargreave FE |author2=Parameswaran K |title=Asthma, COPD and bronchitis are just components of airway disease |journal=European Respiratory Journal |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=264–267 |month=August |year=2006 |url=http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/28/2/264.full |pmid=16880365 |doi=10.1183/09031936.06.00056106 |access-date=2014-01-09 |archive-date=2016-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113080726/http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/28/2/264.full |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Applied Therapeutics 2009">{{cite book|author=Diaz, P. Knoell |title=Applied therapeutics: the clinical use of drugs|edition=9th |location=Philadelphia |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |year=2009|chapter=23. ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu zibifu }}</ref> ==Uzuiaji== Ushahidi wa kufanya kazi kwa mikakati ya kuzuia kutokea kwa ugonjwa ni finyu.<ref name="NHLBI07p184"/> Baadhi huonyesha matumaini ikijumuisha: kuepekuna na sehemu zilizo na moshi [[katika uterasi]] na baada ya kuzaa, [[unyonyeshaji]], na ongezeko la utunzaji au familia kubwa lakini hakuna hata moja inayopendekezwa kwa dalili hii.<ref name="NHLBI07p184">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|pp=184–5}}</ref> Kufichuliwa kwa mnyama mapema inaweza kusaidia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lodge|first=CJ|coauthors=Allen, KJ; Lowe, AJ; Hill, DJ; Hosking, CS; Abramson, MJ; Dharmage, SC|title=Perinatal cat and dog exposure and the risk of asthma and allergy in the urban environment: a systematic review of longitudinal studies.|journal=Clinical & developmental immunology|year=2012|volume=2012|pages=176484|pmid=22235226}}</ref> Matokeo ya ufichuzi kwa wanyma wakati mwingine inashida<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chen|first=CM|coauthors=Tischer, C; Schnappinger, M; Heinrich, J|title=The role of cats and dogs in asthma and allergy—a systematic review.|journal=International journal of hygiene and environmental health|date=2010 Jan|volume=213|issue=1|pages=1–31|pmid=20053584}}</ref> na inapendekezwa tu wanyma watolewe nyumbani ikiwa binadamu ana dalili za aleji ya mnyama huyo.<ref name=Au2005/> Upangaji mlo wakati wa ujauzito au unyonyeshaji haibainishi kama njia nzuri na hivyo haipendekezwi.<ref name=Au2005>{{cite journal|last=Prescott|first=SL|coauthors=Tang, ML; Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and, Allergy|title=The Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy position statement: Muhtasari wa uzuiaji wa aleji kwa watoto.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-journal-of-australia_2005-05-02_182_9/page/464|journal=The Medical journal of Australia|date=2005 May 2|volume=182|issue=9|pages=464–7|pmid=15865590}}</ref> Utoaji au upunguzaji wa vitu vilivyo hatari kwa watu kazini inaweza kuwa salama.<ref name=Baur2012/> ==Udhibiti== Ilhali hakuna matibabu ya pumu, dalili zinaweza kuboreshwa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ripoll|first=Brian C. Leutholtz, Ignacio|title=Exercise and disease management|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton|isbn=978-1-4398-2759-8|page=100|url=http://books.google.ch/books?id=eAn9-bm_pi8C&pg=PA100|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Mpango maalum, ulioboreshwa kwa kufuatilia na kudhibiti dalili inapaswa kutengenezwa. Mpango huu unapaswa kujumuisha upunguzaji wa alejeni, kwa uchunguzi wa kutathmini ukali, na matumizi ya dawa. Mpango wa matibabu unapaswa kuandikwa chini na kuwashauri kuhusu marekebisho ya matibabu kulingana na mabadiliko ya dalili.<ref name=GINA_2011_page56>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=56}}</ref> Njia mwafaka ya kutibu ni kutambua visababishi, kama vile [[Madhara ya uvutaji wa sigara kwa afya|uvutaji wa sigara]], wanyama, au [[aspirin]], na kuepukana nao. Ikiwa haiwezekani, matumizi ya dawa utahitajika. Dawa ya matibabu yanachaguliwa kwa kuzingatia, vitu vingi, ukali wa ugonjwa na marudio ya dalili. Matibabu maalum ya pumu huanishwa kwa jumla katika kategoria zinazojitokeza na zinazochukua muda.<ref name=NHLBI07p213>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=213}}</ref><ref name=BGMA08>{{cite web|url=http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign101.pdf|title=British Guideline on the Management of Asthma|format=PDF|publisher=Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network|year=2008|accessdate=2008-08-04|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819203455/http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign101.pdf|archivedate=2008-08-19|deadurl=no}}</ref> [[Vipanua bronkasi]] vinapendekezwa kwa dalili za muda mfupi.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP/> --> Matibabu mengine hayahitajiki, kwa wanaokuwa na maumivu kila mara.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP/> --> Ikiwa ugonjwa itaendelea kudumu (kuwa mgonjwa zaidi ya mara mbili kwa wiki moja), dozi ndogo ya kuvuta ya kotikosteroidi au nyingine, ya kunywa [[leukotriene antagonist]] au [[mast cell stabilizer]] inapendekezwa.<!-- <ref name=NAEPP/> --> Kwa walio na maumivu kila siku, dozi kubwa ya kotikosteroidi ya kuvuta inatumiwa. Wakati wa maumivu, kotikosteroidi ya kumeza zinaongezwa kwa matibau haya.<ref name="NHLBI07p214">{{harvnb|NHLBI kielekezie|200707|p=214}}</ref> ===Ubadilishaji wa mtindo wa maisha=== Uepaji wa visababishi ni sehemu kuu ya kuboresha udhibiti na kuzuia kupatwa na ugonjwa. Visababishi vya kawaida sana ni pamoja na [[alejeni]], moshi (tobako na vingine), uchafuzi wa hewa, [[Kizuizi beta#Maajenti wasio chaguzi|vizuizi beta visivyo chaguzi]], na chakula kilicho na salfeti.<ref name=NAEPP2007p69>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=69}}</ref><ref name=thomson>{{cite journal |author=Thomson NC, Spears M |title=Athari ya kuvuta sigara kwa matokeo ya matibabu kwa wagonjwa walio na pumu |journal=Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol|volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=57–63 |year=2005 |pmid=15643345|doi=10.1097/00130832-200502000-00011}}</ref> Uvutaji sigara na [[uvutaji moshi kutoka kwa anayevuta sigara]](moshi wa mtu mwingine) unaweza kupunguza utendakazi wa dawa kama vile kotikosteroidi.<ref name=Stap2011>{{cite journal| author=Stapleton M, Howard-Thompson A, George C, Hoover RM, Self TH| title=Smoking and asthma. | journal=J Am Board Fam Med | year= 2011 | volume= 24| issue= 3 | pages= 313–22 | pmid=21551404 | doi=10.3122/jabfm.2011.03.100180}}</ref> Juhudi za kudhibiti wadudu wa vumbi, pamoja na kuchunja hewa, kemikali za kuua wadudu, kutumia kivuta vumbi, vitu vya kufunika godoro na njia zingine hazikuwa na mabadiliko kwa dalili za ugonjwa.<ref name=Gotzsche2008>{{cite journal |author=[[Peter C. Gøtzsche|PC Gøtzsche]], HK Johansen|title=House dust mite control measures for asthma|journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|issue=2 |pages=CD001187 |year=2008 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001187.pub3 |pmid=18425868|editor1-last=Gøtzsche |editor1-first=Peter C}}</ref> ===Dawa=== [[Dawa]] zinazotumika kutibu pumu zimegawanywa mara mbili: zinazotuliza maumivu haraka kwa kutibu dalili kali; na za kudhibiti maumivu kwa muda mrefu ambazo huzuia ongezeko la ugonjwa.<ref name="NHLBI07p213">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=560}}</ref> ;Zinazofanya kazi haraka [[File:Salbutamol2.JPG|thumb|alt=Kopo la mviringo juu ya kishikizi cha buluu cha plastiki|[[Sabutamoli]] kivutia dawa cha dozi kinachotumika kwa matibabu.]] * beta2-adrenajiki agonisti[[inayofanya kazi kwa muda mfupi|beta₂-adrenosepta agonistsi]] (SABA), kama vile [[sabutamoli]] (''albuterol'' [[Jina linalotumika Marekani|USAN]]) ni matibabu ya kwanza ya dalili za ugonjwa.<ref name="NHLBI07p214" /> *Dawa za [[Anticholinergic]] kama vile [[ipratropiamu|bromidi ya ipratropiamu]], hupeana faida zinapotumika pamoja na SABA kwa walio na dalili.<ref name="NHLBI07p214" /> Vipanuzi vya bronkasi visivyo na anticholinergic inaweza pia hutumika iwapo mtu hawezi kustahimili SABA.<ref name="Self, Timothy 2009"/> * Kipokezi cha adrenaji cha zamani, kisichochaguliwa sana [[adrenajiki agonistsi]], kama vile [[epinephrine]] ya kuvuta huwa na matokeo sawa na yale ya SABA.<ref name=Rodrigo>{{cite journal|author=Rodrigo GJ, Nannini LJ |title=Comparison between nebulized adrenaline and beta2 agonists for the treatment of acute asthma. Uchunguzi wa meta wa majaribio tofauti meta-analysis of randomized trials|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-emergency-medicine_2006-03_24_2/page/217 |journal=Am J Emerg Med |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=217–22 |year=2006 |pmid=16490653|doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2005.10.008}}</ref> Hazipendekezwi kwa sababu ya tatizo la kuchangamsha moyo.<ref name="NHLBI07p351">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=351}}</ref> ;Udhibiti wa muda mrefu [[File:Fluticasone.JPG|thumb|alt=Kopo la mviringo juu ya kishikizi cha plastiki cha rangi ya chungwa|[[Fluticasone propionate]] kivutia dawa kwa kawaida kinachotumika kwa udhibiti wa muda mrefu.]] *Kotikosteroidi huchukuliwa kama matibabu yanayofaa kwa udhibiti wa muda mrefu.<ref name=NHLBI07p213/> Aina zinazovutwa hutumika isipokuwa kwa ugonjwa kali unaoendelea, ambapo kotikosteroidi za kumeza zitahitajika.<ref name=NHLBI07p213/> Hupendekezwa kuwa aina za kuvutwa zitumike mara moja au mbili kwa siku, kulingana na ukali wa dalili.<ref name="NHLBI07p218">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=218}}</ref> *[[Adrenosepta agonisti beta zinazofanya kazi kwa muda mrefu]] (LABA) kama vile [[salmeterol]] na [[formoterol]] zinaweza kuboresha udhibiti wa ugonjwa, angalau kwa watu wazima, zinapopeanwa pamoja na kotikosteroidi za kuvuta.<ref name=Ducharme2010>{{cite journal|last=Ducharme|first=FM|coauthors=Ni Chroinin, M; Greenstone, I; Lasserson, TJ|title=Addition of long-acting beta2-agonists to inhaled corticosteroids versus same dose inhaled corticosteroids for chronic asthma in adults and children.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2010 May 12|issue=5|pages=CD005535|pmid=20464739}}</ref> Kwa watoto faida hii si hakika.<ref name=Ducharme2010/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Ducharme|first=FM|coauthors=Ni Chroinin, M; Greenstone, I; Lasserson, TJ|title=Addition of long-acting beta2-agonists to inhaled steroids versus higher dose inhaled corticosteroids in adults and children with persistent asthma.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2010 Apr 14|issue=4|pages=CD005533|pmid=20393943}}</ref> Zinapotumika bila steroidi huongeza hatari ya [[athari]]<ref name=Fanta2009>{{cite journal |author=Fanta CH|title=Asthma |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2009-03-05_360_10/page/1002|journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=360|issue=10|pages=1002–14 |year=2009|month=March |pmid=19264689 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra0804579 }}</ref> na hata zikitumiwa na kotikosteroidi zinaweza kuongeza hatari kidogo.<ref name=Cates2012>{{cite journal|last=Cates|first=CJ|coauthors=Cates, MJ|title=Regular treatment with formoterol for chronic asthma: serious adverse events.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2012 Apr 18|volume=4|pages=CD006923|pmid=22513944}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cates|first=CJ|coauthors=Cates, MJ|title=Regular treatment with salmeterol for chronic asthma: serious adverse events.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2008 Jul 16|issue=3|pages=CD006363|pmid=18646149}}</ref> *[[Leukotriene antagonist]] (kama vile [[montelukast]] na [[zafirlukast]]) zinaweza kutumika kando na kotikosteroidi za kuvuta, pia pamoja na LABA.<ref name=NHLBI07p213/> Dhibitisho hairuhusu matumizi katika ongezeko la ugonjwa.<ref name=GINA_2011_page74>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=74}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Watts|first=K|coauthors=Chavasse, RJ|title=Leukotriene receptor antagonists in addition to usual care for acute asthma in adults and children.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2012 May 16|volume=5|pages=CD006100|pmid=22592708}}</ref> Kwa watoto chini ya umri wa miaka mitano, therapi ya kuongeza baada ya kuvuta kotikosteroidi inapendekezwa.<ref name=bts2009p43>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=43}}</ref> *[[Mast cell stabilizer]] (kama vile [[sodiamu kromolini]]) haitumiki badala ya kotokosteroidi.<ref name=NHLBI07p213/> ;Njia za kupeana Dawa hupeanwa kama [[kifaa cha kuvutia dawa]] (KKD) pamoja na [[kifaa cha kupeana dawa ya pumu]] au kama [[kivutia dawa cha poda]]. Kifaa kinachopeana dawa ni [[silinda]] ya [[plastiki]] ambayo huchanganya dawa na hewa, na kurahisisha kupata [[dozi]] kamili ya dawa. [[Nebulaiza]] inaweza kutumiwa. Nebulaiza na kifaa cha kutoa nafasi hufaa kwa walio na dalili, hata hivyo hakuna thibitisho kuamua iwapo kuna au hakuna tofauti kwa dalili kali.<ref name="NHLBI07p250">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=250}}</ref> ;Athari Matumizi ya muda mrefu ya kotikosteroidi ya kuvuta huwa na hatari ndogo ya athari.<ref name=Safe09>{{cite journal|last=Rachelefsky|first=G|title=Inhaled corticosteroids and asthma control in children: assessing impairment and risk.|journal=Pediatrics|date=2009 Jan|volume=123|issue=1|pages=353–66|pmid=19117903|doi=10.1542/peds.2007-3273}}</ref> Hatari ni pamoja na kutokea kwa [[cataract]] na kurudi nyuma kidogo kwa akili.<ref name=Safe09/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Dahl R |title=Systemic side effects of inhaled corticosteroids in patients with asthma |journal=Respir Med |volume=100 |issue=8|pages=1307–17 |year=2006 |month=August|pmid=16412623|doi=10.1016/j.rmed.2005.11.020}}</ref> ===Dawa nyingine=== Pumu isipobadilika na dawa za kawaida, kuna aina zingine za chaguo zinazopatikana kwa udhibiti wa dharura na uzuizi wa milipuko. Kwa udhibiti wa dharura aina zingine za chaguo ni: *[[Oksijeni]] ili kutuliza [[haipoksia (dawa)|haipoksia]] ikiwa [[kiwango cha juu cha oksijeni|viwango vya juu]] iko chini ya asilimia 92.<ref name=rodrigo>{{cite journal |author=Rodrigo GJ, Rodrigo C, Hall JB |title=Acute asthma in adults: a review |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2004-03_125_3/page/1081 |journal=Chest |volume=125|issue=3 |pages=1081–102 |year=2004 |pmid=15006973| doi = 10.1378/chest.125.3.1081}}</ref> *[[Salfeti ya magnesia]] matibabu ya mishipa ya ndani yameonyeshwa kusababisha athari ya kupanua bronkasi inapotumika pamoja na matibabu mengine katika mashambulizi makali ya ugonjwa.<ref name="NHLBI07p373">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=373}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Chest |volume=122 |issue=2 |pages=396–8 |date = August 2002|doi=10.1378/chest.122.2.396 |title=Magnesium Treatment for Asthma : Where Do We Stand? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2002-08_122_2/page/396 |last1=Noppen |first1=M. |pmid=12171805 }}</ref> *[[Helioksi]], mchanganyiko wa heli na oksijeni, unaweza kutumiwa kwa visa vikali visivyoonyesha mabadiliko kwa kutumia dawa.<ref name="NHLBI07p373"/> * Sabutamoli ya mishipa ya ndani haitetewi na dhibitisho linalopatikana na hivyo hutumika tu kwa visa vikali zaidi.<ref name=rodrigo/> *[[Methylxanthines]] (kama vile [[theophylline]]) wakati mmoja ilitumika kwa wingi, lakini haiongezi athari za beta-agonistsi.<ref name=rodrigo/> Matumizi yake kwa maumivu makali huwa na pingamizi.<ref name=GINA_2011_page37>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=37}}</ref> * Kitiaganzi kinachojitenga [[ketamini]] inaweza kutumiwa kinadharia iwapo [[intubesheni]] na [[uingizaji wa hewa]] utahitajika kwa watu wanaokaribia kuwa na tatizo la upumuo; hata hivyo, hakuna dibitisho kutoka kwa majaribio ya kliniki ili kudhibitisha hili.<ref name="NHLBI07p399">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=399}}</ref> Kwa walio na ugonjwa kali unaoendelea usiodhibitiwa na kotikosteroidi za kuvuta na LABAS [[themoplasti ya bronkasi]] inaweza kutumiwa.<ref name=Bronch10>{{cite journal|last=Castro|first=M|coauthors=Musani, AI, Mayse, ML, Shargill, NS|title=Bronchial thermoplasty: a novel technique in the treatment of severe asthma.|journal=Therapeutic advances in respiratory disease|date=2010 Apr|volume=4|issue=2|pages=101–16|pmid=20435668|doi=10.1177/1753465810367505}}</ref> Huhusisha hupeanaji wa nishati joto kwa njia za hewa wakati wa mifululizo ya [[bronkoskopi|bronkoskopi]].<ref name=Bronch10/> Ingawa inaweza kuongeza idadi ya maumivu katika miezi michache ya kwanza huonekana kupunguza idadi ambayo hufuata.<!-- <ref name=GINA_2011_page70> -->Athari za kupita mwaka mmoja hazijulikani.<ref name=GINA_2011_page70>{{harvnb|GINA|2011|p=70}}</ref> ===Dawa mbadala=== Watu wengi, kama wale walio na matatizo ya muda mrefu, hutumia [[dawa mbadala|matibabu mbadala]]; uchunguzi unaonyesha kuwa takribani asilimia 50 hutumia baadhi ya therapi isiyo ya kawaida.<ref name=blanc>{{cite journal |author=Blanc PD, Trupin L, Earnest G, Katz PP, Yelin EH, Eisner MD |title=Alternative therapies among adults with a reported diagnosis of asthma or rhinosinusitis : data from a population-based survey |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_chest_2001-11_120_5/page/1461 |journal=Chest|volume=120 |issue=5 |pages=1461–7 |year=2001 |pmid=11713120| doi = 10.1378/chest.120.5.1461}}</ref><ref name=shenfield>{{cite journal |author=Shenfield G, Lim E, Allen H |title=Survey of the use of complementary medicines and therapies in children with asthma |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-paediatrics-and-child-health_2002-06_38_3/page/252 |journal=J Paediatr Child Health |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=252–7|year=2002 |pmid=12047692| doi = 10.1046/j.1440-1754.2002.00770.x}}</ref> Kuna data chache ya kudhibitisha utendakazi wa therapi hizi. Ushahidi hautoshi kudhibitisha matumizi ya vitamini C.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Kaur | first=B | title=Vitamin C supplementation for asthma | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | issue=1 | pages=CD000993| year=2009 | pmid=19160185 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000993.pub3 | coauthors=Rowe BH, Arnold E | editor1-last=Arnold | editor1-first=Elizabeth | unused_data=coauthorsRowe BH, Arnold E }}</ref> [[Acupuncture]] haipendekezwi kwa matibabu maana hakuna ushahidi wa kudhibitisha matumizi yake.<ref name="NHLBI07p240"/><ref name=mccartney>{{cite journal |author=McCarney RW, Brinkhaus B, Lasserson TJ, Linde K|title=Acupuncture for chronic asthma |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=1|pages=CD000008 |year=2004 |pmid=14973944 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000008.pub2|editor1-last=McCarney |editor1-first=Robert W}}</ref> [[Kutia aioni kwa hewa]] haionyeshi ushahidi wa mabadiliko ya dalili au kusaidia utendakazi wa mapafu; hii ikitumika sawa kwa jenereta hasi na zisizo hasi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Blackhall|first=K|coauthors=Appleton, S; Cates, CJ|title=Ionisers for chronic asthma.|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2012 Sep 12|volume=9|pages=CD002986|pmid=22972060}}</ref> "Therapi za mikono", ikiwa ni pamoja na [[osteopathi|osteopathi]], [[kiropraktiki]], [[therapi ya kimwili|fiziotherapi]] na [[therapi ya pumzi|therapi ya pumzi]] washawishi, wasio na ushahidi wa kudhibitisha matumizi kwa kutibu pumu.<ref name=hondras>{{cite journal |author=Hondras MA, Linde K, Jones AP |title=Manual therapy for asthma |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=2 |pages=CD001002 |year=2005|pmid=15846609 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001002.pub2 |editor1-last=Hondras|editor1-first=Maria A}}</ref> [[Mbinu ya Butyko ya kupumua]] ya kudhibiti upitishaji wa hewa nyingi inaweza kusababisha upungufu wa matumizi ya dawa hata hivyo haina athari yoyote kwa pafu.<ref name=BGMA08/> Hivyo kamati ya wastadi ilihisi kuwa ushahidi haukutosha kudhibitisha matumizi yake.<ref name="NHLBI07p240">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=240}}</ref> == Prognosisi== [[File:Asthma world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|alt=Ramani ya ulimwengu Ulaya ukiwa umepakwa rangi ya manjano, sehemu nyingi za Amerika ukiwa na rangi ya chungwa na Kusini mwa Afrika ukiwa na rangi nyekundu nzito|[[Ulemavu-uliobadilisha miaka ya maisha]] kwa pumu kwa watu 100,000&nbsp;mwaka wa 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html|title=WHO Disease and injury country estimates |year=2009 |work=World Health Organization |accessdate=Nov. 11, 2009}}</ref><ref>|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091111101009/http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html%7Carchivedate%3D 11 November 2009 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<100}} {{legend|#fff200|100–150}} {{legend|#ffdc00|150–200}} {{legend|#ffc600|200–250}} {{legend|#ffb000|250–300}} {{legend|#ff9a00|300–350}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|350–400}} {{legend|#ff6e00|400–450}} {{legend|#ff5800|450–500}} {{legend|#ff4200|500–550}} {{legend|#ff2c00|550–600}} {{legend|#cb0000|>600}} {{Multicol-end}} ]] Prognosi ya pumu ni nzuri, hasa kwa watoto walio na ugonjwa usio mkali.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=Allan B. |editor1-last=Wolfson |editor2-first=Ann|editor2-last=Harwood-Nuss |title=Harwood-Nuss' Clinical Practice of Emergency Medicine|chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=Idb0Z658lFQC&pg=PT465 |date=September 2009|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-0-7817-8943-1 |pages=432–|first1=Michelle J. |last1=Sergel |first2=Rita K. |last2=Cydulka |chapter=Ch. 75: Asthma|edition=5th}}</ref> Vifo vimepungua katika miongo michache iliyopita kwa sababu ya utambuzi na uboreshaji wa utunzaji.<ref name=NHLBI07p1>{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|p=1}}</ref> Ulimwenguni umesababisha [[ulemavu]] wa watu milioni 19.4&nbsp; kufikia mwaka wa 2004 (milioni 16&nbsp;wakiwa katika hali ya chini na ya kawaida katika nchi zinazoendelea).<ref>{{cite book|last=Organization|first=World Health|title=The global burden of disease : 2004 update.|url=https://archive.org/details/globalburdenofdi0000unse_i1e5|year=2008|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva, Switzerland|isbn=978-92-4-156371-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/globalburdenofdi0000unse_i1e5/page/35 35]|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}</ref> Kwa pumu uliotambuliwa wakati wa utotoni, [[nusu]] ya hali hizi hazitafanyiwa utambuzi baada ya mwongo mmoja.<ref name=El2010/> Upitishaji wa hewa hutengenezwa upya, lakini haijulikani ikiwa italeta faida au madhara.<ref name=Maddox>{{cite journal |author=Maddox L, Schwartz DA |title=The pathophysiology of asthma |journal=Annu. Rev. Med. |volume=53|pages=477–98 |year=2002 |pmid=11818486 |doi=10.1146/annurev.med.53.082901.103921}}</ref> Matibabu ya mapema kwa kutumia kotikosteroidi inaonekana kuzuia au kusaidia kupunguza matumizi kwa pafu.<ref name=beckett>{{cite journal |author=Beckett PA, Howarth PH|title=Pharmacotherapy and airway remodelling in asthma? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_thorax_2003-02_58_2/page/163|journal=Thorax |volume=58|issue=2 |pages=163–74 |year=2003 |pmid=12554904| doi = 10.1136/thorax.58.2.163|pmc=1746582}}</ref> ==Epidemiolojia== [[Image:Prevalence of Clinical Asthma world map - GINA2004.svg|thumb|left|alt=Ramani ya dunia ikiwa na Ulaya, Marekani Kaskazini, Australia na sehemu nyingi za Marekani Kusini yakichorwa nyekundu, sehemu nyingi za Asia yakiwa manjano, na sehemu nyingi za Afrika yakiwa kijivu|Viwango vya pumu katika nchi tofauti ulimwenguni kufikia mwaka wa 2004. {{Multicol}} {{legend|#e0e0e0|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|<1%}} {{legend|#fff200|1-2%}} {{legend|#ffdc00|2-3%}} {{legend|#ffc600|3-4%}} {{legend|#ffb000|4-5%}} {{legend|#ff9a00|5-6%}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|6-7%}} {{legend|#ff6e00|7-8%}} {{legend|#ff5800|8-10%}} {{legend|#ff4200|10-12.5%}} {{legend|#ff2c00|12.5–15%}} {{legend|#cb0000|>15%}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Kufikia mwaka wa 2011, watu milioni 235–300 ulimwenguni walikuwa wameathiriwa na ugonjwa huu,<ref name=WHO2011>{{cite web|title=World Health Organization Fact Sheet Fact sheet No 307: Asthma|year=2011|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/|accessdate=Jan 17th,2013|archivedate=2011-06-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629035454/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/}}</ref><ref name=GINA_2011_page3/> na karibu watu 250,000 hufa kila mwaka.<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Viwango vyao hutofautiana kati ya nchi zilizo na maambukizi kati ya asilimia 1 hadi 18.<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Zinapatikana sana katika [[katika nchi zilizoendelea|zilizoendelea]] kuliko [[nchi zinazokuwa]].<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Kuna viwango vya chini barani Asia, Ulaya Mashariki na Afrika.<ref name=M38/> Katika nchi zilizoendelea ni kawaida kwa wale walio na shida ya kifedha unapolinganisha na nchi zinazokuwa inapatikana sana kwa walio na fedha.<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Sababu ya tofauti hizi haijulikani.<ref name=GINA2011p2/> Nchi zilizo na pato la chini wanajumulisha asilimia 80 ya vifo.<ref>{{cite web|author=World Health Organization|authorlink=World Health Organization|title=WHO: Asthma|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/|accessdate=2007-12-29|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215181927/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/|archivedate=2007-12-15|deadurl=no}}</ref> Ilhali ugonjwa huu unapatikana kwa [[wavulana]] mara mbili zaidi ya [[wasichana]],<ref name=GINA2011p2/> ukali wa ugonjwa hutokea kwa viwango sawa.<ref name=Bush2009>{{cite journal|author=Bush A, Menzies-Gow A|title=Phenotypic differences between pediatric and adult asthma |journal=Proc Am Thorac Soc |volume=6|issue=8 |pages=712–9 |year=2009 |month=December |pmid=20008882|doi=10.1513/pats.200906-046DP }}</ref> Katika utofautishaji, wanawake wana viwango vikubwa vya pumu kuliko wanaume<ref name=GINA2011p2/> na hupatikana sana kwa wachanga kuliko wakubwa.<ref name=M38/> Viwango vya ugonjwa huu ulimwenguni viliongezeka kwa kasi kati ya [[miaka ya 1960]] na [[2008]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Grant EN, Wagner R, Weiss KB |title=Observations on emerging patterns of asthma in our society |journal=[[J Allergy Clin Immunol]] |year=1999 |month=August|volume=104 |pages=S1–S9 |pmid=10452783 |doi=10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70268-X |issue=2 Pt 2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Anandan C, Nurmatov U, van Schayck OC, Sheikh A|title=Is the prevalence of asthma declining? Systematic review of epidemiological studies|journal=Allergy |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=152–67 |year=2010 |month=February|pmid=19912154 |doi=10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.02244.x }}</ref> ikipitishwa kama shida kubwa katika [[afya ya umma]] kwanzia miaka ya 1970.<ref name=M38>{{cite book|first=John F. Murray|title=Murray and Nadel's textbook of respiratory medicine.|url=https://archive.org/details/murraynadelstext0002unse|year=2010|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=1-4160-4710-7|pages=Chapter 38|edition=5th ed.}}</ref> Viwango vya ugonjwa havijabadilika tangu katikati ya miaka ya 1990 kukiwa na ongezeko katika [[nchi zinazoendelea]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bousquet|first=J|coauthors=Bousquet, PJ; Godard, P; Daures, JP|title=The public health implications of asthma.|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|date=2005 Jul|volume=83|issue=7|pages=548–54|pmid=16175830}}</ref> Pumu huathiri takriban asilimia 7 ya watu nchini Marekani<ref name=Fanta2009/> na asilimia 5 nchini Uingereza.<ref name=Anderson2007>{{cite journal | last=Anderson | first=HR | coauthors=Gupta R, Strachan DP, Limb ES | title=50 years of asthma: UK trends from 1955 to 2004 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_thorax_2007-01_62_1/page/85 |journal=Thorax | volume=62 | issue=1 | pages=85–90 |month=January |year=2007 |pmid=17189533 | doi=10.1136/thx.2006.066407 | pmc=2111282 }}</ref> Kanada, Australia and Nyuzelandi vina viwango vya kati ya asilimia 14-15.<ref>{{cite book|last=Masoli|first=Matthew|title=Global Burden of Asthma|year=2004|page=9|url=http://www.ginasthma.org/pdf/GINABurdenReport.pdf|access-date=2014-01-09|archive-date=2013-05-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502065938/http://www.ginasthma.org/pdf/GINABurdenReport.pdf|dead-url=yes|=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502065938/http://www.ginasthma.org/pdf/GINABurdenReport.pdf}}</ref> == Historia== Pumu uligunduliwa kitambo nchini [[Misri]] na ulitibiwa kwa kunywa [[ubani]] mchanganyiko unaoitwa [[kyphi]].<ref name="Manniche1999">{{cite book | author = Manniche L |title = Sacred luxuries: fragrance, aromatherapy, and cosmetics in ancient Egypt | pages =[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZCgVdm7UKhIC&pg=PA49 49] | year = 1999 | publisher =[[Cornell University Press]] | isbn=978-0-8014-3720-5 }}</ref> Ulitajwa rasmi kama tatizo la upumuaji na [[Hippocrates]] mwaka [[450 KK]] hivi, kutoka kwa neno la [[Kigriki]] kumaanisha "kuhema" ikiunda asili ya neno la kisasa.<ref name=M38/> Mnamo [[200 KK]] uliaminika kuhusiana kidogo na [[hisia]].<ref name=Andrew2010/> Mwaka wa [[1873]], mmoja kati ya [[karatasi]] za kwanza za dawa za kisasa kuhusu taarifa zilijaribu kuelezea ugonjwa wa [[pathofisiolojia]] ilhali nyingine mwaka wa [[1872]] ilihitimisha kuwa ugonjwa huu unaweza kutibiwa kwa kupanguza kifua na [[A.B.C. Liniment|chloroform liniment]].<ref name="pmid20747287">{{cite journal | author = Thorowgood JC | title = On bronchial asthma| journal =[[British Medical Journal]] | volume = 2 | issue = 673 | pages = 600 | year = 1873 | month = November | pmid = 20747287| pmc = 2294647 |doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.673.600}}</ref><ref name="pmid20746575">{{cite journal | author = Gaskoin G | title = On the treatment of asthma | journal = [[British Medical Journal]] | volume = 1 | issue = 587 |pages = 339 | year = 1872 |month = March | pmid = 20746575 | pmc = 2297349 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.587.339 }}</ref> [[Dawa ya kutibu|Matibabu ya afya]] mwaka wa 1880, ilijumuisha matumizi ya [[Kudungiwa sindano ya vena |sindano ya vena]] inayoitwa [[pilocarpin]].<ref name="pmid20749537">{{cite journal | author = Berkart JB | title = The treatment of asthma| journal = [[British Medical Journal]] | volume = 1 | issue = 1016 | pages = 917–8 | year = 1880 | month = June| pmid = 20749537 | pmc = 2240555 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.1016.917}}<br/>{{cite journal | author = Berkart JB | title = The treatment of asthma | journal =[[British Medical Journal]] | volume = 1 | issue = 1017 | pages = 960–2 | year = 1880 |month = June | pmid = 20749546 | pmc = 2240530 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.1.1017.960 }}</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 1886, F.H. Bosworth alieleza uhusiano kati ya pumu na [[mafua ya mzio]].<ref name="pmid21407325">{{cite journal | author = Bosworth FH| title = Hay fever, asthma, and allied affections | journal = Transactions of the Annual Meeting of the American Climatological Association | volume = 2 | pages = 151–70 | year = 1886 | pmid = 21407325 |pmc = 2526599}}</ref> [[epinefrini]] ulirejelewa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1905 katika matibabu ya pumu.<ref name="pmid18733372">{{cite journal |author = Doig RL | title = Epinephrin; especially in asthma | journal = California State Journal of Medicine | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | pages = 54–5 | year = 1905 | month = February | pmid = 18733372 | pmc = 1650334}}</ref> Kotikosteroidi za kunywa zilianza kutumiwa miaka ya 1950 ilhali kotikosteroidi za kuvuta na beta agonist za kuchagua zilianza kutumika miaka ya 1960.<ref>{{cite journal|last=von Mutius|first=E|coauthors=Drazen, JM|title=A patient with asthma seeks medical advice in 1828, 1928, and 2012.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2012-03-01_366_9/page/827|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|date=2012 Mar 1|volume=366|issue=9|pages=827–34|pmid=22375974}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Crompton G |title=A brief history of inhaled asthma therapy over the last fifty years |journal=Primary care respiratory journal : journal of the General Practice Airways Group|date=2006 Dec|volume=15|issue=6|pages=326–31|pmid=17092772}}</ref> Kati ya [[miaka ya 1930]]–[[Miaka ya 1950|1950]], ugonjwa huu ulijulikana kama "takatifu saba" [[maradhi ya saikosomatiki]]. Kisababishi chake kilichukuliwa kama [[saikolojia]], na matibabu kuangaliwa kwa uchunguzi nafsia na matibabu mengine ya [[kuzungumza]].<ref name="pmid16185365"/> Walivyofafanua wachanganuzi ukoromaji wa pumu jinsi [[mtoto]] alivyolilia [[mama]] yake, walibaini kuwa matibabu ya masumbuko ni muhimu kwa walio na pumu.<ref name="pmid16185365">{{cite journal |author=Opolski M, Wilson I |title=Asthma and depression: a pragmatic review of the literature and recommendations for future research |journal=Clin Pract Epidemol Ment Health |volume=1 |page=18 |year=2005|month=September |pmid=16185365 |pmc=1253523 |doi=10.1186/1745-0179-1-18 }}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Refbegin}} *{{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Respiratory_Disorders/Asthma/}} *{{cite web |author=National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP) |url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.pdf | title=Expert Panel Report 3: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma | format=PDF | work=[[National Heart Lung and Blood Institute]] | year=2007 |ref={{harvid|NHLBI Guideline|2007}}}} *{{cite web| url=http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign101.pdf| format=PDF| title=British Guideline on the Management of Asthma| work=[[British Thoracic Society]]| year=2008 - revised 2012| ref={{harvid|British Guideline|2009}}| accessdate=2014-01-09| archivedate=2008-08-19| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819203455/http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign101.pdf}} *{{cite web |url=http://www.ginasthma.org/uploads/users/files/GINA_Report2011_May4.pdf |format=PDF |title=Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention |publisher=Global Initiative for Asthma |year=2011 |ref={{harvid|GINA|2011}} |accessdate=2014-01-09 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120205023/http://www.ginasthma.org/uploads/users/files/GINA_Report2011_May4.pdf |archivedate=2012-11-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120205023/http://www.ginasthma.org/uploads/users/files/GINA_Report2011_May4.pdf }} [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] [[Jamii:Mapafu]] s9cq10puy43zpqqhu61uhes5u6m751a 0 70147 1580159 1578132 2026-07-18T00:41:53Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580159 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease |Name = Lung cancer |Image = LungCACXR.PNG |Caption = A plane [[chest X-ray]] showing a tumor in the lung (marked by arrow) |DiseasesDB = 7616 |ICD10 = {{ICD10|C|33||c|30}}-{{ICD10|C|34||c|30}} |ICD9 = {{ICD9|162}} |ICDO = |OMIM = |MedlinePlus = 007194 |eMedicineSubj = med |eMedicineTopic = 1333 |eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|med|1336}}{{eMedicine2|emerg|335}}{{eMedicine2|radio|807}}{{eMedicine2|radio|405}}{{eMedicine2|radio|406}} |MeshID = D002283 }} '''Saratani ya mapafu''' ni ugonjwa unaohusishwa na [[ukuaji wa seli]] katika [[tishu (biolojia)|tishu]] za [[mapafu]]. Tishu hii isipotibiwa, inaweza kuenea kwa njia inayoitwa [[metastasisi]] kwa tishu zilizokaribu au kwa mwili. Saratani zinazoanzia kwa mapafu, ziitwazo saratani za kwanza, ni [[kasinomasi]] zinazotoka kwa seli za [[epitheliumu|epitheliumu]]. Aina kuu za saratani ni kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli ndogo (KMSN), pia huitwa saratani ya seli ya oat, na kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli kubwa (KMSK). [[Dalili]] inayojulikana sana ni kukohoa (pamoja na [[Hemotisisi|kukohoa damu]]), kupoteza uzito na upungufu wa pumzi.<ref name="Harrison" /> [[Faili:LungCACXR.PNG|235x235px|LungCACXR]] Kisababishi kikuu cha saratani ya mapafu ni kuathiriwa na [[uvutaji tumbaku|moshi wa tumbaku]],<ref name="Merck" /> unaosababisha asilimia 80&ndash;90 ya saratani.<ref name="Harrison" /> Wasiovuta huchangia visa hivi kwa asilimia 10-15&ndash;<ref name="Thun" /> na mara nyingi huhusishwa na muungano wa [[jenetiki|masuala ya kijenetiki]],<ref name="MurrayNadel46" /> gesi ya [[radoni]],<ref name="MurrayNadel46" /> [[asbesto]],<ref name="O'Reilly" /> na [[uchafuzi wa hewa]]<ref name="MurrayNadel46" /> pamoja na [[uvutaji moshi|moshi kutoka kwa anayevuta sigara]].<ref name="AUTOREF" /><ref name="AUTOREF1" /> Saratani ya mapafu inaweza kuonekana kwa [[rediografu ya kifua]] na [[tomografi ya kompyuta]] (ukaguzi wa CT). [[Utambuzi wa kimatibabu|utambuzi]] hudhibitishwa kwa [[biopsi]]<ref name="Holland-Frei78" /> ambao hutekelezwa kwa [[bronkoskopi]] au mwongozo wa CT. Matibabu na matokeo ya muda mrefu hulingana na aina ya saratani, [[hatua ya (patholojia)|hatua]] (kiwango cha uenezi), na afya kwa jumla ya mtu, ikipimwa kwa [[hali ya utendakazi]]. Matibabu ya kawaida ni pamoja na [[upasuaji]], [[kemotherapi]], na [[therapi ya mnururisho|radiotherapi]]. KMSK wakati mwingine hutibiwa na upasuaji, ilhali KMSN huwa bora kwa kemotherapi na radiotherapi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Chapman | first=S | coauthors=Robinson G, Stradling J, West S | title=Oxford Handbook of Respiratory Medicine |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordamericanha0000unse_k7m5 |edition=2nd | chapter=Chapter 31 | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2009 | isbn=9-780199-545162 }}</ref> Kwa jumla, asilimia 15 ya waliopatikana na saratani nchini Marekani wana [[uwezekano wa kuishi|kuishi]] miaka mitano.<ref name="Collins" /> Ulimwenguni kote, [[saratani ya mapafu]] ni kisababishi cha kawaida cha vifo vinavyohusiana na saratani kwa wanaume na wanawake, na husababisha [[:aina ya:Vifo kutokana na saratani ya mapafu|Vifo milioni 1.38]] kwa mwaka, kufikia 2008.<ref name="GLOBOCAN" /> {{TOC limit|3}} ==Ishara na dalili== Ishara na dalili zinazoashiria saratani ya mapafu ni pamoja na:<ref name="Harrison" /> * Dalili za upumuaji: [[kukohoa]], [[hemotisisi|kukohoa damu]], [[mkoromo|kukoroma]] au [[disnia|upungufu wa pumzi]] * Dalili za kimfumo: kupoteza uzito, [[homa]], [[kucha zilizopindika|kupindika]] kwa kucha za vidole, au [[uchovu (kimwili)|uchovu]] * Dalili kwa sababu ya kugandamizwa : [[maumivu ya kifua]], [[maumivu ya mifupa]], [[kuzibwa kwa vena kubwa]], [[dysphagia|matatizo ya kumeza]] Ikiwa saratani itatokea katika [[njia ya hewa]], inaweza kuziba mpito wa hewa, na kusababisha [[disinia|matatizo ya kupumua]]. Uzibaji unaweza kusababisha mkusanyiko wa unyesaji nyuma ya kizibo, na kuwa [[nimonia]].<ref name="Harrison" /> Kulingana na aina ya tyuma, inayoitwa [[sindromu ya paraneoplastiki|fenomena ya paraneoplastiki]] inaweza kuleta magonjwa.<ref name="Honnorat" /> Katika saratani ya mapafu, nimonia zinaweza kuwa pamoja na [[Sindromu ya Lambert–Eaton myasthenic]] (udhaifu wa misuli kwa sababu ya [[kutotenda kazi kwa kinganafsia| autoantibodies]]), [[hipakalkemia]], au [[sindromu ya homoni ya antidiuretic isiyofaa]] (SHAI). Tyuma katika [[mwisho wa mapafu|ncha ya mapafu]], inayoitwa [[tyuma ya Pancoast]], inaweza kuingilia sehemu ya [[mfumo neva wa simpathetiki]], na kusababisha [[sindromu ya Horner]] (kuanguka kwa kikawa cha jicho na mboni kwa upande huo), na kuharibika kwa [[brachial plexus]].<ref name="Harrison" /> Dalili nyingi za saratani hii (kukosa hamu ya chakula, kupoteza uzito, homa, uchovu) si bayana.<ref name="Holland-Frei78" /> Kwa wengi, saratani tayari imeenea zaidi kabla ya kuwa na dalili na kutafuta matibabu. Sehemu za kawaida inayoenea ni pamoja na ubongo, mifupa, [[adrenal gland]], pafulililo mkabala, ini, [[perikadiumu]], na [[figo]].<ref name="ajcc" /> Takribani asilimia 10 ya watu walio na saratani hawana dalili wakati wa utambuzi; saratani hizi hupatikana wakati wa radiotherapi ya kifua.<ref name="Collins" /> ==Visababishi== Saratani hujitokeza kufuatia kuharibika kwa jenetiki kwa [[DNA]]. Hii huathiri utendakazi wa seli, pamoja na seli inayozaa, kufa kwa seli ([[apoptosis]]) na urekebishaji wa DNA. Uharibikaji unapoongezeka, ndivyo hatari ya saratani inavyoongezeka .<ref name="Holland-Frei8">{{Rejea kitabu | last=Brown | first=KM | coauthors=Keats JJ, Sekulic A et al. |title=Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine | publisher=People's Medical Publishing House USA | year=2010 | chapter=8 | edition=8th| isbn=978-1607950141 }}</ref> ===Uvutaji wa sigara=== . [[Uvutaji wa tumbaku |Uvutaji]], haswa [[sigara]], ni kisababishi kikuu cha saratani ya mapafu.<ref name="AUTOREF5" /> Moshi wa sigara huwa na [[kasinojeni]] zaidi ya 60 inayojulikana,<ref name="Hecht" /> ikijumuisha [[radioisotopu]] kutoka uozaji wa [[radoni]], [[nitrosamine]], na [[benzopyrene]]. Kwa kuongeza, nikotini huonekana kuvunja matokeo ya kinga kwa uvimbe wa saratani kwa tishu zilizowazi.<ref name="AUTOREF6" /> Katika nchi zilizoendelea, asilimia 90 ya vifo vya saratani kwa wananume mwaka wa 2000 zilihusishwa na uvutaji wa sigara (asilimia 70 kwa wanawake).<ref name="Peto" /> Uvutaji huchangia kwa asilimia 80-90 ya visa vya saratani.<ref name="Harrison" /> [[Uvutaji wa moshi kutoka kwa anayevuta sigara]]—uvutaji moshi kutoka kwa mvuta siagara—ni kisababishi cha saratani kwa wasiovuta sigara. Mtu asiyevuta anaweza kuainishwa kama mtu anayeishi au kufanya kazi na mvutaji. Utafiti kutoka Marekani,<ref name="AUTOREF7">{{Rejea jarida | last=California Environmental Protection Agency | title=Health effects of exposure to environmental tobacco smokeCalifornia Environmental Protection Agency | journal=Tobacco Control | volume=6 | issue=4 | pages=346–353 | year=1997 | url=http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/tobacco/caets/ets-main.htm | pmid=9583639 | doi=10.1136/tc.6.4.346 | pmc=1759599 | archive-date=2007-08-08 | access-date=2014-01-09 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808045344/http://druglibrary.org/schaffer/tobacco/caets/ets-main.htm | url-status=dead }}<br />* {{Rejea jarida | last=CDC | authorlink=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | title=State-specific prevalence of current cigarette smoking among adults, and policies and attitudes about secondhand smoke—United States, 2000 | journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | volume=50 | issue=49 | pages=1101–1106 | publisher=CDC | location=Atlanta, Georgia | month=December | year=2001 | url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5049a1.htm | pmid=11794619 | author1=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) }}</ref><ref name="Alberg">{{Rejea jarida | last=Alberg | first=AJ | coauthors=Samet JM | title=Epidemiology of lung cancer | journal=Chest | volume=132 | issue=S3 | pages=29S–55S | publisher=American College of Chest Physicians | month=September | year=2007 | url=http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/132/3_suppl/29S.long | pmid=17873159 | doi=10.1378/chest.07-1347 | access-date=2014-01-09 | archive-date=2020-03-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329053623/http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/132/3_suppl/29S.long | dead-url=yes }}</ref> Ulaya,<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Jaakkola | first=MS | coauthors=Jaakkola JJ | title=Impact of smoke-free workplace legislation on exposures and health: possibilities for prevention | journal=European Respiratory Journal | volume=28 | issue=2 | pages=397–408 | year=2006 | month=August | url=http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/28/2/397.long | pmid=16880370 | doi=10.1183/09031936.06.00001306 | access-date=2014-01-09 | archive-date=2013-01-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129003845/http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/28/2/397.long | url-status=dead }}</ref> Uingereza,<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Parkin | first=DM |title=Tobacco—attributable cancer burden in the UK in 2010 | journal=British Journal of Cancer | volume=105 | issue=Suppl. 2 | pages=S6–S13 | month=December | year=2011 | pmid=22158323 | doi=10.1038/bjc.2011.475 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3252064/?tool=pubmed| pmc=3252064}}</ref> na Australia<ref name="NHMRC" /> Umeonyesha ongezeko kubwa la hatari kati ya wasiovuta sigara.<ref name="Taylor">{{Rejea jarida | last=Taylor | first=R | coauthors=Najafi F, Dobson A | title=Meta-analysis of studies of passive smoking and lung cancer: effects of study type and continent |journal=International Journal of Epidemiology | volume=36 | issue=5 |pages=1048–1059 | year=2007 | month=October | url=http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/content/36/5/1048.long| pmid=17690135 |doi=10.1093/ije/dym158 }}</ref> Wanaoishi na mvuta sigara huwa na asilimia 20&ndash;na 30 ya ongezeko la hatari ilhali wanaofanya kazi katika mazingira yalio na moshi uliovutwa wana asilimia 16&ndash;19 ya ongezeko la hatari.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently asked questions about second hand smoke|url=http://www.who.int/tobacco/research/secondhand_smoke/faq/en/index.html|work=World Health Organization|accessdate=25 July 2012|archivedate=2013-01-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101163934/http://www.who.int/tobacco/research/secondhand_smoke/faq/en/index.html}}</ref> Uchunguzi kuhusu [[moshi kutoka kwa wanaovuta]] unadokeza kuwa ni hatari zaidi kuliko moshi anaovuta mvutaji mwenyewe.<ref name="Schick" /> Uvutaji wa moshi husababisha takribani vifo 3,400 kutokana na saratani ya mapafu kila mwaka nchini marekani.<ref name="Alberg" /> ===Gesi ya Radoni=== [[Radoni]] ni [[gesi]] isiyo na rangi na harufu inayotokana na kuharibika kwa mnururisho [[radiumu]], ambayo ni bidhaa zilizooza za [[urani]], zinazopatikana katika [[umbo (jiolojia)|umbo]] la ardhi. Bidhaa za mnururisho zilizooza [[ioni]] vitu vya jenetiki, vikisababisha mabadiliko yanayoleta saratani. Radoni ni kisababishi cha pili cha kawaida cha saratani nchini Marekani baada ya uvutaji wa sigara.<ref name="Alberg" /> Hatari huongezeka asilimia 8–16 kwa kila ongezeko la 100 [[becquerel|Bq]]/[[cubic metre|m³]] katika kuwepo kwa radoni .<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schmid K, Kuwert T, Drexler H |title=Radon in Indoor Spaces: An Underestimated Risk Factor for Lung Cancer in Environmental Medicine |journal=Dtsch Arztebl Int |volume=107|issue=11 |pages=181–6 |year=2010 |month=March |pmid=20386676 |pmc=2853156 |doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0181 |url=}}</ref> Viwango vya gesi ya radoni hutofautiana kulingana na maeneo na elementi za mchanga ulio chini na miamba. Kwa mfano, katika maeneo kama [[Cornwall]] nchini Uingereza (iliyo na [[granite]] kama safu ya chini), gesi ya radoni ni tatizo kuu, na majengo yanafaa kuwa na matundu ya kupitishia hewa na fani ili kupunguza kiwango cha gesi ya radoni. [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] Hukadiria kuwa moja kwa maboma 15 nchini Marekani huwa na viwango vya radoni zaidi ya miongozo iliyopendekezwa ya [[picocurie]] 4 kwa kila lita (pCi/l) (148 Bq/m³).<ref name="EPA radon" /> ===Asbesto=== [[Asbesto]] inaweza kusababisha baadhi ya magonjwa ya mapafu, pamoja na saratani yake. Uvutaji wa tumbaku na asbesto huwa na athari ya [[ushirikiano|inayoshirikiana]] kuanza kwa saratani ya mapafu.<ref name="O'Reilly" /> Pia inaweza kusababisha saratani ya [[pleura]], inayoitwa [[mesothelioma]] (ambayo ni tofauti na saratani ya mapafu).<ref>{{Rejea kitabu | last=Daviesfirst=RJO |coauthors=Lee YCG | title=Oxford Textbook Medicine | publisher=OUP Oxford | year=2010 | chapter=18.19.3 | edition=5th |isbn=978-0199204854 }}</ref> ===Kuchafuka kwa hewa=== Kuchafuka kwa hewa huwa na athari ndogo kwa ongezeko la hatari ya saratani ya mapafu.<ref name="MurrayNadel46">{{Rejea kitabu |author=Alberg AJ, Samet JM | title=Murray & Nadel's Textbook of Respiratory Medicine |url=https://archive.org/details/murraynadelstext0001unse_5ed | publisher=Saunders Elsevier |year=2010 | chapter=Chapter 46 | edition=5th | isbn=978-1-4160-4710-0 }}</ref> [[chembe za angahewa|chembe]] (PM_2.5) na [[stratospheric sulfur aerosols|sulfate aerosols]], inayoweza kutoka kwa ekzozi ya magari barabarani, huhusishwa na hatari kidogo.<ref name="MurrayNadel46" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Chen | first=H | coauthors=Goldberg MS, Villeneuve PJ | journal=Reviews on Environmental Health | year=2008 |month=Oct-Dec | volume=23 |issue=4 | pages=243–297 | title=A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases | pmid=19235364 }}</ref> Kwa [[naitrojeni dioksidi]], ongezeko la [[Sehemu 10 kwa kila bilioni]] huongeza hatari kwa asilimia 14.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Clapp | first=RW |coauthors=Jacobs MM, Loechler EL | journal=Reviews on Environmental Health | year=2008 | month=Jan-Mar | volume=23|issue=1 | pages=1–37 | title=Environmental and Occupational Causes of Cancer New Evidence, 2005–2007 | pmid=18557596 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2791455/?tool=pubmed| pmc=2791455}}</ref> Kuchafuka kwa hewa huchangia karibu asilimia 1-2 ya saratani.<ref name="MurrayNadel46" /> Pendekezo la dhibitisho kuunga mkono ongezeko la hatari ya saratani kutoka kwa [[uchafuzi wa hewa]] unaohusiana na kuchoma kuni, makaa, kinyesi cha mnyama, au mabaki yao ili kupika au kupasha joto.<ref name=Lim2012>{{cite journal|last=Lim|first=WY|coauthors=Seow, A|title=Biomass fuels and lung cancer.|journal=Respirology (Carlton, Vic.)|date=2012 Jan|volume=17|issue=1|pages=20-31|pmid=22008241}}</ref> Wanawake wanaoathiriwa na moshi ya makaa huwa na hatari mara dufu kama baadhi ya mabaki ya kuchoma [[biomasi]] yanajulikana au ni kasinojeni zinazodhaniwa.<ref name=Sood2012/> Hatari hii huathiri takribani watu bilioni 2.4&nbsp; ulimwenguni,<ref name=Lim2012/> Na kuchangia asilimia 1.5 ya vifo vya saratani ya mapafu.<ref name=Sood2012>{{cite journal|last=Sood|first=A|title=Indoor fuel exposure and the lung in both developing and developed countries: an update.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinics-in-chest-medicine_2012-12_33_4/page/649|journal=Clinics in chest medicine|date=2012 Dec|volume=33|issue=4|pages=649-65|pmid=23153607}}</ref> ===Jenetikia=== Inakadiriwa kuwa asilimia 8 hadi 14 ya saratani ya mapafu husababishwa na masuala ya [[urithi|kuurithi]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Dudley|first=Joel|title=Exploring Personal Genomics|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199644483|page=25|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=arCnThIq9LcC&pg=PA25}}</ref> Kwa jamaa walio na saratani, hatari huongezeka mara 2.4. Hii inawezekana kwa sababu ya [[polymorphism ya jenetikia|mchanganyiko wa jeni]].<ref name="Fishman1802">{{Rejea kitabu | author=Kern JA, McLennan G | title=Fishman's Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders |publisher=McGraw-Hill | year=2008 | page=1802 | edition=4th | isbn=0-07-145739-9 }}</ref>s ===Visababishi vingine=== Vitu vingine, Kazi, na maeneo mbalimbali yamehusishwa na saratani ya mapafu. [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC) unaeleza kuwa "dhibitisho tosha" kuonyesha yafuatayo ni pafu lililo na kasinojeni:<ref name='Saratani ya mapafu YOte'>{{cite journal|last=Cogliano|first=VJ|coauthors=Baan, R; Straif, K; Grosse, Y; Lauby-Secretan, B; El Ghissassi, F; Bouvard, V; Benbrahim-Tallaa, L; Guha, N; Freeman, C; Galichet, L; Wild, CP|title=Preventable exposures associated with human cancers.|journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute|date=2011 Dec 21|volume=103|issue=24|pages=1827-39|pmid=22158127|url=http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/Table4.pdf|access-date=2014-01-09|archive-date=2012-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920150724/http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/Table4.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> *Metali zingine (Utengenezaji wa aluminiamu, [[cadmium]] na elementi za kadimiamu, [[chromium]](VI), [[beryllium]] na beriliamu, kupatikana kwa chuma na chuma cha pua, elementi za nikeli, [[arsenic]] na za aseniki isiyo hai, uchimbaji madini wa chini ya ardhi [[hematite]]) *Bidhaa zingine za mwako (mwako usiokamilika, makaa ya moto (moshi wa ndani kutokana na kuchoma makaa kwa nyumba), kugeuza makaa kuwa gesi, kuweka lami, [[makaa (fueli)|utengenezaji wa makaa]], masizi, utoaji dizeli kutoka kwa injini *Mnururisho aionishi (X-radiasheni, radoni-222 na vitu vyake vilivyooza, [[mnururisho wa gama]], [[plutonium]]) *Gesi sumu ingine (methyl ether (technical grade), Bis-(chloromethyl) ether, [[sulfurmustard]], MOPP ([[Mustargen Oncovin Procarbazine Prednisone|vincristine-prednisone-nitrogen mustard-procarbazine mixture]]), harufu kali ya moshi kutokana na upakaji wa rangi) *Utengenezaji wa raba na kristalini [[Silikoni dioksidi|vumbi ya silika]] ==Pathojenesisi== Sawa na saratani nyingine nyingi, saratani ya mapafu huanzishwa na uhai wa [[oncogene]] au kutokuwa hai kwa [[jeni inayokandamiza tyuma]].<ref name="Fong" /> Oncogenes zinaaminiwa huwafanya watu kuwa na uwezekano zaidi wa kupata saratani. [[Proto-oncogene]] zinaaminiwa kubadilika kuwa oncogenes zinapokutana na kasinojeni fulani.<ref name="Salgia" /> [[Mabadiliko]] katika ''[[Ras (protini)|K-ras]]'' proto-oncogene husababisha asilimia 10–30 ya adenocarcinomas ya mapafu.<ref name="NEJM-molecular" /><ref name="Aviel-Ronen" /> [[kipokezi cha suala la ukuaji wa epidemisi]] (KSUE) hudhibiti uzaaji wa seli, [[apoptosis]], [[angiogenesis]], na uvamizi wa tyuma.<ref name="NEJM-molecular" /> Mabadiliko na ukuaji wa KSUE hupatikana sana katika saratani ya seli kubwa ya mapafu na hupeana msingi wa kutibu kwa vizuizi vya KSUE. [[Her2/neu]] huathirika mara chache.<ref name="NEJM-molecular" /> Uharibifu wa [[Chromosome|Chromosomal]] unaweza kusababisha [[kukosekana kwa heterozygosity]]. Hii inaweza kusababisha kutotenda kazi kwa jeni zinazokandamiza tyuma. Kuharibika kwa chromosome 3p, 5q, 13q, na 17p ni kawaida hasa kwa kasinoma ya seli ndogo ya mapafu.''[[p53]]'' jeni inayokandamiza tyuma, iliyo kwa kromosomu 17p, huathirika katika asilimia 60-75 ya visa.<ref name="Devereux" /> Jeni zingine ambazo mara nyingi hubadilika au kukua ni ''[[c-MET]]'', ''[[NKX2-1]]'', ''[[LKB1]]'', ''[[PIK3CA]]'', na''[[BRAF (gene)|BRAF]]''.<ref name="NEJM-molecular" /> ==Utambuzi== [[Picha:Thorax CT peripheres Brronchialcarcinom li OF.jpg|kidole cha thumb|[[ Ukaguzi wa CT]]kuonyesha tyuma ya saratani katika pafu la kushoto]] Kutekeleza [[radiotherapi ya kifua]] ni hatua ya kwanza ya uchunguzi ikiwa mtu ata ripoti dalili zinazoweza kuashiria saratani ya mapafu. Hii inaweza kuonyesha kupanuka kwa [[mediastinum]] (dokezo la kuenea kwa [[nodi ya limfu]]), [[atelectasis]] (kuvunjika), kuimarika ([[nimonia]]), au [[pleural effusion]].<ref name="Merck" /> [[tomografi ya kompyuta ya eksirei|Upigaji picha wa CT]] hutumiwa kupeana habari zaidi kuhusu aina na kiwango cha maradhi. [[Bronkoskopi]] au mwongozo wa CT [[biopsi]] mara nyingi hutumiwa kuchukua sampuli ya tyuma ili kufanyia [[histopatholojia]].<ref name="Collins" /> Saratani ya mapafu hutokea kama [[nodu moja ya mapafu]] katika radiografu ya kifua. Hata hivyo, [[utambuzi wa kutofautisha]] ni mpana. Magonjwa mengine yanaweza kujitokeza hivi, pamoja na [[kifua kikuu]], maambukizi ya kuvu, saratani ya metastasisi, au [[nimonia]]. Kisababishi kisicho cha kawaida cha nodu moja ya mapafu hujumuisha [[hamartoma]], [[bronchogenic cyst]], [[adenoma]], [[ulemavu wa ateri na vena]], [[pulmonary sequestration]], [[rheumatoid nodule]], [[Wegener's granulomatosis]], au [[limfoma]].<ref>{{Rejea kitabu | last=Miller |first=WT | title=Fishman's Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders | publisher=McGraw-Hill | year=2008 | page=486 | edition=4th | isbn=0-07-145739-9 }}</ref> Saratani ya mapafu pia inaweza kuwa [[incidentaloma|utambuzi wa dharura]], kama kifundo kimoja cha mapafu katika radiografu ya kifua au ukaguzi wa CT uliotekelezwa kwa sababu isiyohusiana.<ref name="Fishman1815">{{Rejea kitabu | last=Kaiser | first=LR | title=Fishman's Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders | publisher=McGraw-Hill | year=2008 | pages=1815–1816 | edition=4th | isbn=0-07-145739-9 }}</ref> Utambuzi wa kufafanua saratani ya mapafu huzingatia [[histopatholojia|histolojia]] uchunguzi wa tishu inayodhaniwa katika muktadha wa sifa za kliniki na radiolojia.<ref name="Harrison" /> ===Uainishaji=== {| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;width:45%;margin-left:1em" |+ style="background:#E5AFAA;"|'''Age-adjusted [[incidence (epidemiology)|incidence]] of lung cancer by histological type'''<ref name="MurrayNadel46" /> |- style="background: #E5AFAA;text-align:center;font-size:90%;" ! abbr="Type" | Histological type ! abbr="Frequency" | Incidence per 100,000 per year |- | All types | 66.9 |- | Adenocarcinoma | 22.1 |- | Squamous-cell carcinoma | 14.4 |- | Small-cell carcinoma | 9.8 |} Saratani ya mapafu zimeainishwa kulingana na [[histopatholojia|aina ya histolojia]].<ref name="Holland-Frei78" /> Uainishaji huu ni muhimu kwa kubainisha udhibiti na kubashiri matokeo ya maradhi. Saratani nyingi za mapafu ni ya [[kasinoma]]—hatari inayotokana na [[seli za epithelia]]. Kasinoma ya mapafu huainishwa kwa ukubwa na jinsi seli hatari zinavyoonekana ikiangaliwa na histopatholojia kwa [[darubini]]. Aina zote mbili ni kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli ndogo na kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli kubwa.<ref name="Robbins" /> ====Kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli kubwa==== [[Picha:Squamous carcinoma lung 2 cytology.jpg|thumb|[[Mikrografu]] ya [[kasinoma ya squamous]], aina ya kasinoma ya seli kubwa,sampuli ya FNA, [[doa la ubwabwa]]]] Aina tatu ndogo za KMSK ni [[adenocarcinoma]], [[kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli za squamous]], na [[kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli ndogo]].<ref name="Harrison" /> Karibu asilimia 40 ya saratani huwa adenocarcinoma, ambayo kwa kawaida huanzia kwa tishu ya mapafu iliyo pembeni.<ref name="Holland-Frei78">{{cite book | last=Lu | first=C | coauthors=Onn A, Vaporciyan AA et al. | title=Holland-Frei Cancer Medicine | url=https://archive.org/details/hollandfreicance0000unse |edition=8th | chapter=78: Cancer of the Lung | publisher=People's Medical Publishing House | year=2010 |isbn=9781607950141}}</ref> Visa vingi vya adenocarcinoma huhusishwa na uvutaji; hata hivyo, kati ya watu waliovuta sigara chini ya 100 katika maisha yao ("wasiovuta"),<ref name="Harrison" /> adenocarcinoma ni aina ya saratani ya mapafu inayopatikana.<ref name="Subramanian">{{cite journal | last=Subramanian | first=J | coauthors=Govindan R |title=Lung cancer in never smokers: a review | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-oncology_2007-02-10_25_5/page/560 | journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology | volume=25 | issue=5 | pages=561–570| publisher=American Society of Clinical Oncology | month=February | year=2007 | pmid=17290066 |doi=10.1200/JCO.2006.06.8015 }}</ref> Aina ndogo ya adenocarcinoma, [[bronchioloalveolar carcinoma]], hupatikana sana kwa wanawake wasiovuta, na inaweza kuwa na muda nzuri wa kuishi.<ref name="Raz"/> Kasinoma ya seli ya squamous huchangia kwa takribani asilimia 30 ya saratani za mapafu. Hutokea kwa njia za hewa zilizokubwa. Kaviti tupu na inayohusishwa [[necrosis|kufa kwa seli]] kwa kawaida hupatikana katikati ya tyuma.<ref name="Holland-Frei78" /> Takribani asilimia 9 ya saratani za mapafu ni kasinoma ya seli kubwa. Huitwa hivyo kwa kuwa seli za saratani ni kubwa, na zina [[cytoplasm]] nyingi zaidi, [[nukliasi ya seli|nukliasi]] iliyo kubwa na inayoonekana [[nukleolasi|nucleoli]].<ref name="Holland-Frei78" /> ====Kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli ndogo==== Katika [[kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli ndogo]] (KMSD), seli huwa na granuli nene zinazotoa neurosisi ([[vesicle (biolojia)|vesicles]] zilizo na [[homoni]]), za [[mfumo wa neva na endokrini]] zinazopatia tyuma muungano wa sindromu ya endokrini/paraneoplasti.<ref name="Rosti" /> Mara nyingi hutokea katika njia za hewa zilizokubwa zaidi [[bronkasi|bronkia]](za kwanza na za pili).<ref name="Collins" /> Saratani hizi hukua haraka na kuenea mapema wakati wa maradhi. Asilimia sitini hadi sabini huwa na maradhi ya metastiki inapotokea. Aina hii ya saratani ya mapafu huhusishwa sana na uvutaji.<ref name="Harrison" /> ====Zingine==== Aina nyingine nne kuu za histolojia zimetambuliwa, hata ingawa saratani zingine zinaweza kuwa na mchanganyiko wa aina tofauti za aina ndogo.<ref name=Robbins>{{cite book | last=Maitra | first=A | coauthors=Kumar V | year=2007 | title=Robbins Basic Pathology| url=https://archive.org/details/robbinsbasicpath0000unse_q0t1 |edition=8th | publisher=Saunders Elsevier | pages=[https://archive.org/details/robbinsbasicpath0000unse_q0t1/page/528 528]–529 | isbn=978-1-4160-2973-1 }}</ref> Aina ndogo zilizo nadra hujumuisha [[Saratani ya glandi ya ute|tyuma za glandi]], [[kasinoidi ya mapafu|tyuma za kasinoidi]], na kasinoma zisizopambanuliwa.<ref name="Harrison" /> ====Metastasisi==== {| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;width:45%;margin-left:1em" |+ style="background:#E5AFAA;"|'''Typical [[immunostaining]] in lung cancer'''<ref name="Harrison" /> |- style="background: #E5AFAA;text-align:center;font-size:90%;" ! abbr="Type" | Histological type ! abbr="Frequency" | Immunostain |- | Squamous-cell carcinoma | [[Cytokeratin|CK]]5/6 positive <br>[[Keratin 7|CK7]] negative |- | Adenocarcinoma | CK7 positive <br>[[NK2 homeobox 1|TTF-1]] positive |- | Large-cell carcinoma | TTF-1 negative |- | Small-cell carcinoma | TTF-1 positive <br>[[Neural cell adhesion molecule|CD56]] positive <br>[[Granin|Chromogranin]] positive<br>[[Synaptophysin]] positive |} Mapafu ni sehemu ya kawaida ya uenezi wa tyuma kutoka sehemu zingine za mwili. Saratani za pili zimeainishwa kutokana na chanzo chake; kwa mfano, saratani ya matiti iliyoenea kwa mapafu huitwa saratani ya matiti ya metastasisi. Metastasisi mara nyingi huwa na sifa ya kuonekana mviringo kwa radiografu ya kifua.<ref name="Seo" /> Saratani za kwanza za mapafu kwa kawaida huenea kwa ubongo, mifupa, ini, na [[glandi ya adrenali]].<ref name="Holland-Frei78" /> [[Immunostaining]] ya biopsi mara nyingi husaidia kubaini kiini halisi.<ref name="pmid18784820">{{cite journal |author=Tan D, Zander DS |title=Immunohistochemistry for Assessment of Pulmonary and Pleural Neoplasms: A Review and Update |journal=Int J Clin Exp Pathol |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=19–31|year=2008|pmid=18784820 |pmc=2480532 }}</ref> ===Hatua ya saratani=== [[Hatua ya saratani]] ni kutathmini maenezi ya saratani kutoka chanzo chake. Ni mojawapo ya masuala yanayoathiri [[prognosisi]] na uwezekano wa kutibu saratani ya mapafu.<ref name="Harrison" /> Utathmini wa kwanza wa hatua ya saratani ya mapafu ya seli kubwa (SMSK) hutumia [[mfumo wa TNM|uainishaji wa TNM]]. Hii huzingatia ukubwa wa '''t'''yuma, limfu huhusishaji '''n'''odi na kwa umbali'''m'''etastasisi. Baadaye, kwa kutumia kielezi TNM, Kikundi hupeanwa, kuanzia saratani ya kwanza kupitia awamu 0, 1-A (moja A), IB, IIA, IIB, IIIA, IIIB na IV (nne). Kikundi hiki cha awamu husaidia kwa uchaguzi wa matibabu na makadirio ya prognosisi.<ref name="Rami-Porta">{{Rejea jarida | last=Rami-Porta | first=R | coauthors=Crowley JJ, Goldstraw P | title=The revised TNM staging system for lung cancer | journal=Annals of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery | volume=15 | issue=1 | pages=4–9 |month=February | year=2009 | url=http://www.atcs.jp/pdf/2009_15_1/4.pdf| pmid=19262443 }}</ref> Kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli ndogo (KMSN) kimapokeo imeainishwa kuwa 'awamu iliyo na mpaka' (iliyofungiwa kwa moja na nusu ya kifua na kati ya eneo la [[radiotherapi]] moja inayoweza kustahimiliwa) au 'awamu pana' (magonjwa yaliyoenea pakubwa zaidi).<ref name="Harrison" /> Hata hivyo, uainishaji wa TNM na upangaji ni muhimu kwa kukadiria prognosisi.<ref name="Rami-Porta" /> Kwa KMSK na KMSK, aina zote mbili za kawaida za utathmini wa hatua ni ule wa kliniki na upasuaji. Hatua ya saratani hubainishwa kabla ya upasuaji wenyewe. Huzingatia matokeo ya masomo ya picha (kama vile [[tomografi ya kompyuta ya eksirei|uchunguzi wa CT]] na [[picha ya kompyuta ya miale ya gama|uchunguzi wa PET]]) na matokeo ya biopsi. Hatua ya upasuaji hutathminiwa wakati wa au baada ya upasuaji, na huzingatia muunganisho wa matokeo ya upasuaji na kliniki, pamoja na kuchukua sampuli za nodi za limfu za kifua.<ref name="Holland-Frei78" /> ==UKingaji== Ukingaji ndio gharama ya chini ya kuzuia kukua kwa saratani ya mapafu. Ilhali katika mataifa mengi kasinojeni za viwanda na zile za nyumbani zimetambuliwa na kupigwa marufuku, uvutaji tumbaku ungali umeenea pakubwa. Kukomesha uvutaji wa tumbaku ni lengo la kwanza katika ukingaji [[kukomesha uvutaji]] ni kifaa muhimu katika utaratibu huu.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Goodman | first=GE | title=Lung cancer. 1: prevention of lung cancer | journal=Thorax |volume=57 | issue=11 | year=2002 | month=November | pages=994–999 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1746232/pdf/v057p00994.pdf| pmid=12403886 | pmc=1746232}}</ref> Sera za kupunguza [[uvutaji wa moshi ya sigara]] Kwenye maeneo kama vile hoteli na pahali pa kufanyia kazi umekuwa wa kawaida katika mataifa mengi ya magharibi.<ref>{{cite journal | last=McNabola | first=A | coauthors=Gill LW | title=The control of environmental tobacco smoke: a policy review | journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=6 | issue=2 | year=2009 | month=February | pages=741–758 | doi=10.3390/ijerph6020741 | pmid=19440413 |pmc=2672352}}</ref> [[Bhutan]] imepiga marufuku uvutaji wa sigara tangu mwaka wa 2005<ref name="Bhutan" /> ilhali India ilipiga marufuku uvutaji wa tumbaku mwezi wa kumi 2008.<ref>{{cite news | last=Pandey | first=G | title=Indian ban on smoking in public |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7645868.stm| publisher=[[BBC]]| date=2 October 2008 | accessdate=2012-04-25 }}</ref> [[Shirika la Afya la Ulimwengu]] limetoa wito kwa serikali kuanzisha upigaji marufuku wa kutangaza tumbaku ili vijana wasianze kuvuta. Hutathmini unaonyesha kuwa uvutaji umepungua kwa asilimia 16%.<ref name="AUTOREF10">{{Cite press release |title=UN health agency calls for total ban on tobacco advertising to protect young |url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=26857|publisher=[[United Nations]] News service |date=30 May 2008}}</ref> Utumiaji wa nyongeza ya vitamini A kwa muda mrefu,<ref name="Fabricius">{{cite journal | last=Fabricius | first=P |coauthors=Lange P | title=Diet and lung cancer | journal=Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease | volume=59 | issue=3 |year=2003 | month=July–September |pages=207–211 | pmid=15065316 }}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Fritz | first=H |coauthors=Kennedy D, Fergusson D et al. | title=Vitamin A and Retinoid Derivatives for Lung Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta Analysis | journal=PLoS ONE | volume=6 | issue=6 | year=2011 | page=e21107 | pmid=21738614 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0021107 | pmc=3124481}}</ref> vitamini C,<ref name="Fabricius" /> vitamini D<ref>{{cite journal |last=Herr | first=C |scoauthors=Greulich T, Koczulla RA et al. | title=The role of vitamin D in pulmonary disease: COPD, asthma, infection, and cancer | journal=Respiratory Research | volume=12 | issue=1 | year=2011 | month=March | page=31 |doi=10.1186/1465-9921-12-31 | pmid=21418564 | pmc=3071319}}</ref> au vitamin E<ref name="Fabricius" /> Hupunguzi hatari ya saratani ya mapafu. Uchunguzi mwingine unapendekeza kuwa watu wanaokula chakula kilicho na kiwango cha juu zaidi cha mboga na matunda wana hatari ya chini,<ref name="Alberg" /><ref name="Key">{{cite journal | last=Key | first=TJ | title=Fruit and vegetables and cancer risk | journal=British Journal of Cancer | volume=104 | issue=1 | year=2011 | month=January | pages=6–11 |doi=10.1038/sj.bjc.6606032 | pmid=21119663 | pmc=3039795}}</ref> lakini hii inawezekana kwa sababu ya [[kushangaza]]. Uchunguzi mkali zaidi haujaonyesha ushirikiano dhahiri.<ref name="Key" /> ===Uchunguzi=== [[Uchunguzi (dawa)|Uchunguzi]] ni matumizi ya [[uchunguzi wa matibabu]] ili kubaini ugonjwa kwa watu wanaoonyesha dalili. Uwezekano wa vipimo vya kuchuja saratani ya mapafu ni pamoja na [[sputum]] [[saitopatholojia|saitolojia]], [[radiografu ya kifua]], na [[tomografia ya digitali]]. Utaratibu wa uchunguzi unaotumia radiografu ya kifua au saitologia haijaleta manufaa.<ref>{{Rejea jarida |last=Manser | first=RL | coauthors=Irving LB, Stone C et al. | title=Screening for lung cancer | journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue=1 | pages=CD001991 | year=2004 | pmid=14973979 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001991.pub2/full | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001991.pub2 }}</ref> Kuchuja walio katika hatari kuu (yaani, miaka 55 hadi 79 waliovuta zaidi ya &nbsp; [[pakiti]] 30 kwa mwaka au wale wamewahi kupata saratani ya mapafu hapo awali) kwa mwaka na dozi iliyo chini ya uchunguzi wa picha inaweza kupunguza uwezekano wa kifo kutokana na saratani ya mapafu kwa [[Kupunguza hatari kamili|kiasi kamili]] ya asilimia 0.3 ([[Kupunguza hatari kiasi|hatari kiasi]] ya asilimia 20).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jaklitsch | first=MT | coauthors=Jacobson FL, Austin JH et al. | title=The American Association for Thoracic Surgery guidelines for lung cancer screening using low-dose computed tomography scans for lung cancer survivors and other high-risk groups |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-thoracic-and-cardiovascular-surgery_2012-07_144_1/page/33 | journal=Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery | month=July | year=2012 | volume=144 | issue=1 |pages=33&ndash;38 | pmid=22710039 | doi=10.1016/j.jtcvs.2012.05.060}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Bach | first=PB |coauthors=Mirkin JN, Oliver TK et al. | title=Benefits and harms of CT screening for lung cancer: a systematic review | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2012-06-13_307_22/page/2418 |journal=JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association | month=June | year=2012 | volume=307 | issue=22 |pages=2418–2429 | pmid=22610500 | doi=10.1001/jama.2012.5521}}</ref> Hata hivyo, kuna kiwango cha juu ya matokeo duni kinachoweza kusababisha utaratibu wa upasuaji vile vile gharama kubwa ya fedha.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Boiselle|first=PM|title=Computed tomography screening for lung cancer.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2013-03-20_309_11/page/1163|journal=JAMA : the journal of the American Medical Association|date=2013 Mar 20|volume=309|issue=11|pages=1163-70|pmid=23512063}}</ref> Kwa kila tokeo la kipimo halisi kuna zaidi ya 19 ya matokeo duni.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bach PB, Mirkin JN, Oliver TK, ''et al.''|title=Benefits and harms of CT screening for lung cancer: a systematic review |journal=JAMA |volume=307 |issue=22|pages=2418–29 |year=2012 |month=June |pmid=22610500 |doi=10.1001/jama.2012.5521 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2012-06-13_307_22/page/2418}}</ref> Kuwa wazi kwa mnururisho ni njia nyingine ya madhara inayoweza kuwa kutokana na kuchuja.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Aberle|first=DR|coauthors=Abtin, F; Brown, K|title=Computed tomography screening for lung cancer: has it finally arrived? Implications of the national lung screening trial.|journal=Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology|date=2013 Mar 10|volume=31|issue=8|pages=1002-8|pmid=23401434}}</ref> ==Udhibiti== Matibabu ya saratani ya mapafu hulingana na seli maalum ya saratani [[hali ya saratani|kuenea]], na [[hali ya utendaji]] wa mtu. Matibabu ya kawaida hujumuisha [[huduma ya kupunguza maumivu]],<ref>{{cite journal | last=Ferrell |first=B | coauthors=Koczywas M, Grannis F, Harrington A | title=Palliative care in lung cancer | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_surgical-clinics-of-north-america_2011-04_91_2/page/403 | journal=Surgical Clinics of North America | volume=91 | issue=2 | pages=403–417 | year=2011 | month=April | pmid=21419260 |doi=10.1016/j.suc.2010.12.003}}</ref> [[upasuaji]], [[kemotherapi]], na [[therapi ya mnururisho]].<ref name="Harrison" /> ===Upasuaji=== Ikiwa uchunguzi utathibitisha KSMK, [[hatua ya saratani|hatua]] inatathminiwa ili kuamua ikiwa kuna ugonjwa katika eneo maalum na inaweza kutibiwa kwa upasuaji au iwapo imeenea kwa kiwango kisichoweza kufanyiwa upasuaji. Uchunguzi wa picha na [[picha ya kompyuta ya miale ya gama]] inatumika kwa uamuzi.<ref name="Harrison" /> Ikiwa unashuku tezi ya mediastinamu inahusika, [[upasuaji wa mediastinamu]] inaweza kutumika kutengeneza sampuli nodi na kutathmini kiwango.<ref name="Fishman1853">{{Rejea kitabu |author=Kaiser LR | title=Fishman's Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders | publisher=McGraw-Hill | year=2008 | pages=1853–1854| edition=4th | isbn=0-07-145739-9 }}</ref> [[Upimaji wa damu]] na [[uchunguzi wa utendakazi wa mapafu]] hutumika kutathmini iwapo mtu atafanyiwa upasuaji.<ref name="Collins" /> Ikiwa matokeo ya uchunguzi wa utendakazi wa mapafu yataonyesha kuwa mapafu hayana hewa ya kutosha, upasuaji hautawezekana.<ref name="Harrison" /> Katika hali nyingi za kwanza KSMK, kutoa tundu la pafu matibabu ya upasuaji ya ([[lobektomia]]) huchaguliwa. Watu wasio sawa kwa lobektomia mzima, sublobar kiasi ([[kuondoa kipande cha tishu]]) inaweza kutekelezwa. Hata hivyo, kuondoa kipande hiki kina hatari kubwa ya kurudi tena kuliko lobektomia.<ref name="Fishman1855">{{Rejea kitabu | author=Kaiser LR |title=Fishman's Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders | publisher=McGraw-Hill | year=2008 | pages=1855–1856 | edition=4th |isbn=0-07-145739-9 }}</ref> Mnururisho [[iodini]] [[brachytherapy]] ukingoni mwa kuondoa kipande cha tishu unaweza kupunguza hatari ya kurudi tena.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Odell | first=DD | coauthors=Kent MS, Fernando HC | title=Sublobar resection with brachytherapy mesh for stage I non-small cell lung cancer | journal=Seminars in Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery |volume=22 | issue=1 | pages=32–37 | year=2010 | month=Spring | pmid=20813314 | doi=10.1053/j.semtcvs.2010.04.003}}</ref> Ni nadra, kutoa pafu lote ([[numonektomi]]) hufanywa.<ref name="Fishman1855" /> [[Upasuaji wa thoracoscopic unaosaidiwa na video]] na [[lobektomia ya VATS]] hutumia njia itakayoingia ndani katika upasuaji.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Alam| first=N | coauthors=Flores RM | title=Video-assisted thoracic surgery (VATS) lobectomy: the evidence base |journal=Journal of the Society of Laparoendoscopic Surgeons | volume=11 | issue=3 | pages=368–374 | year=2007 |month=July–September | pmid=17931521 | pmc=3015831}}</ref> Lobektomia ya VATS inapendekezwa kwa usawa kulingana na lobektomia ya wazi iliyo kawaida, na magonjwa baada ya upasuaji. <ref>{{cite journal | last=Rueth | first=NM | coauthors=Andrade RS |title=Is VATS lobectomy better: perioperatively, biologically and oncologically? | journal=Annals of Thoracic Surgery |volume=89 | issue=6 | pages=S2107–S2111 | year=2010 | month=June | pmid=20493991 | doi=10.1016/j.athoracsur.2010.03.020}}</ref> Kwa KSMN, kemotherapi na/au radiotherapi hutumika.<ref name='SimonTurrisi'>{{cite journal |author=Simon GR, Turrisi A |title=Management of small cell lung cancer: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (2nd edition)|journal=Chest |volume=132 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=324S–339S |year=2007 |month=September |pmid=17873178|doi=10.1378/chest.07-1385 |url=http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/132/3_suppl/324S.long}}</ref> Hata hivyo jukumu la upasuaji kwa KSMN inastahili kufikiriwa tena. Upasuaji unaweza kuboresha matokeo itakapowekwa kwa kemotherapi na mnururisho katika hatua ya kwanza ya KSMN.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Goldstein | first=SD | coauthors=Yang SC | title=Role of surgery in small cell lung cancer | journal=Surgical Oncology Clinics of North America | volume=20 | issue=4 | pages=769–777 | year=2011 |month=October | pmid=21986271 | doi=10.1016/j.soc.2011.08.001}}</ref> ===Radiotherapi=== [[Matibabu ya mnururisho|Radiotherapi]] hutolewa mara kwa mara pamoja na kemotherapi, na inaweza kutumika pamoja na dhamira ya kuponya kwa watu walio na KSMK wasioweza kufanyiwa upasuaji. Hali iliyo kali sana huitwa radiotherapi ya radikali.<ref name="OTO" /> Mabadiliko ya utaratibu huu hugawanywa kulingana na makali ya radiotherapi unaoendelea, ambapo dozi kali ya radiotherapi hutolewa kwa muda mfupi. <ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Hatton | first=MQ| coauthors=Martin JE | title=Continuous hyperfractionated accelerated radiotherapy (CHART) and non-conventionally fractionated radiotherapy in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer: a review and consideration of future directions| journal=Clinical Oncology (Royal College of Radiologists) | volume=22 | issue=5 | pages=356–364 | month=June | year=2010| pmid=20399629 | doi=10.1016/j.clon.2010.03.010}}</ref> Radiotherapi ya kifua baada ya upasuaji haipaswi kutumika baada ya upasuaji wa dhamira ya kuponya kwa watu waliona KSMK.<ref name="PORT Meta-analysis Trialists Group" /> Baadhi ya watu walio na mediastinamu ya limfu nodi ya N2 inayohusika wanaweza kufaidika kutokana na radiotherapi ya baada ya upasuaji.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Le Péchoux | first=C |title=Role of postoperative radiotherapy in resected non-small cell lung cancer: a reassessment based on new data |journal=Oncologist | volume=16 | issue=5 | pages=672–681 | year=2011 | pmid=21378080 | doi=10.1634/theoncologist.2010-0150| pmc=3228187}}</ref> Kwa hali ya KSMN, radiotherapi mara nyingi inapendekezwa zaidi pamoja na kemotherapi.<ref name="Holland-Frei78" /> Ikiwa ueneaji wa saratani itaziba sehemu ya bronkasi, [[brachytherapy]] (radiotherapi maalum) inaweza kupewa moja kwa moja ndani ya njia ya hewa ili njia ifunguke.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Cardona | first=AF | coauthors=Reveiz L, Ospina EG et al.| title=Palliative endobronchial brachytherapy for non-small cell lung cancer | journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue=2 | pages=CD004284 | month=April | year=2008 | pmid=18425900 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004284.pub2}}</ref> Kulingana na mwali wa mwanga ya nje ya radiotherapi, brachytherapy inaruhusu kupungua kwa muda wa matibabu na upungufu wa uwazi kwa mnururisho kwa wahudumu wa afya. Prophylactic cranial irradiation (PCI) ni aina ya radiotherapi kwa akili, hutumika kupunguza hatari ya [[metastasisi]]. (PCI) hutumika sana kwa KSMN. Katika hatua za ugonjwa mdogo, (PCI) huongeza miaka mitatu za maisha kutoka asilimia 15 hadi 20; kwa ugonjwa uliozidi, kuishi mwaka mmoja huzidi kutoka asilimia 13 hadi 27.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Paumier | first=A | coauthors=Cuenca X, Le Péchoux C | title=Prophylactic cranial irradiation in lung cancer | journal=Cancer Treatment Reviews | volume=37 | issue=4| pages=261–265 | month=June | year=2011 | pmid=20934256 | doi=10.1016/j.ctrv.2010.08.009}}</ref> Maendeleo ya hivi karibuni yanayolenga na kutoa picha yameleta maendeleo ya upasuaji kwa kutumia mnururisho kwa kutibu saratani iliyo katika hatua ya kwanza. Katika aina hii, dozi kali hutolewa kwa idadi ndogo ya vipindi kwa kutumia mbinu ya kulenga upasuaji. Matumizi yake hasa ni kwa wagonjwa wasiofanyiwa upasuaji kwa sababu ya matibabu [[comorbidities]].<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Girard | first=N | coauthors=Mornex F | title=Stereotactic radiotherapy for non-small cell lung cancer: From concept to clinical reality. 2011 update | journal=Cancer Radiothérapie | volume=15 |issue=6–7 | pages=522–526 | month=October | year=2011 | pmid=21889901 | doi=10.1016/j.canrad.2011.07.241}}</ref> Kwa wagonjwa walio na KSMK na KSMN, dozi kiasi cha mnururisho kwa kifua inaweza kutumika ili kudhibiti dalili (radiotherapi ya [[huduma inayopunguza maumivu|inayopunguza maumivu]]).<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Fairchild | first=A | coauthors=Harris K, Barnes E et al. |title=Palliative thoracic radiotherapy for lung cancer: a systematic review | journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology |volume=26 | issue=24 | pages=4001–4011 | month=August | year=2008 | pmid=18711191 |url=http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/26/24/4001.full | doi=10.1200/JCO.2007.15.3312}}</ref> ===Kemotherapi=== Mazoezi ya [[kemotherapi]] inalingana na aina ya tyuma.<ref name="Holland-Frei78" /> Kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli ndogo (KMSN), hata kiasi kidogo ya hatua ya kwanza ya ugonjwa, hutibiwa hasa kwa kemotherapi na mnururisho.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hann CL, Rudin CM |title=Management of small-cell lung cancer: incremental changes but hope for the future |journal=Oncology (Williston Park)|date=2008-11-30|volume=22|issue=13|pages=1486–92 |pmid=19133604}}</ref> Kwa KMSN, [[cisplatin]] na [[etoposide]] kwa kawaida hutumika zaidi.<ref name="Murray"/> Zikiunganishwa na [[carboplatin]], [[gemcitabine]], [[paclitaxel]], [[vinorelbine]], [[topotecan]], na [[irinotecan]] pia zinatumika.<ref name="Azim" /><ref name="MacCallum" /> Kwa kasinoma ya mapafu ya seli kubwa (KMSK) iliyozidi, kemotherapi huboresha maisha na hutumika kama tiba ya kwanza, bora mtu awe sawa kwa kupokea matibabu.<ref name="pmid18678835" /> Kwa kawaida, dawa mbili hutumika, moja yazo mara nyingi huwa besi ya platinamu (ama [[cisplatin]] au [[carboplatin]]). Dawa zingine zinazotumika ni [[gemcitabine]], [[paclitaxel]], [[docetaxel]],<ref name="Fishman1876">{{Rejea kitabu | author=Mehra R, Treat J | title=Fishman's Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders | publisher=McGraw-Hill | year=2008 | page=1876 | edition=4th | isbn=0-07-145739-9 }}</ref><ref name="Clegg" /> [[pemetrexed]],<ref name="pmid20446853">{{cite journal |author=Fuld AD, Dragnev KH, Rigas JR|title=Pemetrexed in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer |journal=Expert Opin Pharmacother |volume=11 |issue=8|pages=1387–402 |year=2010 |month=June |pmid=20446853 |doi=10.1517/14656566.2010.482560 }}</ref> [[etoposide]] au [[vinorelbine]].<ref name="Clegg" /> [[Kemotherapi ya adjuvant]] inamaanisha matumizi ya kemotherapi baada ya matibabu ya upasuaji ili kuboresha matokeo. Katika KMSK, sampuli huchuliwa karibu na [[limfu nodi]] wakati wa upasuaji ili kusaidia [[hatua ya saratani ya mapafu|hatua]]. Ikiwa ugonjwa wa kiwango cha II au cha III kitatambulika, kemotherapi ya adjuvanti inaboresha maisha kwa asilimia 5 kwa miaka mitano.<ref name="Carbone">{{Rejea jarida | last=Carbone | first=DP | coauthors=Felip E | title=Adjuvant therapy in non-small cell lung cancer: future treatment prospects and paradigms | journal=Clinical Lung Cancer | volume=12 | issue=5 | pages=261–271 | month=September |year=2011 | pmid=21831720 | doi=10.1016/j.cllc.2011.06.002 }}</ref><ref name="Le Chevalier">{{Rejea jarida | last=Le Chevalier | first=T | title=Adjuvant chemotherapy for resectable non-small-cell lung cancer: where is it going? |journal=Annals of Oncology | volume=21 | issue=Suppl. 7 | pages=vii196–198 | month=October | year=2010 | pmid=20943614 |url=http://annonc.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/suppl_7/vii196.long | doi=10.1093/annonc/mdq376}}</ref> Matumizi ya vinorelbine pamoja na cisplatin yana matokeo bora kuliko mazoezi.<ref name="Le Chevalier" /> Kemotherapi ya adjuvanti kwa watu waliokuwa na saratani iliyo kiwango IB haijakubalika, kama vipimo vya kliniki havijaonyesha manufaa.<ref name="Horn" /><ref name="Wakelee" /> Vipimo vya kemotherapi kabla ya upasuaji ([[kemotherapi ya neoadjuvant]]) kwa KMSK yanayoweza kugawanywa hayajahitimishwa.<ref name="Clinical evidence" /> ===Huduma ya kupunguza maumivu=== Kwa wagonjwa walio na ugonjwa usiotibika, huduma ya kupunguza au udhibiti wa hospitali inafaa.<ref name="Collins" /> Mbinu hizi hukubali majadiliano zaidi ya matibabu na kutoa nafasi kuafikia kwa maamuzi yaliyozingatiwa vilivyo<ref name="pmid20818881">{{cite journal |author=Kelley AS, Meier DE |title=Palliative care&mdash;a shifting paradigm |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2010-08-19_363_8/page/780 |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=363 |issue=8 |pages=781–2|year=2010 |month=August |pmid=20818881|doi=10.1056/NEJMe1004139 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19856592">{{cite journal |author=Prince-Paul M |title=When hospice is the best option: an opportunity to redefine goals|journal=Oncology (Williston Park, N.Y.) |volume=23 |issue=4 Suppl Nurse Ed|pages=13–7 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=19856592 }}</ref> na yanaweza kuepushwa na huduma isiyosaidia katika maisha.<ref name="pmid19856592"/> Kemotherapi inaweza kuunganishwa na huduma ya kupunguza maumivu kwa matibabu ya KMSK. Kwa hali zilizozidi, kemotherapi inayofaa huboresha maisha [[katikati|wastani]] zaidi ya huduma ya kusaidia pekee, vile vile kuboresha ubora wa maisha.<ref name="pmid7551923">{{cite journal|author=Souquet PJ, Chauvin F, Boissel JP, Bernard JP |title=Meta-analysis of randomised trials of systemic chemotherapy versus supportive treatment in non-resectable non-small cell lung cancer |journal=Lung Cancer |volume=12 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S147–54|year=1995 |month=April |pmid=7551923 |doi=10.1016/0169-5002(95)00430-9 }}</ref> Pamoja na [[hali ya utendaji|ubora wa mwili]] unaofaa, kuendeleza kemotherapi wakati wa kutuliza saratani ya mapafu huzidisha maisha kwa miezi 1.5 hadi 3, kutuliza dalili, na kuboresha maisha, pamoja na matokeo mema zinazoonekana na maajenti wa kisasa.<ref name="pmid11441939">{{cite journal |author=Sörenson S, Glimelius B, Nygren P |title=A systematic overview of chemotherapy effects in non-small cell lung cancer |journal=Acta Oncol |volume=40 |issue=2–3|pages=327–39 |year=2001 |pmid=11441939 |doi= }}</ref><ref name="pmid12065068">{{cite journal |author=Clegg A, Scott DA, Sidhu M, Hewitson P, Waugh N |title=A rapid and systematic review of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of paclitaxel, docetaxel, gemcitabine and vinorelbine in non-small-cell lung cancer |journal=Health Technol Assess |volume=5|issue=32 |pages=1–195 |year=2001 |pmid=12065068 |doi= }}</ref> Kikundi cha chambuzi cha KMSK inapendekeza kwamba iwapo mgonjwa anahitaji na anaweza kuvumilia matibabu, basi kemotherapi inapaswa kutumiwa kwa KMSK iliyoendelea.<ref name="pmid18678835">{{cite journal |title=Chemotherapy in Addition to Supportive Care Improves Survival in Advanced Non–Small-Cell Lung Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Individual Patient Data From 16 Randomized Controlled Trials |journal=J. Clin. Oncol. |volume=26 |issue=28|pages=4617–25 |year=2008 |month=October |pmid=18678835 |pmc=2653127|doi=10.1200/JCO.2008.17.7162 |author1=NSCLC Meta-Analyses Collaborative Group }}</ref><ref name="pmid20464750">{{cite Cochrane |title=Chemotherapy and supportive care versus supportive care alone for advanced non-small cell lung cancer|review=CD007309 |version=2 |issue=5 |year=2010 |pmid=20464750|editor1-last=Burdett |editor1-first=Sarah |author1=Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Collaborative Group }}</ref> ==Prognosisi== {| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;width:45%;margin-left:1em" |+ style="background:#E5AFAA;"| '''Outcomes in lung cancer according to clinical stage '''<ref name="Rami-Porta" /> |- style="background: #E5AFAA;text-align:center;font-size:90%;" ! abbr="Type" rowspan="2" | Clinical stage ! abbr="5-year" colspan="2" | Five-year survival (%) |- style="background: #E5AFAA;text-align:center;font-size:90%;" ! abbr="NSCLC" | Non-small cell lung carcinoma ! abbr="SCLC" | Small cell lung carcinoma |- | IA | 50 | 38 |- | IB | 47 | 21 |- | IIA | 36 | 38 |- | IIB | 26 | 18 |- | IIIA | 19 | 13 |- | IIIB | 7 | 9 |- | IV | 2 | 1 |} Prognosisi huwa duni. Kwa watu wote walio na saratani ya mapafu, asilimia 15 huishi kwa miaka mitano baada ya kutambuliwa.<ref name="Merck" /> Mara kwa mara kiwango huzidi wakati wa utambuzi. Wakati wa kujitokeza, asilimia 30-40 ya hali ya KMSK huwa kiwango cha IV, na asilimia 60 ya KMSN huwa kiwango cha IV.<ref name="Holland-Frei78" /> Visababishi vya prognosisi katika KMSK ni pamoja na kuwepo na kutokuwepo kwa dalili za mapafu, ukubwa wa [[tyuma]], ([[histologia]]) ya aina ya seli, kiwango cha kuenea [[kuainisha (pathologia)|(hatua)]] na [[metastasisi]] kwa [[limfu nodi]] yaliyozidi, na [[kuathiriwa kwa mishipa]]. Kwa watu walio na ugonjwa usiofanyiwa upasuaji, matokeo huwa mabaya kwa walio na [[hali ya utendakazi]] mbaya na upungufu wa uzito zaidi ya asilimia 10.<ref name="AUTOREF17"> {{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/non-small-cell-lung/HealthProfessional/page2 |title=Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Treatment |publisher=National Cancer Institute |work=PDQ for Health Professionals |accessdate=2008-11-22}}</ref> Visababishi vya prognosisi kwa saratani ya mapafu kwa seli ndogo inahusisha hali ya utendakazi, [[jinsia]], kiwango cha ugonjwa, na kuhusika kwa [[mfumo wa kati wa neva]] au [[ini]] wakati wa utambuzi.<ref name="AUTOREF18" /> Kwa KMSK, prognosisi bora imefanikishwa na upasuaji kamili wa kiwango cha IA cha ugonjwa, ikiwa na asilimia 70 ya kuishi miaka mitano.<ref name="OTM">{{Rejea kitabu | last=Spiro | first=SG | title=Oxford Textbook Medicine | publisher=OUP Oxford |year=2010 | chapter=18.19.1 | edition=5th | isbn=978-0199204854 }}</ref> Kwa KMSK, maisha kwa ujumla ni angalau asilimia 5.<ref name="Harrison" /> Watu walio na kiwango kilichozidi cha KMSK kawaida huwa kiasi cha miaka mitano ya kiwango cha maisha iliyo chini ya asilimia 1. Muda wa kawaida wa kuishi wa kiwango kidogo cha ugonjwa ni miezi 20, na kiwango cha miaka mitano za kuishi zilizo asilimia 20.<ref name="Merck" /> Kulingana na utafiti wa [[Taasisi ya kimataifa ya saratani]], umri wa kati ya kutambua saratani ya mapafu kule Marekani ni miaka 70,<ref>SEER data (SEER.cancer.gov)[http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2003/results_single/sect_01_table.11_2pgs.pdf Median Age of Cancer Patients at Diagnosis 2002-2003]</ref> na umri kati ya kifo ni miaka 72.<ref>SEER data (SEER.cancer.gov)[http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2006/results_single/sect_01_table.13_2pgs.pdf Median Age of Cancer Patients at Death 2002-2006]</ref> Nchini Marekani, walio na bima ya matibabu hupata matokeo bora zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Slatore | first=CG | coauthors=Au DH, Gould MK | title=An official American Thoracic Society systematic review: insurance status and disparities in lung cancer practices and outcomes | date=November 2010 | journal=American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine | volume=182 | issue=9 | pages=1195–1205 | pmid=21041563 | url=http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/content/182/9/1195.long | doi=10.1164/rccm.2009-038ST | archive-date=2020-06-13 | access-date=2014-01-09 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613071318/https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.2009-038ST | url-status=dead }}</ref> ==Epidemiolojia== [[Image:Trachea, bronchus, lung cancers world map - Death - WHO2004.svg|thumb|[[urekebishaji wa umri|Umri uliosanifishwa]] vifo kutokana na trakea, bronkasi, na saratani ya mapafu kwa 100,000&nbsp;walioishi mwaka wa 2004<ref name="AUTOREF20" /> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|≤&nbsp;5}} {{legend|#fff200|5-10}} {{legend|#ffdc00|10-15}} {{legend|#ffc600|15-20}} {{legend|#ffb000|20-25}} {{legend|#ff9a00|25-30}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|30-35}} {{legend|#ff6e00|35-40}} {{legend|#ff5800|40-45}} {{legend|#ff4200|45-50}} {{legend|#ff2c00|50-55}} {{legend|#cb0000|≥&nbsp;55}} {{Multicol-end}}]] [[Image:Lung cancer US distribution.gif|thumb|kidole cha thumb|Mgawanyo wa saratani ya mapafu nchini [[Marekani]]]] Ulimwenguni, saratani ya mapafu ni ya kawaida katika swala la [[Tukio (epidemiolojia)|tukio]] na kifo. Katika 2008, kulikuwa na milioni 1.61 za hali mpya, na vifo milioni 1.38 kwa sababu ya saratani ya mapafu. Viwango vilivyo juu sana kiko Uingerezani na Kaskazini Marekani.<ref name="GLOBOCAN">{{cite journal | last=Ferlay | first=J | coauthors=Shin HR, Bray F et al.|title=Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008 | journal=International Journal of Cancer |date=December 2010 | volume=127 | issue=12 | pages=2893–2917 | pmid=21351269 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ijc.25516/full | doi=10.1002/ijc.25516}}</ref> Sehemu ya watu wanaoweza kupata saratani ya mapafu zaidi ni wale waliozidi umri wa miaka 50 wanao historia ya uvutaji wa sigara. Kwa kutofautisha kiwango cha vifo kwa wanaume, iliyoanza kushuka zaidi miaka ishirini iliyopita, viwango vya vifo kutokana na saratani ya mapafu kwa wanawake vimeongezeka zaidi katika kipindi cha miaka kumi zilizopita, na vinaanza kutulia.<ref name="AUTOREF22" /> Nchini Marekani, [[hatari]] ya kupata saratani ya mapafu ni asilimia 8 kwa wanaume na asilimia 6 kwa wanawake. <ref name="Harrison" /> Kwa kila milioni 3-4 ya sigara iliyovutwa, kifo kimoja hutokea kutokana na saratani ya mapafu.<ref name="Harrison" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Proctor | first=RN | title=The history of the discovery of the cigarette-lung cancer link: evidentiary traditions, corporate denial, global toll | journal=Tobacco Control | volume=21 | issue=2 | pages=87–91 | month=March | year=2012 |pmid=22345227 | doi=10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050338 }}</ref> Ushawishi wa "[[Tumbaku Kubwa]]" huchukua jukumu kubwa katika utamaduni wa uvutaji wa sigara.<ref name="Lum" /> Vijana wasiovuta sigara wanao tazama matangazo ya uvutaji wa sigara huenda wakavuta.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Lovato | first=C | coauthors=Watts A, Stead LF | title=Impact of tobacco advertising and promotion on increasing adolescent smoking behaviours | date=October 2011 | journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue=10 | pages=CD003439 | pmid=21975739 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003439.pub2}}</ref> Jukumu la [[kuvuta moshi ya sigara]] inaendelea kutambulika kama hatari ya saratani ya mapafu,<ref name="Taylor" /> inayoelekeza kwa sera ya kuingilia upungufu wa wasiovuta kutotaka kuwa karibu wavutaji wanapovuta.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Kemp |first=FB | title=Smoke free policies in Europe. An overview | journal=Pneumologia | volume=58 | issue=3 | pages=155–158 |month=Jul–Sep | year=2009 | pmid=19817310 }}</ref> Moshi kutoka magari, viwanda, na vituo vya umeme pia vinaweza kuwa hatari.<ref name="MurrayNadel46" /> [[Ulaya Mashariki]] ina vifo vilivyosababishwa na saratani ya mapafu vilivyo juu kwa wananume, bali kaskazini mwa Uingereza na Marekani huwa na vifo vingi kwa wanawake. Nchini Marekani, wanaume na wanawake weusi huwa na hali iliyo juu zaidi.<ref>National Cancer Institute; SEER stat fact sheets: Lung and Bronchus. Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results. 2010[http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/lungb.html#incidence-mortality]</ref> Viwango vya saratani kwa sasa viko chini kwa nchi zinazoendelea.<ref name="AUTOREF23" /> Pamoja na ongezeko la uvutaji kwa nchi zinazoendelea, viwango vinatarajiwa kuongezeka kwa miaka michache yanayokuja, hasa Uchina<ref>{{cite journal | last=Zhang | first=J | coauthors=Ou JX, Bai CX |title=Tobacco smoking in China: prevalence, disease burden, challenges and future strategies | date=November 2011 |journal=Respirology | volume=16 | issue=8 | pages=1165–1172 | pmid=21910781 | doi=10.1111/j.1440-1843.2011.02062.x }}</ref> na India.<ref name="AUTOREF25" /> Kutoka 1960, viwango vya adenocarcinoma vilianza kuzidi kulingana na aina zingine za saratani ya mapafu. Hii ndio sababu ndogo ya kuanzishwa kwa sigara yenye chujio. Matumizi ya chujio hutoa moshi nzito kutoka tumbaku, hivyo kupunguza mabaki kwa njia za kupumua. Hata hivyo, mvutaji lazima avute moshi ndani sana ili apate kiasi sawa cha nikotini, na kuzidisha moshi kuingia kwa njia ndogo za hewa ambapo adenocarcinoma ina panda.<ref name="Charloux" /> Hali ya adenocarcinoma ya mapafu huzidi kupanda.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Kadara | first=H | coauthors=Kabbout M, Wistuba II | title=Pulmonary adenocarcinoma: a renewed entity in 2011 | journal=Respirology | volume=17 | issue=1 |pages=50–65 | month=January | year=2012 | pmid=22040022 | doi=10.1111/j.1440-1843.2011.02095.x }}</ref> ==Historia== Saratani ya mapafu haikujulikana kabla ya matangazo ya uvutaji wa sigara; haikutambulika kama ugonjwa tofauti hadi mwaka wa 1761.<ref name="AUTOREF27" /> Vipengele tofauti vya saratani ya mapafu yameelezwa zaidi mwaka wa 1810.<ref name="AUTOREF28" /> Tyuma ya mapafu ya kuhatarisha yamechangia asilimia 1 pekee kwa saratani yaliyoonekana kwa otopsi mwaka 1878, lakini yalizidi asilimia 10-15 mwanzoni mwa mwaka 1900.<ref name="Witschi" /> Ripoti za uchunguzi katika maandiko ya matibabu yalikuwa 374 pekee duniani mwaka 1912,<ref name="AUTOREF29" /> lakini uchunguzi wa otopsi ulionyesha hali ya saratani ya mapafu yaliongezeka kutoka asilimia 0.3 mwaka 1852 hadi asilimia 5.66 mwaka 1952.<ref name="Grannis" /> Nchini [[Ujerumani]] mwaka 1929, fizishiani Fritz Lickint alitambua uhusiano baina ya uvutaji wa sigara na saratani ya mapafu,<ref name="Witschi" /> iliyoelekeza kwa [[Muungano wa kupinga uvutaji wa sigara nchini Ujerumani|kampeni ya kupinga uvutaji wa sigara]] ulio mkali.<ref name="Proctor" /> [[Uchunguzi ya madaktari wa Uingereza]], uliochapishwa wa 1950, ili kuwa ya kwanza [[epidemiolojia|epidemiolojia]] ili kuwa ushahidi kuu ya kiunganishi baina saratani ya mapafu na uvutaji wa sigara.<ref name="Doll" /> Kama matokeo, mwaka 1964 [[Mpasuaji Mkuu nchini Marekani]] aliwashauri wavutaji sigara kuwacha kuvuta.<ref name="AUTOREF30" /> Uhusiano na gesi ya [[radoni]] ulitambuliwa na wachimbuaji wa madini katika [[Milima za Ore (Ujerumani)|Milima za Ore]] karibu na [[Schneeberg, Saxony]]. [[Fedha]] ime chimbuliwa hapo tangu mwaka wa 1470, na machimbo haya yana [[urani]] nyingi, ikitanguliwa na [[radiamu]] na gesi ya radoni.<ref name="Greaves" /> Wachimbuaji madini walipata kiasi isiyolingana na saratani ya mapafu, baadae kujulikana kama saratani ya mapafu mwaka wa 1870.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Greenberg | first=M | coauthors=Selikoff IJ |title=Lung cancer in the Schneeberg mines: a reappraisal of the data reported by Harting and Hesse in 1879 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-occupational-hygiene_1993-02_37_1/page/n8 |journal=Annals of Occupational Hygiene | volume=37 | issue=1 | pages=5–14 | month=February | year=1993 | pmid=8460878 }}</ref> Licha ya utambulizi huu, kuchimbuliwa kulizidi hadi mwaka wa 1950, kwa sababu ya madai ya urani kutoka [[Urusi]].<ref name="Greaves" /> Radoni ilitambulika kama kisababishi cha saratani ya mapafu mwaka wa 1960.<ref>{{Rejea jarida | last=Samet | first=JM |title=Radiation and cancer risk: a continuing challenge for epidemiologists | journal=Environmental Health | volume=10 |issue=Suppl. 1 | pages=S4 | month=April | year=2011 | pmid=21489214 | doi=10.1186/1476-069X-10-S1-S4 | pmc=3073196}}</ref> Mafanikio ya kwanza ya [[numonektomi]] ya saratani ya mapafu ulifanywa mwaka wa 1933.<ref name="AUTOREF32" /> [[Radiotherapi]] ya kupunguza maumivu imetumika tangu mwaka wa 1940.<ref name="Edwards" /> Radiotherapi ya radikali, iliyotumika awali mwaka wa 1950, ilikuwa jaribio la kutumia dozi kubwa ya mnururisho kwa wagonjwa walio na kiasi cha saratani kinachoanza, lakini hawawezi kufanyiwa upasuaji vinginevyo.<ref name="AUTOREF33" /> Mwaka wa 1997, mkeneko mkali wa radiotherapi uliochapuzwa unaoendelea ulionekana ukiendelea kuliko radiotherapi ya radikali iliyo ya kawaida.<ref name="Saunders" /> Kwa SMSD, majaribio ya hapo awali mwaka wa 1960 katika upasuaji <ref name="AUTOREF34" /> na radiotherapi ya radikali<ref name="AUTOREF35" /> hayakufaulu. Mwaka wa 1970, kemotherapi ya mazoezi yaliyofaulu yaliendelezwa.<ref name="AUTOREF36" /> ==Marejeo== {{reflist|2|refs= <ref name="Harrison">{{Rejea kitabu | last=Horn | first=L | coauthors=Pao W, Johnson DH | title=Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine | publisher=McGraw-Hill | editor-last=Longo | editor-first=DL | editor-last2=Kasper | editor-first2=DL | editor-last3=Jameson | editor-first3=JL | editor-last4=Fauci | editor-first4=AS | editor-last5=Hauser | editor-first5=SL | editor-last6=Loscalzo | editor-first6=J | year=2012 | chapter=Chapter 89 | edition=18th | isbn=0-07-174889-X }}</ref> <ref name="Thun">{{Rejea jarida | last=Thun | first=MJ | coauthors=Hannan LM, Adams-Campbell LL et al. | title=Lung cancer occurrence in never-smokers: an analysis of 13 cohorts and 22 cancer registry studies | journal=PLoS Medicine | volume=5 | issue=9 | pages=e185 | month=September | year=2008 | doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0050185 | pmid=18788891 | pmc=2531137 }}</ref> <ref name="O'Reilly">{{Rejea jarida | last=O'Reilly | first=KM | coauthors=Mclaughlin AM, Beckett WS, Sime PJ | title=Asbestos-related lung disease | journal=American Family Physician | volume=75 | issue=5 | pages=683–688 | month=March | year=2007 | url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20070301/683.html | pmid=17375514 | access-date=2014-01-09 | archive-date=2007-09-29 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929083111/http://www.aafp.org/afp/20070301/683.html | dead-url=yes }}</ref> <ref name="AUTOREF">{{cite web |url=http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/secondhandsmoke |author=Carmona, RH |publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services |title=The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General |date=2006-06-27 |quote=Secondhand smoke exposure causes disease and premature death in children and adults who do not smoke.}}</ref> <ref name="AUTOREF1">{{Rejea jarida |url=http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol83/volume83.pdf |format=PDF |publisher=WHO International Agency for Research on Cancer |title=Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking |journal=IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans |volume=83 |year=2002 |quote=There is sufficient evidence that involuntary smoking (exposure to secondhand or 'environmental' tobacco smoke) causes lung cancer in humans.&nbsp;... 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Alimfuata [[Kaisari Kaligula]] akafuatwa na [[Kaisari Nero]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Orodha ya Makaizari wa Roma]] ==Marejeo== <div class = "references-small"> * Baldwin, B. (1964). "Executions under Claudius: Seneca's Ludus de Morte Claudii". ''Phoenix'' '''18''' (1): 39–48. * Griffin, M. (1990). "Claudius in Tacitus". ''Classical Quarterly'' '''40''' (2): 482–501. * Levick, B.M. (1978). "Claudius: Antiquarian or Revolutionary?" ''American Journal of Philology'', '''99''' (1): 79–105. * Levick, Barbara (1990). ''Claudius''. New Haven: Yale University Press. * Leon, E.F. (1948). "The Imbecillitas of the Emperor Claudius", ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'', '''79''' 79–86. * McAlindon, D. (1957). "Claudius and the Senators", ''American Journal of Philology'', '''78''' (3): 279–286. * Major, A. (1992). "Was He Pushed or Did He Leap? Claudius' Ascent to Power", ''Ancient History'', 22 25–31. * Malloch, S. J. V. (2013). ''The Annals of Tacitus, book 11''. Cambridge University Press. * {{fr icon}} Minaud, Gérard, ''Les vies de 12 femmes d'empereur romain - Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés'', Paris, L'Harmattan, 2012, ch. 2, '' La vie de Messaline, femme de Claude'', p.&nbsp;39–64 ; ch. 3, '' La vie d'Agrippine, femme de Claude'', p.&nbsp;65–96. ISBN 978-2-336-00291-0. * Momigliano, Arnaldo (1934). ''Claudius: the Emperor and His Achievement'' Trans. W.D. Hogarth. Cambridge: W. Heffer and Sons. * Oost, S.V. (1958). "The Career of M. Antonius Pallas", ''American Journal of Philology'', 79 (2): 113–139. * {{cite book|last=Osgood|first=Josiah|title=Claudius Caesar : image and power in the early Roman empire|url=https://archive.org/details/claudiuscaesarim0000osgo|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-88181-4}} * {{Rejea kitabu|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yJigAAAAMAAJ|publisher= Johns Hopkins University|title=The problem of Claudius: Some aspects of a character study|year=1916|last=Ruth|first=Thomas De Coursey }} * Ryan, F.X. (1993). "Some Observations on the Censorship of Claudius and Vitellius, AD 47–48", ''American Journal of Philology'', '''114''' (4): 611–618. * Scramuzza, Vincent (1940). ''The Emperor Claudius'' Cambridge: Harvard University Press. * Stuart, M. (1936). "The Date of the Inscription of Claudius on the Arch of Ticinum" ''American Journal of Archaeology'' '''40''' (3): 314–322. * {{cite book|last=Suetonius|title=The Twelve Caesars|url=https://archive.org/details/twelvecaesars00suet_1|year=1979|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London|isbn=0-14-044072-0|others=Robert Graves, trans}} * {{cite journal|last=Suhr|first=Elmer G.|title=A Portrait of Claudius|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-archaeology_1955-10_59_4/page/319|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|year=1955|volume=59|issue=4|pages=319–322|doi=10.2307/500799}} * Vessey, D.W.T.C. (1971). "Thoughts on Tacitus' Portrayal of Claudius" ''American Journal of Philology'' '''92''' (3) 385–409. </div> ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons|Claudius}} ;Vyanzo vya kale: * Suetonius ** [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html Life of Claudius] * Tacitus ** [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusAnnals11.html Tacitus on the second half of Claudius' reign, book 11] ** [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusAnnals12.html Tacitus on Claudius' last years, book 12] * Dio ** [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html Cassius Dio's account of Claudius' reign, part I] ** [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/61*.html Cassius Dio's account, part II] * Josephus ** [http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/JOSEPHUS.HTM The works of Josephus] * Seneca ** [http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/apocolocyntosis.html The Apocolocyntosis of the Divine Claudius] * Claudius ** [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/claualex.html Claudius' Letter to the Alexandrians] ** [[Lyon Tablet|Lyons tablet]] *** [[Lugdunum Tablet|Extract from first half of the Lyons Tablet]] *** [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/48claudius.html Second half of the Lyons Tablet] *** [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/tacitus-ann11a.html Tacitus' version of the Lyons Tablet speech] ** [[Tabula clesiana|Edict confirming the rights of the people of Trent]]. Full Latin text [[:it:Tabula clesiana|here]]. ;Maisha yake kadiri ya utaalamu wa kisasa: * [http://www.roman-emperors.org/claudius.htm Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis] {{Wayback|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/claudius.htm |date=20050815080736 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091019213016/http://geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/7094/claudius.html Claudius Page] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/claudius.shtml Claudius I] at [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ BBC History] {{Mbegu-Kaizari-Roma}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 10 KK]] [[Category:Waliofariki 54]] [[Category:Watu wa Biblia]] [[Category:Makaizari wa Roma]] klato8qou9zqql3ml74gpbilxfmnkr4 0 70910 1580095 1574219 2026-07-18T00:03:52Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580095 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Gaius Caesar Caligula.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sanamu]] ya [[marumaru]] ya Caligula huko [[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]], [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]].]] '''Kaisari Kaligula''' ([[jina]] kamili kwa [[Kilatini]]: Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus<ref>In [[Classical Latin]], Caligula's name would be inscribed as GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS.</ref>, Caligula likiwa jina la kupachikwa) alikuwa [[mtawala]] wa [[Dola la Roma]] toka mwaka [[37]] hadi [[41]] [[BK]]. Mzao wa [[nasaba ya Julio-Klaudio]], alizaliwa [[Anzio]], (leo [[Mkoa|mkoani]] [[Lazio]], [[Italia]], tarehe [[31 Agosti]] [[12]] na kuuawa tarehe [[22 Januari]] 41. ==Tazama pia== * [[Orodha ya Makaizari wa Roma]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Marejeo== ===Vyanzo vikuu=== *[[Cassius Dio]], ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html Roman History]'', Book 59 * [[Yosefu Flavius]], ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/josephus/works/files/works.html Antiquities of the Jews]'', (trans. W.Whiston), Books XVIII–XIX * [[Filo wa Aleksandria]], (trans. C.D.Yonge, London, H. G. Bohn, 1854–1890): **''[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book40.html On the Embassy to Gaius]'' **''[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html Flaccus]'' * [[Seneka Mdogo]] **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_1.html On Firmness]'' **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_1.html On Anger]'' **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_2.html To Marcia, On Consolation]'' **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_2.html On Tranquility of Mind]'' **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_2.html On the Shortness of Life]'' **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_2.html To Polybius, On Consolation]'' **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_2.html To Helvia, On Consolation]'' **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_essays_book_3.html On Benefits]'' **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_epistles_book_1.html On the Terrors of Death]'' (Epistle IV) **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_epistles_book_2.html On Taking One's Own Life]'' (Epistle LXXVII) **''[http://www.stoics.com/seneca_epistles_book_3.html On the Value of Advice]'' (Epistle XCIV) *[[Suetonius]], ''[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html The Lives of Twelve Caesars]'', Life of Caligula *[[Tacitus]], ''[http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Tacitus/TacitusAnnals06.html Annals]'', Book 6 ===Vyanzo vingine=== *{{cite book|last=Balsdon|first=V. D.|title=The Emperor Gaius|url=https://archive.org/details/emperorgaiuscali0000jpvd|year=1934|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford}} *{{cite book|last= Barrett|first=Anthony A.|title=Caligula: the corruption of power| location=London|publisher=Batsford|year=1989|isbn=0-7134-5487-3}} *{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Michael|authorlink=Michael_Grant_(author)|title=The Twelve Caesars|url=https://archive.org/details/twelvecaesars00suet_1|year=1979|publisher=Penguin Books|location=New York|isbn=0-14-044072-0}} *{{cite book|last=Hurley|first=Donna W.|title=An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' Life of C. Caligula|location=Atlanta|publisher=Scholars Press|year=1993}} *{{cite journal|last=Sandison|first=A. T.|title=The Madness of the Emperor Caligula|journal=Medical History|year=1958|volume=2|pages=202–209}} *{{cite book|last=Wilcox|first=Amanda |chapter=Nature's Monster: Caligula as exemplum in Seneca's Dialogues| editor1-first=Ineke|editor1-last=Sluiter|editor2-first=Ralph M.|editor2-last=Rosen|title=Kakos: Badness and Anti-value in Classical Antiquity|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|year=2008| series=Mnemosyne: Supplements. History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity|volume=307}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons|Caligula}} *[http://www.digitalsculpture.org/caligula/index.html The portrait of Caligula in the Digital Sculpture Project] *[http://british-history.net/roman-britain/caligula-attempts-to-conquer-britain-40-a-d/ Caligula Attempts to Conquer Britain in AD 40] {{Wayback|url=http://british-history.net/roman-britain/caligula-attempts-to-conquer-britain-40-a-d/ |date=20130611035036 }} *[http://www.roman-emperors.org/gaius.htm Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis] {{Wayback|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/gaius.htm |date=20050818165849 }} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20091020102156/http://geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/7094/caligula.html Biography of Gaius Caligula] *[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mcaligula.html Straight Dope article] {{Wayback|url=http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mcaligula.html |date=20070430000305 }} *[http://www.romansonline.com/Persns.asp?IntID=3&Ename=Caligula Caligula] {{Wayback|url=http://www.romansonline.com/Persns.asp?IntID=3&Ename=Caligula |date=20070224114705 }} *[http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/caligula.html A chronological account of his reign] {{Wayback|url=http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/caligula.html |date=20070423131748 }} *[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/caligula.shtml Caligula] at [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ BBC History] {{mbegu-Kaizari-Roma}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 12]] [[Category:Waliofariki 41]] [[Category:Makaizari wa Roma]] 8l1uceyq5e0s56w8gbqcgjj0rzffakr 0 71520 1580211 1574190 2026-07-18T01:20:41Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580211 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Bridge Crossing.jpg|thumb|Jeshi la Misri likivuka Mfereji wa Suez tarehe 7 Oktoba 1973.]] '''Mapambano kati ya Israeli na Palestina''' ni [[ugomvi]] baina ya nchi ya [[Israeli]] na wakazi wa [[Palestina]] unaoathiri pia uhusiano na nchi jirani. Ugomvi huu ulianza katika [[karne ya 20]] baina ya wakazi [[Wayahudi]] na [[Waarabu]] wa maeneo ambayo leo hii yako chini ya Israeli na [[Mamlaka ya Kitaifa ya Palestina]]. Ulisababisha tayari [[vita]] sita kati ya nchi ya [[Israeli]] tangu kuundwa kwake mwaka [[1948]] na jirani zake za [[Kiarabu]]. Mapambano yanaendelea, hayajapata [[suluhisho]] hadi sasa. Mapambano yalianza wakati wa kuongezeka kwa [[uhamiaji]] wa Wayahudi katika maeneo ya [[Palestina]] yaliyokaliwa na Waarabu. Kuundwa kwa Dola la Israeli kulisababisha vita ya kwanza baina ya Israeli mypa na nchi zote za jirani. Hivyo ilikuwa pia chanzo cha [[mgongano kati ya Israeli na nchi za Waarabu]] kwa jumla. ==Msingi katika [[itikadi]]== Mapambano hayo si ya kijeshi tu, bali yanaanza upande wa [[siasa]] na pia upande wa [[dini]]. Wayahudi wa [[Ulaya]] waliokuwa wahamiaji wa kwanza kuja Palestina waliona uhamiaji wao kama kurudi kwenye nchi ya ma[[babu]] wao kwenye mahali ambako [[taifa]] lao litazaliwa upya. Sehemu ya Wayahudi waliona mwendo wao si kurudi tu kwenye ardhi ya mababu kama taifa lakini pia [[utimiaji]] wa [[sala]] ya Kiyahudi yenye ombi la "kuonana katika [[Yerusalemu]] [[mwaka]] ujao". Mpaka leo wengine wanaona jambo hilo kutokana na ahadi za [[Mungu]] kwa taifa lao kadiri ya [[Tanakh]] (yaani [[Biblia ya Kiebrania]]). Kumbe wakazi Waarabu wa Palestina waliona uhamiaji wa wageni kutoka Ulaya kama [[harakati]] ya ki[[koloni]] iliyolenga kutwaa [[ardhi]] yao. Tena [[Waislamu]] kadhaa wanaona ya kwamba, tangu itwaliwe na [[jeshi]] la [[Uislamu]] katika [[karne ya 7]] ardhi ya Palestina - Israeli imekuwa nchi ya Kiislamu inayopaswa kutawaliwa na [[serikali]] ya Waislamu daima. [[Wakristo]] hawakuwa wengi, tena wamezidi kupungua kwa kuhama kutokana na ugumu wa hali yao wanaojisikia kubaguliwa kama kundi dogo hata kati ya Wapalestina. ==Historia== ===Utangulizi: Pogromu, Uhamiaji na Uzayuni=== [[Picha:Theodor Herzl retouched.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Theodor Herzl, mwanzilishaji wa Uzayuni.]] [[file:Second aliyah Pioneers in Migdal 1912 in kuffiyeh.jpg|thumb|200px|Wahamiaji Wayahudi kwenye Kibbutz ya Migdal wakati wa kazi shambani mwaka 1912]] Katika [[karne ya 19]] idadi kubwa ya Wayahudi waliishi katika maeneo kadhaa ya [[Milki ya Urusi]] <ref>katika nchi za kisasa za [[Polandi]], [[Belarus]] na [[Ukraine]] zilizokuwa chini ya [[Tsar]] wa [[Urusi]] wakati ule</ref> yaliyotwaliwa na [[milki]] hiyo mnamo [[1800]]. [[Uadui]] dhidi ya Wayahudi ulitokea dhidi ya utawala wa Kirusi <ref>Maeneo penye Wayahudi wengi yalikuwa chini ya milki ya Polandi hadi [[kugawanyika kwa Polandi]] kati ya majirani yake. Wayahudi waliowahi kuwa na [[uhuru]] fulani katika Polandi walijikuta chini ya [[utawala]] wa Kirusi. Warusi ambao hawakuzoea Wayahudi wengi waliwabana [[wananchi]] wapya hao kwa [[sheria za ubaguzi]].</ref> Kuanzia mwaka [[1880]] kulitokea [[ghasia]] mbalimbali ambako Wayahudi walishambuliwa katika miji ya Urusi. [[Wimbi]] la pili la ghasia hizo zilizoitwa [[pogromu]] likatokea mwaka [[1905]], ambapo Wayahudi zaidi ya 2000 waliuawa mjini [[Odessa]] <ref>Ukraine ya leo</ref>. Wakati ule Wayahudi wa Urusi walianza kuhamia nje: wengi wao walikwenda [[Marekani]], lakini wachache walielekea Palestina. Mapogromu yalikuwa pia chanzo cha harakati mpya ya [[Uzayuni]] (''Zionism'') kati ya Wayahudi wa Ulaya. Uzayuni ulilenga kuwapa Wayahudi eneo maalum ili wapate kujenga upya taifa katika dola lao wenyewe, ambako wangekuwa [[wenyeji]], si kundi la pekee katikati ya watu waliowadharau. Mwaka [[1896]] [[Theodor Herzl]] ([[1860]]-[[1904]]) aliandika kitabu "[[Dola la Wayahudi]]" alimodai kuundwa dola la pekee kwa ajili ya Wayahudi. [[Mkutano]] wa kwanza wa wafuasi wake ulichagua [[jina]] la "Zayuni" ambalo lilikuwa jina asilia la [[mlima]] wa [[hekalu]] mjini Yerusalemu; wakachagua jina hilo kwa sababu linataja mahali patakatifu zaidi pa [[Uyahudi]]. Mkutano huo uliazimia kuwa "Uzayuni unalenga kuunda [[makazi]] salama yaliyokubaliwa [[rasmi]] kwa ajili ya taifa la Kiyahudi katika nchi ya Palestina". Wazayuni walikusanya [[pesa]] kote Ulaya wakanunua ardhi katika Palestina na kuanzisha vijiji kwa ajili ya Wayahudi waliohima huko. [[Picha:Milki ya Osmani 1914.png|300px|thumbnail|Palestina katika Milki ya Osmani mwaka 1914]] ===Tamko la Balfour na chanzo cha mapambano=== [[Vita ya Kwanza ya Dunia]] ilikwamisha mipango yote kwa sababu Palestina ilikuwa sehemu ya [[Milki ya Osmani]] iliyoshiriki katika vita pamoja na [[Ujerumani]] na [[Austria]] dhidi ya Urusi, [[Ufaransa]] na [[Uingereza]]. Mwaka [[1917]] wakati ambapo jeshi la Uingereza lilifaulu kusogea mbele kutoka [[Misri]] na kuingia Palestina, [[waziri wa mambo ya nje]] [[Arthur James Balfour]] alitoa [[tamko la Balfour]] yaani [[tamko]] rasmi kuwa Uingereza inataka kusaidia mipango ya kuanzisha makazi ya Kiyahudi katika Palestina. Wakati uleule Waingereza waliwaahidi Waarabu kuundwa kwa dola la Kiarabu kwenye maeneo yaliyokaliwa nao katika Milki ya Osmani. Lakini wakati huohuo walipatana na Ufaransa kuhusu ugawaji wa maeneo ya Kiarabu ya Milki ya Osmani. Kwenye [[mkutano wa amani wa Paris]] wa mwaka [[1919]], ulioandaa [[Mkataba wa Versailles]], [[mwakilishi]] wa Waarabu, [[Faisal bin Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi]], alipatana na mwakilishi wa [[Wazayuni]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], kuwa anakubali [[uhamisho]] wa Wayahudi kuja Palestina, na Palestina kuwa eneo la pekee tofauti na Dola la Waarabu ambayo Faisal alilenga kujenga [[Uarabuni]] pamoja na [[Syria]] na [[Irak]]. [[Haki]] za wakazi Waarabu zilitakiwa kulindwa na [[maendeleo]] ya pamoja kati ya wakazi Waarabu na Wayahudi kujengwa. Lakini Uingereza na Ufaransa waliendelea kugawa [[Mashariki ya Kati]], hivyo Waarabu wengi hawakusikia ya kwamba mapatano ya Faisal yalikuwa na [[umuhimu]] tena. Baada ya vita Uingereza ilichukua utawala wa Palestina kama [[eneo la kudhaminiwa]] kwa [[niaba]] ya [[Shirikisho la Mataifa]]. Idadi ya Wayahudi waliofika kutoka nchi za Ulaya iliongezeka, lakini bado Wayahudi wengi walihamia Marekani, si Palestina. Hata hivyo shirika za Uzayuni ziliendelea kununua ardhi, kuanzisha vijiji vya [[Ujamaa]] vilivyoitwa [[Kibbutz]] hata [[Tel Aviv]] ilikua kama mji wa Kiyahudi kandokando ya [[Yafo]] ya Kiarabu. Mnamo 1931 asilimia 17 ya wakazi wa Palestina walikuwa Wayahudi. Katika Palestina [[mufti]] mkuu wa Yerusalemu, [[Mohammed Amin al-Husseini]], alichukua [[uongozi]] wa Waarabu akapinga kufika kwa Wayahudi wapya. Serikali ya Kiingereza ilisitasita kuamua juu ya msimamo wake - haikuzuia kufika kwa Wayahudi, lakini haikuwasaidia kujiimarisha nchini. Ma[[shambulio]] dhidi ya Wayahudi yalianza mwaka [[1921]]. Mwaka [[1929]] Wayahudi 67 waliuawa mjini [[Hebron]]. Kati ya [[1936]] na [[1939]] kulitokea ghasia kubwa ya Waarabu dhidi ya [[polisi]] na jeshi la Kiingereza na dhidi ya makazi ya Wayahudi. Uingereza ulifaulu kukandamiza ghasia hii kwa jeshi lake. Kati ya Wayahudi vikundi vyenye [[silaha]] vilianzishwa vilivyolenga kutetea vijiji vya Kiyahudi na kulipiza [[kisasi]] kwa mashambulio. Vikundi hivyo viliendelea baadaye kuwa [[chanzo]] cha [[jeshi la Israeli]]. Siasa ya chuki dhidi ya Wayahudi iliyoendeshwa na [[Chama cha Nazi]] chini ya [[dikteta]] [[Adolf Hitler]] katika Ujerumani na nchi nyingine za Ulaya iliongeza namba ya Wayahudi waliopaswa kuondoka kwao Ulaya. Miaka baada ya [[1933]] takriban [[wakimbizi]] Wayahudi 250,000 walifika Palestina - hii ilikuwa [[sababu]] moja ya ghasia ya Waarabu miaka [[1936]]-[[1939]]. Hadi mwaka [[1945]] Wayahudi walikuwa asilimia 33 ya wakazi wote wa Palestina. Baada ya [[vita kuu ya pili]] kulikuwa na [[laki]] za Wayahudi waliowekwa huru kutoka [[makambi ya KZ]] na wengi wao walielekea Palestina. Hapo Serikali ya Uingereza, iliyosita kuamua kama ilitaka kutekeleza [[ahadi]] zake kwa Waarabu au kwa Wayahudi, iliomba [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] kuamua juu ya [[hatua]] zijazo kwa ajili ya Palestina, maana ilikuwa eneo la kudhaminiwa na [[asili]] ya mamlaka hii ilikuwa imepita kutoka Shirikisho la Mataifa kwenda [[Umoja wa Mataifa]].<ref>Umoja wa Mataifa uliundwa wakati wa Vita Kuu ya Pili kama maungano ya mataifa yote yaliyopiga vita dhidi ya Ujerumani na [[Japani]]. Shirikisho la Mataifa lilijifuta yenyewe mwaka [[1946]] na kukabidhi [[shughuli]] zake zote kwa UM</ref>. ===Kuundwa kwa Dola la Israeli=== [[Picha:UN Partition Plan For Palestine 1947.svg|300px|thumbnail|Mpango wa Umoja wa Mataifa wa mwaka 1947 ya kugawa Palestina]] Mwaka [[1947]] [[Mkutano Mkuu wa Umoja wa Mataifa]] ulipigia [[kura]] [[mpango]] wa [[ugawaji]] wa Palestina. Mataifa 33 yalipiga kura ya [[ndiyo]], 13 [[hapana]], 10 hayakusimama upande wowote. Hivyo eneo la Palestina lilitakiwa kugawiwa kwa dola la Kiyahudi, dola la Kiarabu na mji wa Yerusalemu. Mamlaka ya Uingereza yalitakiwa kwisha tarehe [[14 Mei]] [[1948]]. Waarabu walipinga ugawaji kwa kudokeza ya kwamba mpango wa ugawaji haukuwa [[adili]] kwa sababu zifuatazo. Mwaka 1947 Palestina ilikuwa na wakazi 1,845,000. Watu 1,237,000 au [[theluthi]] mbili walikuwa Waarabu, wakati watu 608,000 tu au theluthi moja walikuwa Wayahudi. Kumbe Dola la Kiyahudi lilitakiwa kupokea [[asilimia]] 56 cha ardhi, pamoja na maeneo yaliyofaa zaidi kwa [[kilimo]] ingawa [[mali]] ya Kiyahudi wakati ule ilikuwa asilimia 7 tu ya ardhi yote ya Palestina. Katika eneo la Dola la Kiyahudi takriban 40% ya wakazi wangekuwa Waarabu. Sehemu kubwa ya ardhi katika sehemu ya Dola la Kiarabu ilikuwa mlimani na haikufaa vema kwa ajili ya kilimo. Wawakilishi wa Kiyahudi walisema idadi ya Wayahudi itaongezeka [[haraka]] kutokana na uhamiaji wa Wayahudi wengine - wakati ule walikuwa bado laki za Wayahudi katika makambi katika nchi za Ulaya, ni hao ambao hawakuuawa na Wajerumani katika [[Holocaust]]. Mara baada ya azimio la UM, mapigano yalianza katika Palestina na kuwa [[vita ya wenyewe kwa wenyewe]] nchini. Vikundi vya [[wanamgambo]] wa Kiarabu vilishambulia makazi ya Kiyahudi kote nchini. Wayahudi pia walikuwa na vikundi vya wanamgambo. Tarehe [[14 Mei]] mkutano wa wawakilishi Wayahudi ulitangaza Dola la Israeli kama nchi mpya. Waingereza waliondoa jeshi lao. Tarehe [[15 Mei]] 1948 majeshi ya Misri, [[Yordani]], [[Lebanoni]], Syria na Irak yaliingia Palestina yakatwaa maeneo ya Kiarabu na kushambulia makazi ya Kiyahudi. Katika vita ya miezi 10 jeshi la Israeli lilifaulu kusimamisha wapinzani na kuwarudisha nyuma. Jeshi la Kiarabu pekee lenye [[uwezo]] lilikuwa Kikosi Arabu cha Yordani. Wakati wa kusimamisha mapigano Israeli ilikuwa imeongezeka maeneo yake ikatawala asilimia 78 za eneo la kukabidhiwa la awali yaani maeneo yote yaliyowahi kukusudiwa na Umoja wa Mataifa kwa ajili ya Dola la Kiyahudi pamoja na nusu ya maeneo yaliyokusudiwa kwa ajili ya Dola la Kiarabu. [[Ukanda wa Gaza]] ulitawaliwa na Misri na [[Ukingo wa Magharibi]] wa [[Yordani (mto)]] pamoja na mji wa kale wa Yerusalemu ukawa chini ya milki ya Yordani. Zaidi ya wakazi Waarabu 700.000 walilazimika kuondoka au walimkimbia kutoka miji na vijiji vyao, wakikaa nje ya maeneo yaliyotawaliwa sasa na Israeli. Waarabu 150,000 hivi walibaki ndani ya maeneo haya sasa kama [[raia]] Waarabu wa Israeli. Baada ya vita Israeli ilikataa kurudi kwa waliokuwa nje. Ndiyo asili ya Wakimbizi Wapalestina wanaoishi Syria, Lebanoni, Yordani na Misri, pamoja na hao wanaoendelea kukaa katika ma[[kambi]] katika maeneo ya Gaza na Ukingo wa Magharibi. Madola yote ya Waarabu isipokuwa milki ya Yordani yalikataa kuwapa wakimbizi hao haki za [[uraia]], na kwa hiyo hadi leo wajukuu wamebaki kama wakimbizi katika nchi za kigeni bila uraia; wakisafiri wanatumia vitambulisho vilivyotolewa na [[UM]], wanakosa haki ya kutafuta kazi au kushiriki katika siasa kama raia wa kawaida, hata kama [[familia]] zimeshaishi katika nchi hizo hadi [[kizazi]] cha tatu au nne. ===Wapalestina baada ya 1948=== [[Jumuiya ya Nchi za Kiarabu]] ilianzisha [[taasisi]] iliyoitwa "Serikali kwa Palestina yote" ([[ing.]] All-Palestine Government, [[ar.]] حكومة عموم فلسطين ''hukumat 'umum Filastin'') wakati wa vita (1948) iliyotambuliwa na nchi za Kiarabu isipokuwa milki ya Yordani. Ilikuwa na [[mamlaka]] fulani katika Ukanda wa Gaza pekee, ikafanya kazi chini ya [[usimamizi]] wa Misri na mwisho wa 1948 ilipelekwa [[Kairo]] ikafutwa na serikali ya Misri mwaka [[1959]]. Taasisi mpya ikaundwa mwaka [[1964]] kwa [[azimio]] la Jumuiya ya Nchi za Kiarabu ikaitwa PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization, [[ar.]]: منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية‎ [[munaẓẓamat at-taḥrīr al-filasṭīniyyah) ambayo ni maungano ya vikundi mbalimbali ya Kipalestina. [[Shabaha]] yake ilikuwa "ukombozi wa Palestina". Serikali ya Misri ilikuwa na [[athira]] kubwa katika PLO. Harakati ya [[Fatah]] mwanzoni haikushiriki. PLO iliendesha vikundi vya wanamgambo ya [[Fedayin]] Wapalestina walioshambulia mipaka ya Israel mara kwa mara. Yordani na Israeli (kwa Wapalestina walioweza kubaki kwao) zilikuwa nchi pekee zilizowapa Wapalestina uraia, lakini katika nchi nyingine walibaki kama wakimbizi bila uraia. Makambi yao yaliangaliwa na shirika la Umoja wa Mataifa linaloitwa [[UNRWA]]. ===Israel na majirani hadi 1973=== [[Picha:Baada ya Vita ya Siku Sita 1967.png|thumbnail|300px|Maeneo yaliyotwaliwa na Israeli baada ya vita ya siku 6 mwaka 1967 hadi mapatano ya Misri 1973]] Baada ya vita ya 1948-1949 nchi jirani zilikataa kutambua dola la Israeli. Hali ya vita ikaendelea ingawa bila mapigano kati ya majeshi makubwa. Wanamgambo wa Wafedayin Wapalestina waliendelea kuvuka [[mpaka]] kutoka makambi ya wakimbizi na kushambulia vijiji vya Kiyahudi. Wanamgambo hao walipata mara nyingi silaha na mafunzo kutoka kwa majeshi ya Misri na Syria. Vita ya 1948-1949 ilisababisha ghasia na mashambulio dhidi ya Wayahudi walioishi katika nchi za Kiarabu. Nchi kadhaa za Kiarabu ziliweka sheria za ubaguzi dhidi ya Wayahudi. Hivyo katika miaka baada ya kuundwa kwa Israeli karibu Wayahudi wote waliondoka au walifukuzwa katika nchi za Kiarabu na kufika kama wakimbizi katika Israel, Marekani au Ulaya. Jumla ya wakimbizi hao Wayahudi karibu ililingana na idadi ya Waarabu waliofukuzwa kutoka Palestina. Hivyo idadi ya wananchi Wayahudi wa Israeli iliongezeka sana. [[Uhusiano]] mbaya kati ya Israeli na majirani Waarabu ulisababisha vita zaidi. Mwaka [[1956]] Israeli ilishambulia Misri katika [[vita ya Suez]] kufuatana na mpango wa pamoja na Ufaransa na Uingereza baada ya kuona [[ununuzi]] wa silaha nyingi na Misri. Mwaka [[1967]] jeshi la Misri lilikusanya vikosi vingi vya jeshi lake katika [[rasi ya Sinai]] ikafukuza [[walinzi wa amani wa UM]] na kufunga [[mlango wa Tiran]] hivyo kuzuia [[usafiri]] wa [[meli]] baina ya Israeli na [[Bahari Hindi]]. Israeli ikajibu kwa kushambulia Misri tarehe [[5 Juni]] 1967 katika [[Sinai]] ikaharibu jeshi la Misri katika [[vita ya siku 6|muda wa siku 6]]. Wakati huohuo milki za Yordani na Syria ziliamua kushikamana na Misri zikashambulia eneo la Israeli. Tokeo lake lilikuwa ya kwamba jeshi la Israeli likatwaa [[Ukingo wa Magharibi wa Yordani]] na pia [[milima ya Golan]] hadi maadui walisalimisha amri tarehe [[10 Juni]]. Pia eneo lote la Sinai likatwaliwa na Israel na [[Mfereji wa Suez]] ulifungwa. [[Vita ya Yom Kippur]] iliyofuata ilikuwa mashambulio ya Misri na Syria dhidi ya Israeli katika mwezi wa Oktoba [[1973]]. Mashambulio yalianza kwenye [[sikukuu]] ya Kiyahudi ya [[Yom Kippur]]. Jeshi la Misri lilifaulu kuingia kwenye rasi ya Sinai na Syria kwenye milima ya Golan. Lakini Syria ilirudishwa nyuma haraka na Waisraeli walifikia [[kilomita]] 40 tu kutoka [[Dameski]]. Jeshi la Misri lilifeli zaidi hadi Israeli iliweza kuvuka mfereji wa Suez na kufunga [[kikosi]] kikubwa cha Wamisri nyuma ya mstari wa mapigano na kuingia katika mji wa Suez na hata kukaribia [[Kairo]]. Mnamo [[23 Oktoba]] pande zote zilikubali kusimamisha mapigano kwa ombi la UM. Baada ya majadiliano marefu, kila upande ulirudisha wanajeshi wake kilomita kadhaa kwa kusudi la kuwa na [[umbali]] kati ya majeshi. Misri na Israeli zikaendelea kuwa na majadiliano na kupatana kufanya [[amani]] mwaka 1978. Israeli iliondoka katika Sinai na nchi zote mbili zikafungua [[ubalozi]] katika nchi ya pili. Ukanda wa Gaza ulibaki chini ya Israeli. ===Uamsho wa Wapalestina na PLO=== Vita ya siku 6 ya 1967 ilileta [[uamsho]] kati ya Wapalestina katika makambi ya wakimbizi. Kundi la Fatah lililoundwa mwaka 1959 nchini [[Kuwait]] liliongeza sifa zake kutokana na kupigana na jeshi la Israeli mwaka [[1968]] katika kambi la Karame (Yordani). Fatah lilijiunga na PLO na [[mwenyekiti]] wake [[Yasser Arafat]] akawa mwenyekiti wa PLO. Alileta [[mwelekeo]] mpya kuwa Wapalestina wanapaswa kujikomboa badala ya kutegema nchi za Waarabu wengine. Vikundi vya PLO viliendelea na mashambulio pamoja na kutumia [[mbinu za kigaidi]] dhidi ya wananchi raia wa Israeli. Tangu 1968 vikundi vya PLO viliteka [[nyara]] [[ndege]] au watu raia kwa shabaha ya kuwabadilisha na wafungwa Wapalestina katika Israeli. Hadi mwaka [[1970]] PLO ilikua kuwa na mamlaka kubwa nchini Yordani hadi jeshi la nchi hiyo iliwafukuza vikosi vya PLO kutoka milki ya Yordani. Hapo Arafat na sehemu ya askari wake walihamia Lebanoni. Wakati wa [[vita ya wenyewe kwa wenyewe ya Lebanoni]] PLO ilichukua upande na kushiriki lakini sehemu nyingine za vikundi vya Kipalestina vilishikamana na serikali za nchi za Waarabu zilizoshiriki pia katika vita hiyo ndani ya Lebanoni. Baada ya mashambulio ya Israeli PLO ilifukuzwa kutoka Lebanoni na kuhamia [[Tunisia]] mwaka [[1982]]. ===Intifada ya kwanza=== Katika miaka iliyofuata Wapalestina katika Ukanda wa Gaza na Ukingo wa Magharibi wa Yordani walisikia maisha kuwa vigumu zaidi. Wengi wao walikuwa [[vijana]] waliozaliwa chini ya utawala wa Israeli. Vijana wengi walikosa [[kazi]]. Hawakuwa na matumaini katika jitihada za PLO iliyokuwa mbali nao. Basi, baada ya [[ajali]] ya barabarani ambako Wapalestina wanne waliuawa na [[gari la kijeshi]] la Israeli, mnamo Disemba [[1987]] ililipuka ghasia ya [[ghafla]] iliyoitwa [[intifada]]. Wapalestina waliandamana barabarani, [[watoto]] na vijana walitupa mawe dhidi ya askari wa Israeli. Kundi jipya la [[Hamas]] lilichokoza mwendo huu na kuongoza upinzani. Katika miezi iliyofuata Wapalestina 1,551 na Waisraeli 422 waliuawa. ===Kutangazwa kwa "Dola la Palestina" na majadiliano kati ya PLO na Israeli=== Mwaka moja baada ya intifada ya kwanza PLO katika mji wa Tunis ilitoa tamko la kutangaza "Dola la Palestina". Katika tamko hili PLO ilitambua kwa mara ya kwanza kuwepo kwa Israeli. Tamko hili lilikuwa msingi kwa nchi kama Marekani kutambua pia PLO kama mwakilishi wa Wapalestina na baadaye kwa majadiliano ya kwanza kati ya PLO na Israeli. Wakati wa [[Vita ya Ghuba ya 1990/91]] Arafat aliamua kuwa upande wa [[Saddam Hussein]] aliyeshambulia [[Kuwait]]. Hii ilisababisha kufukuzwa kwa Wapalestina wengi kutoka Kuwait baada ya vita na kushindwa kwa [[Iraq]]. Nchi za Kiarabu kama Misri na [[Saudia]] zilizowahi kusaidia PLO lakini zilichukua msimamo dhidi ya Saddam Hussein zilikata misaada yao kwa PLO. Kudhoofishwa kwa PLO kwa njia hii ilisaidia pia kuanzisha majadiliano ya moja kwa moja. Katika mkutano wa amani wa [[Madrid]], [[Hispania]], Wapalestina walishiriki kwa mara ya kwanza katika majadiliano na Israeli. ===Mapatano ya Oslo na kuanzishwa kwa mamlaka ya kitaifa ya Palestina=== Tangu Januari [[1993]] wawakilishi wa PLO na Israeli walikutana kwa [[siri]] mjini [[Oslo]], [[Norwei]]. Arafat alitamka kutambua Israeli na kuachana na mbinu za kigaidi katika barua kwa kiongozi wa Israeli [[Yitzhak Rabin]]. Rabin na Arafat walikutana [[Washington, D.C.]] na kutia [[sahihi]] mapatano ya kwanza yaliyokuwa mwanzo wa mfuatano wa majadiliano marefu yaliyolenga kuleta amani kati ya Wapalestina na Israeli katika muda wa miaka 5. Kwa jumla mapatano hayakuweza kufikia mwisho. Lakini katika hatua za kwanza [[Mamlaka ya Kitaifa ya Palestina]] yaliundwa kama [[mbegu]] ya serikali kamili. Jeshi la Israeli ilijiondoa katika Gaza na sehemu za Ukingo wa Magharibi wa Yordani zilizowekwa chini ya mamlaka mpya. Mwaka [[1995]] uongozi wa PLO ulihamia Palestina na kuanzisha [[ofisi]] kuu ya Mamlaka ya Palestina huko [[Ramallah]]. Kukwama kulisababishwa na shaka kama ifuatavyo: *katika jamii ya Israeli kama Arafat na upande wa Kipalestina walitaka kweli kujenga amani na kusimamisha [[ugaidi]] wakati mashambulio dhidi ya askari na wananchi raia wa Israeli yalipoendelea kutokea. Kilele cha upinzani ndani ya Israeli kilikuwa [[uuaji]] wa [[waziri mkuu]] Rabin mwaka 1995 uliofanywa na mpinzani Mwisraeli. *Katika jamii ya Wapalestina kama Israeli ilitaka kweli amani kwa sababu kujengwa kwa makazi kwa [[walowezi]] Waisraeli nje ya mipaka ya Israeli ya 1967 kuliendelea. *Sehemu ya vikundi vya kisiasa upande wa Palestina, hasa Hamas, ilikataa kukubali mapatano yaliyofikiwa. *Swali la pekee lilihusu hali ya Yerusalemu ya [[Mashariki]] ambayo Wapalestina wanaidai kama mji mkuu wao ambayo iko nje ya mipaka ya Israeli ya 1967. Lakini Israeli iliwahi kutangaza kuunganishwa kwa mji huu wote na kuitawala sehemu ya magharibi na ya mashariki kama mji mmoja wa Israeli usioweza kutengwa tena. *Tatizo ni pia suala la "haki ya kurudi" kwa ajili ya watoto na wajukuu wa wakimbizi Wapalestina wa mwaka 1948 wanaotaka kurudi kwenye makazi ya mababu yaliyo sasa ndani ya eneo la Israeli. Katika uchaguzi wa mwaka [[1996]] chama cha [[Benyamin Netanyahu]] kilishinda kura ya bunge la Israeli. Netanyahu hakukubali majadiliano; alidai kuwa yaliimarisha tu wapinzani wakali wa Israeli upande wa Wapalestina na kusabisha mashambulio na ugaidi zaidi. Mwaka [[2005]] jeshi la Israeli lilitoka kabisa katika Ukanda wa Gaza na kubomoa vijiji vya walowezi Wayahudi kule. Mafarakano kati ya Wapalestina yaliendelea kuongezeka kati ya Fatah na Hamas. Mwaka [[2007]] Chama cha Hamas kilichukua mamlaka juu ya Gaza kikaendelea kushambulia Israeli kwa ma[[kombora]]. Israeli ilijibu kwa kufunga mipaka ya Gaza na kungilia ndani ya Ukanda wa Gaza kijeshi mara kadhaa. Kutokana na mashambulio dhidi ya wananchi wa Israeli yaliyoendelea Waisraeli walianza kujenga [[fensi]] na [[ukuta]] wa kutenganisha Ufuko wa Magharibi na Israeli yenyewe. Ukuta huu wenye [[urefu]] hadi [[mita]] nane umesaidia kupunguza sana mashambulio dhidi ya raia, lakini umejengwa zaidi kwenye ardhi ya Kipalestina na kuongeza matatizo kwa wananchi. Israeli inaendelea kujenga makazi na vijiji kwa walowezi wa Kiyahudi ndani ya eneo la Kipalestina. Jeshi lake linashika vituo vingi katika ufuko wa magharibi na kutawala mwendo wa watu huko na kuzuia usafiri mara kwa mara kwa kulinda usalama wake. Farakano kati ya Hamas upande wa Gaza na Mamlaka ya Kipalestina mkononi mwa PLO-Fatah upande wa Ramallah haijapata suluhisho. ==Tazama pia== * [[Mgongano kati ya Israeli na nchi za Waarabu]] ==Tanbihi== <references/> ==Marejeo== *[[Associated Press]], comp. (1996). ''Lightning Out of Israel: [The Six-Day War in the Middle East]: The Arab-Israeli Conflict''. Commemorative Ed. Western Printing and Lithographing Company for the Associated Press. ASIN B000BGT89M. *[[Mitchell Bard|Bard, Mitchell]] (1999). ''Middle East Conflict''. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. ISBN 0-02-863261-3. *[[Gad Barzilai|Barzilai, Gad]] (1996). ''Wars, Internal Conflicts and Political Order: A Jewish Democracy in the Middle East''. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2944-X * Brown, Wesley H. & Peter F. Penner (ed.): ''Christian Perspectives on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict''. Neufeld Verlag, Schwarzenfeld 2008. ISBN 978-3-937896-57-1. *[[Jimmy Carter|Carter, Jimmy]] (2006). ''[[Palestine: Peace Not Apartheid]]''. New York: [[Simon and Schuster]]. ISBN 0-7432-8502-6. * Casper, Lionel L. (2003). ''Rape of Palestine and the Struggle for Jerusalem''. New York & Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-297-4. *[[Sabina Citron|Citron, Sabina]] (2006). ''The Indictment: The Arab-Israeli Conflict in Historical Perspective''. New York & Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-373-3. *{{cite book |last=Cramer |first=Richard Ben |year=2004 |title=How Israel Lost: The Four Questions |url=https://archive.org/details/howisraellostfou00cram |publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]] |location=New York |isbn=0-7432-5028-1}} *[[Alan Dershowitz|Dershowitz, Alan]] (2004). ''The Case for Israel''. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-67952-6. * [[Avner Falk|Falk, Avner]] (2004). ''Fratricide in the Holy Land: A Psychoanalytic View of the Arab-Israeli Conflict.'' Madison: U of Wisconsin P. ISBN 0-299-20250-X *{{cite book |last=[[Gelvin]] |first=James L. |year=2005 |title=The Israel-Palestine Conflict: 100 Years of War |url=https://archive.org/details/israelpalestinec0000gelv_d7v0 |publisher=Cambridge UP |location=New York & Cambridge, Eng. |isbn=0-521-61804-5}} *{{cite book |last=Gold |first=Dore | authorlink = Dore Gold |year=2004 |title=Tower of Babble: How the United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_h8s1 |publisher=Crown Forum |location=New York |isbn=1-4000-5475-3}} *[[Norman Finkelstein|Finkelstein, Norman G.]] (2003). ''Image and Reality of the Israel-Palestine Conflict''. Verso Books. ISBN 1-85984-442-1. *Goldenberg, Doron (2003). ''State of Siege''. Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-310-5. *[[Marc Gopin|Gopin, Marc]]. (2002). ''Holy War, Holy Peace: How Religion Can Bring Peace to the Middle East''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514650-6. *{{cite journal|last=Hamidullah|first=Muhammad |author-link=Muhammad Hamidullah |date=January 1986|title=Relations of Muslims with non-Muslims|journal=Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs|volume=7|issue=1|page=9|doi=10.1080/13602008608715960}} * Howell, Mark (2007). ''What Did We Do to Deserve This? Palestinian Life under Occupation in the West Bank'', Garnet Publishing. ISBN 1-85964-195-4 *[[Raphael Israeli|Israeli, Raphael]] (2002). ''Dangers of a Palestinian State''. New York & Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-303-2. *[[Shmuel Katz (politician)|Katz, Shmuel]] (1973). ''Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine''. Shapolsky Pub. ISBN 0-933503-03-2. *{{cite book |last=Khouri |first=Fred J. |year=1985 |title=The Arab-Israeli Dilemma |url=https://archive.org/details/arabisraelidilem0000khou | edition = 3rd |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse, NY |isbn=0-8156-2339-9}} *{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard | authorlink = Bernard Lewis |year=1984 |title=The Jews of Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/jewsofislam0000lewi |publisher=Princeton UP |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=0-691-05419-3}} *{{cite book |last=Lesch |first= David |year=2007 |title=The Arab-Israeli Conflict A History |url=https://archive.org/details/arabisraeliconfl0000lesc |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=0-19-517230-2}} *–––. (September 1990). "The Roots of Muslim Rage." ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]''. *[[Zeev Maoz|Maoz, Zeev]] (2006). ''Defending the Holy Land''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. ISBN 0-472-11540-5 *{{cite book |last=Morris |first=Benny | authorlink = Benny Morris |year=1999 |title=Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001 |publisher=Knopf |location=New York |isbn=0-679-42120-3}} *Morris, Benny (2009). ''1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War'', Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15112-1 *[[Yitzhak Reiter|Reiter, Yitzhak]] (2009). ''National Minority, Regional Majority: Palestinian Arabs Versus Jews in Israel (Syracuse Studies on Peace and Conflict Resolution)'', Syracuse Univ Press (Sd). ISBN 978-0-8156-3230-6 *Rogan, Eugene L., ed., and [[Avi Shlaim]], ed. (2001). ''The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948''. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. ISBN 978-0-521-79476-3. *[[Tom Segev|Segev, Tom]] (1999). ''One Palestine Complete: Jews and Arabs Under British Mandate''. New York: Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 0-8050-6587-3. ==Viungo vya nje== ===Vyanzo rasmi=== * [http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs] **[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+since+2000/Victims+of+Palestinian+Violence+and+Terrorism+sinc.htm Victims of Palestinian Violence and Terrorism since September 2000] * [http://www.arableagueonline.org/ League of Arab States] {{Wayback|url=http://www.arableagueonline.org/ |date=20161013055010 }} * [http://www.mofa.gov.ps/ Palestinian Authority Ministry of Foreign Affairs] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mofa.gov.ps/ |date=20100805011339 }} * [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/qpal/ United Nations on the Question of Palestine] * [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/arabisrael.htm Arab-Israeli Conflict] {{Wayback|url=http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/arabisrael.htm |date=20091129133441 }} from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' ===Vyanzo vya kieneo=== ;Israeli * [http://www.ynetnews.com/ Israel News – Yedioth Aharonoth] Israel's largest newspaper, centrist [http://www.ynet.co.il/ (Hebrew)] * [http://www.jpost.com/ Jerusalem Post], Israel's oldest English newspaper, conservative * [http://www.haaretz.com/ Ha'aretz] Israeli newspaper, liberal * [http://www.jnewswire.com/ Jerusalem Newswire] Christian-run Jerusalem-based news website, conservative ;Arab * [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/ Lebanon Daily Star] {{Wayback|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/ |date=20200920005543 }}, largest English-circulation newspaper in the Arab world * [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/ Al Ahram] {{Wayback|url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/ |date=20140502000102 }}, Egypt's largest newspaper (see also [[Al Ahram]]) * [http://www.palestinechronicle.com/ Palestine Chronicle], weekly electronic paper ===Uchunguzi wa kitaalamu=== *[http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552621 Dean Peter Krogh Examines Prospects for Peace] from the [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] * [http://www.ngo-monitor.org/ NGO Monitor], NGO watchdog group, highlighting perceived instances of anti-Israeli NGO bias * [http://www.jcpa.org/ Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs] * [http://www.passia.org/index_pfacts.htm Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs (PASSIA)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.passia.org/index_pfacts.htm |date=20041211100305 }}, Palestinian research organization * [http://www.ipcri.org/ Israel/Palestine Center for Research and Information] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ipcri.org/ |date=20140125104211 }} Joint Israeli-Palestinian think tank * [http://www.merip.org/ Middle East Research and Information Project] (see also [[Middle East Research and Information Project]]) * [http://www.brookings.edu/saban.aspx Saban Center for Middle East Policy] (see also [[Saban Center for Middle East Policy]]) *[http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/ Washington Institute for Near East Policy] (see also [[Washington Institute for Near East Policy]]) *[http://www.memri.org/conflict.html Original analysis of current developments in the peace-process] {{Wayback|url=http://www.memri.org/conflict.html |date=20060301003045 }}, from [[Middle East Media Research Institute]] *[http://www.acpr.org.il/ The Ariel Center for Policy Research] {{Wayback|url=http://www.acpr.org.il/ |date=20060422071051 }} *[http://www.acpr.org.il/ENGLISH-NATIV/05-issue/shapiro-5.htm A Regional Perspective on the Arab-Israeli Conflict by Jay Shapiro] {{Wayback|url=http://www.acpr.org.il/ENGLISH-NATIV/05-issue/shapiro-5.htm |date=20110807062521 }} ===Mapendekezo ya amani=== * [http://www.mideastweb.org/peaceplans.htm An historical summary of Middle East Peace Plans and Proposals] ===Ramani=== *[http://www.mideastweb.org/maps.htm MideastWeb Middle East Map Collection] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mideastweb.org/maps.htm |date=20100606011729 }} *[http://factsofisrael.com/blog/index.php FactsOfIsrael.com] {{Wayback|url=http://factsofisrael.com/blog/index.php |date=20170207031600 }} Maps, history, statistics, victims *[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east.html University of Texas Map Collection] ===Vyanzo vya jumla=== *[http://www.cfr.org/publication/13850/ Crisis Guide: The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict from the Council on Foreign Relations] {{Wayback|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/13850/ |date=20100605162725 }} *[http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm The State of Israel] {{Wayback|url=http://jewishhistory.huji.ac.il/Internetresources/modern/israelindex.htm |date=20140801065943 }} The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem *[http://www.FocusOnMideast.com/ Daily digest of commentary about the Arab-Israeli conflict from around the world] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/middle_east/2001/israel_and_the_palestinians/default.stm Israel and the Palestinians] {{Wayback|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/middle_east/2001/israel_and_the_palestinians/default.stm |date=20090226184942 }} *[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588322/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.html Encarta Encyclopedia on the Arab-Israeli Conflict]( {{Wayback|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588322/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.html |date=20091028022144 }} 2009-10-31) * [http://historyteacher.net/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.htm Guide to the Arab-Israeli Conflict] {{Wayback|url=http://historyteacher.net/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.htm |date=20100611211654 }}, includes links to historical sources, as well as sources representing the Arab and Israeli sides of the conflict. * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,720353,00.html The Guardian (UK) A Brief History of Arab-Israeli Conflict] (flash) *{{dmoz|Society/Issues/Warfare_and_Conflict/Specific_Conflicts/Middle_East/Israel-Palestine|Israel-Palestine Conflict}} * [http://www.israel-palaestina.de/ Information (articles, reports, maps, books, links, ...) on the israeli palestinian conflict (middle east conflict)] * [http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/israel_palestina/index.asp Holy Land, Unholy War] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/israel_palestina/index.asp |date=20070109191230 }} Independent coverage of the Middle East conflicts by the news agency [[Inter Press Service]] * [http://web.uconn.edu/polisci/people/faculty/doc/history_pressman.pdf "A Brief History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict"] by Jeremy Pressman [[jamii:Historia ya Israeli]] [[jamii:Historia ya Palestina]] i7krpimvhxz2kjqw7cjsyk372yyk6wl 0 71686 1580078 1574278 2026-07-17T23:51:49Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580078 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Joseph Haydn.jpg|thumb|300px|Joseph Haydn mwaka 1791]] '''Joseph Haydn''' (jina kamili '''Franz Joseph Haydn''') alikuwa [[mtungaji]] wa [[muziki]] kutoka nchi ya [[Austria]]. Alizaliwa tarehe [[31 Machi]] au [[1 Aprili]] [[1732]] katika [[kijiji]] kikubwa cha [[Rohrau]], jimbo la [[Austria Chini]]. Aliaga [[dunia]] tarehe [[31 Mei]] [[1809]] mjini [[Vienna]]. Amekuwa maarufu kwa jina la heshima la "baba wa [[simfoni]]". [[Wajerumani]] na Waaustria hasa wanamkumbuka kama mtungaji wa muziki wa [[wimbo]] uliokuwa [[wimbo wa taifa]] katika [[Milki ya Austria]] na baadaye kuwa wimbo wa taifa nchini [[Ujerumani]] hadi leo ([[wimbo wa Wajerumani]]). == Maisha == === Mvulana wa kwaya na mwanamuziki wa kujitegemea === [[Picha:Eduard Gurk Sankt Stephan.jpg|thumb|Kanisa kuu la Mt. Stefano huko [[Vienna]].]] Alipokuwa [[mtoto]] wa miaka 8 alialikwa kwenda Vienna na kuwa [[mwimbaji]] wa [[kwaya]] ya [[wavulana]] kwenye [[kanisa kuu]] la [[mji]] huo. Katika miaka yake kama [[mwanakwaya]] alipokea mafundisho ya [[uimbaji]], [[piano]] na [[fidla]]. Aliongozwa pia katika majaribio ya kwanza ya kutunga muziki. Baada ya ku[[balehe]] na kubadilika kwa [[sauti]] yake aliondoka katika kwaya hiyo mnamo [[1749]] na kuanza kujitegemea kama [[mwanamuziki]]. Hakuwa na [[ajira]] ya kudumu bali alipata [[kazi]] kama mwimbaji au mwanamuziki kwa nafasi mbalimbali. [[Makazi]] na [[chakula]] alijipatia kama [[mwalimu]] wa muziki katika [[nyumba]] ya [[tajiri]] mmoja alipofundisha kila siku kwa masaa machache. Wakati huo alifaidika sana na maelekezo ya [[Nicola Porpora]], mwanamuziki [[mzee]] kutoka [[Napoli]], [[Italia]]. === Mkurugenzi wa muziki kwenye ikulu ya Esterhazy === Kuanzia mwaka [[1761]] Haydn alipata ajira kwenye [[ikulu]] ya [[familia]] Esterhazy waliokuwa kati ya ma[[kabaila]] matajiri zaidi nchini [[Hungaria]] iliyokuwa sehemu ya milki ya Austria. Alianza kama [[makamu]] wa [[mkurugenzi]] wa muziki na tangu [[1766]] kama mkurugenzi wa muziki wa akina Esterhazy. Hapo alihamia pamoja na familia ya [[mwajiri]] wake baina ya ikulu tatu walipoishi kulingana na [[majira]] ya mwaka. Aliwajibika kuongoza [[okestra]], kuandaa [[tafrija]], kutunga muziki kwa nafasi maalum, kupiga muziki wakati wa chakula au [[jioni]] kwa [[burudani]] ya bwana wake. Kutokana na maisha ya kuhamahama baina ya ikulu za familia hiyo aliishi muda mrefu ma[[shamba]]ni. Aliandika mwenyewe kuhusu maisha haya yaliyokuwa mbali na wanamuziki wengine: "Nilitengwa na dunia, bila mtu aliyeweza kunishawishi au kunivuruga na kwa hiyo nilipaswa kuwa mimi mwenyewe". === Mtungamuziki === Katika kipindi cha karibu miaka 30 alipokuwa mkurugenzi wa muziki kwa Esterhazy, Haydn alitunga miziki mingi iliyochapishwa na kusambazwa. Kazi zake zilianza kuwa maarufu ilhali wengine walipiga muziki aliotunga yeye mahali pengine. Aliombwa pia kutoka [[ng'ambo]] kutunga muziki kama vile [[Simfonia za Paris]] ([[1785]]–[[1786]]) na muziki kwa [[ibada]] ya [[Ijumaa Kuu]] "[[Maneno saba]] ya mwisho ya [[mwokozi]] wetu [[msalaba]]ni" (1786) iliyoagizwa kutoka [[Hispania]]. === Urafiki na Mozart === Tangu 1781 Haydn na Mozart walikuwa ma[[rafiki]]. Mozart aliyekuwa [[kijana]] wake aliwahi kupenda muziki ya Haydn tangu miaka kadhaa. Hao watungaji wawili walipenda kupiga fidla pamoja na kushauriana juu ya kazi yao. === Ziara za Uingereza === Tangu [[1790]] [[mtemi]] Esterhazy aliaga dunia na [[mrithi]] wake hakujali muziki, hivyo aliachisha wanamuziki wote. Haydn alitumia [[uhuru]] wake mpya akifuata [[mwaliko]] wa mtoaji wa muziki Mjerumani [[Johann Peter Salomon]] kwenda [[Uingereza]] na kuendesha simfonia zake kwa okestra kubwa. Maonyesho yake yalileta mafanikio makubwa: watu wengi walitaka kumsikia akawa tajiri. Mara mbili Haydn alisafiri hadi Uingereza ([[1791]]–[[1792]] na [[1794]]–[[1795]]) akafanikiwa kila mara. Alitumia miezi yake huko kwa kutunga idadi ya kazi zake zilizokuwa mashuhuri hasa baadaye kama vile "Simfonia na pigo la ngoma", "simfonia ya [[jeshi]]" na "simfonia za London". Kwa muda alitafakari kubaki Uingereza na kuomba [[uraia]] wa kule lakini hatimaye alirudi Vienna. === Uzee === Aliporudi Vienna 1795 kulikuwa tena na mabadiliko katika nyumba ya Esterhazy, na mtemi mpya alimwomba arudi kama mkurugenzi wa muziki kwenye ikulu zake. Haydn alikubali lakini kwa miezi kadhaa ya kila [[mwaka]] pekee. Hapo kwenye ikulu ya Eisenstadt aliandika muziki kwa [[misa]] 6 lakini sehemu kubwa ya mwaka alikaa katika nyumba yake huko Vienna alipoendelea kutunga muziki. Pamoja na [[mshairi]] [[Gottfried van Swieten]] aliyeandika maneno kwa [[uimbaji]] alitunga [[oratori]] kubwa mbili (yaani muziki inayosimulia habari za kidini na nyingine kwa kutumia mitindo inayofanana na [[opera]]), ambazo ni "Uumbaji" ([[1798]]) na "Majira ya mwaka" ([[1801]]). Akatunga pia muziki zaidi ya [[kwateti]] (kwa wapigaji wanne). Hapo alianza kusikia [[umri]] umekwenda, akapaswa kupambana na magonjwa akajitahidi sana kukamilisha kazi zake. Tangu [[1802]] alishindwa kutunga muziki tena. Mwaka [[1808]] alitoka tena katika nyumba kwa maonyesho ya oratori "Uumbaji" yaliyoendeshwa na [[Beethoven]] na [[Salieri]] kwa heshima yake. Alishindwa kukaa hadi mwisho kwa sababu alikosa [[nguvu]]. Aliaga dunia mwisho wa Mei 1809 wakati jeshi la [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] liliposhambulia Vienna. Kati ya maneno yake ya mwisho ni jaribio la kutuliza wafyanyakazi wa nyumbani waliokuwa na [[hofu]] wakisikia [[ngurumo]] wa mizinga ya jeshi la [[Wafaransa]]. Haydn alizikwa ma[[kaburi]]ni na ibada ya kumbukumbu yake ilifanywa baada ya [[uvamizi]] kwisha, tarehe [[15 Juni]] 1809. == Matukio baada ya kifo == Mwaka [[1820]] familia ya Esterhazy ilimkumbuka mtumishi wake wa zamani wakamwandalia kaburi katika kanisa la [[Eisenstadt]] alipowahi kufanya kazi miaka mingi. Wakati wa kuhamisha [[maiti]] yake, [[jeneza]] lilifunguliwa, kumbe [[kichwa]] chake hakikuwepo. Iligunduliwa kwamba wakati wa kumzika mara ya kwanza [[gavana]] wa [[gereza]] la Vienna, Johann Peter, pamoja na [[katibu]] wa zamani wa nyumba ya Esterhazy, Rosenbaum waliwahonga ma[[afisa]] wa [[manispaa]] ya Vienna ili wafungue kaburi kwa [[siri]] siku nane baada ya [[mazishi]] na kumpatia kichwa. Maana hawa watu wawili walikuwa wafuasi wa [[imani]] kuwa [[umbo]] la [[fuvu]] linaonyesha [[tabia]] za [[mtu]], hivi walikusanya mafuvu wakataka kuwa na fuvu la huyu mtu mashuhuri pia. Wakati wa mazishi ya pili fuvu halikupatikana tena, hivyo Haydn alizikwa mara ya pili bila kichwa. Peter na Rosenbaum waliamua kuficha fuvu wakafaulu hata wakati [[polisi]] ilipopekua nyumba zao. Baadaye walimkabidhi mtemi Esterhazy fuvu tofauti lisilokuwa la kweli. Kabla ya kufa Rosenbaum aliacha fuvu kwa Peter katika [[wasia]] wake, kwa ombi la kukipatia fuvu hilo chuo cha muziki Vienna. Lakini Peter na [[mjane]] wa Rosenbaum waliogopa kuonyesha kuwa fuvu lilikuwa bado [[mikono]]ni mwao. Hivyo fuvu la Haydn lilifichwa hadi Peter kabla ya [[kifo]] chake alilikabidhi kwa shirika la marafiki wa muziki wa Vienna lilipotunzwa kuanzia mwaka [[1895]]. Katika [[miaka ya 1930]] mtemi wa Esterhazy alipamba upya kaburi la Haydn katika kanisa la Eisenstadt akatafuta [[kibali]] cha shirika la marafiki wa muziki wa Vienna ili fuvu la Haydn lipelekwe huko. Baada ya [[majadiliano]] marefu walikubali, lakini sasa [[siasa]] na [[vita]] viliingia kati, yaani [[uvamizi]] wa Austria na [[Adolf Hitler]] mwaka [[1938]] na [[Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia]]. Mwishoni fuvu lilipelekwa Eisenstadt mwaka [[1954]] na kuunganishwa na ma[[baki]] mengine ya [[mwili]] wa Haydin katika ibada ya kumkumbuka. Isipokuwa katika jeneza lake lilikuwepo fuvu la [[uongo]] lililopelekwa huko mwaka 1820 na fuvu hilo halikutolewa. Hivyo jeneza la Haydn lina mafuvu mawili. == Imani na maisha ya kiroho == Maisha yake yote Haydin alikuwa [[Kanisa Katoliki|Mkatoliki]] safi na ni imani ya [[dini]] iliyomuongoza sana katika utunzi. Hata alipojisikia kukosa [[ubunifu]] alikuwa akikimbilia [[sala]]. Maandishi yake mengi yanaishia na maneno ya [[Kilatini]], "Laus Deo", yaani, "Sifa kwa [[Mungu]]". == Marejeo == ; Kuhusu maisha yake * {{cite book|title=Haydn: Two Contemporary Portraits|editor-last=Gotwals|editor-first=Vernon, translator and editor | place=Milwaukee | year= 1963 | publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=0-299-02791-0 | last=Dies | first=Albert Christoph | authorlink=Albert Christoph Dies | chapter=Biographical Accounts of Joseph Haydn |ref=harv }} A translation from the original German: "Biographische Nachrichten von Joseph Haydn nach mündlichen Erzählungen desselben entworfen und herausgegeben" ("Biographical accounts of Joseph Haydn, written and edited from his own spoken narratives") (1810). Camesinaische Buchhandlung, Vienna. One of the first biographies of Haydn, written on the basis of 30 interviews carried out during the composer's old age. * {{cite book |last=[[Ludwig Finscher|Finscher]] | first= Ludwig | year=2000|title=Joseph Haydn und seine Zeit|publisher=Laaber-Verlag |place=Laaber|isbn=3-921518-94-6 |ref=harv }} Highly detailed discussion of life and work; in German. * {{cite book|last= Geiringer|first=Karl|authorlink=Karl Geiringer|last2=Geiringer|first2=Irene|title=Haydn: A Creative Life in Music|url= https://archive.org/details/haydncreativelif00geir_0|publisher=University of California|edition=3rd|year=1982|isbn=0-520-04316-2|ref=CITEREFGeiringer1982}} The first edition was published in 1946 with Karl Geiringer as the sole author. * {{cite book|title=Haydn: Two Contemporary Portraits|url=https://archive.org/details/josephhaydneight0000grie|editor-last=Gotwals|editor-first=Vernon, translator and editor | place=Milwaukee | year= 1963 | publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=0-299-02791-0 | last=Griesinger| first=Georg August| authorlink=Georg August Griesinger| chapter=Biographical Notes Concerning Joseph Haydn |ref=harv }} A translation from the original German: "Biographische Notizen über Joseph Haydn" (1810). Leipzig. Like Dies's, a biography produced from interviews with the elderly Haydn. * {{cite book| last=Hadden | first=James Cuthbert | year=2010| title= Haydn|place=London|publisher=Cambridge University Press|edition=Reissue| isbn=1-108-01987-0|url = http://books.google.com/books?id=0IXbsEBrSK0C&pg=PA106|ref=harv }} * {{cite book| last=Hughes | first=Rosemary | year=1970| title= Haydn|place=New York|publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]]|edition=Revised| isbn=0-460-02281-4 |ref=harv }} Originally published in 1950. Gives a sympathetic and witty account of Haydn's life, along with a survey of the music. * Jones, David Wyn (2009a) ''The Life of Haydn''. Oxford University Press. Focuses on biography rather than musical works; an up-to-date study benefiting from recent scholarly research on Haydn's life and times. * Jones, David Wyn (2009b) ''Oxford Composer Companions: Haydn''. Oxford University Press. A one-volume encyclopedia with detailed contributions from many Haydn scholars. * {{cite book|last=Landon | first= H.C. Robbins | year=1976–1980|title=Haydn: Chronicle and Works |url=https://archive.org/details/haydnchroniclewo0005land |place= Bloomington, IN|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-37003-5}} An extensive compilation of original sources in five volumes. * {{cite book|last= Landon |first= H. C. Robbins |authorlink= H. C. Robbins Landon | last2=Jones | first2= David Wyn |title= Haydn: His Life and Music |url= https://archive.org/details/haydnhislifemusi00land |publisher=Indiana University Press |year= 1988 |isbn= 978-0-253-37265-9 |ref=harv }} Biography chapters by Robbins Landon, excerpted from Robbins Landon (1976–1980) and rich in original source documents. Analysis and appreciation of the works by Jones. * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Larsen | first=Jens Peter | year=1980 | encyclopedia=[[New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]] | title=Joseph Haydn |ref=harv }} Published separately as {{cite book | title=The New Grove: Haydn | year=1982 | publisher=Norton | place= New York | isbn=0-393-01681-1 |ref=harv }} * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Webster | first=James | last2=Feder | first2=Georg | year=2001 |title=Joseph Haydn | encyclopedia=[[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]] }} Published separately as a book: {{cite book | title=The New Grove Haydn| place=New York | publisher=Macmillan| year=2002| isbn=0-19-516904-2 | ref= CITEREFWebster2002 }} Careful scholarship with little subjective interpretation; covers both life and music, and includes a very detailed list of works. * Geiringer, Karl; Irene Geiringer (1982). Haydn: A Creative Life in Music (3rd ed. ed.). University of [[California]] Press. pp. xii, 403. ISBN 0-520-04316-2. ; Kuhusu kazi zake * {{cite book | last=Brendel | first=Alfred | author-link=Alfred Brendel | year=2001 | chapter=Does classical music have to be entirely serious? | editor-last=Margalit | editor-first=Edna| editor2-last=Margalit | editor2-first=Avishai | title=Isaiah Berlin: A Celebration | url=https://archive.org/details/isaiahberlincele00 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/isaiahberlincele00/page/193 193]–204| publisher=University of Chicago Press | place=Chicago | isbn=0-226-84096-4 |ref=harv }} On jokes in Haydn and Beethoven. * {{cite book | last=Celestini | first=Federico | year=2010 | chapter=Aspekte des Erhabenen in Haydns Spätwerk | editor-last=Celestini | editor-first=Federico | editor2-last=Dorschel | editor2-first=Andreas | title=Arbeit am Kanon | pages=16–41 | publisher=Universal Edition | place=Vienna | isbn=978-3-7024-6967-2 |ref=harv }} On the sublime in Haydn's later works; in German. * {{cite book | editor-last=Clark | editor-first=Caryl | year=2005 | title=The Cambridge Companion to Haydn | url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_x0w4 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | place=Cambridge | isbn=0-521-83347-7 }} Covers each of the genres Haydn composed in as well as stylistic and interpretive contexts and performance and reception. * {{cite book | last=Griffiths | first=Paul | year=1983 | title=The String Quartet | url=https://archive.org/details/stringquartet0000grif_u7c6 | publisher=Thames and Hudson | place=New York | isbn=0-500-01311-X }} * {{cite book | last=Hughes | first=Rosemary | year=1966 | title=Haydn String Quartets |publisher=BBC | place=London }} A brief (55 page) introduction to Haydn's string quartets. * {{cite book |last=Rosen | first=Charles | author-link=Charles Rosen |title=The classical style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven |url=https://archive.org/details/classicalstyleha00rose |publisher=Norton |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=0-393-31712-9 | edition=2nd |ref=harv }} First edition published in 1971. Covers much of Haydn's output and seeks to explicate Haydn's central role in the creation of the classical style. The work has been influential, provoking both positive citation and work (e.g., Webster 1991) written in reaction. * Sisman, Elaine (1993) ''Haydn and the classical variation''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-38315-X. * {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/966030|last=Sutcliffe|first=W. Dean|title=Haydn's Musical Personality|journal=[[The Musical Times]]|year=1989|volume=130|issue=1756|pages=341–344|jstor=966030|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Sutcliffe | first=W. Dean |title=Haydn, string quartets, op. 50 |url=https://archive.org/details/haydnstringquart0000sutc |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1992 |isbn=0-521-39103-2 }} Covers not just Op. 50 but also its relevance to Haydn's other output as well as his earlier quartets. * {{cite book | last=Webster | first=James | year=1991| title= Haydn's "Farewell" symphony and the idea of classical style: through-composition and cyclic integration in his instrumental music | publisher=Cambridge University Press | place=Cambridge | isbn=0-521-38520-2 |ref=harv }} This book focuses on a single work, but contains many observations and opinions about Haydn in general. == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Joseph Haydn}} {{wikiquote}} {{EB9 Poster|Haydn, Joseph|Joseph Haydn}} * [http://www.haydnfestival.at Haydn Festival Eisenstadt] {{Wayback|url=http://www.haydnfestival.at/ |date=20191202102023 }} * Albert Christoph Dies: (German) ''[http://www.donjuanarchiv.at/archiv/bestaende/ernestea-sezzatense/oesterreich/wien/biographische-nachrichten-von-joseph-haydn.html Biographische Nachrichten von Joseph Haydn. Wien: Camesinaische Buchhandlung] {{Wayback|url=http://www.donjuanarchiv.at/archiv/bestaende/ernestea-sezzatense/oesterreich/wien/biographische-nachrichten-von-joseph-haydn.html |date=20090817104156 }}'', 1810. * [http://www.earlymusicworld.com/id26.html Haydn's Late Oratorios: The Creation and The Seasons by Brian Robins] {{Wayback|url=http://www.earlymusicworld.com/id26.html |date=20160603205521 }} * Full text of the biography ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/3788 Haydn]'' by J. Cuthbert Hadden, 1902, from [[Project Gutenberg]]. The end of book contains documentary material including a number of Haydn's letters. Alternatively scanned copy ''[https://archive.org/details/haydn00haddgoog Haydn]'' at archive.org. * {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-91193}} * [http://www.classical.net/music/comp.lst/articles/haydnfj/noroyal.html No Royal Directive: Joseph Haydn and the String Quartet] by [[Ron Drummond]] * [http://www.musicologie.org/Biographies/h/haydn.html ''musicologie.org''], with biography {{fr icon}} * [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=45&EventId=683 'Haydn – Quartet in F minor, Op.20 No.5'] {{Wayback|url=http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=45&EventId=683 |date=20071010110015 }}, Lecture by Professor [[Roger Parker]], with the Badke Quartet, [[Gresham College]], 8 April 2008 (available for video, audio and text download). * [http://www.bachtrack.com/anniversary-200th-haydn Haydn anniversary page on Bachtrack, includes lists of live performances] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bachtrack.com/anniversary-200th-haydn |date=20140820121616 }} === Rekodi za kazi zake === * {{IMSLP|id=Haydn, Joseph}} * {{ChoralWiki|Franz Joseph Haydn}} * [http://kreusch-sheet-music.net/eng/?page=show&query=Joseph%20Haydn&order=op www.kreusch-sheet-music.net] – Free Scores by Haydn * [http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=HaydnFJ Free scores] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=HaydnFJ |date=20210308143257 }} at the [[Mutopia Project]] * {{gutenberg author| id=Haydn+Joseph | name=Joseph Haydn}} * Kunst der Fuge: [http://www.kunstderfuge.com/haydn.htm Franz Joseph Haydn – Hundreds of MIDI files] * [http://www.classicalarchives.com/haydn.html Haydn's page] at [[Classical Archives]] * [http://sounds.bl.uk/Browse.aspx?category=Classical-music&collection=Haydn Haydn Symphonies] {{Wayback|url=http://sounds.bl.uk/Browse.aspx?category=Classical-music&collection=Haydn |date=20120206134307 }} from the British Library Sound Archive * [http://www.sf-media.12hp.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=19%3Ahaydn-complete-pianosonatas&Itemid=6&layout=default&lang=en/ Complete recording of Joseph Haydns Pianosonatas on a sampled Walther Pianoforte] {{Wayback|url=http://www.sf-media.12hp.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=19%3Ahaydn-complete-pianosonatas&Itemid=6&layout=default&lang=en%2F |date=20170329184926 }} * [http://www.sf-media.12hp.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=18%3Ahaydn-complete-pianosonatas&Itemid=5&layout=default&lang=en/ Complete recording of Joseph Haydns Pianosonatas on a sampled Steinway D] {{Wayback|url=http://www.sf-media.12hp.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=18%3Ahaydn-complete-pianosonatas&Itemid=5&layout=default&lang=en%2F |date=20160412161313 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Haydn, Joseph}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1732]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1809]] [[Jamii:Wanamuziki wa Austria]] bnea4g7ysutyidej3s6fgu34tanokep 0 71717 1580196 1578181 2026-07-18T01:08:49Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580196 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:DNA Overview2.png|thumb|right|140px|upright|DNA, msingi wa molekuli kwa ajili ya urithi. Kila ncha ya DNA ni mlolongo wa nyukleotidi, zinazoungana katika sehemu ya kati.]] '''Jenetikia''' (kutoka [[Kigiriki]] [[Kiyunani|cha kale]] γενετικός, genetikos, [[neno]] ambalo tena linatokana na γένεσις, genesis, "[[asili]]"<ref> [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2321880 Genetikos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus]</ref><ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2321873 Genesis, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus]</ref><ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Genetic&amp;searchmode=none Online Entymology Dictionary]</ref>) ni [[tawi]] la [[biolojia]] linalochunguza [[uritishano]] na [[mwachano]] wa [[viumbe hai]].<ref name="griffiths2000sect60">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.60 |chapter=Genetics and the Organism: Introduction |editor-first=William M.}}</ref><ref name="Hartl_and_Jones"> Hartl D, Jones E (2005)</ref> Kwa namna ya pekee imegundulika kwamba [[chembechembe]] zinazohifadhi [[taarifa]] za [[urithi]] wa viumbe hai zimo katika [[kiini]] cha kila [[seli]] yao kama [[nyuzinyuzi]] zinazoitwa [[kromosomu]]. Hizo zinabeba [[jeni]] kadhaa ambazo kila mojawapo inahusika na urithi wa [[tabia]] na [[umbile]] fulani kutoka kwa wazazi kwenda kwa [[kizazi]] kipya. Ukweli kwamba viumbe hai hurithi sifa kutoka kwa wazazi wao umetumika tangu zamani za kale kuboresha ma[[zao]] ya [[mimea]] na [[wanyama]] kwa njia ya [[uzalishaji teuzi]]. Hata hivyo, [[sayansi]] ya kisasa ya jenetikia, ambayo inajaribu kuelewa utaratibu wa urithi, ilianza tu na kazi ya [[Gregor Mendel]] katikati ya [[karne ya 19]].<ref name="Weiling">{{cite journal |pmid=1887835| doi=10.1002/ajmg.1320400103 |year=1991 |last1=Weiling |first1=F |title=Historical study: Johann Gregor Mendel 1822–1884. |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–25; discussion 26 |journal=American journal of medical genetics}}</ref> Ingawa hakujua msingi halisi wa urithi, Mendel aliona kwamba viumbe hurithi sifa kupitia vitengo maalumu ambavyo sasa vinaitwa jeni. Jeni hufanana na maeneo ndani ya [[DNA]], [[molekuli]] inayoundwa na mlolongo wa [[aina]] nne tofauti za [[nyukleotidi]]. Mpangilio wa nyukleotidi hizo ndio maelezo ya kijeni ambayo viumbe huyarithi. Kwa kawaida DNA ina [[umbo]] la [[ncha]] mbili, ambazo kila moja ina nyukleotidi zinazokamilishana. Kila ncha inaweza kutumika kama [[kiolezo]] katika uumbaji wa ncha nyingine mpya: hii ndiyo njia halisi ya kutengeneza nakala za jeni ambazo zinaweza kurithiwa. Mpangilio wa nyukleotidi katika jeni hutafsiriwa na [[seli]] ili kuzalisha mlolongo wa [[aminoasidi]], hivyo kutengeneza [[protini]]; utaratibu wa aminoasidi katika protini hufanana na utaratibu wa nyukleotidi katika jeni. Uhusiano huo kati ya mpangilio wa nyukleotidi na mpangilio wa aminoasidi hujulikana kama [[kanuni ya maumbile]]. Aminoasidi zilizo katika protini huamua jinsi inavyojikunja katika umbo la pande tatu; kisha, [[utendaji kazi]] wa protini hiyo hutegemea muundo huo. Protini hutekeleza karibu ma[[jukumu]] yote yanayohitajika ili seli ziishi. Mabadiliko ya DNA katika jeni yanaweza kubadilisha aminoasidi za protini, na hivyo kubadilisha umbo lake na utendaji kazi wake: mabadiliko haya yanaweza kuwa na ma[[dhara]] makubwa katika seli na kwa kiumbe kwa jumla. Ingawa jenetikia ina athari kubwa katika sura na tabia za kiumbe, matokeo ya mwisho yanategemea mchanganyiko wa jenetikia na mambo ambayo kiumbe anayapitia wakati wa uhai wake. Kwa mfano, ingawa jeni zinaweza kuamua ukubwa au udogo wa kiumbe, [[lishe]] na mambo mengine ambayo kiumbe hupitia baada ya kuzaliwa pia huwa na athari kubwa. ==Historia== Ingawa sayansi ya jenetikia ilianza na ma[[jaribio]] na [[nadharia]] ya Gregor Mendel katika miaka ya kati ya 1800, nadharia nyingine za urithi zilikuwepo kabla yake. Nadharia maarufu wakati wa Mendel ilikuwa [[dhana]] ya kuchanganya urithi, yaani [[wazo]] la kwamba watu hurithi mchanganyiko laini wa sifa kutoka kwa wazazi wao. Mendel hakukubaliana na wazo hilo na alionyesha kwamba sifa zinajumuisha mchanganyiko wa jeni tofauti kuliko mchanganyiko unaofanana. Nadharia nyingine ambayo ilikuwa imeungwa mkono wakati huo ilikuwa urithi wa sifa zilizopatikana: imani kwamba watu hurithi sifa zilizojengwa na wazazi wao. Nadharia hiyo (ambayo kwa kawaida inahusianishwa na [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]]) sasa inajulikana kuwa na makosa.<ref> Lamarck, JB (2008). Katika [[Encyclopedia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica]]. Ilirudishwa kutoka [http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-273180 Encyclopædia Britannica Online] tarehe 16 Machi 2008.</ref> Nadharia nyingine zilikuwa pamoja na [[panjenesisi]] ya [[Charles Darwin]] (ambayo ilikuwa na vipengele vya mambo mtu anayoyapata na yale anayoyarithi) na muundo mpya wa [[Francis Galton]] wa panjenesisi kama nadharia inayohusisha chembechembe na urithi.<ref>Peter J. Bowler, The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergency of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989): sura 2 &amp; 3.</ref> ===Jenetikia ya Mendel na ya kale=== Sayansi ya jenetikia ya kisasa ilianzishwa na [[Gregor Mendel]], [[mmonaki|mtawa]] wa [[Waaugustino|Kiaugustino]] na [[mwanasayansi]] mwenye asili ya [[Kijerumani]] ambaye alichunguza hali ya urithi katika mimea. Katika maandishi yake "Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" ("Majaribio ya Uvyausaji wa Mimea"), iliyowasilishwa katika mwaka [[1865]] kwa ''Naturforschender Verein'' (Jumuiya ya Utafiti kuhusu Mimea na Viumbe) huko [[Brünn]], Mendel alifuatilia ruwaza za urithi za sifa fulani kwa mimea ya [[njegere]] na kuielezea kupitia [[hisabati]].<ref name="mendel">{{cite web |title= Mendel's Paper in English |url=http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html |first=Roger B. |last=Blumberg}}</ref> Ingawa ruwaza hii ya urithi ingeweza kuonekana katika sifa kadhaa, kazi ya Mendel ilipendekeza kuwa urithi ulikuwa ulihusisha chembechembe, si kupata, na kwamba ruwaza za urithi wa sifa nyingi zinaweza kuelezwa kupitia kanuni na uwiano rahisi. Umuhimu wa kazi ya Mendel haukuweza kueleweka vizuri hadi [[miaka ya 1890]], baada ya [[kifo]] chake, wakati ambapo wanasayansi wengine wakiwa wanashughulikia mambo kama hayo, waligundua upya [[utafiti]] wake. [[William Bateson]], [[mtetezi]] wa kazi ya Mendel, aliunda neno ''jenetikia'' mwaka [[1905]].<ref>genetics, ''n.,'' Oxford English Dictionary, toleo la 3.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htm |title=Letter from William Bateson to Alan Sedgwick in 1905 |publisher=The John Innes Centre |accessdate=15 Machi 2008 |author=Bateson W |archivedate=2007-10-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013020831/http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htm }}. Kumbuka kwamba barua ilikuwa imeandikiwa Sedgwick Adam, mtaalamu wa zuolojia katika chuo cha Trinity, Cambridge, wala sio "Alan", na asikanganywe na mtaalamu mashuhuri wa jiolojia wa Uingereza, Adam Sedgwick, ambaye aliishi kabla ya wakati huo // hapo awali.</ref> (Kivumishi ''jenetikia'' kilichotokana na neno la Kigiriki ''mwanzo'' - ''γένεσις,'' "asili" na kwamba kutoka kwa neno ''genno'' - ''γεννώ,'' "kujifungua", kinatangulia nomimo na kilitumika kwa mara ya kwanza kwa maana ya kibiolojia mwaka 1860).<ref>genetics, n., Oxford English Dictionary, toleo la 3.</ref> Bateson alieneza matumizi ya neno ''jenetikia'' kuelezea utafiti wa urithi katika [[hotuba]] yake ya [[uzinduzi]] wa Mkutano wa Tatu wa Kimataifa wa Uvyausaji wa Mimea huko [[London]], [[Uingereza]] mwaka [[1906]] <ref name="bateson_genetics">.{{cite conference |author=Bateson, W |title=The Progress of Genetic Research |editor=Wilks, W |booktitle=Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics: Hybridization (the cross-breeding of genera or species), the cross-breeding of varieties, and general plant breeding|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |location=London |year=1907}}:Awali lilijulikana kama "Mkutano wa Kimataifa wa Uvyausaji na kuzalishana kwa Mimea", Wilks alibadilisha kichwa cha chapisho kutokana na hotuba ya Bateson.</ref> Baada ya kugunduliwa upya kwa kazi ya Mendel, wanasayansi walijaribu kuamua ni molekuli zipi katika seli zilizohusika na urithi. Mwaka [[1910]] [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] alisema kuwa jeni ziko juu ya kromosomu, kulingana na matokeo ya mabadiliko ya macho meupe yaliyohusiana na [[jinsia]] katika nzi-tunda.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/icb/23.4.855 |title=Thomas Hunt Morgan—The Geneticist |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_integrative-and-comparative-biology_1983_23_4/page/855 |year=1983 |last1=Moore |first1=JOHN A. |journal=Integrative and Comparative Biology |volume=23 |pages=855}}</ref> Mwaka [[1913]] [mwanafunzi]] wake [[Alfred Sturtevant]] alitumia uhusiano wa kijeni kuonyesha kuwa jeni hupangwa kwa ,[[mstari]] kwenye kromosomu.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sturtevant AH |year=1913 |title=The linear arrangement of six sex-linked factors in Drosophila, as shown by their mode of association |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=14 |pages=43–59 |url=http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetics/classical/holdings/s/ahs-13.pdf}}</ref><span id="molecular"></span> [[File:Sexlinked inheritance white.jpg|left|thumb|Mawazo ya Morgan kuhusu urithi unaohusishwa na ngono wa mabadiliko uliosababisha nzi za Drosophila kuwa na macho meupe ulimwelekeza kwa nadharia-tete kwamba jeni ziko kwenye kromosomu.]] ===Jenetikia ya molekuli=== Ingawa jeni zilijulikana kuwepo kwenye kromosomu, hizo kromosomu zinajumuisha protini na DNA: wanasayansi hawakujua ni ipi kati ya hizo iliyohusika na urithi. Mwaka [[1928]], [[Frederick Griffith]] aligundua jambo la mabadiliko: bakteria zilizokufa ziliweza kuhamisha nyenzo za kijeni ili "kubadilisha" bakteria zingine zilizokuwa bado hai. Miaka [[kumi]] [[kumi na sita|na sita]] baadaye, mwaka [[1944]], [[Theodore Oswald Avery]], [[Colin McLeod]] na [[Maclyn McCarty]] walitambua [[molekuli]] iliyohusika na mabadiliko ni [[DNA]].<ref name="Avery_et_al"> {{cite journal |doi=10.1084/jem.79.2.137 |title=STUDIES ON THE CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE SUBSTANCE INDUCING TRANSFORMATION OF PNEUMOCOCCAL TYPES: INDUCTION OF TRANSFORMATION BY A DESOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID FRACTION ISOLATED FROM PNEUMOCOCCUS TYPE III |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-experimental-medicine_1944-02_79_2/page/137 |year=1944 |last1=Avery |first1=O. T. |journal=Journal of Experimental Medicine |volume=79 |pages=137 |pmid=19871359 |last2=MacLeod |first2=CM |last3=McCarty |first3=M |issue=2 |pmc=2135445}} Chapisha tena: {{cite journal |pmid=33226 |year=1979 |last1=Avery |first1=OT |last2=Macleod |last3=Mccarty |title=Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types. Inductions of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from pneumococcus type III. |volume=149 |issue=2 |pages=297–326 |journal=The Journal of experimental medicine |doi=10.1084/jem.149.2.297 |first2=CM |first3=M |pmc=2184805}}</ref> Majaribio ya Hershey-Chase ya mwaka [[1952]] pia yalionyesha kuwa DNA (badala ya protini) ndiyo wenzo wa kijeni wa virusi ambavyo huambukiza bakteria, hivyo kutoa ushahidi zaidi kwamba DNA ndiyo molekuli inayohusika na urithi.<ref>{{cite journal |doi= 10.1085/jgp.36.1.39 |pmid=12981234 |pmc=2147348 |year= 1952 |last1= Hershey |first1= AD |last2= Chase |title= Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage. |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-general-physiology_1952-09-20_36_1/page/38 |volume= 36 |issue= 1 |pages= 39–56 |journal= The Journal of general physiology |first2= M}}</ref> [[James D. Watson]] na [[Francis Crick]] walitambua muundo wa DNA mwaka [[1953]], kwa kutumia kazi ya [[kristalografia]] ya [[eksirei]] ya [[Rosalind Franklin]] na [[Maurice Wilkins]] ambayo ilionyesha kuwa DNA ina muundo wa [[msokoto]] (yaani, umbo kama la [[kizibuo]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/eighthdayofcreat0000hora |last=Judson |first=Horace |middle=Freeland |authorlink=Horace Freeland Judson |year=1979 |publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press |isbn=0-87969-477-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/eighthdayofcreat0000hora/page/51 51]–169}}</ref><ref name="watsoncrick_1953a">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf |doi=10.1038/171737a0 |title=Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid |year=1953 |last1=Watson |first1=J. D. |last2=Crick |journal=Nature |volume=171 |pages=737 |pmid=13054692 |first2=FH |issue=4356}}</ref> Umbo la misokoto miwili lilikuwa na ncha mbili za DNA na nyukleotidi ilikuwa imeangalia ndani, na kila moja ililingana na nyukleotidi kikamilisho kwenye ncha nyingine na kuunda umbo linalofanana na vidato kwenye [[ngazi]] iliyosokotwa.<ref name="watsoncrick_1953b">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick2.pdf |doi=10.1038/171964b0 |title=Genetical Implications of the Structure of Deoxyribonucleic Acid |year=1953 |last1=Watson |first1=J. D. |last2=Crick |journal=Nature |volume=171 |pages=964 |pmid=13063483 |first2=FH |issue=4361}}</ref> Umbo hili lilionyesha kuwa maelezo ya kijeni yapo katika mpangilio wa nyukleotidi kwenye kila ncha ya DNA. Umbo hilo pia lilipendekeza njia rahisi ya kurudiarudia: kama ncha hizo zimetenganishwa, ncha zingine mpya za kila ncha iliyotenganishwa zinaweza kuundwa upya kulingana na mpangilio wa ncha za zamani. Ingawa umbo la DNA lilionyesha jinsi urithi unavyofanya kazi, bado haikujulikana jinsi DNA inavyoathiri tabia ya seli. Katika miaka iliyofuata, wanasayansi walijaribu kuelewa jinsi DNA hudhibiti mchakato wa uzalishaji protini. Iligundulika kwamba seli hutumia DNA kama kiolezo ili kujenga kijumbe kinacholingana cha RNA (molekuli iliyo na nyukleotidi, zinazofanana sana na DNA). Mpangilio wa nyukleotidi wa kijumbe RNA hutumiwa kujenga mpangilio wa aminoasidi katika protini; tafsiri hii kati ya mipangilio ya nyukleotidi na aminoasidi hujulikana kama kodi ya kijeni. Tafiti nyingi ziliweza kufanywa kutokana na uelewa huu wa molekuli ya jeni. Uvumbuzi muhimu uliofanywa na [[Frederick Sanger]] mwaka [[1977]]ulikuwa mpangilio wa mlolongo uliokuwa na DNA mwisho. [[Teknolojia]] hii inawaruhusu wanasayansi kusoma mpangilio wa nyukleotidi wa molekuli ya DNA.<ref name="sanger_et_al">{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463 |pmid=271968 |pmc=431765 |year=1977 |last1=Sanger |first1=F |last2=Nicklen |last3=Coulson |title=DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_1977-12_74_12/page/5463 |volume=74 |issue=12 |pages=5463–7 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |first2=S |first3=AR}}</ref> Mwaka [[1983]], [[Kary Banks Mullis]] alitengeneza [[mmenyuko]] wa mlolongo wa [[polimerasi]], hivyo kutoa njia ya haraka ya kutenga na kukuza sehemu maalum ya DNA kutoka kwa mchanganyiko.<ref name="saiki_et_al">{{cite journal |pmid=2999980 |doi=10.1126/science.2999980 |year=1985 |last1=Saiki |first1=RK |last2=Scharf |last3=Faloona |last4=Mullis |last5=Horn |last6=Erlich |last7=Arnheim |title=Enzymatic amplification of beta-globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis of sickle cell anemia. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1985-12-20_230_4732/page/1350 |volume=230 |issue=4732 |pages=1350–4 |journal=Science (New York, N.Y.) |first2=S |first3=F |first4=KB |first5=GT |first6=HA |first7=N}}</ref> Kutoka kwa juhudi za pamoja za "[[Mradi wa Jenomu za Binadamu]]" na juhudi sambamba za binafsi za [[Celera Genomics]], mbinu hizi na zingine zilifikia kilele katika upangiliaji wa jenomu za binadamu mwaka [[2003]].<ref name="human_genome_project"></ref> ==Sifa za urithi== ===Urithi wa kipekee na sheria za Mendel=== [[File:Punnett square mendel flowers.svg|right|thumb|Mraba wa Punnett ulisawirisha ubadilishanaji // uvukaji kati ya mimea miwili ya njegere iliyokuwa na kromosomu tofauti za maua ya rangi ya zambarau (B) na nyeupe (b)]] Katika ngazi yake ya msingi kabisa, urithi katika viumbe hutokea kupitia sifa za kipekee, ziitwazo jeni.<ref name="griffiths2000sect199">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.199 |chapter=Patterns of Inheritance: Introduction |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Sifa hii ilivumbuliwa kwa mara ya kwanza na Gregor Mendel, ambaye alifanyia utafiti utengaji wa sifa zinazorithika katika mimea ya njegere.<ref name="mendel"></ref><ref name="griffiths2000sect200">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.200 |chapter=Mendel's experiments |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Katika tafiti zake kuhusu sifa ya rangi ya maua, Mendel aliona kwamba maua ya kila mmea wa njegere yalikuwa ama rangi ya zambarau au nyeupe-lakini kamwe hakukuwa na rangi ya kati ya rangi hizo mbili. Tofauti hizo, matoleo ya kipekee ya jeni moja yanaitwa aleli//aina zinazofanana. Katika kesi ya njegere, ambayo ni [[spishi]] yenye seti mbili za kromosomu, kila mmea una aleli mbili za kila jeni, aleli moja iliyorithiwa kutoka kwa kila mzazi.<ref name="griffiths2000sect484"></ref> Spishi nyingi, ikiwa ni pamoja na binadamu, zina muundo huo wa urithi. Viumbe vyenye seti mbili za kromosomu na vyenye nakala mbili za aleli moja//sawa ya jeni maalum huitwa [[homozigasi]] katika sehemu hiyo ya jeni, wakati viumbe vyenye aleli mbili tofauti za jeni maalum vinaitwa [[heterozigasi]]. Seti ya aleli kiumbe maalum inaitwa [[jenotipu]] yake, wakati sifa zinazoweza kuonekana za kiumbe hicho zinaitwa [[fenotipu]] yake. Wakati viumbe ni heterozigasi kwa jeni, mara nyingi aleli moja husemekana kutawala kwani sifa zake hutawala fenotipu ya kiumbe hicho, wakati aleli nyingine inaitwa [[selipumbazi]] kwani sifa zake hufifia na haziwezi kuonekana. Baadhi ya aleli hazina utawala kamili na badala yake huonyesha ni fenotipu ya kati, au utawala wa pamoja kwa kuonyesha aleli zote mbili kwa wakati moja.<ref name="griffiths2000sect630">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.630 |chapter=Interactions between the alleles of one gene |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Wakati wa [[jozi]] la viumbe kuzaana, watoto wao kinasibu hurithi aleli moja kati ya hizo mbili kutoka kwa kila mzazi. Matokeo haya ya urithi wa kipekee na utengaji wa aleli kwa pamoja zinajulikana kama [[Sheria ya kwanza ya Mendel]] au [[Sheria ya Utengaji]]. ===Mwandiko na michoro=== [[File:Pedigree-chart-example.svg|thumb|240px|Chati za nasaba za jeni husaidia kufuatilia ruwaza za urithi wa sifa.]] Wataalamu wa jeni hutumia michoro na ishara kueleza urithi. Jeni moja huwakilishwa na herufi moja au herufi kadhaa. Mara nyingi alama ya "+" hutumika kwa aleli ya kawaida ya jeni, isiyobadilika.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://faculty.users.cnu.edu/rcheney/Genetic%20Notation.htm |title=Genetic Notation |first=Richard W. |last=Cheney |accessdate=18 Machi 2008 |archivedate=2006-09-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060908110754/http://faculty.users.cnu.edu/rcheney/Genetic%20Notation.htm }}</ref> Katika majaribio ya utungisho na uzalishaji (na hasa wakati wa kujadili sheria za Mendel) wazazi hujulikana kama kizazi "P" na watoto kama kizazi "F1" (watoto wa kwanza). Wakati watoto F1 wanazalishana, watoto wao huitwa kizazi "F2" (watoto wa pili). Mmojawapo wa michoro ambayo hutumika sana kutabiri matokeo ya uzalishaji mtambuka ni [[mraba wa Punnett]]. Wakati wa kufanyia utafiti magonjwa ya binadamu yanayohusiana na jeni, wataalamu mara nyingi hutumia [[chati ya ukoo]] kuwakilisha urithi wa sifa.<ref name="griffiths2000sect229">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.229 |chapter=Human Genetics |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Chati hizi huonyesha urithi wa sifa katika mti wa nasaba. ===Maingiliano ya jeni mbalimbali=== [[File:Galton-height-regress.png|thumb|right|Urefu wa binadamu sifa changamano ya jeni. Data ya Francis Galton kutoka mwaka [[1889]] inaonyesha uhusiano kati ya urefu wa watoto kama kipengele cha urefu wa wastani wa mzazi. Wakati urefu wa watoto unapolinganishwa, tofauti zinazobaki huonyesha kuwa mazingira pia ni kipengele muhimu katika kuchangia sifa hii.]] Viumbe hai wana maelfu ya jeni, na katika viumbe wanaozaana kupitia ngono jeni hizi hujigawa bila kutegemeana. Hii ina maana kwamba urithi wa aleli ya rangi ya njano au kijani ya njegere haihusiani na urithi wa aleli za maua meupe au ya rangi ya zambarau. Jambo hili, linalojulikana kama "sheria ya pili Mendel" au "Sheria ya ugawaji huru", inamaanisha kwamba aleli za jeni tofauti huchanganywa kati ya wazazi ili kutengeneza watoto walio na michanganyiko mingi na tofauti. (Baadhi ya jeni huwa hazijigawi kivyake, hivyo kuonyesha uhusiano wa kijeni, mada ambayo imejadiliwa katika sehemu nyingine ya makala haya). Mara nyingi jeni tofauti zinaweza kuingiliana kwa njia ambayo inaathiri sifa sawa. Katika mmea wa 'Omphalodes Verna', kwa mfano, kuna jeni iliyo na aleli ambazo huamua rangi ya maua: buluu au majenta. Hata hivyo, jeni nyingine hudhibiti ikiwa maua yana rangi yoyote au ni meupe. Wakati mmea una nakala mbili za aleli nyeupe, maua yake huwa meupe-bila kujali kama jeni ya kwanza ina aleli za rangi ya buluu au majenta. Mwingiliano kati ya jeni huitwa [[epistasisi]], na jeni ya pili hukandamiza ile ya kwanza.<ref name="griffiths2000sect644">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.644 |chapter=Gene interaction and modified dihybrid ratios |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Sifa nyingi si vipengele vya kipekee (k.m. maua ya rangi ya zambarau au meupe) lakini badala yake ni sifa zinazoendelea (k.m. urefu wa binadamu na rangi ya ngozi yake). Sifa hizi tata hutokana na jeni nyingi.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=15931374 |doi=10.1172/JCI25421 |year=2005 |last1=Mayeux |first1=R |title=Mapping the new frontier: complex genetic disorders. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-clinical-investigation_2005-06_115_6/page/1404 |volume=115 |issue=6 |pages=1404–7 |journal=The Journal of clinical investigation |pmc=1137013}}</ref> Ushawishi wa jeni hizi huingiliwa kati, kwa viwango tofauti, na mazingira ambayo kiumbe hicho kimepitia. Kiwango ambacho jeni za kiumbe huchangia sifa tata kinaitwa [[urithikaji]].<ref name="griffiths2000sect4009">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.4009 |chapter=Quantifying heritability |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Kipimo cha urithikaji wa sifa hulingana katika mazingira yanayobadilika zaidi, mazingira yana athari kubwa kwenye tofauti ya jumla ya sifa husika. Kwa mfano, urefu wa binadamu ni [[sifa tata]] iliyo na urithikaji wa asilimia 89 nchini [[Marekani]]. Hata hivyo, huko Nigeria, ambako watu huwa na nafasi tofauti zaidi ya kupata [[lishe bora]] na huduma za [[afya]], urefu una urithikaji wa asilimia 62 tu.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sj.ijo.0801650 |pmid=11443503 |year=2001 |last1=Luke |first1=A |last2=Guo |last3=Adeyemo |last4=Wilks |last5=Forrester |last6=Lowe W |last7=Comuzzie |last8=Martin |last9=Zhu |title=Heritability of obesity-related traits among Nigerians, Jamaicans and US black people. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-obesity_2001-07_25_7/page/1034 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=1034–41 |journal=International journal of obesity and related metabolic disorders : journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity |first2=X |first3=AA |first4=R |first5=T |first6=W |first7=AG |first8=LJ |first9=X}}</ref> ==Msingi wa kimolekuli wa urithi== ===DNA na kromosomu=== [[File:DNA chemical structure.svg|thumb|right|Muundo wa molekuli wa DNA. Misingi huungana kupitia mpangilio wa [[hidrojeni]] inayounganisha ncha.]] Msingi wa kimolekuli wa jeni ni deoksiribonyuklei asidi (DNA). DNA imeundwa na mlolongo wa nyukleotidi, ambazo ni za aina nne: [[adenini]] (A), [[sitosini]] (C), [[guanini]] (G), na [[thaimini]] (T). Maelezo ya jeni huwa katika mpangilio wa nyukleotidi hizi, na jeni huwa kama mfululizo wa mpangilio huo katika mnyororo wa DNA.<ref name="Pearson_2006">{{cite journal |pmid=16724031 |doi=10.1038/441398a |year=2006 |last1=Pearson |first1=H |title=Genetics: what is a gene? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-05-25_441_7092/page/398 |volume=441 |issue=7092 |pages=398–401 |journal=Nature}}</ref> Virusi tu vimeepuka kanuni hii: wakati mwingine virusi hutumia molekuli inayofanana na RNA badala ya DNA kama wenzo wake wa kijenetiki.<ref>{{cite book |title=Microbiology |url=https://archive.org/details/microbiology0001pres |last=Prescott |first=L |year=1993 |publisher=Wm. C. Brown Publishers |isbn=0697013723}}</ref> DNA kwa kawaida hupatikana kama molekuli yenye ncha mbili, zilizojikunja katika sura ya msokoto ulio na sehemu mbili. Kila nyukleotidi katika DNA huambatana na nyukleotidi inayoipendelea ya ncha mkabala: A huambatana na T, na C huambatana na G. Hivyo, katika hali yake ya ncha mbili, kila ncha ina maelezo yote muhimu kama inavyofaa, yasiyohitajika katika ncha iliyoambatana nayo. Muundo huu wa DNA ndio msingi halisi wa urithi: [[urudufishaji]] wa DNA hurudia tena maelezo kwa kugawanya ncha hizo na kutumia kila ncha kama kiolezo cha utengenezaji wa ncha//mwenzi mpya.<ref name="griffiths2000sect1523">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.1523 |chapter=Mechanism of DNA Replication |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Jeni huwa zimepangwa kwa mstari kando ya minyororo mirefu ya mpangilio wa DNA, iitwayo [[kromosomu]]. Katika [[bakteria]], kila seli kwa kawaida ina kromosomu moja yenye umbo la mviringo, wakati viumbe [[eukaryota]] (ikiwa ni pamoja na mimea na wanyama) wana DNA ambazo zimepangwa katika mistari mingi ya kromosomu. Ncha hizo za DNA mara nyingi huwa ndefu sana; kwa mfano, kromosomu ndefu zaidi ya binadamu ina urefu wa kufikia jozi msingi milioni 247,000,000 .<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature04727 |pmid=16710414 |year=2006 |last1=Gregory |first1=SG |last2=Barlow |last3=Mclay |last4=Kaul |last5=Swarbreck |last6=Dunham |last7=Scott |last8=Howe |last9=Woodfine |title=The DNA sequence and biological annotation of human chromosome 1. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2006-05-18_441_7091/page/n82 |volume=441 |issue=7091 |pages=315–21 |journal=Nature |first2=KF |first3=KE |first4=R |first5=D |first6=A |first7=CE |first8=KL |first9=K}}</ref> DNA ya kromosomu inahusishwa na protini za miundo zinazopanga, kuunganisha, na kudhibiti ufikiaji wa DNA, hivyo kutengeneza wenzo uitwao [[kromatini]]; katika viumbe vyenye seli changamano, kromatini kwa kawaida hujumuisha [[nyukleosomu]], makundi ya DNA yaliyozungushwa kwenye misingi ya protini za [[histoni]].<ref> Alberts et al. (2002), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.608 II.4.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.608 DNA and chromosomes: Chromosomal DNA and Its Packaging in the Chromatin Fiber]</ref> Seti kamili ya nyenzo za urithi katika kiumbe (kwa kawaida mchanganyiko wa mipangilio ya DNA ya [[kromosomu]] zote) huitwa [[jenomu]]. Wakati viumbe vyenye seti moja ya kromosomu vina nakala moja tu ya kila kromosomu, wanyama wengi na mimea mingi wana seti mbili za kila kromosomu, hivyo wana nakala mbili za kila jeni.<ref name="griffiths2000sect484">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.484 |chapter=Mendelian genetics in eukaryotic life cycles |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Aleli mbili za jeni zimewekwa kwenye sehemu zinazofanana za kromatidi za aina moja, kila aleli ikiwa imerithiwa kutoka kwa mzazi tofauti. Kuna upekee kwenye [[kromosomu ya jinsia]], kromosomu zilizo maalum katika wanyama zimetokea. Kromosomu hizo zinahusika katika uamuzi wa jinsia ya kiumbe.<ref name="griffiths2000sect222">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.222 |chapter=Sex chromosomes and sex-linked inheritance |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Kwa binadamu na wanyama wengine, [[kromosomu Y]] ina jeni chache sana na huchochea ukuaji wa sifa za kijinsia za kiume, wakati [[kromosomu X]] inafanana na kromosomu nyingine na ina jeni nyingi zisizohusiana na uamuzi wa jinsia. Wanawake wana nakala mbili za kromosomu X, lakini wanaume wana kromosomu Y moja na kromosomu X moja tu; tofauti hii katika idadi ya nakala za kromosomu X husababisha ruwaza za urithi zisizo za kawaida za matatizo yanayohusiana na jinsia. ===Uzazi=== Wakati seli zinagawanyika, jenomu yote ya seli hizo hunakiliwa, na kila seli inayotokana na ugawanyikaji huo hurithi nakala moja. Utaratibu huo, uitwao [[mitosisi]], ndio namna rahisi zaidi ya uzazi na ndio msingi wa uzazi usiohusisha ngono. Uzazi usiohusisha ngono pia unaweza kutokea katika viumbe vyenye seli nyingi, hivyo kuzalisha watoto wanaorithi jenomu zao kutoka kwa mzazi mmoja. Watoto walio na jeni zinazofanana kabisa na za mzazi wao huitwa [[kloni]] (kiumbe kilichoumbwa na kimoja bila kujamiana.) Viumbe wenye seli changamano mara nyingi huzaana kupitia ngono na kupata watoto walio na mchanganyiko wa nyenzo za jeni zilizorithiwa kwa wazazi wawili tofauti. Mchakato wa uzazi kupitia ngono hubadilishana kati ya aina zilizo na nakala moja ya jenomu husika (haploidi) na nakala mbili (diploidi).<ref name="griffiths2000sect484"></ref> Seli zilizo na seti moja huungana na kuchanganya jeni kuunda kiini diploid na pea ya kromosomu. Viumbe wenye seti mbili za kromosomu hutengeneza seti moja ya kromosomu kwa kujiga, bila kurudufisha DNA zao, ili kuunda seli zake nyingine ambazo hurithi kila moja ya majozi ya kromosomu kinasibu. Wanyama wengi na mimea mingi huwa na seti mbili za kromosomu katika sehemu kubwa ya maisha yao, na aina zenye seti moja ya kromosomu zikipunguzwa hadi gameti zenye seli moja kama vile [[manii]] au [[ova]]. Ingawa [[bakteria]] huwa hazitumii njia ya uzazi unaohusisha ngono ya seti moja / mbili za kromosomu, zina njia nyingi za kupata maelezo mapya ya jeni. Baadhi ya bakteria zinaweza kuungana, na kuhamisha kipande kidogo cha mviringo cha DNA kwa bakteria nyingine.<ref name="griffiths2000sect1304">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.1304 |chapter=Bacterial conjugation |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Bakteria pia zinazeza kuchukua vipande ghafi vya DNA vinavyopatikana katika mazingira na kuyaunganisha katika jenomu zao, jambo linalojulikana kama mabadiliko.<ref name="griffiths2000sect1343">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.1343 |chapter=Bacterial transformation |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Taratibu hizi zinasababisha uhamishaji wa jeni wa mlalo, hivyo kupeleka vipande vya maelezo ya jeni kati ya viumbe ambavyo vinginevyo havihusiani. ===Uunganishaji-tena na uhusiano=== [[File:Morgan crossover 2 cropped.png|thumb|right|Mchoro wa Thomas Hunt Morgan wa 1916 wa uvukaji mara mbili kati ya kromosomu]] Hali ya kromosomu ya kuwa na seti mbili huruhusu jeni zenye kromosomu tofauti kujigawa kivyake wakati wa uzazi kupitia ngono, na kuungana tena ili kuunda mchanganyiko mpya wa jeni. Hata hivyo, jeni zilizoko kwenye kromosomu moja kinadharia haziwezi kuungana tena kamwe, isipokuwa ni mchakato wa [[uvukaji]] wa kromosomu. Wakati wa uvukaji, kromosomu hubadilishana mifululizo ya DNA, hivyo basi kufaulu kuchanganya aleli za jeni kati ya kromosomu.<ref name="griffiths2000sect929">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.929 |chapter=Nature of crossing-over |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Utaratibo huu wa uvukaji wa kromosomu kwa jumla hutokea wakati wa meiosisi, mfululizo wa mgawanyiko wa seli ambao huunda seli zenye seti mbili za kromosomu. Uwezekano wa uvukaji wa kromosomu kutokea kati ya sehemu mbili maalum kwenye kromosomu unahusiana na umbali kati ya sehemu hizo. Kwa umbali mrefu kwa njia isiyo na msingi, uwezekano wa uvukaji uko juu vya kutosha, hivi kwamba urithi wa jeni hauhusiani kwa njia inayofaa. Hata hivyo, kwa jeni ambazo zimekaribiana kwa pamoja, uwezekano wa uvukaji ulio chini unamaanisha kuwa jeni hizo zinaonyesha uhusiano wa kijeni: aleli za jeni hizo mbili zinaelekea kurithiwa kwa pamoja. Kiasi cha uhusiano kati ya mfululizo wa jeni kinaweza kuunganishwa ili kuunda ramani ya uhusiano wa kimstari ambayo huelezea kwa makisio mpangilio wa jeni kando ya kromosomu.<ref name="griffiths2000sect899">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.899 |chapter=Linkage maps |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> ==Udhihirishaji wa jeni== ===Msimbo-jeni=== [[File:Genetic code.svg|thumb|right|Msimbo jeni: DNA, kupitia mjumbe wa kati wa RNA, husimbia protini kwa misimbo ya aina tatu.]] Kwa jumla jeni huonyesha athari zake za kiutendaji kazi kupitia uzalishaji protini, ambazo ni molekuli changamano zinazohusika katika shughuli nyingi zinazofanyika katika seli. Protini ni mfululizo wa aminoasidi, na mpangilio wa DNA ya jeni (kupitia [[kiingiliakati]] cha RNA) hutumika kuzalisha mpangilio maalum wa protini. Utaratibu huo kuanza kwa uzalishaji wa molekuli ya RNA iliyo na mpangilio unaolingana na ule wa DNA ya jeni, mchakato unaoitwa [[unukuzi]] yaani kunakili. Kisha molekuli ya RNA inayotumika kama mjumbe hutumiwa kuzalisha mpangilio wa aminoasidi zinazofanana kupitia mchakato uitwao "kutafsiri". Kila kundi la nyukleotidi tatu kwenye mpangilio, unaoitwa [[codon]], hufanana na moja ya aminoasidi ishirini zilizo kwenye protini na zinazoweza kutokea; kufanana huku kunaitwa [[msimbo-jeni]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Biochemistry |author=Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L, Clarke ND |edition=5th |year=2002 |publisher=W. H. Freeman and Company |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=stryer.section.685 |chapter=I. 5. DNA, RNA, and the Flow of Genetic Information: Amino Acids Are Encoded by Groups of Three Bases Starting from a Fixed Point}}</ref> Mtiririko wa maelezo haufuati mwelekeo maalum: maelezo hupitishwa kutoka mpangilio wa nyukleotidi hadi kwenye mpangilio wa aminoasidi wa protini, lakini kamwe hauhamishwi kutoka protini na kurudi tena kwenye mpangilio wa DNA, jambo ambalo [[Francis Crick]] aliliita [[dogma kuu]] ya biolojia ya molekuli.<ref name="crick1970">{{cite journal |pmid=4913914 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/crick/pdf/crick227.pdf |year=1970 |last1=Crick |first1=F |title=Central dogma of molecular biology. |volume=227 |issue=5258 |pages=561–3 |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/227561a0}}</ref> Mpangilio maalum wa aminoasidi husababisha umbo la pekee lenye pande tatu kwa protini husika, na miundo ya protini yenye pande tatu inahusiana na utendaji kazi wa protini hizo.<ref> Alberts et al. (2002), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.388 I.3.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.388 Proteins: The Shape and Structure of Proteins]</ref><ref> Alberts et al. (2002), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.452 I.3.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.452 Proteins: Protein Function]</ref> Nyingine ni molekuli zenye miundo sahili, kama nyuzi zinazoundwa na [[kolajeni]] za protini. Protini zinaweza kujifungilia kwa protini nyingine na [[molekuli sahili]], wakati mwingine zilifanya kazi kama [[Kimeng'enya|vimeng'enya]] kwa kuwezesha mmenyuko wa kemikali ndani ya molekuli zilizofungwa (bila kubadilisha muundo wa protini yenyewe). Muundo wa protini una nguvu; [[himoglobini]] ya protini hujikunja katika aina zilizo tofauti kidogo ikiwa inawezesha kukamatwa, kusafirishwa, na kutolewa kwa molekuli za oksijeni ndani ya damu ya [[mamalia]]. Tofauti moja ya nyukleotidi ndani ya DNA inaweza kusababisha mabadiliko katika mpangilio wa aminoasidi ya protini. Kwa kuwa miundo ya protini hutokana na mpangilio wa aminoasidi zake, baadhi ya mabadiliko yanaweza kubadili kwa ghafla tabia za protini kwa kuvuruga muundo au kubadilisha uso wa protini kwa njia ambayo inabadilisha mahusiano yake na protini nyingine na molekuli. Kwa mfano, [[anemia selimundu]] ni ugonjwa wa binadamu unaohusiana na jeni na ambao husababishwa na tofauti moja kwenye msingi ndani ya eneo la kusimba la sehemu ya β-globin la himoglobini, hivyo kusababisha badiliko la aminoasidi ambalo hubadilisha tabia halisi za himoglobini.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Does Sickle Cell Cause Disease? |url=http://sickle.bwh.harvard.edu/scd_background.html |date=11 Aprili 2002 |accessdate=23 Julai 2007 |publisher=Brigham and Women's Hospital: Information Center for Sickle Cell and Thalassemic Disorders}}</ref> Matoleo ya anemia selimundu hujitenga, huku yakijiweka kwa vituta vinavyounda nyuzi ambazo hupotosha umbo ya [[seli nyekundu]] za damu zinazobeba protini. Seli hizo zilizo na umbo la [[mundu]] haziwezi tena kupita vizuri katika mishipa ya damu, hivyo kuwa na tabia ya kuziba au kuharibu, na kusababisha matatizo ya kitabibu yanayohusiana na ugonjwa huu. Baadhi ya jeni hunakiliwa katika RNA lakini hazitafsiriwi na kuwa bidhaa za protini: molekuli kama hizo za RNA zinaitwa [[RNA zisizosimba]]. Katika kesi nyingine, bidhaa hizo hujikunja na kuwa miundo ambayo inashiriki katika kazi muhimu za seli (kwa mfano [[RNA za ribosomu]] na [[RNA hamishi]]). RNA zinaweza pia kuwa na athari za kudhibiti kupitia mahusiano ya [[uvyausaji]] na molekuli nyingine za RNA (k.m. [[mikroRNA]]). ===Maumbile dhidi ya malezi=== [[File:Niobe050905-Siamese Cat.jpeg|thumb|upright|Paka wa kabila la [[Siamese]] wana mabadiliko ambayo hutokana na [[joto]] katika uzalishaji wa [[pigmenti]].]] Ingawa jeni huwa na maelezo yote ambayo kiumbe hutumia ili kufanya kazi, mazingira huwa na mchango muhimu katika kuamua fenotipu ya mwisho, jambo ambalo mara nyingi hujulikana kama "maumbile dhidi ya malezi". Fenotipu ya viumbe hutegemea mahusiano ya jenetiki na mazingira. Mfano mmoja ni kesi ya mabadiliko yanayohusiana na [[joto-hisi]]. Mara nyingi, badiliko moja la aminoasidi katika mpangilio wa protini huwa halibadilishi tabia za protini hiyo na mwingiliano wake na molekuli nyingine, lakini huwa linavuruga muundo. Katika mazingira yenye kiwango cha juu cha [[Halijoto|joto]], ambapo molekuli zinasonga kwa kasi zaidi na kugongana, mambo haya husababisha protini kupoteza muundo wake na kushindwa kufanya kazi. Hata hivyo, katika mazingira yenye kiwango cha chini cha joto, muundo wa protini ni thabiti na huwa inafanya kazi kama kawaida. Aina hii ya mabadiliko huonekana katika rangi ya ngozi ya aina ya paka inayoitwa Siamese, ambapo mabadiliko katika kimeng'enya kinachohusika na utoaji rangi hukifanya kivurugike na kipoteze uwezo wa kufanya kazi katika viwango vya joto vya juu<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2052.2005.01409.x |pmid=16573534 |year=2006 |last1=Imes |first1=DL |last2=Geary |last3=Grahn |last4=Lyons |title=Albinism in the domestic cat (Felis catus) is associated with a tyrosinase (TYR) mutation. |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=175–8 |journal=Animal genetics |first2=LA |first3=RA |first4=LA |pmc=1464423}}</ref>Protini hiyo huendelea kufanya kazi katika maeneo ya ngozi ambayo yana viwango vya joto vya chini (miguu, ma[[sikio]], [[mkia]], na [[uso]], hivyo paka huyu ana manyoya meusi katika sehemu hizo. Mazingira pia huwa na athari kubwa katika madhara ya ugonjwa wa binadamu unaohusiana na jeni wa [[feniketonuria]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/phenylketonuria.html |title=MedlinePlus: Phenylketonuria |accessdate=15 Machi 2008 |publisher=NIH: National Library of Medicine}}</ref> Mabadiliko yanayosababisha feniketonuria huvuruga uwezo wa mwili wa kuyeyusha aminoasidi [[fenilalanini]], na husababisha kukusanyika kwa [[sumu]] ya molekuli ya kati ambayo, kwa upande mwingine, husababisha [[dalili]] kali za [[ulemavu wa akili]] na mishtuko ya [[moyo]] zinazoendelea kuenea. Hata hivyo, kama mtu mwenye mabadiliko ya feniketonuria atafuata mwongozo kamili wa [[chakula]] ambao unaepuka aminoasidi hiyo, atakuwa na afya nzuri na ataendelea na maisha yake kama kawaida. Njia maarufu ya kupima kiasi cha athari ya mazingira na malezi ni kutazama kwa makini mapacha wanaofanana na wasiofanana au ndugu waliozaliwa kwa nyakati mbalimbali.{{Citation needed|date=Oktoba 2009}} Kwa sababu ndugu wanaofanana kabisa hutoka kwa [[zaigoti]] moja, nao huwa na jeni sawa. Kumbe ndugu wasiofanana wana jeni tofauti kama ilivyo kwa ndugu wa kawaida. Kwa kulinganisha mara ngapi mmojawapo wa mapacha ana tatizo sawa na mwenzake kati ya mapacha wanaofanana na wale wasiofanana, wanasayansi wanaweza kuona kama athari nyingi zinazotokana na mazingira au malezi. Mfano mmoja maarufu wa utafiti wa watoto waliozaliwa wakiwa zaidi ya wawili ni mapacha wanne wa Genain, waliokuwa wanafanana wote na kutambuliwa wana dhiki ileile.<ref name="Genain">{{cite book |title=The Genain quadruplets;a case study and theoretical analysis of heredity and environment in schizophrenia. |url=https://archive.org/details/genainquadruplet0000rose |last= Rosenthal |first=David |year= 1964 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn= B0000CM68F}}</ref> ===Usawazishaji wa jeni=== Jenomu ya kiumbe fulani huwa na maelfu ya jeni, lakini si jeni hizo zote zinahitajika kuhaja ya kuwa hai wakati wowote. Jeni hupatikana wakati inanakiliwa katika [[mRNA]] (na kutafsiriwa katika protini), na kuna njia nyingi za mkononi za kudhibiti usemi wa jeni vile protini ni zinazozalishwa tu wakati zinahitajika kwa seli. Vipengele vya kunakili ni [[protini rekebishi]] zinazojifunga na kuanza jeni, ama kukuza au kuzuia unakili wa jeni.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=11823631 |doi=10.1126/science.1066355 |year=2002 |last1=Brivanlou |first1=AH |last2=Darnell Je |title=Signal transduction and the control of gene expression. |volume=295 |issue=5556 |pages=813–8 |journal=Science (New York, N.Y.) |first2=JE}}</ref><ref> Alberts et al. (2002), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.1269#1270 II.3.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.1269#1270 Control of Gene Expression – The Tryptophan Repressor Is a Simple Switch That Turns Genes On and Off in Bacteria]</ref> [[File:Zinc finger DNA complex.png|thumb|upright|left|Vipengele vya unakili hujifunga kwenye DNA, na kuathiri unakili wa jeni zinazohusishwa.]] Tofauti katika upatikanaji wa jeni hasa huonekana wazi ndani ya viumbe wenye seli nyingi, ambapo seli zote huwa na jenomu sawa lakini miundo na tabia tofauti sana kutokana na upatikanaji wa seti tofauti za jeni. Seli zote katika viumbe wenye seli nyingi hutoka kwa seli moja, na kugawanyika katika aina tofauti za seli hutokana na ishara za nje na ndani ya seli na kuanzisha ruwaza tofauti za upatikanaji wa jeni, polepole, ili kuunda tabia tofauti. Kwa kuwa hakuna jeni moja ambayo inaweza kutengeneza miundo ndani ya viumbe vilivyo na seli nyingi, ruwaza hizi hutokana na mahusiano changamano kati ya seli nyingi. Ndani ya [[Eukaryota|viumbe wenye seli zilizo na miundo changamano]] kuna sehemu za miundo za kromatini ambazo huathiri unakili wa jeni, mara nyingi kupitia marekebisho ya DNA na kromatini ambayo hurithiwa kwa njia thabiti na seli zinazotengenezwa.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ng1089 |pmid=12610534 |year=2003 |last1=Jaenisch |first1=R |last2=Bird |title=Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals. |volume=33 Suppl |pages=245–54 |journal=Nature genetics |first2=A}}</ref> Sehemu hizo zinaitwa "[[epijenetiki]]" kwa sababu zipo "juu" ya mpangilio wa DNA na huhifadhi urithi kutoka kizazi kimoja cha seli hadi kizazi kingine. Kwa sababu ya sehemu hizo epijenetiki, aina tofauti za seli zilizokuzwa ndani ya mazingira mamoja zinaweza kuhifadhi tabia tofauti sana. Ingawa sehemu za epijenetiki kwa jumla zina nguvu juu ya mkondo wa ukuaji, baadhi yake, kama suala la mabadiliko maalum ambapo aleli moja ya heterozigasi hubadilisha ile nyingine kabisa, lina urithi unaohusisha vizazi vingi na hupatikana kama mambo yasiyo ya kawaida kwa kanuni ya jumla ya DNA kama msingi wa urithi.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2007.02.007 |pmid=17320501 |year=2007 |last1=Chandler |first1=VL |title=Paramutation: from maize to mice. |url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2007-02-23_128_4/page/641 |volume=128 |issue=4 |pages=641–5 |journal=Cell}}</ref> ==Mabadiliko ya jeni== ===Migeuko=== [[File:Gene-duplication.png|thumb|upright|Utoaji tena wa jeni huruhusu [[uanuwaishaji]] kwa kutoa urudufishaji: jeni moja inaweza kubadilika na kupoteza utendaji kazi wake wa awali bila kukidhuru kiumbe.]] Wakati wa mchakato wa urudufishaji wa DNA, mara kwa mara makosa hutokea katika [[upolimishaji]] wa ncha ya pili. Makosa hayo, yaitwayo mabadiliko, yanaweza kuwa na athari kwenye fenotipu ya kiumbe, hasa kama yatatokea katika mpangilio wa usimbaji wa protini, wa jeni. Viwango vya makosa kwa kawaida huwa chini sana (kosa 1 katika kila misingi milioni 10-100) kutokana na uwezo wa "[[usahihishaji prufu]]" wa polimerasi za DNA.<ref name="griffiths2000sect2706">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2706 |chapter=Spontaneous mutations |editor-first=William M.}}</ref><ref name="Kunkel">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sj.emboj.7600158 |pmid=15057282 |year=2004 |last1=Freisinger |first1=E |last2=Grollman |last3=Miller |last4=Kisker |title=Lesion (in)tolerance reveals insights into DNA replication fidelity. |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=1494–505 |journal=The EMBO journal |first2=AP |first3=H |first4=C |pmc=391067}}</ref> (Bila usahihishaji prufu viwango vya makosa vingekuwa juu sana; kwa sababu virusi vingi hutegemea polimerasi za DNA na RNA, ambazo hazina uwezo wa kusahihisha prufu, hivyo huwa na viwango vya juu vya mabadiliko). Michakato ambayo huongeza kasi ya mabadiliko katika DNA huitwa [[mutajeniki]]: kemikali zinazohusika na mutajeniki huendeleza makosa katika urudufishaji wa DNA, mara nyingi kwa kuingilia muundo wa uambatanishaji-msingi, huku [[mnururisho]] wa UV ukichochea mabadiliko kwa kusababisha uharibifu kwa muundo wa DNA.<ref name="griffiths2000sect2727">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2727 |chapter=Induced mutations |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Uharibifu unaosababishwa na kemikali kwenye DNA pia hutokea kiasili, na seli hutumia utaratibu wa kutengeneza DNA ili kutengeneza sehemu zozote zilizounganishwa vibaya na kuvunjika katika DNA; hata hivyo, utengenezaji wakati mwingine hushindwa kurudisha DNA katika mpangilio wake asili. Katika viumbe vinavyotumia uvukaji wa kromosomu ili kubadilishana DNA na kuunganisha jeni tena, makosa katika mfungamano wakati wa meiosisi pia yanaweza kusababisha mabadiliko.<ref name="griffiths2000sect2844">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.2844 |chapter=Chromosome Mutation I: Changes in Chromosome Structure: Introduction |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Makosa katika uvukaji hasa yanaweza kutokea wakati mipangilio inayofanana inasababisha kromosomu zilizo pamoja kuchukua mfungamano ulio na makosa; jambo hili huwa linafanya baadhi ya maeneo katika jenomu kuwa na uwezo mkubwa wa kuathiriwa na mabadiliko kwa njia hiyo. Makosa hayo huunda mabadiliko makubwa kwenye muundo katika mpangilio wa DNA-urudufishaji, mageuzo au kufutwa kwa maeneo yote, au ubadilishaji kimakosa wa sehemu nzima kati ya kromosomu tofauti (jambo liitwalo [[ubadilishaji eneo]]). ===Uteuzi wa kimaumbile na mageuko=== Mabadiliko hubadilisha jenotipu ya kiumbe na mara kwa mara mabadiliko hayo husababisha fenotipu tofauti kuonekana. Mabadiliko mengi yana athari ndogo juu ya fenotipu, afya au uzima wa uzazi katika kiumbe. Mabadiliko ambayo huwa na athari kwa kawaida hufuta, lakini mara kwa mara baadhi ya mabadiliko yanaweza kuwa na faida. Utafiti katika [[nzi]] aina ya ''Drosophila melanogaster'' unapendekeza kwamba ikiwa mabadiliko yatabadilisha protini iliyozalishwa na jeni, karibu asilimia 70 ya mabadiliko hayo yatakuwa hatari, yaliyosalia yakiwa ama hayana madhara yoyote au yana manufaa madogo.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=17409186 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0701572104 |year=2007 |last1=Sawyer |first1=SA |last2=Parsch |last3=Zhang |last4=Hartl |title=Prevalence of positive selection among nearly neutral amino acid replacements in Drosophila. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2007-04-17_104_16/page/6504 |volume=104 |issue=16 |pages=6504–10 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |first2=J |first3=Z |first4=DL |pmc=1871816}}</ref> [[File:Eukaryote tree.svg|thumb|left|Mti wa mageuko ya viumbe wenye seli nyingi, uliotengenezwa kwa kulinganisha jeni kadhaa zilizotoka moja kwa moja kwa jeni moja asilia]] Jenetikia wa idadi hutafiti usambazaji wa tofauti za kijeni katika watu na jinsi usambazaji huo unavyobadilika kadiri wakati unavyopita.<ref name="griffiths2000sect3842">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.3842 |chapter=Variation and its modulation |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Mabadiliko katika mara ambayo aleli inatokea katika idadi ya watu, wanyama na mimea hasa huathiriwa na [[uteuzi asili]], ambapo aleli fulani hutoa faida ya kiuteuzi au kiuzazi kwa kiumbe,<ref name="griffiths2000sect3886">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.3886 |chapter=Selection |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> pamoja na mambo mengine kama vile [[mkondo wa jeni]], [[uteuzi bandia]] na uhamaji.<ref name="griffiths2000sect3906">{{cite book |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.3906 |chapter=Random events |editor-first=William M.}}</ref> Kupita vizazi vingi, jenomu ya viumbe inaweza kubadilika kwa kiasi kikubwa, na hivyo kusababisha mageuko. Uteuzi kwa mabadiliko yaliyo na manufaa unaweza kusababisha spishi kugeuka na kuwa aina bora zinazoweza kuishi katika mazingira yake, mchakato uitwao marekebisho.<ref name="Darwin"> {{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink = Charles Darwin |year=1859 |title=On the Origin of Species |place=London |publisher=John Murray |edition=1st |pages=1 |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=16 |isbn=0801413192}} . Mawazo ya hapo awali yaliyohusiana yalikubaliwa katika {{cite book |last=Darwin |first=Charles |authorlink = Charles Darwin |year=1861 |title=On the Origin of Species |place=London |publisher=John Murray |edition=3rd |pages=xiii |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F381&viewtype=text&pageseq=20 |nopp=true |isbn=0801413192}}</ref> Spishi mpya hutengenezwa kwa njia ya mchakato wa mageuko yanayosababisha kuwepo kwa spishi mpya, sanasana yanayosababishwa na utenganishaji wa kijiografia unaozuia idadi za wanyama na mimea kubadilishana jeni.<ref name="Gavrilets">{{cite journal |pmid=14628909 |doi=10.1554/02-727 |year=2003 |last1=Gavrilets |first1=S |title=Perspective: models of speciation: what have we learned in 40 years? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution_2003-10_57_10/page/n2 |volume=57 |issue=10 |pages=2197–215 |journal=Evolution; international journal of organic evolution}}</ref> Matumizi ya kanuni za kijeni katika utafiti wa biolojia na mageuko ya idadi ya wanyama na mimea yanajulikana kama usanisi wa kisasa. Kwa kulinganisha [[homolojia]] kati ya aina tofauti za jenomu za spishi inawezekana kuhesabu umbali wa mageuko baina ya spishi hizo na wakati ambapo zinaweza kuwa ziliachana (utaratibu huo unaitwa [[saa ya molekuli]]).<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=12175808 |doi=10.1016/S0168-9525(02)02744-0 |year=2002 |last1=Wolf |first1=YI |last2=Rogozin |last3=Grishin |last4=Koonin |title=Genome trees and the tree of life. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-genetics_2002-09_18_9/page/472 |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=472–9 |journal=Trends in genetics : TIG |first2=IB |first3=NV |first4=EV}}</ref> Ulinganishaji wa jeni kwa jumla hufikiriwa kuwa mbinu sahihi zaidi ya utambazi-sifa za uhusiano kati ya spishi kuliko ulinganifu wa tabia za kifenotipu. Mageuko ya umbali baina ya spishi yanaweza kutumika kutengenezea miti inayoonyesha mageuko; miti hiyo huwakilisha asili moja na kuachana kwa spishi kadiri muda unavyokwenda, ingawa haionyeshi uhamishaji wa nyenzo za jeni kati ya spishi zisizo na uhusiano (jambo linalojulikana kama uhamishaji jeni wa mlalo na ambao hutokea sana katika bakteria). ==Utafiti na teknolojia== ===Viumbe vielelezi na jenetikia=== [[File:Drosophila melanogaster - side (aka).jpg|thumb|right|[[Nzi-tunda]] wa kawaida (Drosophila melanogaster) ni kiumbe maarufu anayetumiwa kama mfano katika utafiti wa jeni.]] Ingawa wataalamu wa jeni mwanzoni walikuwa wakitafiti urithi katika aina mbalimbali za viumbe, watafiti walianza kufanya utafiti maalum wa jenetikia ya vikundi maalum vya viumbe. Ukweli kwamba utafiti mpana wa kiumbe maalum tayari ulikuwepo ulihimiza watafiti wapya kumchagua kiumbe huyo wamfanyie utafiti zaidi, na hatimaye viumbe kadhaa waliotumika kama mfano wakawa msingi wa tafiti nyingi za jeni.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.loci.wisc.edu/outreach/text/model.html |title=The Use of Model Organisms in Instruction |accessdate=15 Machi 2008 |publisher=University of Wisconsin: Wisconsin Outreach Research Modules |archivedate=2008-03-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080313023531/http://www.loci.wisc.edu/outreach/text/model.html }}</ref> Mada zinazotafitiwa sana katika jenetikia wa viumbe ni pamoja na utafiti wa jeni kanuni na ushiriki wa jeni katika maendeleo na [[kansa]]. Kati ya sababu zilizozingatiwa katika uchaguzi wa viumbe kuna ufupi wa muda kati ya vizazi pamoja na uendeshaji rahisi wa jeni. Hizo zilifanya baadhi ya viumbe kuwa zana maarufu katika utafiti. Viumbe vilivyotumika sana kama mifano ni pamoja na bakteria inayopatikana kwenye tumbo ''Escherichia coli'', mmea wa ''Arabidopsis thaliana', [[chachu]] inayotumiwa katika [[ukokaji]] ("Saccharomyces cerevisiae"), [[nematodi]] ''Caenorhabditis elegans', nzi-tunda wa kawaida ("Drosophila melanogaster"), na [[panya]] wa kawaida wa nyumbani ("Mus musculus"). ===Utafiti wa kimatibabu wa jenetikia=== Jenetikia ya kimatibabu hujaribu kuelewa jinsi tofauti katika jeni zinavyohusiana na afya na maradhi ya binadamu.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=gnd&ref=sidebar| title=NCBI: Genes and Disease| publisher=NIH: National Center for Biotechnology Information| accessdate=15 Machi 2008}}</ref> Wakati wa kutafuta jeni ambayo haijulikani na ambayo inaweza kuwa imehusika na ugonjwa, kwa kawaida watafiti hutumia uhusiano katika jeni na chati za ukoo wa jeni ili kupata eneo kwenye jenomu linalohusiana na ugonjwa husika. Katika ngazi ya idadi ya wanyama na mimea, watafiti hutumia uchaguzi wa kinasibu wa Mendel kutafuta maeneo katika jenomu yanayohusishwa na ugonjwa, mbinu ambayo hasa ni muhimu kwa ajili ya sifa za jeni nyingi ambazo hazifafanuliwi wazi na jeni moja.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/ije/dyg070 |pmid=12689998 |year=2003 |last1=Davey Smith |first1=G |last2=Ebrahim |title='Mendelian randomization': can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-journal-of-epidemiology_2003-02_32_1/page/1 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |journal=International journal of epidemiology |first2=S}}</ref> Baada ya jeni inayoshukiwa kuhusika kupatikana, mara nyingi utafiti zaidi hufanyiwa kuhusu jeni inayofanana (inayoitwa jeni iliyotoka moja kwa moja katika jeni asilia) katika viumbe vinavyotumiwa kama mfano. Mbali na kutafitia magonjwa yanayohusiana na jeni, upatikanaji ulioongezeka wa mbinu za utambuzi wa aina ya jeni umesababisha kuwepo kwa taaluma ya [[famakojenetikia]] ili kutafiti jinsi aina ya jeni inavyoweza kuathiri matokeo ya madawa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Initiatives/PGRN/Background/FactSheet.htm |title=Pharmacogenetics Fact Sheet |accessdate=15 Machi 2008 |publisher=NIH: National Institute of General Medical Sciences |archivedate=2008-05-12 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512012316/http://www.nigms.nih.gov/Initiatives/PGRN/Background/FactSheet.htm }}</ref> Watu hutofautiana katika uwezekano uliorithiwa wa kupatwa na kansa,<ref> http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15510167</ref> na kansa ni ugonjwa unaohusiana na jeni.<ref>[154] ^ {{cite book| author=Strachan T, Read AP| title=Human Molecular Genetics 2| year=1999| publisher=John Wiley & Sons Inc.| edition=second}} [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=hmg.chapter.2342 Chapter 18: Cancer Genetics]</ref> Mchakato wa ukuaji wa kansa katika mwili ni mchanganyiko wa matukio. Mara kwa mara mabadiliko hutokea ndani ya seli katika mwili wakati zinajigawa. Ingawa mabadiliko hayo hayatarithiwa na mtoto yeyote, yanaweza kuathiri tabia ya seli, wakati mwingine yakizifanya zikue na kujigawanya mara nyingi zaidi. Kuna taratibu za kibiolojia ambazo hujaribu kusimamisha mchakato huo; ishara hutumwa kwa seli inayojigawa visivyo ambayo inachochea kifo cha seli, lakini wakati mwingine mabadiliko ziada hutokea ambayo huzifanya seli ziupuuze ujumbe huo. Mchakato wa ndani ya uteuzi asilia hutokea ndani ya mwili na hatimaye mabadiliko hujilimbikiza ndani ya seli na kukuza ukuaji wa seli hizo, hivyo kujenga vivimbe vyenye kansa ambavyo hukua na kushambulia [[tishu]] mbalimbali za mwili. ===Mbinu za utafiti=== DNA inaweza kutawaliwa kiufundi katika [[maabara]]. Vimeng'enya vya uzuiaji ni aina ya [[Kimeng'enya|vimeng'enya]] ambayo hutumiwa sana na mabyo huikata DNA kwa mpangilio maalum, hivyo kuzalisha vipande vinavyoweza kutabirika vya DNA.<ref> Lodish et al. (2000), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mcb.section.1582 Chapter 7: 7.1.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mcb.section.1582 DNA Cloning with Plasmid Vectors]</ref> Vipande vya DNA vinaweza kuonekana kupitia matumizi ya [[elektroforesisi]] ya jeli, ambayo hutenganisha vipande kwa kuzingatia urefu wake. Matumizi ya vimeng'enya ligation huruhusu vipande vya DNA kushikamana, na kwa nguvu ya DNA ligating pamoja kutoka vyanzo mbalimbali, watafiti wanaweza kujenga DNA recombinant. Mara nyingi zinazohusiana na iliyopita viumbe genetiskt, DNA recombinant ni kawaida kutumika katika mazingira ya-fupi mviringo DNA vipande plasmids na wachache jeni ya juu yao. Kwa kuingiza plazmidi katika bakteria na kukuza bakteria hizi kwenye [[sahani za aga]] (ili kutenga seli za bakteria zilizoumbwa bila kuhusisha kujamiana), watafiti wanaweza kukuza kipande cha DNA kilichoingizwa kupitia uumbaji usiohusisha kujamiana (mchakato unaojulikana kama uumbaji wa molekuli usiohusisha kujamiana). (Neno kukloni, yaani kuumba bila kuhusisha kujamiana, pia linaweza kurejelea utengenezaji wa viumbe kwa njia hii, kupitia mbinu mbalimbali.) [[File:Ecoli colonies.png|thumb|right|175px|Vikundi vya E. coli kwenye sahani ya aga, ni mfano wa utengenezaji wa seli bila kujamiana na mara nyingi hutumika katika utengenezaji wa aina hii wa molekuli.]] DNA pia inaweza kukuzwa kwa kutumia utaratibu uitwao maitikio ya mfululizo ya polimerasi (PCR).<ref> Lodish et al. (2000), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?highlight=PCR&amp;rid=mcb.section.1718 Chapter 7: 7.7.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?highlight=PCR&amp;rid=mcb.section.1718 Polymerase Chain Reaction: An Alternative to Cloning]</ref> Kwa kutumia mipangilio mifupi na maalum ya DNA, utaratibu wa PCR unaweza kutenga na kukuza kipeo eneo lengwa la DNA. Kwa sababu inaweza kukuza kutoka kiasi kidogo mno cha DNA, PCR mara nyingi pia hutumika kugundua kuwepo kwa mwandamano maalum DNA. ===Mpangilio wa DNA na jenomiki=== Mojawapo ya teknolojia za msingi zilizotengenezwa kuchunguza jenetikia, upangaji DNA huruhusu watafiti kuamua mpangilio wa nyukleotidi katika vipande vya DNA. Mpangilio maalum wa upangaji DNA uliobuniwa na [[Frederick Sanger]] na wenzake mwaka [[1977]], sasa hutumika mara kwa mara kupanga vipande vya DNA.<ref>{{cite book |author=Brown TA |title=Genomes 2 |edition=2nd |year=2002 |isbn=1 85996 228 9 |chapterurl=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=genomes.section.6452 |chapter=Section 2, Chapter 6: 6.1. The Methodology for DNA Sequencing |publisher=Bios |location=Oxford}}</ref> Teknolojia hiyo imewawezesha watafiti kuchunguza mipangilio ya molekuli inayohusishwa na magonjwa mengi ya binadamu. Kutokana na kupungua kwa gharama ya upangaji, watafiti wamepanga jenomu za viumbe wengi, kwa kutumia zana za kuhesabu ili kuunganisha mipangilio ya vipande vingi tofauti (mchakato uitwao [[ukusanyaji jenomu]]).<ref>[159] ^ Brown (2002), [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=genomes.section.6481 Section 2, Chapter 6: 6.2.][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=genomes.section.6481 Assembly of a Contiguous DNA Sequence]</ref> Teknolojia hizo zilitumika kupanga jenomu ya binadamu, na kusababisha kukamilika kwa Mradi wa Jenomu ya Binadamu mwaka [[2003]].<ref name="human_genome_project">{{cite web |url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml |title=Human Genome Project Information |accessdate=15 Machi 2008 |publisher=Human Genome Project |archive-date=2008-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315062131/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> Teknolojia mpya zinapunguza kwa kasi gharama ya upangaji wa DNA, huku watafiti wengi wakitumaini kupunguza gharama ya upangaji upya wa jenomu ya binadamu hadi [[dola]] elfu.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.311.5767.1544 |pmid=16543431 |year=2006 |last1=Service |first1=RF |title=Gene sequencing. The race for the $1000 genome. |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-03-17_311_5767/page/1544 |volume=311 |issue=5767 |pages=1544–6 |journal=Science (New York, N.Y.)}}</ref> Kiasi kikubwa cha data ya mpangilio kinachoweza kupatikana kimesababisha taaluma ya [[jenomiki]], utafiti ambao hutumia zana za hesabu kutafuta na kuchunguza ruwaza katika jenomu kamili ya viumbe. Taaluma ya jenomiki pia inaweza kuchukuliwa kama tawi la taaluma ya [[bioinfomatiki]], ambayo hutumia mbinu za hesabu kuchambua seti kubwa za data ya biolojia. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{Rejea kitabu |author=Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, and Walter P |title=Molecular Biology of the Cell |edition=4th |year=2002 |isbn=0-8153-3218-1 |publisher=Garland Science |location=New York}} * {{Rejea kitabu |editor1-first=Anthony J. F. |editor1-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoge0000unse_v1d3 |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3520-2 |edition=7th |publisher=W. H. Freeman |location=New York |editor-first=William M.}} * {{Rejea kitabu |author=Hartl D, Jones E |title=Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes |url=https://archive.org/details/genetics00dani |edition=6th |publisher=Jones & Bartlett |year=2005 |isbn=0-7637-1511-5}} * {{Rejea kitabu |author=Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky LS, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, and Darnell J |title=Molecular Cell Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/molecularcellbio00lodi |edition=4th |year=2000 |isbn=0-7167-3136-3 |publisher=Scientific American Books |location=New York}} * {{Rejea kitabu |editor1-first=Guenther |editor1-last=Witzany |title=Natural Genetic Engineering and Natural Genome Editing |year=2009|publisher=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |location=New York |isbn=1573317659}} ISBN 978-57331-765-8 [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nyas.2009.1178.issue-1/issuetoc] [[Category:Jenetikia]] [[Category:Tiba]] jzvfjhjg9y8naq6ukgdjie3xwm7oex9 0 71721 1580139 1578046 2026-07-18T00:31:12Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580139 wikitext text/x-wiki {{otheruses2|Pai}} [[Picha:Pi-unrolled-720.gif|thumb|350px|Duara yenye kipenyo cha 1 ina mzingo mwenye urefu wa <big>π</big> ]] [[Picha:Pi eq C over d.svg|alt=A diagram of a circle, with the width labeled as diameter, and the perimeter labeled as circumference|thumb|right|350px|Uwiano wa [[urefu]] wa [[mzingo]] na ule wa [[kipenyo]] ni 3 na kitu. Uwiano kamili unaitwa π, pai.]] '''Pai''' ([[jina]] la [[herufi]] ya [[Kigiriki]] '''[[π]]''') ni [[namba]] ya [[duara]] kwa maana ya [[uwiano]] wa [[urefu]] wa [[mzingo (jiometria)|mzingo]] na ule wa [[kipenyo]]. Jinsi ilivyo kawaida kwa [[herufi]] mbalimbali za [[Kigiriki]], pai pia inatumika kama [[kifupisho]] kwa ajili ya [[maarifa]] na [[dhana]] za [[hesabu]] na [[fisikia]]. Imejulikana hasa kama namba ya duara. Ikiandikwa inanaza 3.141592653589793238462643... lakini haiwezi kuandikwa kamili kwa kuongeza tarakimu baada ya nukta maana hakuna mwisho. Namba za aina hii zisizo sehemu ya namba nyingine au ambazo haziwezi kuonyeshwa kuwa wianisho safi baina namba kamili huitwa [[namba zisizowiana]]. [[Chamkano]] cha 22/7 ni karibu zaidi na pai na 355/113 ni karibu zaidi tena. [[Wanahisabati]] duniani husheherekea [[sikukuu ya Pi|sikukuu ya pai]] tarehe [[14 Machi]] au pia [[22 Julai]]. == Marejeo == {{Reflist|20em}} {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|last=Arndt|first=Jörg|last2=Haenel|first2=Christoph|title=Pi Unleashed|publisher=Springer-Verlag|year=2006|isbn=978-3-540-66572-4 <!--isbn only volume 1-->|url=http://books.google.com/?id=QwwcmweJCDQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref=harv|accessdate=2013-06-05}} English translation by Catriona and David Lischka. * {{cite book|last=Ayers|first=Frank|title=Calculus|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1964|isbn=978-0-070-02653-7|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Berggren|first=Lennart|last2=Borwein|first2=Jonathan|author2-link=Jonathan Borwein|last3=Borwein|first3=Peter|author3-link=Peter Borwein|title=Pi: a Source Book|url=https://archive.org/details/pisourcebook0000unse_n4v4|publisher=Springer-Verlag|year=1997|isbn=978-0-387-20571-7|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Beckmann|first=Peter|title=History of Pi|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpisymbo00beck|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=1989|origyear=1974|isbn=978-0-88029-418-8|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Borwein|first=Jonathan|author1-link=|last2=Borwein|first2=Peter|author2-link=|title=Pi and the AGM: a Study in Analytic Number Theory and Computational Complexity|url=https://archive.org/details/piagmstudyinanal0000borw|publisher=Wiley|year=1987|isbn=978-0-471-31515-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Boyer|first=Carl B.|last2=Merzbach|first2=Uta C.|year=1991|title=A History of Mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye|edition=2|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-54397-8|ref=harv}}<!-- Year from ISBN. Original citatation was just to Boyer. Possible that edition is wrong and therefore page is wrong. Editions: Boyer 1968, Boyer/Merzbach 1989, Boyer/Merzbach 1991, Merzbach/Boyer 2010, Merzbach/Boyer 2011. Verify second: Hui and 3072-sided polygon is on cited page 202 of 1991 edition; page 228 of 1968 edition. Google snippet has a hit for 3.1456 on page 168 for 1991, but does not show the number. --> * {{cite book|last=Bronshteĭn|first=Ilia|last2=Semendiaev|first2=K. A.|title=A Guide Book to Mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/guidebooktomathe0000bron_o8p0|publisher=H. Deutsch|year=1971|isbn= 978-3-871-44095-3|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Eymard|first=Pierre|last2=Lafon|first2=Jean Pierre|title=The Number Pi|url=https://archive.org/details/numberpi0000eyma|publisher=American Mathematical Society|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8218-3246-2|ref=harv}}, English translation by Stephen Wilson. * {{cite book|last=Joseph|first=George Gheverghese|title=The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-691-13526-7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=c-xT0KNJp0cC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false%7C|ref=harv|accessdate=2013-06-05}}<!-- This ISBN is for the third edition from 2011! --> * {{cite book|last=Posamentier|first=Alfred S.|last2=Lehmann|first2=Ingmar|title=Pi: A Biography of the World's Most Mysterious Number|url=https://archive.org/details/pi00alfr_0|publisher=Prometheus Books|year=2004|isbn=978-1-59102-200-8|ref=harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Reitwiesner|first=George|title=An ENIAC Determination of pi and e to 2000 Decimal Places|journal=Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation|year=1950|volume=4|issue= 29|pages=11–15|doi=10.2307/2002695|ref=harv }} * {{cite journal|last=Roy|first=Ranjan|title=The Discovery of the Series Formula for pi by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mathematics-magazine_1990-12_63_5/page/291|journal=Mathematics Magazine|volume=63|issue=5|year=1990|pages=291–306|doi=10.2307/2690896|ref=harv }} * {{cite journal|last=Schepler|first=H. C.|title=The Chronology of Pi|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_mathematics-magazine_january-february-1950_23_3/page/165|journal=Mathematics Magazine|publisher=Mathematical Association of America|year=1950|volume=23|issue=3|pages=165–170 (Jan/Feb), 216–228 (Mar/Apr), and 279–283 (May/Jun)|doi=10.2307/3029284|ref=harv }}. [<!-- http://www.jstor.org/stable/3029284 -->http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3029284 issue 3 Jan/Feb], [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3029832 issue 4 Mar/Apr], [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3029000 issue 5 May/Jun] * {{cite book|last=Blatner|first=David|title=The Joy of Pi|publisher=Walker & Company|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8027-7562-7|doi= }} * [[Jonathan Borwein|Borwein, Jonathan]] and [[Peter Borwein|Borwein, Peter]], "The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean and Fast Computation of Elementary Functions", ''SIAM Review'', '''26'''(1984) 351–365 * Borwein, Jonathan, Borwein, Peter, and [[David H. Bailey|Bailey, David H.]], ''Ramanujan, Modular Equations, and Approximations to Pi or How to Compute One Billion Digits of Pi", ''The American Mathematical Monthly'', '''96'''(1989) 201–219 * [[Chudnovsky brothers|Chudnovsky, David V.]] and [[Chudnovsky brothers|Chudnovsky, Gregory V.]], "Approximations and Complex Multiplication According to Ramanujan", in ''Ramanujan Revisited'' (G.E. Andrews et al. Eds), Academic Press, 1988, pp 375–396, 468–472 * Cox, David A., "The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean of Gauss", ''L' Ensignement Mathematique'', '''30'''(1984) 275–330 * [[Jean-Paul Delahaye|Delahaye, Jean-Paul]], "Le Fascinant Nombre Pi", Paris: Bibliothèque Pour la Science (1997) ISBN 2-902918-25-9 * Engels, Hermann, "Quadrature of the Circle in Ancient Egypt", ''Historia Mathematica'' '''4'''(1977) 137–140 * [[Leonhard Euler|Euler, Leonhard]], "On the Use of the Discovered Fractions to Sum Infinite Series", in ''Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite. Book I'', translated from the Latin by J. D. Blanton, Springer-Verlag, 1964, pp 137–153 * Heath, T. L., ''The Works of Archimedes'', Cambridge, 1897; reprinted in ''The Works of Archimedes with The Method of Archimedes'', Dover, 1953, pp 91–98 * [[Christiaan Huygens|Huygens, Christiaan]], "De Circuli Magnitudine Inventa", ''Christiani Hugenii Opera Varia I'', Leiden 1724, pp 384–388 * [[Lam Lay Yong|Lay-Yong, Lam]] and Tian-Se, Ang, "Circle Measurements in Ancient China", ''Historia Mathematica'' '''13'''(1986) 325–340 * [[Ferdinand von Lindemann|Lindemann, Ferdinand]], [http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?id=11&PPN=PPN235181684_0020&DMDID=DMDLOG_0031&L=1 "Ueber die Zahl pi"] {{Wayback|url=http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/index.php?id=11&PPN=PPN235181684_0020&DMDID=DMDLOG_0031&L=1 |date=20150122054610 }}, ''Mathematische Annalen'' '''20'''(1882) 213–225 * Matar, K. Mukunda, and Rajagonal, C., "On the Hindu Quadrature of the Circle" (Appendix by K. Balagangadharan). ''Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society'' '''20'''(1944) 77–82 * [[Ivan M. Niven|Niven, Ivan]], "A Simple Proof that pi Is Irrational", ''Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society'', '''53''':7 (July 1947), 507 * [[Srinivasa Ramanujan|Ramanujan, Srinivasa]], "Modular Equations and Approximations to π", ''Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics'', '''XLV''', 1914, 350–372. Reprinted in G.H. Hardy, P.V. Seshu Aiyar, and B. M. Wilson (eds), ''Srinivasa Ramanujan: Collected Papers'', 1927 (reprinted 2000), pp 23–29 * [[William Shanks|Shanks, William]], ''Contributions to Mathematics {{sic|hide=y|Comprising}} Chiefly of the Rectification of the Circle to 607 Places of Decimals'', 1853, pp. i–xvi, 10 * [[Daniel Shanks|Shanks, Daniel]] and [[John Wrench|Wrench, John William]], "Calculation of pi to 100,000 Decimals", ''Mathematics of Computation'' '''16'''(1962) 76–99 * Tropfke, Johannes, ''Geschichte Der Elementar-Mathematik in Systematischer Darstellung'' (''The history of elementary mathematics''), BiblioBazaar, 2009 (reprint), ISBN 978-1-113-08573-3 * [[François Viète|Viete, Francois]], ''Variorum de Rebus Mathematicis Reponsorum Liber VII. F. Viete, Opera Mathematica'' (reprint), Georg Olms Verlag, 1970, pp 398–401, 436–446 * [[Stan Wagon|Wagon, Stan]], "Is Pi Normal?", ''The Mathematical Intelligencer'', '''7''':3(1985) 65–67 * [[John Wallis|Wallis, John]], ''Arithmetica Infinitorum, sive Nova Methodus Inquirendi in Curvilineorum Quadratum, aliaque difficiliora Matheseos Problemata'', Oxford 1655–6. Reprinted in vol. 1 (pp 357–478) of ''Opera Mathematica'', Oxford 1693 * Zebrowski, Ernest, ''A History of the Circle: Mathematical Reasoning and the Physical Universe'', Rutgers Univ Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-8135-2898-4 {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category}} * {{dmoz|Science/Math/Recreations/Specific_Numbers/Pi/Digits/|Digits of Pi}} * [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Pi.html "pai"] at Wolfram Mathworld * [http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=Representations+of+Pi Representations of pai] at [[Wolfram Alpha]] * [http://www.subidiom.com/pi pai Search Engine] 2 billion searchable digits of {{pi}}, {{math|{{sqrt|2}}}}, and {{math|''e''}} * {{cite web|last=Eaves|first=Laurence|title=Pi|url=http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/pi.htm|work=Sixty Symbols|publisher=[[Brady Haran]] for the [[University of Nottingham]]|authorlink=Laurence Eaves|year=2009|accessdate=2014-06-17|archive-date=2020-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200706021225/http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/pi.htm|url-status=dead}} * {{cite web|last=Grime|first=Dr. James|title=Pi is Beautiful – Numberphile|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NPoj8lk9Fo4|work=Numberphile|publisher=[[Brady Haran]]|year=2014}} {{mbegu-hisabati}} [[Jamii:Namba]] nw0lnoyuos06h2y005pe8isb8977wjt 0 71748 1580203 1545326 2026-07-18T01:17:07Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580203 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:ReformationsdenkmalGenf1.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|[[Ukuta wa Matengenezo]] mjini [[Geneva]], [[Uswisi]], unawaonyesha wanne kati ya Wakalvini wa kwanza; kutoka kushoto kwenda kulia ni: [[William Farel]], [[John Calvin]], [[Theodore Beza]], na [[John Knox]].]] {{Ukristo}} '''Wakalvini''' ni [[Wakristo]] [[Waprotestanti]] wanaofuata kimsingi mafundisho yaliyotolewa awali na [[Uldrik Zwingli]] na hasa [[John Calvin]] katika [[karne ya 16]]. Tofauti na Luther, Zwingli na Calvin walijaribu moja kwa moja kujenga [[kanisa]] jipya kwenye msingi wa [[Biblia]]. Hawakupenda kuchukua [[urithi]] wowote wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]], wakaunda kila kitu upya kufuatana na jinsi walivyoelewa Biblia. Katika [[utawala]] walikataa [[cheo]] cha [[uaskofu]] wakaona kanisa liongozwe na [[Mzee|wazee]] wa kuchaguliwa. Kutokana na neno wazee katika [[lugha]] ya [[Agano Jipya]] ([[Kigiriki]]) "presbyuteroi", kanisa lake linaitwa pia la "Wapresbiteri". Wafuasi wao huitwa pia "Wareformati" (to reform = kutengeneza upya). Maana yake walikataa [[desturi]] zote wasizoziona katika Biblia, wakati Luther alizikubali zile alizoziona hazipingi Biblia. Katika [[ibada]] zao, Wareformati wanakataa [[altari]], [[picha]] za kupamba kanisa au kuimba [[liturujia]], wakati ibada ya Kilutheri ni [[Misa]] ya Kikatoliki iliyobadilishwa kufuatana na mawazo ya Luther. Katika jambo hilo hawakupatana na ndiyo sababu kwa muda mrefu Walutheri na Wareformati walishindwa kuwa na ibada za pamoja, lakini siku hizi wanaelewana. Mafundisho hayo kutoka Uswisi yalienea katika nchi kama [[Ufaransa]], [[Uskoti]] na [[Uholanzi]]. Hata [[Wamoravia]] walichukua sehemu ya mafundisho ya Wareformati, hasa juu ya [[Chakula cha Bwana]], wakimfuata Luther katika mambo mengine. [[Afrika Kusini]] urithi wa kidini wa [[Makaburu]] ni wa Kireformati kwa sababu [[babu]] zao walitokea Uholanzi na Ufaransa. Vilevile ni [[wamisionari]] kutoka Uswisi na Uskoti walioanzisha mapema makanisa ya Kipresbiteri [[Malawi]], [[Kenya]] na [[Afrika Magharibi]]. Kadiri ya asili, [[madhehebu]] yao yanaitwa kwa [[Kiingereza]] [[Reformed]], [[Congregationalists]] au [[Presbyterians]]. Leo yana jumla ya waamini zaidi ya milioni 80, wengi wao wakiwa wameunganika katika "[[World Communion of Reformed Churches]]". ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book |last=Allen |first=R. Michael |title=Reformed Theology |url=https://archive.org/details/reformedtheology0000alle |series=Doing Theology |year=2010|publisher=[[T&T Clark]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0567034304 |ref=harv}} * {{Citation|editor-last=Bagchi|editor-first=David V. N.|editor2-last=Steinmetz|editor2-first=David Curtis|editor2-link=David Steinmetz|title=The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology|year=2004|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-77662-7}} * {{Citation | last = Cottret | first =Bernard | trans_title =Calvin: A Biography | publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans | year =2000 | place = Grand Rapids, Michigan| isbn = 0-8028-3159-1|title=Calvin: Biographie|origyear=1995|language=French|others=Translated by M. Wallace McDonald}} * {{cite book |last=DeVries |first=Dawn |chapter=Rethinking the Scripture Principle |editor1-last=Alston |editor1-first=Wallace M. Jr. |editor2-last=Welker |editor2-first=Michael |editor2-link=Michael Welker |title=Reformed Theology: Identity and Ecumenicity |url=https://archive.org/details/reformedtheology0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=978-0802847768 |ref=harv}} * {{Citation|editor-last=Furcha|editor-first=E. J.|title=Huldrych Zwingli, 1484–1531: A Legacy of Radical Reform: Papers from the 1984 International Zwingli Symposium McGill University|year=1985|place=Montreal|publisher=Faculty of Religious Studies, McGill University|isbn=0-7717-0124-1}}. * {{Citation | last = Holder | first = R. Ward | contribution = Calvin's heritage | year =2004 | editor-last =McKim | editor-first =Donald K. | title =The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin | place =Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn =978-0-521-01672-8}} * {{Citation|last=Gäbler|first=Ulrich|title=Huldrych Zwingli: His Life and Work|publication-place=Philadelphia|year=1986|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=0-8006-0761-9}} * {{Citation | last = Ganoczy | first = Alexandre | contribution = Calvin's life | year =2004 | editor-last =McKim | editor-first =Donald K. | title =The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin | place =Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn =978-0-521-01672-8}} * {{Citation | last = McGrath | first =Alister E. | authorlink =Alister McGrath | title =A Life of John Calvin | publisher=Basil Blackwell | year =1990 | place = Oxford| isbn = 0-631-16398-0}}. * {{cite book|last=Muller|first=Richard A.|authorlink=Richard Muller (theologian)|title=The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_o2y9|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0521776622|chapter=John Calvin and later Calvinism|editor1-last=Bagchi|editor1-first=David|editor2-last=Steinmetz|editor2-first=David C|ref=harv}} * {{Citation | last = Parker | first =T. H. L. | title =John Calvin: A Biography | publisher=Lion Hudson plc | year =2006 | place = Oxford| isbn = 978-0-7459-5228-4}}. * {{Citation|last=Stephens|first=W. P.|title=The Theology of Huldrych Zwingli|publication-place=Oxford|year=1986|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=0-19-826677-4}}. * {{cite wikisource |title=Westminster Confession of Faith|year=1646 |ref = {{harvid|WCF|1646}}}} ==Marejeo mengine== * {{cite book |editor1-last=Alston |editor1-first=Wallace M. Jr. |editor2-last=Welker |editor2-first=Michael|editor2-link=Michael Welker|title=Reformed Theology: Identity and Ecumenicity |url=https://archive.org/details/reformedtheology0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=978-0802847768}} * {{cite book |last=Benedict |first=Philip |authorlink=Philip Benedict |title=Christ's Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism |url=https://archive.org/details/christschurchesp0000bene |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0300105070}} * Balserak, Jon (2014). ''John Calvin as Sixteenth-Century Prophet.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. [http://global.oup.com/academic/product/john-calvin-as-sixteenth-century-prophet-9780198703259?q=Balserak&lang=en&cc=gb/ ISBN 9780198-703259] * Bratt, James D. (1984) ''Dutch Calvinism in Modern America: A History of a Conservative Subculture'' [http://www.amazon.com/Dutch-Calvinism-Modern-America-Conservative/dp/0802800092/ excerpt and text search] * Hart, D.G. (2013). ''Calvinism: A History.'' New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, [http://www.amazon.com/Calvinism-Darryl-Hart-ebook/dp/B00D6II2JO/ excerpt and text search] * {{cite book |last=McNeill |first=John Thomas|title=The History and Character of Calvinism|url=https://archive.org/details/historycharacter0000mcne |year=1967|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1954|isbn=978-0195007435}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Leith|first=John H.|title=An Introduction to the Reformed Tradition: A Way of Being the Christian Community|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontore0000leit_y6q2|year=1980|isbn=978-0804204798|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|authorlink=John H. Leith}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Muller|first=Richard A.|title=The Unaccommodated Calvin: Studies in the Foundation of a Theological Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/unaccommodatedca0000mull|year=2001|isbn=978-0195151688|authorlink=Richard Muller (theologian)|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Muller|first=Richard A.|title=After Calvin: Studies in the Development of a Theological Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/aftercalvenstudi0000rich|year=2003|isbn=978-0195157017|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|author-mask=8}} * Picken, Stuart D.B. (2011) ''Historical Dictionary of Calvinism'' (2011) [http://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Calvinism-Dictionaries-Philosophies/dp/0810872242/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1402910792&sr=1-1&keywords=9780810872240 excerpt] * {{Rejea kitabu |editor-last=Small|editor-first=Joseph D.|title=Conversations with the Confessions: Dialogue in the Reformed Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/conversationswit0000unse_u5p7|year=2005|isbn=978-0664502485|publisher=Geneva Press}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{sister project links|v=no|n=no|q=no|b=no|voy=no|s=Portal:Calvinism}} * [http://www.reformed.org/calvinism/index.html?mainframe=/calvinism/5Points_Dabney.html "Five Points of Calvinism"] {{Wayback|url=http://www.reformed.org/calvinism/index.html?mainframe=%2Fcalvinism%2F5Points_Dabney.html |date=20190104134319 }} by [[Robert Lewis Dabney]]. {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Uprotestanti]] [[Jamii:Wakalvini]] 0buaqyt4yw99g8xb9w6zd6x7tby82v9 0 71844 1580255 1578066 2026-07-18T01:54:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580255 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox disease | Name = Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | Image = Centrilobular emphysema 865 lores.jpg | Caption = [[Gross pathology]] of a lung showing centrilobular-type emphysema characteristic of smoking. This close-up of the [[Fixation (histology)|fixed]], cut lung surface shows multiple cavities lined by heavy [[black carbon]] deposits. | Diseased = 2672 | ICD10 = {{ICD10|J|40||j|40}}–{{ICD10|J|44||j|40}}, {{ICD10|J|47||j|40}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|490}}–{{ICD9|492}}, {{ICD9|494}}–{{ICD9|496}} | OMIM = 606963 | MedlinePlus = 000091 | eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 373 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|99}} | MeshName = COPD | MeshNumber = C08.381.495.389 }} '''Ugonjwa sugu wa njia za pumzi zilizofungana''' (unaojulikana pia kama '''Ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana''', '''ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana''', '''ugonjwa sugu wa njia za pumzi zilizofungana''' na '''ugonjwa sugu wa njia za pumzi zilizofunana''' pamoja na majina mengine), ni aina ya [[ugonjwa wa mapafu yaliyofungana]] unaodhihirika kwa hali duni na sugu ya [[upitaji wa pumzi]].<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> --> Hali hii kwa kawaida huendelea kuwa mbaya zaidi baada ya muda.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> --> Dalili zake kuu ni [[kupungukiwa na pumzi]], [[kukohoa]], na kutoa [[makohozi]].<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Watu wengi walio na '''[[bronkitisi sugu]]''' wana ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana.<ref name=Harr2012/> [[Uvutaji tumbaku]] ndio kisababishi kikuu cha ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana, pamoja na vipengele vingine kama vile [[uchafuzi wa hewa]] huku [[jenetikia]] ikichangia kwa kiwango kidogo.<ref name=Lancet2012>{{cite journal |author=Decramer M, Janssens W, Miravitlles M |title=Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_april-7-13-2012_379_9823/page/1341 |journal=Lancet |volume=379 |issue=9823 |pages=1341–51 |year=2012 |month=April |pmid=22314182 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60968-9}}</ref> Katika nchi zinazoendelea, chanzo kikuu cha uchafuzi wa [[hewa]] ni kupikia au kuwasha [[moto]] mahali pasipo hewa ya kutosha. [[Mazingira]] ya muda mrefu wa miwasho hii husababisha [[inflamesheni|mwitikio wa inflamesheni]] kwenye mapafu, hivyo kupelekea njia za pumzi kuwa nyembamba na kuharibika kwa [[tishu]] za ma[[pafu]], hali iitwayo '''[[emfisema]]'''.<ref name=GOLD2007>{{cite journal | author = Rabe KF, Hurd S, Anzueto A, Barnes PJ, Buist SA, Calverley P, Fukuchi Y, Jenkins C, Rodriguez-Roisin R, van Weel C, Zielinski J | title = Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: GOLD executive summary | journal = Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. | volume = 176 | issue = 6 | pages = 532–55 | year = 2007 | month = September | pmid = 17507545 | doi = 10.1164/rccm.200703-456SO | url = http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/content/176/6/532.long | archive-date = 2013-01-02 | access-date = 2014-06-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130102150149/http://ajrccm.atsjournals.org/content/176/6/532.long | url-status = dead }}</ref> Utambuzi huo ni kwa msingi wa hali duni ya kupita kwa pumzi kama ilivyopimwa kwa [[kipimo cha utendakazi wa njia za pumzi|kipimo cha utendakazi wa mapafu]].<ref name=Nathell>{{cite journal | author = Nathell L, Nathell M, Malmberg P, Larsson K | title = COPD diagnosis related to different guidelines and spirometry techniques | journal = Respir. Res. | volume = 8 | issue = 1| pages = 89 | year = 2007 | pmid = 18053200 | pmc = 2217523 | doi = 10.1186/1465-9921-8-89 }}</ref> Ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana unaweza kuzuiliwa kwa kupunguza uhatarisho wa visababishi vinavyojulikana. Hii hujumuisha juhudi za kupunguza viwango vya uvutaji na kuboresha hali ya hewa ya ndani na nje ya majengo. Mbinu za matibabu ya ugonjwa huu ni [[kuacha uvutaji]], [[chanjo]], [[urekebeshaji mapafu]], na mara nyingi [[vipanua bronkasi]] vya kupumuliwa na [[kotikosteroidi|steroidi]]. Kinyume na [[pumu]], hali ya upitaji wa pumzi haiboreshwi sana na [[matibabu]]. Baadhi ya watu wanaweza kunufaika na [[matibabu ya oksijeni]] ya muda mrefu au [[kupandikiza mapafu]].<ref name=GOLD2007/> Kwa watu walio na vipindi vya kuzidi kwa ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana, ongezeko la utumiaji [[dawa]] na kulazwa [[hospitali]]ni kunaweza kuhitajika. [[Dunia]]ni kote, ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana huathiri watu milioni 329&nbsp; au takriban asilimia 5 ya idadi yote ya watu. Mwaka [[2011]], ugonjwa huo ulikadiriwa kuwa kisababishi kikuu cha nne cha [[kifo|vifo]], ukiwaua zaidi ya watu milioni 3&nbsp;.<ref>{{cite web |title=The 10 leading causes of death in the world, 2000 and 2011 |month=July |year=2013 |publisher=World Health Organization |url=http://who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/en/ |accessdate=November 29, 2013}}</ref> Idadi ya vifo imetabiriwa kuongezeka kutokana na viwango vya juu vya uvutaji na idadi ya watu wanaozeeka katika nchi nyingi.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mathers CD, Loncar D |title=Projections of Global Mortality and Burden of Disease from 2002 to 2030 |journal=PLoS Med. |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=e442 |year=2006 |month=November |pmid=17132052 |pmc=1664601 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030442 |url=http://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030442}}</ref> Ugonjwa huu ulisababisha [[hasara]] ya kiuchumi iliyokadiriwa kuwa [[dola]] trilioni 2.1&nbsp;mwaka [[2010]].<ref name=Cost2013>{{cite book|last=Lomborg|first=Bjørn|title=Global problems, local solutions : costs and benefits|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Pres|isbn=978-1-107-03959-9|page=143|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=cRZaAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA143}}</ref> ==Ishara na dalili== {{listen | filename = Wheeze2O.ogg | title = Wheezing | description = The sound of wheezing as heard with a stethoscope. | format = [[Ogg]] }} Dalili kuu za ugonjwa huu ni makohozi, [[dispinia|ugumu wa kupumua]] na kutoa kikohozi.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2>{{cite book |last=Vestbo |first=Jørgen |title=Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease |year=2013 |publisher=Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease |pages=9–17 |chapter=Diagnosis and Assessment |chapterurl=http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#26 |access-date=2014-06-23 |archive-date=2013-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234113/http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#26 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Dalili hizi huwepo kwa muda mrefu<ref name=Harr2012>{{cite book |first1=John J. |last1=Reilly |first2=Edwin K. |last2=Silverman |first3=Steven D. |last3=Shapiro |chapter=Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease |pages=2151–9 |editor1-first=Dan |editor1-last=Longo |editor2-first=Anthony |editor2-last=Fauci |editor3-first=Dennis |editor3-last=Kasper |editor4-first=Stephen |editor4-last=Hauser |editor5-first=J. |editor5-last=Jameson |editor6-first=Joseph |editor6-last=Loscalzo |year=2011 |title=Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine |edition=18th |publisher=McGraw Hill |isbn=978-0-07-174889-6}}</ref> na huzidi jinsi muda unavyopita.<ref name=GOLD2007/> Haijabainika iwapo kuna aina mbalimbali za ugonjwa huu.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Huku ugonjwa huu ukiainishwa katika emfisema na bronkitisi sugu, emfisema ni kielelezo tu cha mabadiliko ya mapafu wala si ugonjwa bayana, nayo bronkitisi sugu ni kielelezo cha dalili tu zinazoweza kutokea au kutotokea pamoja na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1>{{cite book |last=Vestbo |first=Jørgen |title=Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease |year=2013 |publisher=Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease |pages=1–7 |chapter=Definition and Overview |chapterurl=http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#18 |access-date=2014-06-23 |archive-date=2013-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234113/http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#18 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> ===Kikohozi=== Kwa kawaida, kikohozi sugu ndiyo dalili ya kwanza kutokea.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> --> Inapokuwepo kwa zaidi ya miezi mitatu kwa mwaka kwa zaidi ya miaka miwili ikiandamana na utoaji wa kikohozi na bila kisababishi kingine, basi hali hii itatambulika kama bronkitisi sugu.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> --> Hali hii inaweza kutokea kabla ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana kutokea kabisa.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> --> Kiasi cha makohozi yanayotolewa kinaweza kubadilika baada ya saa hadi siku kadhaa.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> --> Katika visa vingine, kikohozi kinaweza kutokuwepo au kitokee mara nadra, na kinaweza kutokuwa na makohozi.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> --> Watu wengine walio na ugonjwa huu hudhani dalili hizi ni "kikohozi cha mvutaji".<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> --> Makohozi yanaweza kumezwa au kutemwa kulingana na jamii na tamaduni.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> --> Kukohoa sana kunaweza kusababisha [[kuvunjika mbavu]] au [[Kuzirai(matibabu)|kupoteza fahamu kwa muda mfupa]].<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> --> Watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana mara nyingi huwa na historia ya "[[mafua]]" yanayodumu kwa muda mrefu.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> ===Ugumu wa kupumua=== Ugumu wa kupumua mara nyingi ndiyo dalili inayowatatiza watu zaidi.<ref name=NICE2010P60>{{NICE|101|Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary |June 2010|60-70}}</ref> Kwa kawaida watu hueleza tatizo hili kwa kusema: "kupumua kwangu kunahitaji juhudi kuu," "Najihisi nimekosa pumzi," au " sipati pumzi za kutosha".<ref name=Mahler2006>{{cite journal |author=Mahler DA|title=Mechanisms and measurement of dyspnea in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society|volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=234–8 |year=2006 |pmid=16636091 |doi=10.1513/pats.200509-103SF}}</ref> Hata hivyo, maneno tofauti yanaweza kutumika katika mila tofauti.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> Kwa kawaida, ugumu wa kupumua huzidi mtu anapojaribu kupumua kwa nguvu, baada ya hali hii kudumu kwa muda mrefu, na huzidi baada ya muda.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> Katika awamu za baadaye, ugumu wa kupumua hutokea wakati wa kupumzika na unaweza kuwepo kila wakati.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Are the Signs and Symptoms of COPD? |date=July 31, 2013 |publisher=[[National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute]] |url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/copd/signs.html |accessdate=November 29, 2013}}</ref><ref name=MedlinePlus>{{MedlinePlusEncyclopedia|000091|Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease}}</ref> Ugumu wa kupumua ni chanzo cha wasiwasi na hali duni ya maisha kwa watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> Watu wengi walio na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana ulioendelea [[kupumua kwa midomo iliyofunguka kidogo|hupumua kupitia midomo iliyofunguka kidogo]] na hatua hii inaweza kuboresha kupumua katika baadhi ya watu.<ref>{{cite book|last=Morrison|first=[edited by] Nathan E. Goldstein, R. Sean|title=Evidence-based practice of palliative medicine|publisher=Elsevier/Saunders|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-4377-3796-7|page=124|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=j0rCsKtCnq8C&pg=PA124|year=2013}}</ref><ref name=Holland2012>{{cite journal | author = Holland AE, Hill CJ, Jones AY, McDonald CF | title = Breathing exercises for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = 10 | issue = | pages = CD008250 | year = 2012 | pmid = 23076942 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008250.pub2 | editor1-last = Holland | editor1-first = Anne E }}</ref> ===Vipengele vingine=== Katika ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana, inaweza kuchukua muda mrefu zaidi kutoa pumzi kuliko kuivuta.<ref name=EB2008/> Kubanwa kifua kunaweza kutokea<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> ingawa hakutokei sana na kunaweza kusababishwa na tatizo lingine.<ref name=NICE2010P60/> Watu walio na njia za pumzi zilizofungana wanaweza kuwa na [[korota|kukorota]] au sauti ndogo pumzi inapoingia mapafuni, wanapochunguzwa kwa [[stethoskopu]].<ref name=EB2008/> [[Kifua cha duara]] ni dalili bayana ya ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana lakini huwa nadra.<ref name=EB2008/> [[Hali ya kiweko chenye miguu mitatu]]inaweza kutokea ugonjwa unapozidi.<ref name=Harr2012/> Ugonjwa huu ukizidi husababisha[[hipatenshani ya mapafu|shinikizo kwenye ateri za mapafu]], ambayo hushinikiza [[kushindwa kwa moyo#Kushindwa kwa moyo upande wa kulia|ventrikali ya kulia ya moyo]].<ref name=GOLD2007/><ref name=Weit2009>{{cite journal | author = Weitzenblum E, Chaouat A | title = Cor pulmonale | journal = Chron Respir Dis | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 177–85 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19643833 | doi = 10.1177/1479972309104664 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Professional guide to diseases |year=2009 |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-7817-7899-2 |pages=120–2 |chapter=Cor pulmonale |chapterurl=http://books.google.ca/books?id=1h6vu60L6FcC&pg=PA120 |edition=9th}}</ref> Hali hii huitwa [[ugonjwa wa moyo na mapafu]], na husababisha dalili za [[edema ya pembeni|kufura miguu]]<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> na [[kupanuka kwa mishipa ya shingo|kufura kwa mishipa ya shingo]].<ref name=GOLD2007/> Ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana hutokea zaidi kuliko ugonjwa mwingine wowote wa mapafu kama kisababishi cha ugonjwa wa moyo na mapafu.<ref name=Weit2009/> Ugonjwa wa moyo na mapafu umekuwa nadra tangu kuvumbuliwa kwa oksijeni ya mtungi. <ref name=Harr2012/> Mara nyingi ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana hutokea pamoja na magonjwa mengine kufuatia vipengele vinavyosababisha magonjwa haya yote.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Magonjwa haya ni pamoja na: [[ugonjwa wa moyo wenye iskemia]], [[hipetensheni|shinikizo la juu la damu]], [[kisukari melitasi]], kuharibika kwa misuli, [[osteoporosisi]], [[saratani ya mapafu]], [[hali ya wasiwasi]] na [[mfadhaiko mkuu|mfadhaiko]].<ref name=Lancet2012/> Hisia ya kuwa na [[Uchovu (kimatibabu)|kuchoka]] kila wakati hutokea sana kwa watu walio na ugonjwa mkali.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> [[Kucharungu|Kucha za vidole kurungungika]] ni hali isiyotokea katika ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana pekee, hivyo inapaswa kuchunguzwa mara moja ili kubaini hali fiche ya saratani ya mapafu.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mandell|first=editors, James K. Stoller, Franklin A. Michota, Jr., Brian F.|title=The Cleveland Clinic Foundation intensive review of internal medicine|year=2009|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-9079-6|page=419|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=O9F7wtiPWxgC&pg=PA419|edition=5th}}</ref> ===Maumivu zaidi=== Maumivu makali zaidi [[Maumivu zaidi ya ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana|maumivu makali zaidi ya ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana]] hufasiliwa kama ongezeko la ugumu wa kupumua, ongezeko la utoaji makohozi, kubalidika kwa rangi ya makohozi kutoka meupe hadi ya kijani kibichi au manjano, au ongezeko la kikohozi kwa mtu aliye na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana<ref name=EB2008/> Hali hii inaweza kujidhihirisha pamoja na[[dalili ya kimatibabu|dalili]] za ongezeko la juhudi za kupumua kama vile [[takipnia|kupumua kwa haraka]], [[takikadia|kima cha kasi cha mdundo wa moyo]], [[diaforesi|kutokwa na jasho]], kutumia [[misuli ya kupumua|misuli ya shingo]] sana, [[sianosisi|alama ya buluu ngozini]], na [[Kuchanganyikiwa akili|kuchanganyikiwa]] au tabia ya ukaidi katika maumivu zaidi.<ref name=EB2008>{{cite journal|last=Gruber|first=Phillip|title=The Acute Presentation of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease In the Emergency Department: A Challenging Oxymoron|journal=Emergency Medicine Practice|year=2008|month=November|volume=10|issue=11|url=http://www.ebmedicine.net/topics.php?paction=showTopic&topic_id=63}}</ref><ref name=Burl2012>{{cite journal | author = Brulotte CA, Lang ES | title = Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the emergency department | journal = Emerg. Med. Clin. North Am. | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | pages = 223–47, vii | year = 2012 | month = May | pmid = 22487106 | doi = 10.1016/j.emc.2011.10.005 }}</ref> [[Sauti]] pia zinaweza kusikika kwenye mapafu yanapochunguzwa kwa stethoskopu.<ref>{{cite book|last=Spiro|first=Stephen|title=Clinical respiratory medicine expert consult|publisher=Saunders|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-1-4557-2329-4|page=Chapter 43|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=2sOJk-yKPpUC&pg=PT2420|edition=4th |year=2012}}</ref> ==Kisababishi== Kisababishi kikuu cha ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana ni moshi wa tumbaku; huku uhatarisho katika mazingira ya kazini na uchafuaji kutokana na mioto ya dani ya nyumba ukiwa kisababishi kikuu katika baadhi ya nchi. <ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Kwa kawaida, uhatarisho huu lazima utokee miongo mingi kabla ya dalili kutokea.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Maumbile ya kijenetiki pia huathiri uhatarisho wa mtu.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> ===Uvutaji=== {{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=Female Smoking by Country.png|image2=Male Smoking by Country.png|width=250|caption1=Percentage of females smoking tobacco as of the late 1990s early 2000s|caption2=Percentage of males smoking tobacco as of the late 1990s early 2000s. Note the scales used for females and males differ.<ref name="isbn92-4-159628-7">{{cite book | author = World Health Organization | title = WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008: The MPOWER Package | edition = | language = | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva | year = 2008 | isbn = 92-4-159628-7 | url = http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_full_2008.pdf |pages=268–309}}</ref>}} Kisababishi hatari kikuu cha ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana duniani kote ni uvutaji wa tumbaku.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Takriban aslilimia 20 ya wavutaji hupata ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana,<ref name=Ward2012>{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Helen|title=Oxford Handbook of Epidemiology for Clinicians|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-165478-7|pages=289–290|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=dHLjLwru-l8C&pg=RA1-PT194#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> na kwa watu wanaovuta maisha yao yote, takriban nusu yao hupata ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana<ref name=La2009>{{cite journal|last=Laniado-Laborín|first=R|title=Smoking and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Parallel epidemics of the 21st century|journal=International journal of environmental research and public health|date=January 2009|volume=6|issue=1|pages=209–24|pmid=19440278|doi=10.3390/ijerph6010209|pmc=2672326}}</ref> Nchini Marekani na Uingereza, katika watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana, asilimia 80-95 ni wavutaji wakati huo au walivuta awali.<ref name=Ward2012/><ref name=Ren2013>{{cite book|last=Rennard|first=Stephen|title=Clinical management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|year=2013|publisher=Informa Healthcare|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8493-7588-0|page=23|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=DiTThQJkc0UC&pg=PA23|edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name=Rich2010>{{cite book|author=Anita Sharma ; with a contribution by David Pitchforth ; forewords by Gail Richards|title=COPD in primary care|year=2010|publisher=Radcliffe Pub.|location=Oxford|isbn=978-1-84619-316-3|page=9|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CrXFqhezbeMC&pg=PA9|coauthors=Barclay, Joyce}}</ref> Uwezekano wa kupata ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana huongezeka na [[idadi ya miaka|uhatarisho kamili wa moshi]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Goldman|first=Lee|title=Goldman's Cecil medicine|publisher=Elsevier/Saunders|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-4377-1604-7|page=537|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Qd-vvNh0ee0C&pg=PA537|edition=24th|year=2012}}</ref> Isitoshe, wanawake wana uwezekano zaidi wa kuathiriwa na moshi kuliko wanaume.<ref name=Rich2010/> Kwa watu wasio wavutaji, [[moshi unaotokana na watu wengine]] ni kisababishi cha takriban asilimia 20 ya visa.<ref name=Ren2013/> Aina zingine za moshi kama vile bangi, sigara na shisha pia zina athari.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Wanawake wanaovuta wakati wa[[ujauzito]] wanaweza kuongeza hatari ya ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana kwa watoto wao.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> ===Uchafuzi wa hewa === Mioto ya kupikia katika vyuma visivyo na hewa safi ya kutosha, na ambayo mara nyingi hutokana na makaa au [[nishati hai]] kama vile kuni na kinyesi cha wanyama, hupelekea [[ubora wa hewa ndani ya nyumba|uchafuzi wa hewa wa ndani ya nyumba]] na ni visababishi vikuu vya ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana katika [[nchi inayostawi|nchi zinazostawi]].<ref name=Ken2007>{{cite journal |author=Kennedy SM, Chambers R, Du W, Dimich-Ward H|title=Environmental and occupational exposures: do they affect chronic obstructive pulmonary disease differently in women and men?|journal=Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society|volume=4 |issue=8 |pages=692–4 |year=2007 |month=December|pmid=18073405 |url=http://pats.atsjournals.org/cgi/content/full/4/8/692 |doi=10.1513/pats.200707-094SD}}</ref> Mioto hii ni mbinu ya kupikia na kupasha moto kwa takriban watu bilioni 3&nbsp;athari zake za kiafya zikiwa juu katika wanawake kutokana na uhatarisho zaidi.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/><ref name=Ken2007/> Mioto hii hutumika kama chanzo kikuu cha nishati katika asilimia 80 za jamii nchini India, China na [[mataifa ya kusini mwa Sahara]].<ref name=Piro2012/> Watu wanaoishi katika miji mikubwa wana kiwango kikubwa zaidi cha ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana ikilinganishwa na watu wanaoishi vijijini <ref>{{cite journal|author=Halbert RJ, Natoli JL, Gano A, Badamgarav E, Buist AS, Mannino DM |title=Global burden of COPD: systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/european-respiratory-journal_2006-09_28_3/page/523 |journal=Eur. Respir. J. |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=523–32 |year=2006 |month=September|pmid=16611654|doi=10.1183/09031936.06.00124605 }}</ref> Huku [[uchafuzi wa hewa]] mijini ni kipengele kisababishi cha maumivu zaidi, jukumu lake la kijumla kama kisababishi cha ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana si bayana.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Sehemu zilizo na hali duni za pumzi nje ya nyumba zikijumuisha [[gesi ya mitambo]], kwa kawaida zina viwango vya juu vya ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana.<ref name=Piro2012/> Hata hivyo, athari ya kijumla ya uchafuzi huu ikilinganishwa na uvutaji inaaminika kuwa ndogo.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> ===Hatari kazini=== Uhatarisho mkali na wa muda mrefu kwa vumbi, kemikali na moshi kazini huongeza hatari ya ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana kwa wavutaji na wasiovuta.<ref name=Dev2006/> Uhatarisho kazini unaaminika kuwa kisababishi katika asilimia 10-20 ya visa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Laine|first=Christine|title=In the Clinic: Practical Information about Common Health Problems|year=2009|publisher=ACP Press|isbn=978-1-934465-64-6|page=226|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=bvg9he4FOB0C&pg=PA226}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, uhatarisho huu unaaminika kuhusiana na zaidi ya asilimia 30 ya visa katika watu wasiowahi kuvuta, na inawezekana huwakilisha hatari kubwa zaidi katika nchi zisizo na sheria za kutosha.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Viwanda na vyanzo kadhaa vimelaumiwa, ikiwa ni pamoja na <ref name=Piro2012/> viwango vya juu vya vumbi katika [[uchimbaji makaa ya mawe]], [[uchimbaji dhahabu]], na viwanda vya nguo za pamba, kazi zinazohusisha [[kadimiamu]] na [[isosianati]], na moshi wa [[kulehemu]].<ref name=Dev2006>{{cite journal |doi=10.1136/bmj.332.7550.1142 |title=Definition, epidemiology and risk factors |year=2006 |last1=Devereux |first1=Graham |journal=BMJ |volume=332 |issue=7550 |pages=1142–4 |pmid=16690673 |pmc=1459603}}</ref> Kufanya kazi ya kilimo pia ni hatari.<ref name=Piro2012/> Katika kazi zingine, hatari imekadiriwa kuwa sawa na pakiti nusu hadi mbili za sigara kila siku.<ref name=Barn2009/> Uhatarisho wa vumbi ya[[silika]] pia unaweza kusababisha ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana, na hatari isiyohusiana na ile ya [[silikosisi]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1515/REVEH.2007.22.4.255 |title=Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Occupational Exposure to Silica |year=2007 |last1=Rushton |first1=Lesley |journal=Reviews on Environmental Health |volume=22 |issue=4 |pmid=18351226 |pages=255–72}}</ref> Athari za uhatarisho wa vumbi na moshi wa sigara huonekana kuwa ya kikemikali au hata zaidi.<ref name=Barn2009>{{cite book |editor1-first=Peter J. |editor1-last=Barnes |editor2-first=Jeffrey M. |editor2-last=Drazen |editor3-first=Stephen I. |editor3-last=Rennard |editor4-first=Neil C. |editor4-last=Thomson |year=2009 |chapter=Relationship between cigarette smoking and occupational exposures |chapterurl=http://books.google.ca/books?id=HY9PiQL3kQMC&pg=PA464 |title=Asthma and COPD: Basic Mechanisms and Clinical Management |publisher=Academic |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-12-374001-4 |page=464}}</ref> ===Jenetiki=== Jenetiki huchangia pakubwa katika kutokea kwa ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Ugonjwa huu hutokea zaidi katika jamaa ya watu walio na ugonjwa huu wanaovuta kuliko watu wasiohusiana na wavutaji.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Kwa sasa, athari hatari bayana inayorithiwa ni [[ukosefu wa kinza tripsini ya alfa ya 1]].<ref name=Foreman2012>{{cite journal | author = Foreman MG, Campos M, Celedón JC | title = Genes and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-clinics-of-north-america_2012-07_96_4/page/699 | journal = Med. Clin. North Am. | volume = 96 | issue = 4 | pages = 699–711 | year = 2012 | month = July | pmid = 22793939 | pmc = 3399759 | doi = 10.1016/j.mcna.2012.02.006 }}</ref> Hatari hii iko juu zaidi hasa iwapo mtu aliye na upungufu wa [[kinza tripsini ya alfa ya 1]] pia ni mvutaji.<ref name=Foreman2012/> Hatari hii huchangia takriban asilimia 1-5 ya visa<ref name=Foreman2012/><ref name=Brode2012>{{cite journal | author = Brode SK, Ling SC, Chapman KR | title = Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency: a commonly overlooked cause of lung disease | journal = CMAJ | volume = 184 | issue = 12 | pages = 1365–71 | year = 2012 | month = September | pmid = 22761482 | pmc = 3447047 | doi = 10.1503/cmaj.111749 }}</ref> na ugonjwa huwepo katika takriban watu 3-4 kwa kila 10,000.<ref name=Harr2012/> Hatari zingine za jenetekia zingali zinachunguzwa,<ref name=Foreman2012/>, ambapo kuna uwezekano wa kutambua nyingi.<ref name=Piro2012>{{cite journal | author = Pirozzi C, Scholand MB | title = Smoking cessation and environmental hygiene | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-clinics-of-north-america_2012-07_96_4/page/849 | journal = Med. Clin. North Am. | volume = 96 | issue = 4 | pages = 849–67 | year = 2012 | month = July | pmid = 22793948 | doi = 10.1016/j.mcna.2012.04.014 }}</ref> ===Vipengele vingine=== Hatari zingine kadhaa huhusiana kwa kiwango kidogo na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana. Hatari huwa kubwa zaidi katika watu masikini, ingawa si bayana iwapo hii ni kutokana na [[umasikini]] wenyewe au athari zingine hatari zinazohusiana na umasikini, kama vile uchafuzi wa hewa na utapia mlo.i<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Kuna ushahidi mdogo kuwa watu wenye ugonjwa wa pumu na matatizo ya njia za pumzi wako katika hatari ya juu zaidi ya kuathiriwa na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Vipengele vya kuzaliwa kama kuzaliwa na uzani wa chini vinaweza kuchangua ugonjwa huu kama vile magonjwa kadhaa ya kuambukiza, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[VVU/UKIMWI]] na [[kifua kikuu]] yanavyofanya.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> [[Maambukizi ya njia za pumzi]] kama vile [[nimonia]] hayaonekani kuongeza hatari ya ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana, angalau katika watu wazima.<ref name=Harr2012/> ===Maumivu zaidi=== Maumivu makali (kuzidiwa ghafla na dalili)<ref name=GOLD2013Chp5>{{cite book |last=Vestbo |first=Jørgen |title=Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease |year=2013 |publisher=Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease |chapter=Management of Exacerbations |pages=39–45 |chapterurl=http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#56 |access-date=2014-06-23 |archive-date=2013-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234113/http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#56 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> mara nyingi huchochewa na maambukizi au vichafuzi vya kimazingira au wakati mwingine na visababishi vingine kama vile kutumia matibabu vibaya.<ref name=Dhar2012>{{cite book|last=Dhar|first=Raja|title=Textbook of pulmonary and critical care medicine|year=2011|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-93-5025-073-0|page=1056|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=rAT1bdnDakAC&pg=PA1056}}</ref> Maambukizi huonekana kuwa kisababishi cha asilimia 50 hadi 70 ya visa,<ref name=Dhar2012/><ref>{{cite book|last=Palange|first=Paolo|title=ERS Handbook of Respiratory Medicine|year=2013|publisher=European Respiratory Society|isbn=978-1-84984-041-5|page=194|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=48gaALnXhcQC&pg=PA194}}</ref> huku bakteria ikichangia asilimia 25, virusi asilimia 25 na zote mbili asilimia 25.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lötvall|first=Jan|title=Advances in combination therapy for asthma and COPD|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Chichester, West Sussex|isbn=978-1-119-97846-6|page=251|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=oPDU4xQLVWEC&pg=PT265}}</ref> Vichafuzi vya kimazingira hujumuisha hewa chafu ya ndani na nje ya nyumba. <ref name=Dhar2012/> Uhatarisho wa moshi wa kibinafsi na moshi kutokana na watu wengine huongeza hatari hiyo.<ref name=Piro2012/> Hali ya baridi ya hewa pia inaweza kuchangia, huku maumivu zaidi yakitokea zaidi majira ya baridi. <ref name=Barnes2009>{{cite book|last=Barnes|first=Peter|title=Asthma and COPD : basic mechanisms and clinical management|year=2009|publisher=Academic|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-0-12-374001-4|page=837|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=HY9PiQL3kQMC&pg=PA837|edition=2nd}}</ref> Watu walio na magonjwa mengine makali fiche huwa na maumivu zaidi mara nyingi: katika ugonjwa wa kiwango cha chini, 1.8 kwa kila mwak; kiwango cha wastani, 2 hadi 3 kwa mwaka; na kiwango kikali 3.4 kwa mwaka. <ref>{{cite book|last=Hanania|first=Nicola|title=COPD a Guide to Diagnosis and Clinical Management|publisher=Springer Science+Business Media, LLC|location=Totowa, NJ|isbn=978-1-59745-357-8|page=197|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=wMzWnIdRD1MC&pg=PA197|edition=1st|date=2010-12-09}}</ref> Watu walio na maumivu makali mengi wana kiwango cha juu cha kupunguza utendakazi wa mapafu yao. <ref name=Beasley2012>{{cite journal|last=Beasley|first=V|coauthors=Joshi, PV; Singanayagam, A; Molyneaux, PL; Johnston, SL; Mallia, P|title=Lung microbiology and exacerbations in COPD|journal=International journal of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|year=2012|volume=7|pages=555–69|pmid=22969296|doi=10.2147/COPD.S28286|pmc=3437812}}</ref> [[Uemboli wa mapafu|Uemboli wa mapafu]] (ganda la damu kwenye mapafu) unaweza kuzidisha dalili kwa watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa mapafu yaliyofungana tayari.<ref name=Lancet2012/> ==Pathofiziolojia== [[File:Copd 2010Side.JPG|thumb|center|600px|Upande wa kushoto ni mchoro wa mapafu na njia za hewa ukiwa na picha ndogo inayoonyesha sehemu ya ndani ya [[bronkioli]] na [[alveoli]] za kawaida. Upande wa kulia ni mapafu yaliyoharibiwa na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu pamoja na picha ndogo inayoonyesha sehemu ya ndani ya bronkioli na alveoli zilizoharibika]] Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu ni aina ya [[ugonjwa wa kufungana kwa mapafu]] ambapo upitaji duni sugu wa hewa usioweza kubadilishwa (upungufu wa kupita kwa hewa) na kutoweza kabisa kupumua nje huwepo.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Kupita duni kwa hewa ni matokeo ya kuharibika kwa tishu ya pafu (iitwayo emfisema) na ugonjwa wa njia ndogo za hewa uitwao bronkiolitisi ya kufungana.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> --> Vinavyochangia visababishi hivi viwili hutofautiana kati ya watu.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Pia wengine wana kiwango fulani cha [[mwitiko wa kupita kiasi wa bronkasi|mwitiko wa kupita kiasi wa njia za hewa]] kwa miwasho sawa na inayopatikana katika ugonjwa wa pumu.<ref name=Harr2012/> Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu hutokea kama mwitiko mkubwa sugu wa kiinflamesheni kwa vitu vyenye miwasho vilivyovutwa ndani kwa hewa.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Maambukizi sugu ya bakteria pia yanaweza kuongeza inflamesheni hii.<ref name=Beasley2012/> Seli za kuvimba zinazohusika ni [[granulositi za nutrofili]] na [[makrofeji]], aina mbili za seli nyeupe za damu.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> --> Wanaovuta pia wana kuhusika kwa[[Seli T ya sitotosiki |Tc1]] [[limfositi]] na watu wengine walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu wana kuhusika kwa [[granulositi ya esinofili|esinofili]] sawa na inayopatikana katika ugonjwa wa pumu.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> --> Kiwango Fulani cha mwitiko huu wa seli husababishwa na viendelezi vya kuvimba kama [[kemotaksisi|visababishi vya kemotaksisi]].<!-- <ref jina=GOLD2013Chp1/> --> Michakato mingine inayohusiana na uharibifu wa mapafu ni [[msongo wa kioksaidi]]unaotolewa na [[radikali (kemia)|radikali huru]] kwenye moshi wa tumbaku na kuachiliwa na seli za kuvimba, na kuharibika kwa [[tishu unganishi]] za mapafu kwa [[protisi]] ambazo hukinzwa kwa kiasi na [[kikinza protisi (biolojia)|vikinza protisi]].<!-- <ref jina=GOLD2013Chp1/> --> Kuharibiwa kwa tishu unganishi za mapafu ndio unaopelekea emfisema, ambayo kisha huchangia upitaji duni wa hewa, na hatimaye, ufyonzaji na uachiliaji duni wa gesi za kupumua.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Upotezaji wa kijumla wa misuli unaotokea katika ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu unaweza kutokana kwa kiasi na viendelezi vya inflamesheni vinavyotolewa na mapafu hadi kwenye damu.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Kupungua kwa nafasi za njia za hewa hutokea kwa sababu ya inflamesheni na kupata kovu ndani mwazo.<!-- <ref jina=GOLD2013Chp1/> --> Hii huchangia kushindwa kupumua nje kikamilifu.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> --> Upunguaji mkubwa wa kupita kwa hewa hutokea wakati wa kupumua nje kwa sababu shinikizo ndani mwa kifua linabana njia za hewa wakati huu.<ref name=Cal2005>{{cite journal |author=Calverley PM, Koulouris NG |title=Flow limitation and dynamic hyperinflation: key concepts in modern respiratory physiology|url=https://archive.org/details/european-respiratory-journal_2005-01_25_1/page/186 |journal=Eur Respir J |volume=25 |pages=186–199|year=2005|pmid=15640341 |doi=10.1183/09031936.04.00113204 |issue=1}}</ref> Hii inaweza kupelekea hewa zaidi kutoka kwa pumzi ya awali kusalia mapafuni wakati pumzi inayofuata imeanzishwa na kusababisha ongezeko katika kiwango kamili cha hewa mapafuni wakati wowote ule, mchakato uitwao [[Uvutaji hewa ndani# Kuingiza hewa kupita kiasi|uvutaji hewa ndani kupita kiasi]] au kutega hewa.<ref name=Cal2005/><ref>{{cite book|last=Currie|first=Graeme P.|title=ABC of COPD|year=2010|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell, BMJ Books|location=Chichester, West Sussex, UK|isbn=978-1-4443-2948-3|page=32|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=eEoYQA4QD_wC&pg=PA32|edition=2nd }}</ref> Uvutaji hewa ndani kupita kiasi kutokana na mazoezi huhusishwa na upungufu wa pumzi katika ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu kwa sababu si bora kupumua ndani wakati mapafu yamejaa.<ref name=Odon2006>{{cite journal |author=O'Donnell DE|title=Hyperinflation, Dyspnea, and Exercise Intolerance in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease|journal=The Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society|volume=3 |pages=180–4 |year=2006 |pmid=16565429 |doi=10.1513/pats.200508-093DO |issue=2}}</ref> [[hiposemia|viwango vya chini vya oksijeni]] na hatimaye, [[hipakania|viwango juu vya dioksidi ya kaboni kwenye damu]] vinaweza kutokana na [[mbadilishano wa gesi]] ulio duni kutokana na upitishaji duni wa hewa kutokana na kufungana kwa njia za hewa, uingizaji wa hewa kupita kiasi na tamaa ya chini ya kupumua..<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Wakati wa maumivu zaidi, inflamesheni ya njia ya hewa pia huongezeka na kusababisha ongezeko kupita kiasi la hewa inayoingia,upungufu wa kupita kwa hewa na kuzorota kwa uhamisho wa gesi. Hii pia inaweza kusababisha upitishaji duni wa hewa na hatimaye viwango vya chini vya oksijeni katika damu.<ref name=GOLD2007/>Viwango vya chini vya oksijeni vikiwepo kwa muda mrefu vinaweza kusababisha [[msongo wa mishipa|ateri kuwa nyembamba]] mapafuni ilhali emfisema husababisha kuharibika kwa kapilari kwenye mapafu.<!-- <ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> --> Mabadiliko haya yote husababisha ongezeko kwenye shinikizo la damu katika [[ateri ya mapafu|arteri za mapafu]], hali inayoweza kusababisha ugonjwa wa kuvimba na kutofanya kazi kwa ventrikali ya kulia ya moyo.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> ==Utambuzi== Utambuzi wa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu unapaswa kuzingatiwa kwa yeyote mwenye umri wa zaidi ya miaka 35 hadi 40 na aliye na [[disnia|upungufu wa pumzi]], kikohozi sugu, kutoa makohozi, au homa za mara kwa mara katika majira ya baridi na historia ya kutangamana na visababishi vya hatari vya ugonjwa huo.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/><ref name=NICE2010P60/> Kisha [[Kupima pumzi]] hutumiwa kuthibitisha utambuzi huo.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/><ref name=Qas2011/> ===Upimaji wa pumzi=== Upimaji wa pumzi hupima kiwango cha kuzuiwa kwa upitaji wa hewa uliopo na kawaida hufanywa baada ya utumizi wa [[kitanua bronkasi]], tiba ya kufungua njia za hewa.<ref name=Qas2011/> Vipengele viwili muhimu hupimwa ili kufanya utambuzi huo: kiasi cha hewa inayopumuliwa nje kwa lazima kwa sekunde moja (FEV₁), ambacho ndicho kiasi kikubwa zaidi cha hewa inayoweza kupumuliwa nje katika sekunde ya kwanza ya pumzi, na [[kiasi muhimu|kiasi muhimu cha kulazimishwa]], ambacho ndicho kiasi kikubwa zaidi cha hewa inayoweza kupumuliwa nje katika pumzi moja kubwa.<ref name=Young2010>{{cite book|last=Young|first=Vincent B.|title=Blueprints medicine|year=2010|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott William & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-8870-0|page=69|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=_DHtahEUgXcC&pg=PA69|edition=5th}}</ref> Kawaida, asilimia 75-80 ya kiasi muhimu cha kulazimishwa hutoka nje katika sekunde ya kwanza<ref name=Young2010/> na [[uwiano 1 wa kiasi cha hewa inayopumuliwa nje kwa lazima/uwiano wa kiasi muhimu cha kulazimishwa|uwiano wa kiasi cha hewa inayopumuliwa nje kwa lazima₁/uwiano uwiano wa kiasi muhimu cha kulazimishwa]] chini ya asilimia 70 kwa mtu aliye na dalili za ugonjwa sugu kufungana kwa mapafu huonyesha kuwa mtu huyo ana ugonjwa huo.<ref name=Qas2011/> Kwa msingi wa vipimo hivi, upimaji wa pumzi unaweza kusababisha utambuzi zaidi wa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu kwa wazee.<ref name=Qas2011/> Vigezo vya [[Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Ubora wa Matibabu]] pia huhitaji kiasi cha hewa inayopumuliwa nje kwa lazima₁ cha chini ya asilimia 80 ya kilichobashiriwa.<ref name=NICE2010P60/> Ushahidi wa kutumia upimaji wa pumzi kwa wasio na dalili katika [[kuchunguza (kimatibabu)|kutambua ugonjwa mapema]] ni wa matokeo yasiyobayana na kwa hivyo kwa sasa haupendekezwi.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/><ref name=Qas2011>{{cite journal | author = Qaseem A, Wilt TJ, Weinberger SE, Hanania NA, Criner G, van der Molen T, Marciniuk DD, Denberg T, Schünemann H, Wedzicha W, MacDonald R, Shekelle P | title = Diagnosis and management of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a clinical practice guideline update from the American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2011-08-02_155_3/page/178 | journal = Ann. Intern. Med. | volume = 155 | issue = 3 | pages = 179–91 | year = 2011 | month = August | pmid = 21810710 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-155-3-201108020-00008}}</ref> [[kilele cha kupita kwa hewa iliyopumuliwa nje]] (kasi ya juu zaidi ya kupumua nje), inayotumika sana katika ugonjwa wa pumu, hakitoshi kwa utambuzi wa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu.<ref name=NICE2010P60/> ===Ukali=== {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+MRC kipimo cha upungufu wa pumzi<ref name=NICE2010P60/> |- ! Kimo!! Shughuli inayoathiriwa |- | 1 || Shughuli za kuchosha tu |- | 2 || Kutembea kwa nguvu |- | 3 || Kwa kutembea kwa kawaida |- | 4 || Baada ya dakika chache za kutembea |- | 5 || Kwa kubadilisha nguo |} {| class="wikitable" style = "float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center" |+GOLD grade<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> |- ! Ukali!! Kiasi cha hewa inayopumuliwa nje kwa lazima₁ % kilichotabiriwa |- | Isiyo kidogo (GOLD 1) || ≥80 |- | Kali kiasi (GOLD 2)|| 50–79 |- | Kali (GOLD 3)|| 30–49 |- | Kali zaidi (GOLD 4)|| <30 or [[kushindwa sugu kwa kupimua]] |} Kuna mbinu kadhaa za kutambua ni kwa kiasi kipi ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu unaathiri mtu fulani.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> Hojaji iliyofanyiwa mabadiliko ya [[Shirika la Utafiti wa Afya (Ulaya)|Shirika la Utafiti wa Afya la Ulaya]] au jaribio la ukadiriaji wa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu ni hojaji rahisi ambazo zinaweza kuamua ukali wa dalili.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> Hoja za kipimo cha ukadriaji wa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu ni kutoka 0-40 ikiwa vile hoja ni nyingi ndivyo ugonjwa ni kali.<ref name=ATS>{{cite web |title=COPD Assessment Test (CAT) |url=http://www.thoracic.org/assemblies/srn/questionaires/copd.php |publisher=[[American Thoracic Society]] |accessdate=November 29, 2013}}</ref> Kupima pumzi kunaweza saidia kuamua ukali kikomo cha kutiririka hewa.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> Hii ni kwa msingi wa kupumulia kulicho lazimishwa₁ ikielezwa kama asilimia ya............kwa umri, jinsia, urefu na uzito wa mtu. <ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> Miongozo yote ya Amerika na Europa ilipendekeza kwa kiasi kwa msingi wa mapendekezo ya kupumulia kulicho lazimishwa. ₁.<ref name=Qas2011/> Miongozo ya GOLD hupendekeza kugawanya watu katika vikundi vinne kwa msingi ukadriaji na kikomo cha kutiririka hewa.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> Kupunguza uzito na udhaifu wa misuli pamoja na kuwepo kwa magonjwa mengine kunapaswa kuzingatiwa.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> ===Vipimo vingine=== [[Eksirei ya kifua]] na [[kipimo kamili cha damu]] vinaweza kuwa muhimu katika kutenga magonjwa mengine wakati wa utambuzi.<ref name=NICE2010P70/> Ishara bainifu kwenye eksirei ni mapafu yaliopanuka zaidi, [[Daframu ya kifua|daframu]]iliyonyooka, nafasi ya hewa Zaidi ya nyuma ya mfupa wa kidari, na bula ilhali inaweza kuondoa magonjwa mengine kama vile [[nimonia]], [[edema ya mapafu]] au [[numothoraksi]].<ref name=Old2007>{{cite journal |author=Torres M, Moayedi S |title=Evaluation of the acutely dyspneic elderly patient |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinics-in-geriatric-medicine_2007-05_23_2/page/307 |journal=Clin. Geriatr. Med. |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=307–25,vi |year=2007|month=May |pmid=17462519 |doi=10.1016/j.cger.2007.01.007}}</ref> Ukaguzi wa [[tomografia inayokokotolewa kwa eksirei |tomografia inayokokotolewa]] yenye mchanganuo mkubwa wa kifua unaweza kuonyesha jinsi emfisema ilivyoenea mapafuni na pia unaweza kusaidia kutenga magonjwa mengine ya mapafu.<ref name=Harr2012/> Hata hivyo, isipokuwa upasuaji umepangwa, hii haiathiri udhibiti.<ref name=Harr2012/> [[Gesi ya damu ya ateri|uchanganuzi wa damu ya ateri]] hutumiwa kutambua hitaji la oksijen; hii inapendekezwa kwa walio na upumuji wa nje wa kulazimishwa₁ chini ya asilimia 35 iliyobashiriwa, wale walio na kiwango cha oksijeni ya pembezoni chini ya asilimia 92 na walio na dalili za kusongamana na moyo kukosa kufanya kazi kwa moyo.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> Katika sehemu za dunia ambapo ukosefu wa alfa 1-kinza tripsini hupatikana sana, watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu (hasa walio chini ya umri wa miaka 45 na emfisema inayoathiri sehemu za chini za mapafu) wanapaswa kuzingatiwa kupimwa.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> <gallery> File:Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu.JPG|alt=Picha yenye weusi na weupe, iliyo na moyo mdogo mweupe katikati na mapafu makubwa meusi kuizunguka|Eksirei ya Kifua inayoonyesha ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu mkali. Makinikia ukubwa mdogo wa moyo ukilinganisha na mapafu. File:Kifuakiduta.JPG|Eksirei ya mbavuni ya kifua cha mtu aliye na emfisema. Makinikia kifua cha mviringo na daframu iliyonyooka. File:Ekisirei ya bula ya kifua.PNG|Bula ya pafu jinsi inavyoonekana katika eksirei ya kifua kwa mtu aliye na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu mkali File:Upigaji picha ya dutu ya Ekisirei ya kimatibabu WFH07 nevit.jpg|Kisa kikali cha emfisema yenye bula. File:Emfisema yenye bulaCT.png|Picha ya kompyuta ya tomografia ya pafu la mtu aliye na emfisema yenye bula iliyo katika hatua ya mwisho. </gallery> ===Utambuzi tofautishi=== Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa unaweza kuhitaji kutofautishwa na visababishi vingine vya upungufu wa pumzi kama vile [[moyo kusongamana na kushindwa kufanya kazi]], [[uemboli wa mapafu]], [[nimonia]] au [[numothoraksi]]. Watu wengi walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu kimakosa hufikiria kuwa wana [[pumu]].<ref name=EB2008/> Hata hivyo utofautishaji wa pumu na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu hauwezi kufanywa kwa [[kupima pumzi]].<ref name=NICE2010P60/> Kifua kikuu pia kinaweza kujitokeza kwa kikohozi sugu na kinafaa kuzingatiwa katika sehemu ambapo hutokea sana.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp2/> Magonjwa yasiyotokea sana bali yanayoweza kujitokeza sawa ni [[displasia ya mapafu na bronkasi]] na [[bronkiolitisi ya kufungana kwa bronkasi]].<ref name=NICE2010P70>{{NICE|101|Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease|June 2010|70-80}}</ref> Bronkiolitisi sugu inaweza kutokea hata kwa upitaji wa kawaida wa hewa na katika hali hii haiainishwi kama ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.<ref name=Harr2012/> ==Kuzuia== Visa vingi vya ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa vinaweza kuzuiwa kwa kupunguza kutangamana na moshi na kuendeleza ubora wa hewa.<ref name=Piro2012/> [[Chanjo za influenza]] za mwaka kwa walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa hupunguza maumivu zaidi, kulazwa hospitalini na kifo.<ref name=Mackay2012>{{cite journal | author = Mackay AJ, Hurst JR | title = COPD exacerbations: causes, prevention, and treatment | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-clinics-of-north-america_2012-07_96_4/page/789 | journal = Med. Clin. North Am. | volume = 96 | issue = 4 | pages = 789–809 | year = 2012 | month = July | pmid = 22793945 | doi = 10.1016/j.mcna.2012.02.008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Poole PJ, Chacko E, Wood-Baker RW, Cates CJ |title=Influenza vaccine for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=1 |pages=CD002733 |year=2006 |pmid=16437444|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002733.pub2 |editor1-last=Poole |editor1-first=Phillippa}}</ref> [[Chanjo ya numokokasi|Uchanjaji dhidi ya numokokasi]] pia unaweza kuwa ya usaidizi.<ref name=Mackay2012/> ===Kusitisha uvutaji wa sigara=== Kuwakinga watu dhidi ya kuanza uvutaji wa sigara kipengele kikuu cha kuzuia ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.<ref name=GOLD2013ChpX/> [[Uvutaji wa tumbaku#Masuala ya kisheria na taratibu|kanuni]] za serikali, taasisi za afya ya umma na mashirika yanayopinga uvutaji zinaweza kupunguza viwango vya uvutaji kwa kuwakataza watu kuanza na kuwahimize waache uvutaji.<ref name=WHO2003/> [[Marufuku dhidi ya uvutaji]] katika sehemu za umma na pahali pa kazi ni njia muhimu za kupunguza kutangamana na moshi kutoka kwa watu wengine na ilhali sehemu nyingi zina marufuku ya kisheria, marufuku Zaidi yanahimizwa.<ref name=Piro2012/> Kwa wanaovuta, [[kusitisha uvutaji|kukoma uvutaji]] ndiyo njia pekee iliyothibitishwa kupunguza kukithiri kwa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.<ref name=Jim2013>{{cite journal | author = Jiménez-Ruiz CA, Fagerström KO | title = Smoking cessation treatment for COPD smokers: the role of counselling | journal = Monaldi Arch Chest Dis | volume = 79 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–7 | year = 2013 | month = March | pmid = 23741944 | doi = }}</ref> Hata katika kipindi cha mwisho cha ugonjwa, kunaweza kupunguza kiwango cha kudhoofika kwa utendakazi wa mapafu na kudhibiti mwanzo wa ulemavu na kifo.<ref name=kc>{{cite book |author=Kumar P, Clark M |title=Clinical Medicine |url=https://archive.org/details/kumarclarkclinic0000unse_a8s5 |publisher=Elsevier Saunders |year=2005 |isbn=0-7020-2763-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kumarclarkclinic0000unse_a8s5/page/900 900]–1 |edition=6th }}</ref> Kusitisha uvutaji huanza na uamuzi wa kukoma kuvuta, unaopelekea jaribio la kukoma. Mara nyingi majaribio kadhaa huhitajika kabla ya kukoma kabisa kutimika..<ref name = WHO2003>{{cite book |url=http://www.who.int/tobacco/resources/publications/tobacco_dependence/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization |title=Policy Recommendations for Smoking Cessation and Treatment of Tobacco Dependence |isbn=978-92-4-156240-9 |pages=15–40 |access-date=2014-06-23 |archive-date=2008-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915105015/http://www.who.int/tobacco/resources/publications/tobacco_dependence/en/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Majaribu ya zaidi ya miaka 5 husababisha mafanikio katika takiban asilimia 40 ya watu.<ref name=Ton2013/> Wavutaji wengine wanaweza kutimiza kukoma uvutaji kabisa kwa hiari yao pekee. Hata hivyo uvutaji ni wa mazoea sana,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/2278.aspx?CategoryID=53&SubCategoryID=536 |title=Why is smoking addictive? |work=NHS Choices |date=December 29, 2011 |accessdate=November 29, 2013 |archive-date=2013-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013041250/http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/2278.aspx?CategoryID=53&SubCategoryID=536 |url-status=dead }}</ref> na wavutaji wengi wanahitaji usaidizi zaidi. Uwezekano wa kukoma huendelezwa kwa usaidizi wa kijamii, kuhusika katika mpango wa kukomesha uvutaji na kutumia tiba kama vile [[tiba ya kubadili nikotini]], [[bupropion]] au [[varenicline]].<ref name=WHO2003/><ref name=Ton2013>{{cite journal | author = Tønnesen P | title = Smoking cessation and COPD | journal = Eur Respir Rev | volume = 22 | issue = 127 | pages = 37–43 | year = 2013 | month = March | pmid = 23457163 | doi = 10.1183/09059180.00007212 }}</ref> ===Afya Kazini=== Hatua kadhaa zimechukuliwa kupunguza uwezekano kuwa wafanyi kazi katika viwanda vyenye hatari—kama vile kuchimba makaa ya mawe,ujenzi na kuchonga mawe—watapata ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.<ref name=Piro2012/> Mifano ya hatua hizi ni: kutengeneza sera za umma,<ref name=Piro2012/> mafunzo kwa wafanyi kazi kuhusu hatari hizi, kuendeleza kusitisha uvutaji, [[uchunguzi wa ugonjwa|kuchunguza]] wafanyi kazi kwa ishara za mapema za ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa, kutumia [[kipumulio]], na kuzuia vumbi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Barbara K. Timby, Nancy E.|title=Essentials of nursing : care of adults and children|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-5098-1|page=338|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=LJWDJMoStnMC&pg=PA338}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor2-last=Markowitz |editor1-first=William N. |editor1-last=Rom |editor2-first=Steven B.|title=Environmental and occupational medicine|year=2007|publisher=Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-6299-1|pages=521–2|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=H4Sv9XY296oC&pg=PA521|edition=4th }}</ref> Uzuiaji bora wa vumbi unaweza kutimizwa kwa kuboresha upitaji wa hewa, kutumia vinyunyizio vya maji na kutumia mbinu za uchimbaji migodi zinazothibiti utengenezaji wa vumbi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hse.gov.uk/copd/casestudies/wetcut.htm |title=Wet cutting |publisher=[[Health and Safety Executive]] |accessdate=November 29, 2013 |archive-date=2013-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203004449/http://www.hse.gov.uk/copd/casestudies/wetcut.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mfanyi kazi akipata ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa, uharibikaji zaidi wa mapafu unaweza kupunguzwa kwa kuepuka kutangamana na vumbi, kwa mfano kwa kubadilisha majukumu ya kikazi.<ref>{{cite book|last=George|first=Ronald B.|title=Chest medicine : essentials of pulmonary and critical care medicine|year=2005|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0-7817-5273-2|page=172|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZzlX2zJMbdgC&pg=PA172|edition=5th }}</ref> ===Uchafuzi wa hewa=== Ubora wa hewa nje na ndani mwa nyumba unaweza kuendelezwa, hii inaweza kuzuia ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa au kupunguza kiwango cha kukithiri kwa kwa ugonjwa uliopo.<ref name=Piro2012/> Hii inaweza kutimizwa kwa juhudi za sera za umma, mabadiliko ya kitamaduni, na kuhusika kwa watu binafsi.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp4>{{cite book |last=Vestbo |first=Jørgen |title=Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease |year=2013 |publisher=Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease |pages=31–8 |chapter=Management of Stable COPD |url=http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#48 |access-date=2014-06-23 |archive-date=2013-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234113/http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#48 |dead-url=yes |=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328053032/http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#48 }}</ref> Baadhi ya nchi zilizostawi zimefanikiwa katika kudumisha ubora wa nje kupitia kanuni.<!-- <ref name=Piro2012/> --> Hii imepelekea kuboresha utendakazi wa mapafu wa watu wao.<ref name=Piro2012/> Walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa wanaweza kupata dalili chache iwapo watakaa ndani ya nyumba katika siku ambazo ubora wa hewa nje ya nyumba ni duni.<ref name=.GOLD2007/> Juhudi moja kuu ni kupunguza kutangamana na moshi wa kupika na kuchoma fueli kwa kuhakikisha upitaji bora wa hewa mabomani na stovu na dohani bora.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp4/> Stovu bora zinaweza kuboresha hewa ya ndani mwa nyumba kwa asilimia 85.<!-- <ref name=Piro2012/> --> Kutumia vyanzo mbadala vya nishati kama vile [[kupika kwa jua]] na kutumia stima ni bora,<!-- <ref name=Piro2012/> --> kama tu kutumia fueli kama vile mafuta ya taa au makaa ya mawe badala ya biomasi.<ref name=Piro2012/> == Kudhibiti == Hakuna tiba inayojulikana ya ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa lakini dalili zinaweza kutibiwa na kukithiri kwake kudhibitiwa.<ref name=GOLD2013ChpX/> Malengo makuu ya udhibiti ni kupunguza visababishi vya hatari, kudhibiti ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa uliojijenga, kuzuia na kutibu maumivu zaidi makali na kudhibiti maradhi husika.<ref name=GOLD2007/> Hatua pekee zilizodhibitishwa kuweza kupunguza vifo ni kusitisha uvutaji na oksijeni ya kuongeza.<ref name=Drummond08>{{cite journal |author=Drummond MB, Dasenbrook EC, Pitz MW, Murphy DJ, Fan E|title=Inhaled corticosteroids in patients with stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2008-11-26_300_20/page/n78|journal=JAMA |volume=300 |issue=20 |pages=2407–16 |year=2008|month=November |pmid=19033591|doi=10.1001/jama.2008.717 }}</ref> Kukoma uvutaji hupunguza hatari ya kifo kwa asilimia 18.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Mapendekezo mengine ni: chanjo ya influenza mara moja kwa mwaka, chanjo ya numokokasi mara moja kila baada ya miaka 5, na kupunguza kutangamana na uchafuzi wa hewa wa kimazingira.<ref name=Lancet2012/> kwa walio na ugonjwa uliokithiri, [[utunzajia wa kutuliza]] unaweza kupunguza dalili, na morphine kukabiliana na hisia za upungufu wa pumzi.<ref name=Carl2012>{{cite journal |author=Carlucci A, Guerrieri A, Nava S |title=Palliative care in COPD patients: is it only an end-of-life issue? |journal=Eur Respir Rev |volume=21 |issue=126 |pages=347–54 |year=2012 |month=December|pmid=23204123|doi=10.1183/09059180.00001512 |url=}}</ref> [[Upitishaji wa hewa bila kutumia njia za hewa bandia]] unaweza kutumika kusaidia upumuaji.<ref name=Carl2012/> ===Mazoezi=== [[Kurudisha mapafu katika hali ya kawaida]] ni programu ya mazoezi, udhibiti wa ugonjwa na ushauri, vilivyopangwa kumfaidi mtu binafsi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Copd/Copd_Treatments.html |title=COPD — Treatment |publisher=U.S. National Heart Lung and Blood Institute |accessdate=2013-07-23}}</ref> kwa wale ambao wamekuwa na maumivu zaidi hivi karibuni,kurudisha mapafu katika hali ya kawaida huonekana kuendeleza ubora wa maisha kwa jumla na uwezo wa kufanya mazoezi, na kupunguza vifo.<ref name=Puhan2011>{{cite journal |author=Puhan MA, Gimeno-Santos E, Scharplatz M, Troosters T, Walters EH, Steurer J |editor1-last=Puhan |editor1-first=Milo A |title=Pulmonary rehabilitation following exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=10 |pages=CD005305 |year=2011|pmid=21975749 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005305.pub3 }}</ref> Pia imeonyeshwa uwezo alio nao mtu katika kuthibiti ugonjwa wake, na vile vile hisia zake.<ref name=Lac2006>{{cite journal | author = Lacasse Y, Goldstein R, Lasserson TJ, Martin S | title = Pulmonary rehabilitation for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = | issue = 4 | pages = CD003793 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17054186 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003793.pub2 | editor1-last = Lacasse | editor1-first = Yves }}</ref> Mazoezi ya kupumua pekee yameonekana kuwa na jukumu dogo sana.<ref name=Holland2012/> Kuwa na uzani wa chini au wa juu zaidi kunaweza kuathiri dalili, kiwango cha ulemavu na prognosi ya ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa. Watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa walio na uzani wa chini wanaweza kuboresha nguvu za misuli ya kupumua kwa kuongeza kiwango cha kalori.<ref name=GOLD2007/> Pamoja na mazoezi ya mara kwa mara au mpango wa kurudisha mapafu katika hali ya kawaida inaweza kuleta mabadiliko katika dalili za ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa. Lishe Zaidi inaweza kuwa muhimu kwa walio na[[utapiamlo|wenye utapiamlo]].<ref name=Ferr2012>{{cite journal|author=Ferreira IM, Brooks D, White J, Goldstein R |editor1-last=Ferreira|editor1-first=Ivone M |title=Nutritional supplementation for stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=12 |pages=CD000998 |year=2012 |pmid=23235577 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000998.pub3 }}</ref> ===Kitanua bronkasi=== [[Vitanua bronkasi]] vilivyopumuliwa ndani ndivyo tiba za kimsingi zinazotumika<ref name=Lancet2012/> na husababisha manufaa machache kwa jumla.<ref name=VanD2013>{{cite journal | author = van Dijk WD, van den Bemt L, van Weel C | title = Megatrials for bronchodilators in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) treatment: time to reflect | journal = J Am Board Fam Med | volume = 26 | issue = 2 | pages = 221–4 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23471939 | doi = 10.3122/jabfm.2013.02.110342}}</ref> Kuna aina mbili kuu, [[Beta2-adrenergic agonist|β₂ agonists]] na [[kinza kikolini]]; ambazo huwa katika aina ya muda mrefu na ile ya muda mfupi. Hupunguza upungufu wa pumzi, mkoroto na udhibiti wa mazoezi na kupelekea [[ubora wa maisha]].<ref name=Lies2002>{{cite journal |author=Liesker JJ, Wijkstra PJ, Ten Hacken NH, Koëter GH, Postma DS, Kerstjens HA |title=A systematic review of the effects of bronchodilators on exercise capacity in patients with COPD |journal=Chest |volume=121 |issue=2 |pages=597–608 |year=2002 |month=February |pmid=11834677 |doi=10.1378/chest.121.2.597 |url=http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1080303 |access-date=2014-06-23 |archive-date=2015-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150928003929/http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1080303 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Haijabainika iwapo zinabadilisha kukithiri kwa ugonjwa uliopo<ref name=Lancet2012/> Kwa walio na ugonjwa kidogo, ajenti za muda mfupi hupendekezwa kwa [[Pro re nata |jinsi inavyohitajika]] <ref name=Lancet2012/> Kwa walio na ugonjwa mkali sana ajenti za muda mrefu hupendekezwa.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Iwapo vitanua bronkasi vya muda mrefu havitoshelezi, kwa kawaida kotikosteroidi huongezwa<ref name=Lancet2012/> Kwa kurejelea ajenti za muda mrefu, haijabainika iwapo [[tiotropium]] (kinza kikolini ya muda mrefu)au [[gnisti za beta za muda mrefu]] ni nzuri, na zinaweza kujaribiwa kwa zamu na kuendelea na iliyo bora zaidi.<ref name=Chong2012>{{cite journal | author = Chong J, Karner C, Poole P | title = Tiotropium versus long-acting beta-agonists for stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = 9 | issue = | pages = CD009157 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22972134 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD009157.pub2 | editor1-last = Chong | editor1-first = Jimmy }}</ref> Aina zote mbili za ajenti huonekana kupunguza hatari za maumivu makali zaidi kwa asilimia 15-25.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Zinapotumiwa kwa wakati mmoja zinaweza kufaidi,hata hivyo, hata faida hii ikiwepo, umuhimu wake si bayana.<ref name=Karner2012>{{cite journal | author = Karner C, Cates CJ | title = Long-acting beta(2)-agonist in addition to tiotropium versus either tiotropium or long-acting beta(2)-agonist alone for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = 4 | issue = | pages = CD008989 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22513969 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD008989.pub2 | editor1-last = Karner | editor1-first = Charlotta }}</ref> Kuna aina kadhaa za muda mfupi za β₂ zinazopatikana ikiwa ni pamoja na[[salbutamol]] (Ventolin) na [[terbutaline]].<ref name=GOLD2013Chp3/> Hizi hupunguza ukali wa dalili kwa saa nne hadi sita.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp3/> Agonisti za muda mrefu za β ₂ kama vile [[salmeterol]] na [[formoterol]] mara nyingi hutumiwa kwa matibabu ya kurekebisha. Wengine huhisi kuwa ushahidi wa manufaa ni mdogo<ref name=Cave2011>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Cave | first1 = AC. | last2 = Hurst | first2 = MM. | title = The use of long acting β₂-agonists, alone or in combination with inhaled corticosteroids, in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): a risk-benefit analysis | journal = Pharmacol Ther | volume = 130 | issue = 2 | pages = 114–43 | month = May | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.12.008 | pmid = 21276815 }}</ref> ilhali wengine huona ushahidi wa manufaa kuwa uliopo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Spencer|first=S|coauthors=Karner, C; Cates, CJ; Evans, DJ|title=Inhaled corticosteroids versus long-acting beta(2)-agonists for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=2011 Dec 7|issue=12|pages=CD007033|pmid=22161409|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007033.pub3|editor1-last=Spencer|editor1-first=Sally}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wang|first=J|coauthors=Nie, B; Xiong, W; Xu, Y|title=Effect of long-acting beta-agonists on the frequency of COPD exacerbations: a meta-analysis|journal=Journal of clinical pharmacy and therapeutics|date=2012 Apr|volume=37|issue=2|pages=204–11|pmid=21740451|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2710.2011.01285.x}}</ref> Matumizi ya muda mrefu huonekana kuwa salama kwa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa<ref name=Decr2013>{{cite journal | author = Decramer ML, Hanania NA, Lötvall JO, Yawn BP | title = The safety of long-acting β2-agonists in the treatment of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | journal = Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis | volume = 8 | issue = | pages = 53–64 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23378756 | pmc = 3558319 | doi = 10.2147/COPD.S39018 }}</ref> huku madhara yakiwa [[tetemeko|kutetemeka]] na [[mpapatiko|mipapatiko ya moyo]].<ref name=Lancet2012/> Zikitumiwa pamoja na steroidi za kupumuliwa ndani, huongeza hatari ya nimonia.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Ingawa steroidi na LABAs zinaweza kufanya kazi vyema pamoja,<ref name=Cave2011/> si bayana ikiwa manufaa haya madogo yanazidi hatari zilizoongezeka. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Nannini|first=LJ|coauthors=Lasserson, TJ; Poole, P|title=Combined corticosteroid and long-acting beta(2)-agonist in one inhaler versus long-acting beta(2)-agonists for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=2012 Sep 12|volume=9|pages=CD006829|pmid=22972099|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006829.pub2|editor1-last=Nannini|editor1-first=Luis Javier}}</ref> Kuna aina mbili kuu za kinza kikolini zinazotumika katika ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu, [[ipratropium]] na [[tiotropium]] Ipratropium ni ajenti inayofanya kazi kwa muda mfupi ilhali tiotropium hufanya kazi kwa muda mrefu. Tiotropium inahusiana na kupungua kwa maumivu zaidi na kuboresha hali ya maisha,<ref name=Karner2012/> na tiotropium hutoa manufaa haya zaidi ya ipratropium. <ref>{{cite journal |author=Cheyne L, Irvin-Sellers MJ, White J |editor1-last=Cheyne |editor1-first=Leanne |title=Tiotropium versus ipratropium bromide for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=2013 Sep 16 |issue=9 |pages=CD009552 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009552.pub2 |pmid=24043433 |volume=9}}</ref> Haionekani kuathiri kiwango cha vifo au kiwango cha jumla cha kulazwa hospitalini.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Karner|first=C|coauthors=Chong, J; Poole, P|title=Tiotropium versus placebo for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=2012 Jul 11|volume=7|pages=CD009285|pmid=22786525|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009285.pub2|editor1-last=Karner|editor1-first=Charlotta}}</ref> Anticholinergics zinaweza kusababisha dalili za kinywa kukauka na dalili za maambukizi ya bofu la mkojo .<ref name=Lancet2012/> Pia zinahusiana na ongezeko la hatari ya ugonjwa wa moyo na kiharusi<ref name=Singh2008>{{cite journal | author = Singh S, Loke YK, Furberg CD | title = Inhaled anticholinergics and risk of major adverse cardiovascular events in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2008-09-24_300_12/page/n66 | journal = JAMA | volume = 300 | issue = 12 | pages = 1439–50 | year = 2008 | month = September | pmid = 18812535 | doi = 10.1001/jama.300.12.1439 }}</ref><ref name=Singh2013>{{cite journal | author = Singh S, Loke YK, Enright P, Furberg CD | title = Pro-arrhythmic and pro-ischaemic effects of inhaled anticholinergic medications | journal = Thorax | volume = 68 | issue = 1 | pages = 114–6 | year = 2013 | month = January | pmid = 22764216 | doi = 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2011-201275 }}</ref> ===Kotikosteroidi=== [[Kotikosteroidi]] kwa kawaida hutumika kama aina ya kupumua ndani lakini pia zinaweza kutumika kama tembe kutibu na kuzuia maumivu makali zaidi. Ingawa kotikosteroidi za kupumuliwa ndani hazijaonyesha manufaa kwa watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa mdogo <ref>{{cite journal |author=Gartlehner G, Hansen RA, Carson SS, Lohr KN |title=Efficacy and Safety of Inhaled Corticosteroids in Patients With COPD: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Health Outcomes |journal=Ann Fam Med |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=253–62 |year=2006 |pmid=16735528 |pmc=1479432|doi=10.1370/afm.517 }}</ref>Zinapotumiwa kwa pamoja na LABA hupunguza kiwango cha vifo Zaidi ya kotikosteroidi za kupumuliwa ndani au LABA pekee.<ref name=Shaf2013>{{cite journal | author = Shafazand S | title = ACP Journal Club. Review: inhaled medications vary substantively in their effects on mortality in COPD | journal = Ann. Intern. Med. | volume = 158 | issue = 12 | pages = JC2 | year = 2013 | month = June | pmid = 23778926 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-158-12-201306180-02002 }}</ref> Kivyake hazina athari kwa kiwango cha jumla cha vifo vya mwaka mmoja na huhusiana na viwango zaidi vya nimonia .<ref name="Drummond08"/> Si bayana iwapo zinaathiri kuendelea kwa ugonjwa huo.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Matibabu ya muda mrefu na tembe za steroidi huhusiana na madhara makubwa.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp3/> ===Matibabu mengine=== [[Antibiotiki]] za muda mrefu, hasa za kundi la [[macrolide]] kama vile[[azithromycin]], hupunguza kiwango cha kutokea kwa maumivu Zaidi kwa wale wanaokuwa nayo mara mbili au Zaidi kwa mwaka.<ref name=Mammen2012>{{cite journal | author = Mammen MJ, Sethi S | title = Macrolide therapy for the prevention of acute exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | journal = Pol. Arch. Med. Wewn. | volume = 122 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 54–9 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22353707}}</ref> Hii inaweza kuwa ya bei nafuu katika maeneo fulani ulimwenguni.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Simoens|first=S|coauthors=Laekeman, G; Decramer, M|title=Preventing COPD exacerbations with macrolides: a review and budget impact analysis|journal=Respiratory medicine|date=2013 May|volume=107|issue=5|pages=637–48|pmid=23352223|doi=10.1016/j.rmed.2012.12.019}}</ref> [[Xanthine|Methylxanthines]] kama vile [[theophylline]] husababisha madhara zaidi ya manufaa na kwa hivyo kwa kawaida hazipendekezwi,<ref name=Bar2003>{{cite journal |author=Barr RG, Rowe BH, Camargo CA |editor1-last=Barr |editor1-first=R Graham |title=Methylxanthines for exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |issue=2 |pages=CD002168 |year=2003 |pmid=12804425 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002168 }}</ref> lakini zinaweza kutumika kama ajenti za kundi la pili kwa magonjwa yasiyothibitiwa na hatua zingine.<ref name=GOLD2007/> [[Mucolytic]] zinaweza kuwa bora kwa watu wengine walio na kamasi nzito lakini hazihitajiki.<ref name=Mackay2012/> [[Dawa za kikohozi]] hazipendekezwi.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp3/> ===Oksijeni=== [[Tiba ya oksijeni|oksijeni zaidi]] hupendekezwa kwa walio na viwango vya chini vya oksijeni wakiwa wametulia ([[shinikizo dogo la oksijeni]] la chini ya &nbsp;mmHg 50-55 au ujazo wa chini wa oksijeni kwa asilimia 88).<ref name=GOLD2013Chp3>{{cite book |last=Vestbo |first=Jørgen |title=Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease |year=2013 |publisher=Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease |pages=19–30 |chapter=Therapeutic Options |chapterurl=http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#36 |access-date=2014-06-23 |archive-date=2013-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234113/http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#36 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref name=Kundi2012/> Katika kundi hili la watu, hupunguza hatari ya [[moyo kushindwa kufanya kazi]] na kifo iwapo ikitumia saa 15&nbsp;kwa siku<ref name=GOLD2013Chp3/><ref name=Kundi2012>{{cite journal|last=COPD Working|first=Group|title=Long-term oxygen therapy for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): an evidence-based analysis|journal=Ontario health technology assessment series|year=2012|volume=12|issue=7|pages=1–64|pmid=23074435|pmc=3384376}}</ref> na inaweza kuongeza uwezo wa watu kufanya mazoezi.<ref name=Brad2005>{{cite journal | author = Bradley JM, O'Neill B | title = Short-term ambulatory oxygen for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = | issue = 4 | pages = CD004356 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16235359 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004356.pub3 | editor1-last = Bradley | editor1-first = Judy M }}</ref> Kwa wale walio na viwango vya kawaida au vidogo vya oksijeni, kupewa oksijeni zaidi kunaweza kuboresha upungufu wa pumzi. <ref name=Uron2011>{{cite journal | author = Uronis H, McCrory DC, Samsa G, Currow D, Abernethy A | title = Symptomatic oxygen for non-hypoxaemic chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev | volume = | issue = 6 | pages = CD006429 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21678356 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD006429.pub2 | editor1-last = Abernethy | editor1-first = Amy }}</ref> Kuna hatari ya moto na manufaa machache kwa wanaopewa oksijeni wakiendelea na uvutaji. <ref>{{cite book|last=Chapman|first=Stephen|title=Oxford handbook of respiratory medicine|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-954516-2|page=707|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=945lM1g_uQoC&pg=PA707|edition=2nd}}</ref> Katika hali hii wengine huipinga.<ref>{{cite book|last=Blackler|first=Laura|title=Managing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|year=2007|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Chichester, England|isbn=978-0-470-51798-7|page=49|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=D5n6lqqxkNUC&pg=PA49}}</ref> Wakati wa maumivu Zaidi makali, wengi huhitaji tiba ya oksijeni; utumizi wa viwango vikubwa vya oksijeni bila kuzingatia viwango vya mtu vya oksijeni unaweza kusababisha ongezeko la dioksidi ya kaboni na matokeo mabaya.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jindal|first=Surinder K|title=Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.|year=2013|publisher=Jaypee Brothers Medical Pub|isbn=978-93-5090-353-7|page=139|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=PTgIAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA139}}</ref><ref name=BTS2008>{{cite journal|last=O'Driscoll|first=BR|coauthors=Howard, LS; Davison, AG; British Thoracic, Society|title=BTS guideline for emergency oxygen use in adult patients|journal=Thorax|date=2008 Oct|volume=63 Suppl 6|pages=vi1–68|pmid=18838559|doi=10.1136/thx.2008.102947}}</ref> Kwa wale walio katika hatari zaidi ya viwango vya juu vya dioksidi ya kaboni, viwango vya oksijeni vya asilimia 88-92 hupendekezwa, ilhali kwa wale wasio katika hatari hii viwango vinavyopendekezwa ni asilimia 94-98.<ref name=BTS2008/> ===Upasuaji=== Kwa walio na ugonjwa mkali sana, wakati mwingine upasuaji huwa bora na unaweza kuwa [[ubadilishaji wa pafu]] au [[upasuaji wa kupunguza ukubwa wa pafu]].<ref name=Lancet2012/> Upasuaji wa kupunguza ukubwa wa pafu hujumuisha kuondoa sehemu za pafu zilizohariwa sana na emfisema na kuwezesha inayobaki, ambayo ni ndilo pafu zuri kupanuka na kufanya kazi vizuri. <ref name=GOLD2013Chp3/> [[Ubadilishaji wa pafu]] wakati mwingine hufanywa kwa walio na ugonjwa sugu mkali sana wa kufungana kwa njia za pumzi, hasa kwa watu walio na umri mdogo.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp3/> ===Maumivu zaidi=== Kwa kawaida maumivu Zaidi makali hutibiwa kwa kuongeza utumizi wa vitanua bronkasi vya muda mfupi.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Hii mara nyingi hujumuisha mchanganyiko agonisti ya beta ya muda mfupi iliyopumuliwa ndani na kinza kikolini. <ref name=GOLD2013Chp5/> Dawa hizi zinaweza kutumika kupitia [[kifaa cha kutoa kiasi fulani cha tiba kwa mapafu]] na [[Spacer ya asthma|Spacer]] au kupitia [[kinebulishi]] na zote huonekana kufanya kazi vizuri.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp5/> Kinebulishi kinaweza kuwa rahisi kwa walio wagonjwa zaidi. <ref name=GOLD2013Chp5/> Kotikosteroidi za kinywani huboresha nafasi ya kupata nafuu na kupunguza muda wa dalili kwa jumla.<ref name=Lancet2012/><ref name=GOLD2013Chp5/> Kwa wale walio na maumivu zaidi makali, antibiotiki huboresha matokeo. <ref name=Vollen2012>{{cite journal |author=Vollenweider DJ, Jarrett H, Steurer-Stey CA, Garcia-Aymerich J, Puhan MA |editor1-last=Vollenweider |editor1-first=Daniela J|title=Antibiotics for exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|volume=12 |pages=CD010257 |year=2012 |pmid=23235687 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010257 }}</ref> Antibiotiki tofauti zinaweza kutumiwa zikiwemo: [[amoxicillin]], [[doxycycline]] au [[azithromycin]] si bayana iwapo moja ni bora kuliko zingine.<ref name=Mackay2012/> Hakuna ushahidi bayana kwa walio na visa visivyo vikali.<ref name=Vollen2012/> [[Upitishaji wa shinikizo chanya la sehemu maalum]] kwa wale walio na viwango vya juu Zaidi vya dioksdi ya kaboni ₂ ([[kushindwa kupumua|aina ya 2 ya kushindwa kupumua]]) hupunguza uwezekano wa kifo kutokana na au kuhitaji kulazwa kwa uangilizi makini [[upitishaji hewa wa kimashine]].<ref name=Lancet2012/> Pia, theophylline inaweza kutumiwa kwa wasiopata nafuu kutokana na mbinu zingine.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Chini ya asilimia 20 ya maumivu zaidi huhitaji kulazwa hospitalini. <ref name=GOLD2013Chp5/>Kwa wasio na asidosisi inayotokana na matatizo ya kupumua, [[utunzaji wa nyumbani]] ("hospitali ya nyumbani") unaweza kusaidia kuepuka kulazwa.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp5/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Jeppesen|first=E|coauthors=Brurberg, KG; Vist, GE; Wedzicha, JA; Wright, JJ; Greenstone, M; Walters, JA|title=Hospital at home for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=2012 May 16|volume=5|pages=CD003573|pmid=22592692 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003573.pub2}}</ref> ==Prognosi== [[File:Ramani ya dunia ya ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa - DALY – Shirika la Afya Duniani2004.svg|250px|kidole gumba|[[Ulemavu-…mwaka wa maisha yaliyorekebishwa]] kwa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa kwa kila wakazi 100,000&nbsp;katika mwaka wa 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html |title=WHO Disease and injury country estimates |year=2009 |work=World Health Organization |accessdate=Nov. 11, 2009}}</ref> {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|no data}} {{legend|#ffff65|≤110}} {{legend|#fff200|110–220}} {{legend|#ffdc00|220–330}} {{legend|#ffc600|330–440}} {{legend|#ffb000|440–550}} {{legend|#ff9a00|550–660}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|660–770}} {{legend|#ff6e00|770–880}} {{legend|#ff5800|880–990}} {{legend|#ff4200|990–1100}} {{legend|#ff2c00|1100–1350}} {{legend|#cb0000|≥1350}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa huzidi polepole na hatimaye unaweza kusababisha kifo. Inakadiriwa kuwa asilimia 3 ya [[miaka ya maisha yaliyorekebishwa kwa ulemavu|ulemavu wote]] inahusiana na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa. <ref name=DALY2012/> Sehemu ya ulemavu unaotokana na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa ulimwenguni imepungua tangu mwaka wa 1990 hadi 2010 kutokana na kuboreshwa kwa hali ya hewa ndani ya nyumba hasa Asia.<ref name=DALY2012>{{cite journal | author = Murray CJ, Vos T, Lozano R, Naghavi M, Flaxman AD, Michaud C, Ezzati M, Shibuya K, Salomon JA, ''et al.'' | title = Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_december-15-2012-january-4-2013_380_9859/page/2197 | journal = Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9859 | pages = 2197–223 | year = 2012 | month = December | pmid = 23245608 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61689-4 | displayauthors = 30 }}</ref> Idadi ya miaka ya kuishi na ulemavu unaotokana na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu, hata hivyo, imeongezeka. <ref name=YLD2012>{{cite journal | author = Vos T, Flaxman AD, Naghavi M, Lozano R, Michaud C, Ezzati M, Shibuya K, Salomon JA, Abdalla S, Aboyans V, ''et al''. | title = Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 | journal = Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9859 | pages = 2163–96 | year = 2012 | month = December | pmid = 23245607 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2 | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_december-15-2012-january-4-2013_380_9859/page/2163| displayauthors = 30 }}</ref> Kiwango ambacho ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa huzidi hutofautiana kulingana na kuwepo kwa mambo yanayoashiria matokeo mabaya kama vile: kufungana sana kwa kupita kwa hewa, uwezo duni wa kufanya mazoezi, upungufu wa pumzi, uzani wa chini au wa juu Zaidi, [[matatizo ya moyo yanayotokana na msongamano]], uvutaji unaoendelea, na maumivu zaidi ya mara kwa mara.<ref name=GOLD2007/> Matokeo ya muda mrefu ya ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa yanaweza kukadiriwa kwa kutumia [[kielezo cha KUASHIRIA]] ambayo hutoa alama ya sufuri hadi kumi kulingana na Kiasi cha hewa inayopumuliwa nje kwa lazima₁, [[kielezo cha uzito wa mwili]], umbali aliotembea kwa dakika 6, na [[kipimo cha disnia kilichobadilishwa cha Halmashauri ya Utafiti wa Tiba]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Medicine|first=prepared by the Department of Medicine, Washington University School of|title=The Washington manual general internal medicine subspecialty consult.|year=2009|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-9155-7|page=96|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZptEP_hDrlwC&pg=PA96|edition=2nd }}</ref> Kupoteza uzani sana ni ishara mbaya. <ref name=Harr2012/> Matokeo ya upimaji wa pumzi pia ni kibashiri kizuri cha hali ya baadaye ya ugonjwa lakini si bora kama kielezo cha KUASHIRIA.<ref name=Harr2012/><ref name=NICE2010P60/> ==Epidemolojia== Kote ulimwenguni kufikia mwaka wa 2010, ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa uliathiri takriban watu milioni 329&nbsp; (asilimi 4.8 ya ya watu wote) na hutokea sana kwa wanaume kuliko wanawake. <ref name=YLD2012/> Hii ni kulinganishwa na milioni 64&nbsp; walioathiriwa mwaka wa 2004.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) Fact sheet N°315|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs315/en/|publisher=WHO|date=November 2012}}</ref> Ongezeko katika nchi zinazostawi kati ya mwaka wa 1970 na miaka ya 2000 inaaminika kuhusiana na viwango vinavyoongezeka vya uvutaji katika eneo hili, ongezeko la idadi ya watu na watu wanaozeeka kutokana na kupungua kwa vifo kutoka kwa visababishi vingine kama vile magonjwa ya kuambukiza. <ref name=Lancet2012/> Nchi zingine zilizostawi zimeshuhudia viwango vya juu, zingine zimebaki imara na zingine zimeshuhudia kupungua katika kuenea kwa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Idadi za kimataifa zinatarajiwa kuendelea kuongezeka visababishi vya hatari vinapoendelea kutokea sana na watu wakiendelea kuzeeka. <ref name=GOLD2013ChpX>{{cite book |last=Vestbo |first=Jørgen |title=Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease |year=2013 |publisher=Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease |pages=xiii-xv |nopp=yes |chapter=Introduction |url=http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#14 |access-date=2014-06-23 |archive-date=2013-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234113/http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#14 |dead-url=yes |=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328053032/http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf#14 }}</ref> Kati ya mwaka wa 1990 na 2010 idadi ya vifo kutokana na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa imepungua kidogo kutoka milioni 3.1&nbsp; hadi milioni 2.9&nbsp; ref name=Lozano2012>{{cite journal | author = Lozano R, Naghavi M, Foreman K, Lim S, Shibuya K, Aboyans V, Abraham J, Adair T, Aggarwal R, ''et al''.| title = Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 | journal = Lancet | volume = 380 | issue = 9859 | pages = 2095–128 | year = 2012 | month = December | pmid = 23245604 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0 | url =https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_december-15-2012-january-4-2013_380_9859/page/2095| displayauthors = 30 }}</ref> Kwa jumla, ugonjwa huu ndicho kisababishi cha nne cha vifo. <ref name=Lancet2012/> Katika nchi zingine, vifo zimepungua kwa wanaume na kuongezeka kwa wananwake. ref name=Ryc2012>{{cite journal | author = Rycroft CE, Heyes A, Lanza L, Becker K | title = Epidemiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a literature review | journal = Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis | volume = 7 | issue = | pages = 457–94 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22927753 | pmc = 3422122 | doi = 10.2147/COPD.S32330 }}</ref> Hii inaweza kuwa kutokana na viwango vya uvutaji kwa wananwake na wanaume kuendelea kuwa sawa. <ref name=Harr2012/> Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa hutokea sana kwa wazee;<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> huathiri watu 34-200 kwa kila watu 1000 wenye umri wa Zaidi ya miaka 65&nbsp; kulingana na watu waliozingatiwa. <ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/><ref name="Old2007"/> Uingereza, karibu watu milioni 0.84 (kati ya milioni 50) wamepatikana kuwa na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa; hii ni takriban mtu mmoja kwa kila watu 59 wanaofanyiwa utambuzi wa ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa wakati fulani maishani mwao. Katika sehemu nyingi maskini za nchi hiyo, mtu mmoja kati ya watu 32 walipatikana kuwa na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa, wakilinganishwa na mmoja kati ya watu 98 katika sehemu tajiri.<ref name="BJGPref">{{cite journal |author=Simpson CR, Hippisley-Cox J, Sheikh A| title= Trends in the epidemiology of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in England: a national study of 51 804 patients | journal=Brit J Gen Pract |volume=60 |issue=576 |pages=483–8 |year=2010 |pmid=20594429 |pmc=2894402 |doi= 10.3399/bjgp10X514729}}</ref> Marekani, takriban asilimia 6.3 ya watu wazima, ambayo ni takriban watu milioni 15&nbsp; wamepatikana kuwa na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title=Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Among Adults — United States, 2011 |journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report |date=2012 Nov 23 |volume=61 |issue=46 |pages=938–43 |pmid=23169314 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6146a2.htm}}</ref> Watu milioni 25&nbsp;wanaweza kuwa na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa visa visivyotambuliwa vikiongezwa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Morbidity & Mortality: 2009 Chart Book on Cardiovascular, Lung, and Blood Diseases |publisher=National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute |url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/2009_ChartBook.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref> Katika mwaka wa 2011, takriban watu 730,000 walilazwa hospitalini kutokana na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa.<ref name=Tor2013>{{cite journal | author = Torio CM, Andrews RM | title = National Inpatient Hospital Costs: The Most Expensive Conditions by Payer, 2011: Statistical Brief #160 | journal = Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP) Statistical Briefs | year = 2006 | pmid = 24199255 | url = http://hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb160.jsp | publisher = Agency for Health Care Policy and Research | access-date = 2014-06-23 | archive-date = 2017-03-14 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170314171958/https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb160.jsp | dead-url = yes | = https://web.archive.org/web/20170314171958/https://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb160.jsp }}</ref> ==Historia== [[File:Giambattista morgagni.gif|thumb|right|600px|Giambattista Morgagni aliyetengeneza mojawapo ya vielelezo vilivyoandikwa kitambo vya emfisema mnamo mwaka wa 1769]]Neno "emfisema" linatoka katika [[Lugha ya kigiriki|Kigiriki]] {{lang|el|ἐμφυσᾶν}} ''emphysan'' kumaanisha "''kujaa hewa''" -yenyewe ikiwa na ἐν ''en'', ikimaanisha "''ndani''", na φυσᾶν ''physan'', ikimaanisha "''pumzi, blast''".<ref>{{cite web|title=Emphysema|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/emphysema|work=Dictionary.com|accessdate=21 November 2013}}</ref> Jina bronkitisi sugu lilianza kutumika mwaka wa 1808<ref name=Historia1991>{{cite journal |doi=10.1159/000195969 |title=History of the Treatment of Chronic Bronchitis |year=1991 |last1=Ziment |first1=Irwin |journal=Respiration |volume=58 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=37–42 |pmid=1925077}}</ref> ilhali jina ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa huaminika kutumika kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1965. <ref name=Historia2006/> Hapo awali umejulikana kwa majina kadhaa tofauti yakiwemo: ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa bronkasi na njia za hewa, ugonjwa sugu wa kupumua wa kufungana, ugonjwa sugu wa kufunga kwa kupita kwa hewa, kupungua sugu kwa kupita kwa hewa, ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa, ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa usiojulikana, na sindromu liyoenea ya kufungana kwa njia za hewa.<!-- <ref name=History2006/> --> Majina bronkitisi sugu na emfisema yalifasiliwa mwaka wa 1959 katika kongamano la [[Novartis|CIBA]] na katika mwaka wa 1962 katika mkutano wa kamati ya [[Shirika la Kifua la Marekani]] kuhusu viwango vya utambuzi.<ref name=History2006/> Maelezo ya kitambo ya uwezekano wa emfisema ni: Katika mwaka wa 1679 na T. Bonet kuhusu ugonjwa wa "mapafu makubwa” na katika mwaka wa 1769 na [[Giovanni Morgagni]] kuhusu mapafu yaliyokuwa yamevimba hasa kutokana na hewa".<ref name=Historia2006>{{cite journal |author=Petty TL |title=The history of COPD |journal=Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3–14 |year=2006 |pmid=18046898 |pmc=2706597 |doi=10.2147/copd.2006.1.1.3}}</ref><ref name=Fish2008/> Katika mwaka wa 1721 michoro ya kwanza ya emfisema ilifanywa na Ruysh.<ref name=Fish2008>{{cite book |first1=Joanne L. |last1=Wright |first2=Andrew |last2=Churg |chapter=Pathologic Features of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Diagnostic Criteria and Differential Diagnosis |chapterurl=http://www.mhprofessional.com/downloads/products/0071457399/0071457399_chap40.pdf |pages=693–705 |editor1-first=Alfred |editor1-last=Fishman |editor2-first=Jack |editor2-last=Elias |editor3-first=Jay |editor3-last=Fishman |editor4-first=Michael |editor4-last=Grippi |editor5-first=Robert |editor5-last=Senior |editor6-first=Allan |editor6-last=Pack |year=2008 |title=Fishman's Pulmonary Diseases and Disorders |edition=4th |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |isbn=978-0-07-164109-8 |access-date=2014-06-23 |archive-date=2016-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202744/http://www.mhprofessional.com/downloads/products/0071457399/0071457399_chap40.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Michoro hii ilifuatwa na picha za [[Matthew Baillie]] katika mwaka wa 1789 na maelezo ya hali ya uharibifu wa ugonjwa huo.<!-- <ref jina=Historia2006/> --> Katika mwaka wa 1814 [[Charles Badham (fizishiani)|Charles Badham]] alitumia "katara" kueleza kikohozi na kamasi Zaidi katika bronkitisi sugu.<!-- <ref jina=Historia2006/> --> [[René Laennec]], fizishiani aliyevumbua [[stethoskopu]], alitumia neno "emfisema" katika kitabu chake ''A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest and of Mediate Auscultation'' (1837) kueleza mapafu yasiyosinyaa alipofungua kifua wakati wa otopsi.<!-- <ref jina=Historia2006/> --> Aligundua kuwa hayakusinyaa kikawaida kwa sababu yalikuwa yamejaa hewa na njia za hewa zilikuwa zimejaa kamasi..<!-- <ref name=History2006/> --> Katika mwaka wa 1842, [[John Hutchinson (daktari mpasuaji)|John Hutchinson]] aligundua [[kipima pumzi]], kilichoruhusu kupimwa kwa [[ujazo pumzi]] wa mapafu.<!-- <ref name=History2006/> --> Hata hivyo kipima pumzi chake kingeweza kupima ujazo tu, si kupita kwa hewa. <!-- <ref name=History2006/> --> Tiffeneau and Pinelli katika mwaka wa 1947 walieleza kanuni za kupima kupita kwa hewa. <ref name=History2006/> Matibabu ya kitambo yalikuwa kitunguu saumu, mdalasini na [[ipecac]], miongoni mwa mengine.<ref name=History1991/> Matibabu ya kisasa yalianzishwa katika nusu ya pili ya karne ya 21. <!-- <ref name=History2005> --> Ushahidi wa kuunga mkono utumizi wa steroidi katika ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa ulichapishwa mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1950.<!-- <ref name=History2005> --> Vitanua bronkasi vilianza kutumika katika miaka ya 1960 baada ya majaribio yenye matumaini ya [[isoprenaline]].<!-- <ref name=History2005> --> Vitanua bronkasi zaidi, kama vile salbutamol, vilitengenezwa katika miaka ya 1970, na matumizi ya LABAs yakaanza katikati mwa miaka ya 1990.<ref name=History2005>{{cite journal |author=Fishman AP |title=One hundred years of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-respiratory-critical-care-medicine_2005-05-01_171_9/page/941 |journal=Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. |volume=171 |issue=9 |pages=941–8|year=2005|month=May |pmid=15849329 |doi=10.1164/rccm.200412-1685OE}}</ref> ==Jamii na Utamaduni== Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu umeitwa "pafu la mvutaji".<ref>{{cite book|last=Yuh-Chin|first=T. Huang|title=A clinical guide to occupational and environmental lung diseases|publisher=Humana Press|location=[New York]|isbn=978-1-62703-149-3|page=266|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=9bYbE87FbtMC&pg=PA266|date=2012-10-28}}</ref> Walio na emfisema wamejulikana kama "wapumua waridi" au "aina A" kutokana na rangi yao ya waridi ya uso, kiwango cha haraka cha kupumua na midomo iliyofungwa,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Pink+Puffer |title=Pink Puffer - definition of Pink Puffer in the Medical dictionary - by the Free Online Medical Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia|publisher=Medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com |accessdate=2013-07-23}}</ref><ref name=Wein2013>{{cite book|last=Weinberger|first=Steven E.|title=Principles of pulmonary medicine|publisher=Elsevier/Saunders|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-62703-149-3|page=165|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=2F-DPG0c5IMC&pg=PT165|edition=6th|date=2013-05-08}}</ref> na watu walio na bronkitisi sugu wameitwa “blota za bluu" au "aina B" kutokana na [[sinosisi|rangi ya bluu kwenye ngozi na midomo]] mara kwa mara kutokana na viwango vya chini vya oksijeni na kuvimba kwa tindi za miguu.<ref name=Wein2013/><ref>{{cite book|last=Des Jardins|first=Terry|title=Clinical Manifestations & Assessment of Respiratory Disease|year=2013|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-27749-5|page=176|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=LVtPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA170|edition=6th}}</ref> Istilahi hii haikubaliki tena kuwa muhimu kwa sababu watu wengi walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa nia za hewa wana mchanganyiko wa hali zote mbili.<ref name=Harr2012/><ref name=Wein2013/> Mifumo mingi ya afya ina ugumu kuhakikisha utambuzi unaofaa, uchunguzi na utunzaji wa watu walio na ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa; [[Idara ya Afya (Uingereza)|Idara ya Afya]] ya Uingereza imetambua hili kuwa suala kuu kwa [[Huduma ya Kitaifa ya Afya (Uingereza)|Huduma ya kitaifa ya Afya]] na imeanzisha mkakati mahususi wa kukabiliana na matatizo haya. <ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/216139/dh_128428.pdf |title=An outcomes strategy for people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma in England |date=18 July 2011 |publisher=[[Department of Health (United Kingdom)|Department of Health]]|page=5|accessdate=27 November 2013}}</ref> ===Uchumi=== Ulimwenguni kote, Kufikia mwaka wa 2010, ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za pumzi umekadiriwa kusababisha gharama ya kiuchumi ya dola trilioni 2.1&nbsp; ambayo nusu yake hutokea katika nchi zinazostawi. <ref name=Cost2013/> Kwa idadi hii, takriban dola trilioni 1.9&nbsp; ni gharama za moja kwa moja kama vile matibabu, ilhali dola trilioni 0.2&nbsp; ni gharama zisizo za moja kwa moja kama vile kazi ambayo haikufanywa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bloom|first=D|title=The Global Economic Burden of Noncommunicable Diseases|year=2011|publisher=World Economic Forum|page=24|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Harvard_HE_GlobalEconomicBurdenNonCommunicableDiseases_2011.pdf}}</ref> Hii inatarajiwa kuwa zaidi ya mara mbili katika miaka 20&nbsp;ijayo.<ref name=Cost2013/> Kule Ulaya, Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa unawakilisha asilimia 3 ya gharama za afya.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Marekani, gharama za ugonjwa huu zinakadriwa kuwa dola bilioni 50&nbsp;, ambazo nyingi ni kutokana na maumivu zaidi.<ref name=GOLD2013Chp1/> Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu ulikuwa mmoja wa ugonjwa wenye gharama ya juu sana katika hospitali za Marekani mwaka wa 2011, na jumla ya gharama ya takriban dola bilioni 5.7 ref name=Tor2013/> ==Utafiti== [[Infliximab]] imejaribiwa katika ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa lakini hakukuwa na ushahidi wa mafanikio bali uwezekano wa madhara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nici|first=Linda|title=Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Co-Morbidities and Systemic Consequences|year=2011|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-60761-673-3|page=78|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=0CXcUnr-0eoC&pg=PA78}}</ref> [[Roflumilast]] huonyesha ahadi katika kupunguza kiwango cha maumivu zaidi lakini haionekani kubadilisha ubora wa maisha.<ref name=Lancet2012/> Ajenti kadhaa za muda mrefu zinaendelea kutengenezwa. <ref name=Lancet2012/> ==Wanyama wengine== Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za hewa unaweza kutokea kwa wanyama wengine kadhaa na unaweza kutokana na kutangamana na moshi wa sigara.<ref>{{cite book|last=Akers|first=R. Michael|title=Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals|year=2008|publisher=Wiley|location=Arnes, AI|isbn=978-1-118-70115-7|page=852|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Ze6J2znDg38C&pg=PT852|coauthors=Denbow, D. Michael}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=JL|coauthors=Churg, A|title=Animal models of cigarette smoke-induced COPD|journal=Chest|date=December 2002|volume=122|issue=6 Suppl|pages=301S–6S|pmid=12475805|doi=10.1378/chest.122.6_suppl.301S}}</ref> Hata hivyo wingi wa ugonjwa huu ni mdogo. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Churg|first=A|coauthors=Wright, JL|title=Animal models of cigarette smoke-induced chronic obstructive lung disease|journal=Contributions to microbiology|year=2007|volume=14|pages=113–25|pmid=17684336|doi=10.1159/000107058|series=Contributions to Microbiology|isbn=3-8055-8332-X}}</ref> Katika [[farasi]] ugonjwa huu pia hujulikana kama [[kufungana kwa mara kwa mara kwa njia za hewa]] na hutokana na mwitiko wa aleji kwa majani makavu yaliyo na [[kuvu]].<ref name=Marin2007>{{cite journal | author = Marinkovic D, Aleksic-Kovacevic S, Plamenac P | title = Cellular basis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in horses | journal = Int. Rev. Cytol. | volume = 257 | issue = | pages = 213–47 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17280899 | doi = 10.1016/S0074-7696(07)57006-3 | series = International Review of Cytology | isbn=978-0-12-373701-4 }}</ref> Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa mapafu hupatina sana kwa mbwa wazee.<ref name=Miller1989>{{cite journal | author = Miller MS, Tilley LP, Smith FW | title = Cardiopulmonary disease in the geriatric dog and cat | journal = Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract. | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 87–102 | year = 1989 | month = January | pmid = 2646821 | doi = }}</ref> ==Kumbukumbu== <references/> ==Kusoma zaidi== *{{cite web |url=http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf |title=Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Updated 2013 |publisher=Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease |accessdate=November 29, 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234113/http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf |archivedate=2013-10-04 |=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328053032/http://www.goldcopd.org/uploads/users/files/GOLD_Report_2013_Feb20.pdf }} *{{NICE|101|Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease|June 2010|1-673}} *{{cite journal |doi=10.7326/0003-4819-155-3-201108020-00008 |title=Diagnosis and Management of Stable Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Clinical Practice Guideline Update from the American College of Physicians, American College of Chest Physicians, American Thoracic Society, and European Respiratory Society |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annals-of-internal-medicine_2011-08-02_155_3/page/178 |year=2011 |last1=Qaseem |first1=Amir |journal=Annals of Internal Medicine |volume=155 |issue=3 |pages=179–91 |pmid=21810710 |last2=Wilt |first2=TJ |last3=Weinberger |first3=SE |last4=Hanania |first4=NA |last5=Criner |first5=G |last6=Van Der Molen |first6=T |last7=Marciniuk |first7=DD |last8=Denberg |first8=T |last9=Schünemann |first9=H |last10=Wedzicha |first10=W |last11=MacDonald |first11=R |last12=Shekelle |first12=P |last13=American College Of |first13=Physicians |author14=American College of Chest Physicians |last15=American Thoracic |first15=Society |last16=European Respiratory |first16=Society}} ==Marejeleo zaidi== {{commons category|Ugonjwa sugu wa kufungana kwa njia za pumzi}} [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] donjha9vhyt4uzv2pu845fkivqqixob 0 72058 1580228 1192093 2026-07-18T01:33:29Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580228 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Mtu Mashuhuri |jina = André-Marie Ampère |picha = Ampere Andre 1825.jpg |caption = Andre Ampere mwaka 1825 |tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = {{birth date|df=yes|1775|1|20}} |mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = [[Lyon]], [[Ufaransa]] |tarehe_ya_kufa = {{death date and age|df=yes|1836|6|10|1775|1|20}} |mahala_alipofia = [[Marseille]], [[Ufaransa]] |majina_mengine = |anajulikana_kwa_ajili_ya = Alitunga nadharia ya [[usumakuumeme]] |kazi_yake = Mwanafizikia |utaifa = Mfaransa }} '''André-Marie Ampère''' ([[20 Januari]] [[1775]] – [[10 Juni]] [[1836]])<ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofscie0000unse_s3y8|year=1970|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=United States of America}}</ref> alikuwa [[mtaalamu]] wa [[fizikia]] na [[hisabati]] kutoka [[Ufaransa]]. Ana umaarufu kama mtu aliyeweka misingi muhimu kwa [[sayansi]] ya [[usumakuumeme]]. Katika mfumo wa [[vipimo sanifu vya kimataifa]] [[kipimo]] cha [[mkondo wa umeme]] kimepewa [[jina]] lake na kwa [[Kiswahili]] kinaandikwa [[ampea]]. ==Maisha== Alizaliwa nchini Ufaransa wakati wa [[Zama za Mwangaza]]. [[Baba]] yake aliyekuwa [[mfanyabiashara]] [[tajiri]] hakumtuma [[shule]] bali alimpa nafasi ya kujisomea [[Nyumba|nyumbani]]. Mwaka [[1799]] alipata [[ajira]] ya kwanza kama [[mwalimu]] wa hisabati na mwaka [[1802]] aliitwa kuwa mwalimu wa fizikia na [[kemia]] mjini [[Bourg-en-Bresse]]. Baada ya [[kifo]] cha [[mke]] wake mwaka [[1803]] alihamia kufundisha kwenye [[chuo]] cha [[École Polytechnique]] mjini [[Paris]]. Huko alipewa nafasi ya [[profesa]] mwaka [[1809]] ingawa hakuwahi kusoma shuleni wala chuoni wala kuwa na [[digrii]] yoyote. Mwaka [[1820]] Ampere alijifunza kuhusu kazi ya [[Mdenmark]] [[Hans Christian Ørsted]] aliyegundua ya kwamba [[sindano]] ya [[dira]] inaathiriwa na [[mkondo wa umeme]] unaopita karibu nayo. Hapo Ampère alianza [[uchunguzi]] kwa lengo la kuelewa uhusiano baina ya [[usumaku]] na [[umeme]]. Alijumlisha matokeo yake mwaka [[1827]] katika [[kitabu]] ''Mémoire sur la théorie mathématique des phénomènes électrodynamiques uniquement déduite de l’experience'' ([[Kumbukumbu]] ya [[nadharia]] ya kihisabati kuhusu matukio ya dainamia umeme, iliyofikiwa hitimisho kwa njia ya maarifa na majaribio). Kitabu hiki kiliweka msingi kwa jina la sayansi mpya kuwa "dainamia umeme" (''electrodynamics''). Mwaka [[1827]] Ampère aliheshimiwa kwa kuchaguliwa mwanachama mgeni wa [[Royal Society]] wa [[Uingereza]] na mwaka [[1828]] kama mwanachama wa [[Akademia ya Sayansi ya Uswidi]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www2.royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28Surname%3D%27ampere%27%29| title = Library and Archive Catalogue|publisher= Royal Society|accessdate = 13 March 2012}}</ref> Kwa heshima ya kazi yake kipimo cha [[mkondo wa umeme]] kiliitwa "ampea", pamoja na [[coulomb]], [[volti]], [[ohm]] na [[watt]]. Vipimo hivi viliitwa kwa heshima ya wataalamu waliofanya kazi pamoja na Ampère na hao walikuwa [[Charles-Augustin de Coulomb]] wa [[Ufaransa]], [[Alessandro Volta]] wa [[Italia]], [[Georg Ohm]] wa [[Ujerumani]] na [[James Watt]] wa [[Uskoti]]. Jina la Ampere liko kati ya majina 72 yaliyoandikwa kwenye [[Mnara wa Eiffel]] mjini Paris. Katika miaka yake kwenye vyuo mbalimbali alifundisha hisabati, fizikia, [[falsafa]] na [[astronomia]]. Alikuwa [[Mkristo]] [[Mkatoliki]] tena [[Utawa wa Tatu wa Mt. Fransisko|Mfransisko]] aliyechukua muda kujisomea katika [[Biblia]] hasa wakati wa matatizo maishani.<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Catholic Encyclopedia | work = | publisher = | date = | url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01437c.htm| doi = | accessdate = 29 December 2007 }}</ref> Kabla ya kufa mwaka 1836, Ampère aliagiza kauli ifuatayo iandikwe kwenye jiwe la [[kaburi]] lake: "Tandem Felix" (kwa [[Kilatini]]: "Hatimaye mwenye heri"). ==Maandishi== * ''Considerations sur la théorie mathématique du jeu'', [[Perisse Frères|Perisse]], Lyon Paris 1802, [https://archive.org/details/considerationssu00ampuoft] * Tafsiri ya Kiingereza ya baadhi ya mandishi yake: ** Magie, W.M. (1963). ''A Source Book in Physics.'' Harvard: Cambridge MA. pp.&nbsp;446–460. ** {{cite book|title=The tests of time : readings in the developement of physical theory|url=https://archive.org/details/testsoftimereadi0000unse|year=2003|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=978-0691090856|pages=[https://archive.org/details/testsoftimereadi0000unse/page/157 157]–162|editor=Lisa M. Dolling, Arthur F. Gianelli, Glenn N. Statile}}. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Williams | first = L. Pearce | title = Ampère, André-Marie | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | volume = 1 | pages = 139–147 | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | year= 1970 | isbn = 0-684-10114-9}} * {{cite book|title=André-Marie Ampère|first=James R. |last=Hofmann |publisher=Blackwell |place=Oxford |year=1995 |ISBN=063117849X}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons category}} {{wikiquote}} * [http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr Ampère and the history of electricity] - a French-language, edited by CNRS, site with Ampère's correspondence (full text and critical edition with links to manuscripts pictures, more than 1000 letters), an Ampère bibliography, experiments, and 3D simulations * [http://musee-ampere.univ-lyon1.fr Ampère Museum] {{Wayback|url=http://musee-ampere.univ-lyon1.fr/ |date=20080418102502 }} - a French-language site from the museum in Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'or, near [[Lyon]], [[France]] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Ampere}} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01437c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia on André Marie Ampère] * [http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/ampereexperiments.html André-Marie Ampère: The Founder of Electromagnetism] - Background information and related experiments {{Persondata |NAME = Ampère, André-Marie |ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Ampere, Andre-Marie (English) |SHORT DESCRIPTION = French physicist and mathematician |DATE OF BIRTH = 22 January 1775 |PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Polémieux]], [[Lyon]], [[France]] |DATE OF DEATH = 10 June 1836 |PLACE OF DEATH = [[Marseille]], [[France]] }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Ampere, Andre-Marie}} [[Category:waliozaliwa 1775]] [[Category:waliofariki 1836]] [[Category:Wanafizikia wa Ufaransa]] [[Category:Wafransisko]] n9chstexrx35sg187w54r9mlmffx95y 0 72454 1580070 1574292 2026-07-17T23:45:19Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580070 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|[[Injini]] kama hii, iliyotegemea [[makaa]], ilisukuma [[mapinduzi ya viwanda]] huko [[Britania]].]] [[File:McKinley Prosperity.jpg|thumb|250x250px|Tangazo la ubora wa ubepari.]] [[File:NY stock exchange traders floor LC-U9-10548-6.jpg|thumb|right|[[Soko la hisa]] la [[New York]], [[Marekani]] ([[1963]]).]] '''Ubepari''' ni [[mfumo wa uchumi]] ambamo [[biashara]], [[viwanda]] na [[vitegauchumi]] vingine vinatawaliwa na watu [[binafsi]] kwa kiasi kikubwa na kwa lengo la kupata [[faida]]. Nafasi ya [[serikali]] ni ndogo. Vilevile lengo la kuhudumia [[jamii]] katika mahitaji yake haliongozi mipango.<ref>[http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/capitalism “Capitalism”] {{Wayback|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/capitalism |date=20160827071223 }} ''Oxford Dictionaries''. “capitalism. an economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.” Retrieved 4 January 2013.</ref><ref>Chris Jenks. ''Core Sociological Dichotomies''. “Capitalism, as a mode of production, is an economic system of manufacture and exchange which is geared toward the production and sale of commodities within a market for profit, where the manufacture of commodities consists of the use of the formally free labor of workers in exchange for a wage to create commodities in which the manufacturer extracts surplus value from the labor of the workers in terms of the difference between the wages paid to the worker and the value of the commodity produced by him/her to generate that profit.” London, England, UK; Thousand Oaks, California, USA; New Delhi, India: SAGE. p. 383.</ref> Kati ya sifa za ubepari kuna [[ulimbikizaji wa mtaji]], [[ushindani]] katika [[soko huria]] na [[kazi]] zinazolipwa [[mshahara]].<ref>Heilbroner, Robert L. [http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_C000053 "capitalism."] Durlauf, Steven N.and Lawrence E. Blume, eds., ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics''. 2nd ed. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) {{DOI|10.1057/9780230226203.0198}}</ref> Katika mfumo huo, pande zinazokabiliana zinapanga zenyewe [[bei]] kwa [[makubaliano]], bila kuingiliwa na [[mamlaka]] yoyote ya nje.<ref>http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/capitalism "an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision, and by prices, production, and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly by competition in a free market"</ref> Ubepari una viwango tofauti vya [[uhuru]] huo, kadiri ya [[nchi]]:<ref name="Modern Economics 1986, p. 54">''Macmillan Dictionary of Modern Economics'', 3rd Ed., 1986, p. 54.</ref>[[Kiingereza]] kinaainisha [[laissez-faire]] capitalism, [[welfare capitalism]], [[crony capitalism]] na [[state capitalism]].<ref name="Stilwell">Stilwell, Frank. “Political Economy: the Contest of Economic Ideas.” First Edition. Oxford University Press. Melbourne, Australia. 2002.</ref> ==Historia== Kihistoria, ubepari uliwahi kuwepo tangu zamani kwa namna mbalimbali, lakini ulianza kutawala baada ya mifumo ya [[Karne za Kati]] za [[Ulaya]] kupitwa na wakati na [[mapinduzi ya viwanda]] kushika kasi. [[Ubeberu]], [[ukoloni]], halafu [[utandawazi]] vimefanya ubepari uenee duniani kote.<ref>{{Rejea kitabu | year= 2007 | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= Gills | first2= Barry | title= Globalization and Economy, Vol. 1: Global Markets and Capitalism | url= http://www.academia.edu/4199690/Globalization_and_Economy_Vol._1_Global_Markets_and_Capitalism_editor_with_Barry_Gills_Sage_Publications_London_2007 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London}}</ref> Katika [[karne ya 20]] ubepari ulishindana na mfumo mbadala wa [[ukomunisti]] ambao ulitia mkazo juu ya ma[[jukumu]] ya serikali katika uchumi mpaka kuwanyima wananchi nafasi ya kuwajibika. Hata hivyo, baada ya kushinda,<ref name="britannica">{{cite book |title=Capitalism|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2006}}</ref><ref>James Fulcher, ''Capitalism, A Very Short Introduction'', “In one respect there can, however, be little doubt that capitalism has gone global and that is in the elimination of alternative systems.” p. 99, Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-19-280218-7.</ref> <ref>{{Rejea kitabu | year= 2007 | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= Gills | first2= Barry | title= Globalization and Economy, Vol. 1: Global Markets and Capitalism | url= http://www.academia.edu/4199690/Globalization_and_Economy_Vol._1_Global_Markets_and_Capitalism_editor_with_Barry_Gills_Sage_Publications_London_2007 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London | page= xxiii}}</ref>ubepari pia umeingiza uchumi wa dunia katika hali tete, kama ilivyojitokeza mwanzoni mwa [[karne ya 21]]. Watetezi wa ubepari wanasisitiza kwamba mfumo huo unaleta [[ustawi wa jamii]] ulio mkubwa kuliko ule unaoletwa na mifumo mingine yoyote, kiasi kwamba hatimaye wote wanafaidika, si ma[[tajiri]] tu.<ref>Friedman, Milton. ''Capitalism and Freedom''. [Chicago]: University of Chicago, 1962.</ref> Critics of capitalism variously associate it with economic instability,<ref>Krugman, Paul, Wells, Robin, ''Economics'', Worth Publishers, New York, (2006)</ref> Wengi wanapinga hoja hiyo kwa kuonyesha [[umati]] unaokosa [[kazi]] na [[huduma]] za msingi kutokana na [[pesa]] kutiwa maanani kuliko [[binadamu]] na [[mazingira]] kutumika kuliko uwezo wake wa kustahimili.<ref name="McMurty 1999">{{cite book |last = McMurty |first = John |title = The Cancer Stage of Capitalism |url = https://archive.org/details/cancerstageofcap0000mcmu |publisher = [[PLUTO PRESS]] |year = 1999 |isbn = 0-7453-1347-7}}</ref><ref>''The Rise of Capitalism'', 2011. Socialist Standard, no. 1284, August 2011.</ref>. [[Kanisa Katoliki]] limejitokeza kwa namna ya pekee kati ya [[dini]] mbalimbali kukosoa ubepari <ref>[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20090629_caritas-in-veritate_en.html Caritas in veritate paragraph 36]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P8C.HTM#-2FX|title=III. The Social Doctrine of the Church|publisher=The Vatican|accessdate=26 February 2008}}</ref><ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/26/us-pope-document-idUSBRE9AP0EQ20131126 O'Leary, Naomi, "Pope Attacks 'Tyranny' of Markets in Manifesto for Papacy"] {{Wayback|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/11/26/us-pope-document-idUSBRE9AP0EQ20131126 |date=20140821090534 }}. ''[[Reuters]]'' (November 2013) Retrieved 30 December 2013.</ref><ref>Zachary A. Goldfarb and Michelle Boorstein (26 November 2013). [http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/pope-francis-denounces-trickle-down-economic-theories-in-critique-of-inequality/2013/11/26/e17ffe4e-56b6-11e3-8304-caf30787c0a9_story.html Pope Francis denounces ‘trickle-down’ economic theories in critique of inequality]. ''[[The Washington Post]].'' Retrieved 26 November 2013.</ref> kama ulivyokosoa na hatimaye kuangusha ukomunisti wa [[Ulaya Mashariki]] ([[1989]]) likiongozwa na [[Papa Yohane Paulo II]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/apr/04/catholicism.religion13?INTCMP=SRCH |title=The first world leader |publisher=The Guardian |date=4 April 2005 |accessdate=4 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="Associated Press">{{cite web |url=http://www.cjonline.com/stories/101303/pag_pope.shtml |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040404041319/http://www.cjonline.com/stories/101303/pag_pope.shtml |archivedate=2004-04-04 |title=Poles worried, proud of Pope John Paul II 10/13/03 |last=The Associated Press |work=web.archive.org |year=2012 |accessdate=28 January 2012 }}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Marejeo== {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=Bacher|first=Christian|title=Capitalism, Ethics and the Paradoxon of Self-Exploitation|year=2007|publisher=GRIN Verlag|location=Munich|isbn=978-3-638-63658-2|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=w_6PqBp64y0C&lpg=PP1&pg=PA2|page=2}} * {{cite book |last=De George|first=Richard T.|title=Business Ethics|url=https://archive.org/details/businessethics00dege|year=1986|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=978-0-02-328010-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/businessethics00dege/page/104 104]}} * {{cite book |last=Fulcher|first=James|title=Capitalism A Very Short Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismverysh00fulc_0|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-280218-7}} * {{Rejea kitabu | year= 2007 | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= Gills | first2= Barry | title= Globalization and Economy, Vol. 1: Global Markets and Capitalism | url= http://www.academia.edu/4199690/Globalization_and_Economy_Vol._1_Global_Markets_and_Capitalism_editor_with_Barry_Gills_Sage_Publications_London_2007 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London}} * {{cite book |last1= Lash|first1=Scott |authorlink1=Scott Lash |last2=Urry|first2= John|authorlink2=John Urry (sociologist) |year= 2000|title= The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology|url= https://archive.org/details/penguindictionar0000aber_f9p8|chapter=Capitalism|edition= 4th|publisher= Penguin Books|location= London|isbn= 978-0-14-051380-6|pages= [https://archive.org/details/penguindictionar0000aber_f9p8/page/36 36]–40|editor1-first= Nicholas|editor1-last=Abercrombie |editor2-first=Stephen |editor2-last=Hill|editor2-link= |editor3-first= Bryan S|editor3-last=Turner |editor3-link=Bryan S. Turner}} * {{cite journal |last1=McCraw |first1=Thomas K.|authorlink= Thomas K. McCraw|date=August 2011 |title= The Current Crisis and the Essence of Capitalism|journal= The Montreal Review|url= http://www.themontrealreview.com/2009/The-current-crisis-and-the-essence-of-capitalism.php|issn= 0707-9656}} * {{cite book |title=Profit Theory and Capitalism|author=Obrinsky, Mark|location=Philadelphia|publisher= University of Pennsylvania Press {{Subscription required|via=[[Questia]]}}|url=http://www.questia.com/read/4995070/profit-theory-and-capitalism|year=1983|page=1|isbn=978-0-8122-7863-7}} * {{cite book |last=Wolf|first=Eric R.|title=[[Europe and the People Without History]]|year=1982|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-04459-3|authorlink=Eric Wolf}} * {{cite book |last=Wood|first=Ellen Meiksins|title=The Origin of Capitalism: A Longer View|year=2002|publisher=Verso|location=London|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FZPyKjVguVoC|isbn=978-1-85984-392-5|authorlink=Ellen Meiksins Wood}} {{Refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== {{Refbegin}} * [[Gar Alperovitz|Alperovitz, Gar]] (2011). ''America Beyond Capitalism: Reclaiming Our Wealth, Our Liberty, and Our Democracy, 2nd Edition.'' Democracy Collaborative Press. ISBN 0984785701 * {{Rejea kitabu |last1= Block |first1= Fred |author1-link= Fred L. Block |last2= Somers |first2= Margaret R. |year= 2014 |title= The Power of Market Fundamentalism: Karl Polyani's Critique |url= https://archive.org/details/powerofmarketfun0000bloc |location= Cambridge, MA |publisher= [[Harvard University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-674-05071-6 |ref= harv }} * {{cite book | last = Harvey | first = David | authorlink = David Harvey | title = Seventeen Contradictions and the End of Capitalism | url = https://archive.org/details/seventeencontrad0000harv_j2i4 | publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] | year = 2014 | isbn = 019936026X}} * {{Rejea kitabu | year= 2007 | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= Patomäki | first2= Heikki | title= Globalization and Economy, Vol. 2: Global Finance and the New Global Economy | url= http://www.academia.edu/4211923/Globalization_and_Economy_Vol._2_Global_Finance_and_the_New_Global_Economy_editor_with_Heikki_Patomaki_Sage_Publications_London_2007 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London}} * {{Rejea kitabu | year= 2007 | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= Palen | first2= Ronen | title= Globalization and Economy, Vol. 3: Global Economic Regimes and Institutions | url= http://www.academia.edu/4251331/Globalization_and_Economy_Vol._3_Global_Economic_Regimes_and_Institutions_editor_with_Ronen_Palan_Sage_Publications_London_2007 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London}} * {{cite book | year=2007 | last1= James | first1= Paul | authorlink= Paul James (academic) | last2= O’Brien | first2= Robert | title= Globalization and Economy, Vol. 4: Globalizing Labour | url= http://www.academia.edu/4303461/Globalization_and_Economy_Vol._4_Globalizing_Labour_editor_with_Robert_OBrien_Sage_Publications_London_2007 | publisher= Sage Publications |location=London }} * {{cite book | last = Mander | first = Jerry | authorlink = Jerry Mander | title = The Capitalism Papers: Fatal Flaws of an Obsolete System | url = https://archive.org/details/capitalismpapers0000mand | publisher= Counterpoint | year = 2012 | isbn = 1619021587}} * Mayfield, Anthony. "Economics", in his ''On the Brink: Resource Depletion, Debt Collapse, and Super-technology'' ([Vancouver, B.C.]: On the Brink Publishing, 2013), pp.&nbsp;50–104. ''N.B.'': The author, as well, frequently discusses aspects of economics and capitalism elsewhere (''passim.'') in the book. * {{Rejea kitabu |last1= Musacchio |first1= Aldo |last2= Lazzarini |first2= Sergio G. |year= 2014 |title= Reinventing State Capitalism: Leviathan in Business, Brazil and Beyond |url= https://archive.org/details/reinventingstate0000musa |location= Cambridge, MA |publisher= [[Harvard University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-674-72968-1 |ref= harv }} * Panitch, Leo, and Sam Gindin (2012). ''The Making of Global Capitalism: the Political Economy of American Empire''. London: Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-742-9 * {{Rejea kitabu |last= Piketty |first= Thomas |authorlink= Thomas Piketty |year= 2014 |title= [[Capital in the Twenty-First Century]] |location= Cambridge, MA |publisher= [[Belknap Press]] |isbn= 067443000X |ref= harv }} * [[Karl Polanyi|Polanyi, Karl]] (2001). ''[[The Great Transformation (book)|The Great Transformation]]: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time.'' [[Beacon Press]]; 2 edition. ISBN 080705643X * [[Paul Craig Roberts|Roberts, Paul Craig]] (2013). ''The Failure of Laissez-faire Capitalism: towards a New Economics for a Full World''. Atlanta, Ga.: Clarity Press. ISBN 978-0-9860362-5-5 * {{cite book | last = Wallerstein| first = Immanuel | authorlink = Immanuel Wallerstein | title = Historical Capitalism | url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780860917618| publisher= [[Verso Books]] | year = 1983 | isbn = 0860917614}} * {{cite book | last = Wolff | first = Richard D. | authorlink = Richard D. Wolff | title = Democracy at Work: A Cure for Capitalism | url = https://archive.org/details/democracyatworkc0000wolf | publisher= [[Haymarket Books]] | year = 2012 | isbn = 1608462471}} {{Refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Capitalism}} * {{Rejea kitabu | last =Hessen | first =Robert | author-link =Robert Hessen | title =Capitalism | publisher =[[Library of Economics and Liberty]] | series =[[The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]] | year =2008 | edition =2nd | url =http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Capitalism.html | isbn =978-0865976658 | oclc = 237794267}} * [http://capitalism.columbia.edu/ Center on Capitalism and Society] at [[Columbia University]] * [http://capitalism.wfu.edu/ Center for the Study of Capitalism] at [[Wake Forest University]] * [http://www.commonwealthclub.org/events/archive/podcast/dr-yaron-brook-and-dr-david-callahan-capitalism-moral-debate-102212 Commonwealth Club of California-Dr. Yaron Brook and Dr. David Callahan: Is Capitalism Moral? A Debate – October 22, 2012] * [http://www.textbooksfree.org/Economics_3_Basic_Characteristics_of_Capitalism.htm Basic Characteristics of Capitalism from textbooksfree.org] {{Wayback|url=http://www.textbooksfree.org/Economics_3_Basic_Characteristics_of_Capitalism.htm |date=20140918052523 }} {{mbegu-uchumi}} [[Category:Uchumi]] [[Category:Siasa]] [[Category:Falsafa]] tpyq9tc0njtk93i9zyxvfb6oo9yxxgf 0 72471 1580133 1486074 2026-07-18T00:27:59Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580133 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Hadza montage.png|thumb|right|Wahadzabe]] [[File:Hadza_map.svg|thumb|[[Ramani]] ya Tanzania ikionyesha kwa kijivu kilichokolea eneo lao.]] [[File:Hadzabe areal.jpg|thumb|right|Maeneo ya uwindaji kwenye [[Serengeti]].]] [[File:Hadzabe-1.jpg|thumb|Wahadzabe wakivuta [[bangi]].]] [[File:An_Hadzabe_tribe_hunter.jpg|thumb|Mwindaji wa Kihadzabe.]] [[File:Hadazbe returning from hunt.jpg|thumb|right|Wanaume wakirudi toka mawindoni.]] '''Wahadzabe''' au '''Wahadza'''<ref>In the [[Hadza language]], ''Hadzabe'e'' is the [[Grammatical gender|feminine]] [[Grammatical number|plural]] form of ''Hadza''. The Hadza call themselves the ''Hadzabe'e'' and their language ''Hadzane''. Other spellings are ''Hadzapi'' ('they are Hadza men') and ''Hatsa''; other [[Ethnonym|ethnonyms]] applied to them include ''Tindiga (Watindiga), Kindiga, Kangeju,'' and ''Wahi''. In current English usage, ''Hadza'' is the most commonly used term.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Marlowe|2010|p=15}}</ref> ni [[kabila]] la [[Tanzania]] linaloishi hasa kando ya [[Ziwa Eyasi]] kwenye [[Bonde la Ufa]] na katika uwanda jirani wa [[Serengeti]]. Leo Wahadza ni 1,200 hivi:<ref name="Marlowe pop">{{Harvnb|Marlowe|2010|p=13}}</ref><ref name="online">[[#Mar05|Marlowe 2005]] (see [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hbe-lab/acrobatfiles/mate%20prefs%20of%20hadza.pdf online])</ref> kati yao 300–400 wanaishi bado kwa [[Wawindaji-wakusanyaji|kuwinda na kuchuma]] vyakula bila [[uzalishaji]], kama waliofanya [[babu|mababu]] wao tangu awali.<ref>{{Harvnb|Marlowe|2010|pp=17–18; 285–286}}</ref> Wahadza hawana [[ndugu|undugu]] wa karibu na kabila lingine lolote, na vilevile [[lugha]] yao ni ya pekee kabisa.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|1999|p=200}}</ref><ref>Sands, Bonny E. (1998) 'The Linguistic Relationship between Hadza and Khoisan' In Schladt, Matthias (ed.) Language, Identity, and Conceptualization among the Khoisan (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung Vol. 15), Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 265&ndash;283.</ref><ref name="Ndagala & Zengu 1994">{{Harvnb|Ndagala|Zengu|1994}}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|3}} ==Marejeo== * Apicella, C .L., & Feinberg, D. Voice pitch alters mate-choice relevant perception in hunter-gatherers. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B, 276, 1077-1082. * Apicella, C. L., Little, A.C. & Marlowe, F.W. Averageness and attractiveness in an isolated population of hunter-gatherers. Perception, 36, 1813-1820. * <cite id=Ble08>{{cite conference |last=Blench |first=Roger |title=Hadza Animal Names |conference=3rd International Khoisan Workshop |location=Riezlern |date=7–9 July 2008 |format=PDF}} * <cite id=Cri34>{{cite journal |last=Crittenden |first=A.N. |year=2011 |title=The Importance of Honey Consumption in Human Evolution |journal=Food and Foodways |volume=19 |pages=257–273 |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxhbHlzc2Fjcml0dGVuZGVufGd4OjY3Zjk0MzI5ZWMyNDFlNGI |format=pdf |doi=10.1080/07409710.2011.630618}}<cite> * <cite id=Cri24> {{cite journal |last=Crittenden |first=A.N. |others=Marlowe, F.W. |year=2008 |title=Allomaternal Care among the Hadza of Tanzania |journal=Human Nature |volume=19 |pages=249–263 |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxhbHlzc2Fjcml0dGVuZGVufGd4OjUyNmIxMGNmZjViZmZjMWI |format=pdf |doi=10.1007/s12110-008-9043-3}}<cite> * {{cite book|last=Diamond|first=J.|authorlink=Jared Diamond|title=Guns, germs and steel: the fates of human societies|url=https://archive.org/details/gunsgermssteelfa0000diam|year=1997|publisher=Norton|location=New York, NY|isbn=0-393-03891-2|chapter=Chapter 6|ref=harv}} * <cite id=HeKeu99>{{cite video |people=Heller, Hartmut & Keulig, Steffen |date=1999 |publisher=Freunde der Naturvölker e.V. (fPcN Germany) |title=Hadzabe – Die letzten Wildbeuter Ostafrikas |medium=Documentary |format=streamed video |url=http://vimeo.com/58452890}}<cite> A film (43 min) in German about this people and their struggle for survival. * {{cite book |last=Kohl-Larsen |first=Ludwig |authorlink=Ludwig Kohl-Larsen |title=Das Elefantenspiel. Mythen, Riesen und Stammessagen. Volkserzählungen der Tindiga |publisher=Erich Röth-Verlag |series=Das Gesicht der Völker |location=Eisenach • Kassel |year=1956a |language=German |ref=Koh56a}} The book is a collection of Hadza myths about giants, also some tribal myths about cultural heroes, and anecdotal tales. * {{cite book |last=Lee |first=Richard B. |others=Daly, Richard Heywood |year=1999 |title=The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo0000unse_z4v0 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-57109-X |ref=CITEREFLee1999}} * <cite id=Mar05>{{cite journal |last=Marlowe |first=F.W. |year=2005 |title=Mate preferences among Hadza hunter-gatherers |journal=Human Nature |volume=15 |pages=364–375 |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hbe-lab/acrobatfiles/mate%20prefs%20of%20hadza.pdf |format=pdf}}<cite> * {{cite book|last=Marlowe|first=F. W.|title=The Hadza: Hunter-Gatherers of Tanzania|url=https://archive.org/details/hadzahuntergathe0000marl|year=2010|publisher=Univ. California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-25342-1|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Ndagala|first=D. K.|last2=Zengu|first2=N.|title=Who needs the past?: indigenous values and archaeology|year=1994|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-09558-1|url=http://books.google.com/?id=7TPIDL9RdsoC&pg=PA51&dq=From+the+raw+to+the+cooked:+Hadzabe+perceptions+of+their+past#v=onepage&q=From%20the%20raw%20to%20the%20cooked%3A%20Hadzabe%20perceptions%20of%20their%20past&f=false|editor=Robert Layton|chapter=From the raw to the cooked: Hadzabe perceptions of their past|pages=51–56|ref=harv}} * <cite id=McC07>{{cite news | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/09/AR2007060901465.html?nav=hcmodule | publisher = [[Washington Post]] | accessdate = 2007-09-15 | date = 2007-06-10 | title = 50,000 Years of Resilience May Not Save Tribe | page = A01 | first = Stephanie | last = McCrummen }}</cite> * {{cite news|title=Hadzabe celebrate land victory|url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2579|accessdate=3 May 2011|date=6 November 2007|author=Survival International|ref=harv}} * <!-- Tishkoff, Gonder, Henn, Mortensen, et al 2007 -->{{cite doi|10.1093/molbev/msm155}} ==Marejeo mengine== * Crittenden, Alyssa and Frank Marlowe (2008) Allomaternal Care among the Hadza of Tanzania. Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective 19(3): 249-262. * {{cite journal|last=Finkel|first=M.|title=The Hadza|journal=National Geographic Magazine|date=December 2009|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/12/hadza/finkel-text|access-date=2014-09-14|archive-date=2009-11-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091121120908/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/12/hadza/finkel-text|dead-url=yes}} * {{cite book |last=Kohl-Larsen |authorlink=Ludwig Kohl-Larsen |first=Ludwig |title=Das Zauberhorn. Märchen und Tiergeschichten der Tindiga| trans_title=The magic horn. Tales and animal stories of the Tindiga |publisher=Erich Röth |location=Kassel |year=1956 |language=German}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Lee |editor1-first=Richard B. |editor1-link=Richard Borshay Lee |editor2-last=DeVore |editor2-first=Irven |editor2-link=Irven DeVore |editor3=Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research |title=Man the Hunter |last=Woodburn |first=James |chapter=An Introduction to Hadza Ecology |pages=49–55 |chapterurl=http://books.google.hu/books?id=8onGWvNpw18C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA49,M1 |publisher=Aldine Transaction |year=1969 |isbn=0-202-33032-X |edition=11th}} * {{cite book|last=Madsen|first=Andrew|title=The Hadzabe of Tanzania: land and human rights for a hunter-gatherer community|year=2000|publisher=International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA)|location=Copenhagen|isbn=87-90730-26-7|url=http://books.google.com/?id=3UbTZxDmdnsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Hadza+of+Tanzania:+land+and+human+rights+for+a+hunter-gatherer+community#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * [[Peter Matthiessen|Matthiessen, Peter]] (1972) ''The Tree Where Man Was Born'', Chapter X. * Wood, Brian and Frank Marlowe (2011) Dynamics of postmarital among the Hadza: a kin investment model. Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective. DOI 10.1007/s12110-011-9109-5 ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons category}} * [http://goto.glocalnet.net/maho/eballsamples/sample_w500.html Hadza bibliography] {{Wayback|url=http://goto.glocalnet.net/maho/eballsamples/sample_w500.html |date=20080516010506 }} * ''[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBB2tGroxJM&feature=gv Gli ultimi primitivi. Alla scoperta degli Hadzabe]'' Documentary film (in Italian). * ''[http://www.ericturpin.com/fr/Hadzabe/Hadzabe.htm Hadzabe. Retour vers l'âge de pierre. Les derniers chasseurs à l'arc de Tanzanie] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ericturpin.com/fr/Hadzabe/Hadzabe.htm |date=20150718054631 }}'' Documentary film (in French). * [http://sites.google.com/site/thehadzabushmenoftanzania/ The Hadza Bushmen of Tanzania] * [http://sites.google.com/site/thehadzabushmenoftanzania/map-of-hadzaland-1 Map of Hadzaland] {{mbegu-utamaduni-TZ}} {{Makabila ya Tanzania}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hadzabe}} [[Category:Makabila ya Tanzania]] [[Jamii:Wilaya ya Karatu]] i69feltj016jvnn3txjjudgd3wh64nk 0 72550 1580059 1578136 2026-07-17T23:34:21Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580059 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Spread of Christianity to AD 600 - Atlas of World History.png|thumb|right|float|400px| {{legend|#1F63A7|Uenezi wa Ukristo hadi mwaka 325}} {{legend|#6AB4FF|Uenezi wa Ukristo hadi mwaka 600}}]] {{Ukristo}} '''Ukristo katika karne za kwanza''' ni sehemu ya [[historia ya Kanisa]] hadi [[mwaka]] [[325]] [[BK]], ulipofanyika [[mtaguso mkuu]] [[Mtaguso wa kwanza wa Nisea|wa kwanza huko]] [[Nisea]], leo nchini [[Uturuki]]. Kwa kawaida [[karne]] hizo [[tatu]] zinagawiwa pande [[mbili]]: wakati wa [[Mitume wa Yesu]] (hadi mwaka [[100]] hivi) na baada ya [[mauti|kifo]] chao wote. ==Wakati wa Mitume== Habari kuu za kipindi cha kwanza, kama ile ya [[siku]] ya [[Pentekoste]] [[Roho Mtakatifu]] kuwashukia wafuasi wa [[Yesu]], zinapatikana hasa katika [[Matendo ya Mitume]], [[kitabu]] kilichoandikwa na [[mwinjili Luka]] kwenye [[miaka ya 80]]. Humo unasimuliwa hasa [[uenezi]] wa [[Ukristo]] katika maeneo ya upande wa [[kaskazini]] wa [[Bahari ya Kati]]. Tukio lingine muhimu linalosimuliwa na Luka ni [[uongofu]] wa [[Mtume Paulo]], mwenezi mkuu wa Ukristo na [[ufafanuzi|mfafanuzi]] bora wa [[imani]] hiyo mpya.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' ed. F.L. Lucas (Oxford) entry on Paul</ref> Pamoja na uenezi, linajitokeza badiliko kubwa la [[Wakristo]]: awali walikuwa wote [[Wayahudi]] ama kwa kuzaliwa ama kwa kuongoka,<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12481c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte]: "The English term "proselyte" occurs only in the New Testament where it signifies a convert to the Jewish religion (Matthew 23:15; Acts 2:11; Acts 6:5; etc.), though the same Greek word is commonly used in the [[Septuagint]] to designate a foreign sojourner in Palestine. Thus the term seems to have passed from an original local and chiefly political sense, in which it was used as early as 300 B.C., to a technical and religious meaning in the Judaism of the [[Apostolic Age|New Testament epoch]]."</ref> nao wanaitwa [[Wakristo wa Kiyahudi]]. Lakini katika [[karne ya 1]] tayari [[idadi]] yao ilizidiwa na ile ya Wakristo wa [[Taifa|mataifa]] mengine. Sambamba na hilo [[lugha]] [[lugha ya kimataifa|ya kimataifa]] ya [[Kigiriki]] ilizidi kutumika badala ya [[Kiaramu]], [[lugha mama]] ya Yesu na mitume wake.<ref>Ehrman, Bart D. (2012). ''Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth.'' HarperCollins, pp 87- 90.</ref> Ndiyo sababu [[Agano Jipya]] limeandikwa lote kwa Kigiriki. Vitabu 27 vinavyoliunda vilianza kulinganishwa na vile vya [[Agano la Kale]] kama vitakatifu. Tena [[Yerusalemu]], uliokuwa [[mji mkuu]] wa [[Wayahudi]] na wa [[Wakristo]] wa kwanza, ulizidi kukosa umuhimu, hasa baada ya [[Mtume Petro]] na wenzake kuuhama au kuuawa. Wakati wa [[vita vya kwanza vya Kiyahudi]] hata waumini wa kawaida walihama, na waliporudi hakukuwa tena na [[hekalu la Yerusalemu|hekalu]], kwa kuwa lilibomolewa mwaka [[70]]. Mbali ya hayo, uhusiano na Wayahudi ulizidi kuharibika, na hatimaye Wakristo walikatazwa wasishiriki tena ibada [[sinagogi]]ni. Jumuia ya [[Roma]], [[makao makuu]] ya [[dola]], ilizidi kuwa muhimu, hasa baada ya kufikiwa na Petro na Paulo, ambao walimalizia huko [[kazi]] yao kwa [[kufia dini]] katika [[dhuluma]] ambayo ilianzishwa na [[Kaisari Nero]] mwaka [[64]] na kuendelea kwa [[kwikwi]] hadi mwaka [[313]]. ==Wakati wa watetezi wa imani== Bila kujali [[Mateso ya Wakristo|dhuluma hiyo]] ya nyingine, Ukristo ulizidi kuenea ndani na nje ya [[Dola la Roma]]. [[Ushujaa]] wa [[umati]] wa [[wafiadini]] na [[upendo]] kati ya Wakristo vinafikiriwa kuwa sababu kuu ya uenezi. Kutoka kwenye [[Mji|miji]], imani ilizidi kuenea [[Kijiji|vijijini]] pia. Pamoja na hayo, walianza kujitokeza [[Mwandishi|waandishi]] mbalimbali [[Watetezi wa imani|kutetea]] [[Kanisa]] mbele ya [[serikali]], na wengine kuchambua [[imani]] dhidi ya [[uzushi]] uliozidi kupata nguvu hasa kwa namna ya [[Gnosis]]. Waandishi hao ni kati ya wale wanaoitwa ma[[babu wa Kanisa]] au walau waandishi wa Kikanisa. Wakati huohuo matumizi ya vitabu vya Agano Jipya katika ibada yalizidi kujadiliwa na kutungiwa [[orodha]] rasmi ([[Kanuni ya Biblia]]). ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Vidmar|first=John|title=The Catholic Church Through the Ages: A History|url=https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchth0000vidm|publisher=[[Paulist Press]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8091-4234-7|edition=Illustrated, annotated|language=en|author-link=John Vidmar}} * {{cite book|last=Bond|first=Helen K.|author-link=Helen Bond|title=The Historical Jesus: A Guide for the Perplexed|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|year=2012|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qXcr1S1d09UC|isbn=978-0-567-12510-1}} * {{cite book|last=Chadwick|first=Henry|author-link=Henry Chadwick (theologian)|title=The Early Church|publisher=Penguin Books|series=The Penguin History of the Church|volume=1|edition=revised|year=1993|url=https://archive.org/details/earlychurch0000chad_l1o5|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-14-023199-1}} * [[James D.G. Dunn|Dunn, James D.G]]. ''Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways'', AD 70 to 135. pp 33–34. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999). {{ISBN|978-0-8028-4498-9}}. * {{cite book|last=Fredriksen|first=Paula|author-link=Paula Fredriksen|title=Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity|publisher=Vintage Books|year=1999|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusofnazarethk00paul_0|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-679-76746-6}} * {{cite book|last=Freeman|first=Charles|author-link=Charles Freeman (historian)|title=A New History of Early Christianity|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-300-17083-2}} * {{cite book|last=González|first=Justo L.|author-link=Justo L. González|title=A History of Christian Thought|publisher=Abingdon Press|volume=1: From the Beginnings to the Council of Chalcedon|edition=revised|year=1987|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yMlwT9_KRz4C|isbn=978-0-687-17182-8}} * {{cite book|last=González|first=Justo L.|author-link=Justo L. González|title=The Story of Christianity|publisher=HarperCollins|volume=1 The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation|edition=revised and updated|year=2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQW0ACdLn6kC|isbn=978-0-06-185588-7}} * {{cite journal|last=Hopkins|first=Keith|author-link=Keith Hopkins|title=Christian Number and Its Implications|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-early-christian-studies_summer-1998_6_2/page/185|journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies|volume=6|issue=2|pages=185–226|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|date=1998|issn=1086-3184|doi=10.1353/earl.1998.0035|s2cid=170769034|id={{Project MUSE|9960}}}} * {{cite book|last=Klutz|first=Todd|chapter=Paul and the Development of Gentile Christianity|year=2000|title=The Early Christian World|editor-last=Esler|editor-first=Philip F.|editor-link=Philip Esler|pages=178–190|publisher=Routledge|series=Routledge Worlds|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6fyCAgAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1-032-19934-4}} * {{cite book|last=MacCulloch|first=Diarmaid|author-link=Diarmaid MacCulloch|title=Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7x4m20TRYzQC|isbn=978-1-101-18999-3}} * {{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Joel|chapter=Jewish Christianity|year=2006|title=The Cambridge History of Christianity|volume=1: Origins to Constantine|editor-last1=Mitchell|editor-first1=Margaret M.|editor-link1=Margaret M. Mitchell|editor-last2=Young|editor-first2=Frances M.|editor-link2=Frances Young|pages=87–102|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521812399|isbn=978-1-139-05483-6}} * {{cite book|last=McGrath|first=Alister|author-link=Alister McGrath|title=Christian History: An Introduction|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gIFfXCyAYmoC|isbn=978-1-118-33780-6}} * {{cite book|last=Mitchell|first=Margaret M.|author-link=Margaret M. Mitchell|chapter=Gentile Christianity|year=2006|title=The Cambridge History of Christianity|volume=1: Origins to Constantine|editor-last1=Mitchell|editor-first1=Margaret M.|editor-last2=Young|editor-first2=Frances M.|editor-link2=Frances Young|pages=103–124|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521812399|isbn=978-1-139-05483-6}} * {{cite book|last=Schnelle|first=Udo|author-link=Udo Schnelle|title=The First One Hundred Years of Christianity: An Introduction to Its History, Literature, and Development|translator-last=Thompson|translator-first=James W.|publisher=Baker Academic|year=2020|place=Grand Rapids, Michigan|url=|isbn=978-1-4934-2242-5}} * {{cite book|last=Seifrid|first=Mark A.|title=Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=1992|isbn=978-90-04-09521-2|series=[[Novum Testamentum|Novum Testamentum, Supplements]]|location=[[Leiden]]|issn=0167-9732|author-link=Mark A. Seifrid|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdUkuOtOw68C}} * {{cite book | last = Wilken | first = Robert Louis | author-link = | title = The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 2012 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oONijpixvLUC | isbn = 978-0-300-11884-1}} ==Marejeo mengine== * {{cite book |last=Pelikan |first=Jaroslav Jan |title=The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600) |url=https://archive.org/details/christiantraditi01peli_0 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-226-65371-6 |location=Chicago }} * {{cite book |last=Stark |first=Rodney |title=The Rise of Christianity |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofchristiani00star |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-06-067701-5 |location=New York }} * {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Joan E. |title=Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins |url=https://archive.org/details/christiansholypl0000tayl_a6f9 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-19-814785-5 |location=Oxford }} * {{cite book |last=Thiede |first=Carsten Peter |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity |url=https://archive.org/details/deadseascrollsje0000cars |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-6143-3 |location=Basingstoke }} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://early.xpian.info/ Early Christian Sources] English translations of the surviving writings of the early Christians. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140901043856/http://www.earlychristians.org/ Early Christians] (archived 1 September 2014) * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/ PBS Frontline: The First Christians] * [http://www.josemariaescriva.info/index.php?id_cat=1574&id_scat=1572 First Christians and Rome] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100107002316/http://www.bib-arch.org/online-exclusives/oldest-church.asp Cave in Jordan Said to Have Been Used by Early Christians] Biblical Archaeology Review (archived 7 January 2010) {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Ukristo]] pm2gm9v80096xsjiicsfpiyb49c3geq 0 75465 1580186 1506811 2026-07-18T01:02:22Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580186 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Trip to Ningxia and Gansu.jpg|thumb|Ny[[uso]] za [[sanamu]] za zamani za [[Buddha]] ziliharibiwa wakati wa mapinduzi hayo. [[Propaganda]] ilikuwa inasema: "Bomoa ulimwengu wa kale; tengeneza ule mpya" ikimuonesha [[Mwanamgambo Mwekundu]] anayevunja kwa [[nyundo]] yake [[msalaba]], [[Buddha]] na maandishi ya zamani ya Kichina.]] '''Mapinduzi ya utamaduni''' ni [[mageuzi]] ya [[haraka]] katika [[siasa]] na [[jamii]] nchini [[China]] yaliyotokea katika miaka [[1966]] - [[1976]] chini ya uongozi wa Mao Zedong, [[mwenyekiti]] wa [[Chama cha Kikomunisti cha China]]. Lengo lilikuwa kusafisha [[ukomunisti]] kutoka mabaki yoyote ya [[utamaduni]] asili wa nchi hiyo pamoja na [[ubepari]], lakini pia kuimarisha [[uongozi]] wa Mao katika [[chama]]. Matokeo yalikuwa aina ya ibada kwa Mao, [[makumbusho]] mengi kubomolewa, [[dhuluma]] za kila namna dhidi ya ma[[milioni]] ya wananchi, watu kuhamishwa kwa lazima, nchi kupooza kisiasa pamoja na kuiathiri kiuchumi.<ref>"Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China," adopted by the Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on June 27, 1981 ''Resolution on CPC History (1949-81).'' (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1981). p. 32.</ref> Mapinduzi hayo yaliathiri Ulaya pia na kuchangia [[fujo]] za [[kijana|vijana]] mwaka [[1968]] n.k. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|20em}} ==Marejeo== * [http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Li-Peng,-the-%E2%80%9Cbutcher-of-Tiananmen,%E2%80%9D-was-%E2%80%9Cready-to-die%E2%80%9D-to-stop-the-student-turmoil-18592.html "Li Peng, the 'Butcher of Tiananmen,' was 'Ready to Die' to Stop the Student Turmoil"]. ''AsiaNews.it''. 2003. Retrieved August 21, 2011. *{{cite journal |last=ALLÈS |first=ÉLISABETH |last2=CHÉRIF-CHEBBI |first2= LEÏLA|last3=HALFON |first3= CONSTANCE-HÉLÈNE|others=Translated from the French by Anne Evans|year=2003|title=Chinese Islam: Unity and Fragmentation |url= http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/rss/31-1_007.pdf |journal= Archives de Sciences Sociales des Religions |publisher= Keston Institute |issn=0963-7494|volume= 31|issue= 1 |pages=7–35}} * Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen. [http://books.google.com/books?id=NztlWQeXf2IC&printsec=frontcover&dq=zhou+enlai&hl=en&ei=wBkuTdKyB4H_8AaJucigAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Zhou Enlai: A Political Life'']. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. ISBN 962-996-280-2. Retrieved on March 12, 2011. * Chan, A; ''Children of Mao: Personality Development and Political Activism in the Red Guard Generation''; University of Washington Press (1985) * {{cite book |title= Inside the Cultural Revolution |url= https://archive.org/details/bwb_P8-DHQ-224 |last= [[Chen, Jack]] |year= 1975 |publisher= Scribner |isbn= 0-02-524630-5 |nopp=|ref=Cha75}} * {{cite book |title= The Chinese Cultural Revolution: A History |last= Clark, Paul |year= 2008 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |location= Cambridge and New York |isbn= 978-0-521-87515-8 |nopp=|ref=Cla08}} * Ewing, Kent. (2011, June 4). "Mao's Army on the Attack". ''Asia Times Online''. Asia Times Online (Holdings). Retrieved at <http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/MF04Ad01.html {{Wayback|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/MF04Ad01.html |date=20160303223806 }}> on June 16, 2011. * Fong Tak-ho. (2006, May 19). "Cultural Revolution? What Revolution?" ''Asia Times Online''. Asia Times Online (Holdings). Retrieved at <http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/HE19Ad01.html {{Wayback|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/HE19Ad01.html |date=20110624083748 }}> on June 15, 2011. * {{cite book |title= The Battle for China's Past: Mao and the Cultural Revolution |last= Gao, Mobo |year= 2008 |publisher= Pluto Press |location= London |isbn= 978-0-7453-2780-8|nopp=|ref=Gao08}} Retrieved at <http://www.strongwindpress.com/pdfs/EBook/The_Battle_for_Chinas_Past.pdf {{Wayback|url=http://www.strongwindpress.com/pdfs/EBook/The_Battle_for_Chinas_Past.pdf |date=20121103094507 }}> on September 2, 2012 * {{cite book |title= The Politics of the Chinese Cultural Revolution|url= https://archive.org/details/politicsofchines0000leeh|last= Lee, Hong Yong |year= 1978 |publisher= University of California Press |location= Berkeley |isbn=0-520-03297-7 |nopp=|ref=Lee78}} * {{cite book |title= Art in Turmoil: The Chinese Cultural Revolution, 1966-76 |editor= Richard King |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0774815437 }} * {{cite book |title= Mao's Last Revolution |url= https://archive.org/details/maoslastrevoluti00macf |last= [[Roderick MacFarquhar|MacFarquhar, Roderick]] and Schoenhals, Michael |year= 2006 |publisher= Harvard University Press |isbn= 978-0-674-02332-1 |nopp=|ref=Har08}} * {{cite book |title= Mao's Revolution and the Chinese Political Culture |last= Solomon, Richard H. |year= 1971 |publisher= University of California Press |location= Berkeley and Los Angeles |isbn= |nopp=|ref=Sol71}} * Spence, Jonathan D. (1999). ''The Search for Modern China'', New York: W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-97351-4. * {{cite book |title= Enemies of the People: The Ordeal of Intellectuals in China's Great Cultural Revolution|url= https://archive.org/details/enemiesofpeopleo00thur|last= Thurston, Anne F. |year= 1988 |publisher= Harvard University Press |location= Cambridge |isbn= |nopp=|ref=Thu88}} * Teiwes, Frederick C. & Sun, Warren. (2004). "The First Tiananmen Incident Revisited: Elite Politics and Crisis Management at the End of the Maoist Era". ''Pacific Affairs''. Vol. 77, No. 2, Summer. 211–235. Retrieved from <http://www.jstor.org/stable/40022499> on March 11, 2011. * Zhao Ziyang. ''[[Prisoner of the State: The Secret Journal of Premier Zhao Ziyang]]''. Trans & Ed. Bao Pu, Renee Chiang, and Adi Ignatius. New York: Simon and Schuster. 2009. ISBN 1-4391-4938-0 ==Marejeo mengine== ===Ya jumla=== * Michael Schoenhals, ed., ''China's Cultural Revolution, 1966–1969: Not a Dinner Party'' (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1996. An East Gate Reader). xix, 400p. ISBN 1-56324-736-4. * Richard Curt Kraus. ''The Cultural Revolution: A Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press, Very Short Introductions Series, 2012. xiv, 138p. ISBN 9780199740550. * [[Roderick MacFarquhar|MacFarquhar, Roderick]] and Schoenhals, Michael. ''Mao's Last Revolution''. [[Harvard University Press]], 2006. ISBN 0-674-02332-3 * {{cite book |title=Turbulent Decade: A History of the Cultural Revolution |url=https://archive.org/details/turbulentdecadeh0000yanj |author= Jiaqi Yan, Gao Gao |publisher= University of Hawai'i Press |edition= 1st |year= 1996 |isbn=978-0824816957 }} * Morning Sun, "Bibliography," [http://www.morningsun.org/library Morningsun.org] Books and articles of General Readings and Selected Personal Narratives on the Cultural Revolution. ===Mada maalumu=== * {{cite book |title= Art in Turmoil: The Chinese Cultural Revolution, 1966-76 |editor= Richard King |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0774815437 }} * Andreas, Joel (2009). ''Rise of the Red Engineers: The Cultural Revolution and the Origins of China's New Class''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. * Chan, Anita. 1985. ''Children of Mao: Personality Development and Political Activism in the Red Guard Generation''. Seattle: University of Washington Press. * Leese, Daniel (2011). ''Mao Cult: Rhetoric and Ritual in the Cultural Revolution''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Zheng Yi. [[Scarlet Memorial: Tales Of Cannibalism In Modern China]]. [[Westview Press]], 1998. ISBN 0-8133-2616-8 * Yang, Guobin. 2000. ''China's Red Guard Generation: The Ritual Process of Identity Transformation, 1966–1999''. PhD diss., [[New York University]]. * [[Fox Butterfield]], ''China: Alive in the Bitter Sea'', (1982, revised 2000), ISBN 0-553-34219-3, an oral history of some Chinese people's experience during the Cultural Revolution. * [[Jung Chang|Chang, Jung]] and [[Jon Halliday|Halliday, Jon]]. ''[[Mao: The Unknown Story]].'' Jonathan Cape, London, 2005. ISBN 0-224-07126-2 * {{cite book |title= Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Impact on Chinese Thought, Culture, and Communication |author= Xing Lu |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |year= 2004 |isbn=978-1570035432 }} * [[Ross Terrill]],''The White-Boned Demon: A Biography of Madame Mao Zedong'' Stanford University Press, 1984 ISBN 0-8047-2922-0; rpr. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992 ISBN 0-671-74484-4. * Wu, Yiching (2014). ''The Cultural Revolution at the Margins: Chinese Socialism in Crisis''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ===Ufafanuzi=== * [[Simon Leys]] (penname of [[Pierre Ryckmans]]) ''Broken Images: Essays on Chinese Culture and Politics'' (1979). ISBN 0-8052-8069-3 * [[Simon Leys]]. ''Chinese Shadows'' (1978). ISBN 0-670-21918-5; ISBN 0-14-004787-5. * [[Simon Leys]]. ''The Burning Forest: Essays on Chinese Culture and Politics'' (1986). ISBN 0-03-005063-4; ISBN 0-586-08630-7; ISBN 0-8050-0350-9; ISBN 0-8050-0242-1. * [[Simon Leys]]. ''The Chairman's New Clothes: Mao and the Cultural Revolution'' (1977; revised 1981). ISBN 0-85031-208-6; ISBN 0-8052-8080-4; ISBN 0-312-12791-X; ISBN 0-85031-209-4; ISBN 0-85031-435-6 (revised ed.). *Liu, Guokai. 1987. ''A Brief Analysis of the Cultural Revolution''. edited by Anita Chan. Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe. ===Katika fasihi=== * Sijie Dai, translated by Ina Rilke, ''Balzac and the Little Chinese Seamstress'' (New York: Knopf: Distributed by Random House, 2001). 197p. ISBN 0-375-41309-X * Xingjian Gao, translated by Mabel Lee, ''One Man's Bible: A Novel'' (New York: HarperCollins, 2002). 450p. * Hua Gu, ''A Small Town Called Hibiscus'' (Beijing, China: Chinese Literature: distributed by China Publications Centre, 1st, 1983. Panda Books). Translated by Gladys Yang. 260p. Reprinted: San Francisco: China Books. * Hua Yu, ''To Live: A Novel'' (New York: Anchor Books, 2003). Translated by Michael Berry. 250p. * Ying Chang Compestine, [http://www.worldcat.org/title/revolution-is-not-a-dinner-party-a-novel/oclc/77333486/viewport ''Revolution Is Not a Dinner Party : A Novel.''] (New York: Holt, 2007). ISBN 0805082077. Young adult novel. ===Kumbukumbu za wahusika=== * Liu Ping, ''[[My Chinese Dream - From Red Guard to CEO]]'' (San Francisco, June 2012). 556 pages ISBN 9780835100403 * [[Nien Cheng]], ''[[Life and Death in Shanghai]]'' (Grove, May 1987). 547 pages ISBN 0-394-55548-1 * [[Jung Chang]], ''Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China'' (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991). 524 p.&nbsp;{{LCCN|91020696}} * Heng Liang Judith Shapiro, ''Son of the Revolution'' (New York: Knopf : Distributed by Random House, 1983). * Yuan Gao, with Judith Polumbaum, ''Born Red: A Chronicle of the Cultural Revolution'' (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1987). * Jiang Yang Chu translated and annotated by Djang Chu, ''Six Chapters of Life in a Cadre School: Memoirs from China's Cultural Revolution'' [Translation of Ganxiao Liu Ji] (Boulder: Westview Press, 1986). * [[Bo Ma]], ''Blood Red Sunset: A Memoir of the Chinese Cultural Revolution'' (New York: Viking, 1995). Translated by Howard Goldblatt. * Guanlong Cao, ''The Attic: Memoir of a Chinese Landlord's Son'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996). * [[Ji-li Jiang]], ''Red Scarf Girl: A Memoir of the Cultural Revolution'' (New York: HarperCollins, 1997). * [[Anchee Min]], ''[[Red Azalea]]'' (New York: Pantheon Books, 1994). ISBN 1-4000-9698-7. * Rae Yang, ''Spider Eaters : A Memoir'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). * Weili Ye, Xiaodong Ma, ''Growing up in the People's Republic: Conversations between Two Daughters of China's Revolution'' (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005). * Lijia Zhang, "Socialism Is Great": A Worker's Memoir of the New China (New York: Atlas & Co, Distributed by Norton, 2007). * [[Emily Wu]], ''Feather in the Storm'' (Pantheon, 2006). ISBN 978-0-375-42428-1. * Xinran Xue, ''The Good Women of China: Hidden Voices '' (Chatto & Windus, 2002). Translated by Esther Tyldesley. ISBN 0-7011-7345-9 * [[Ting-Xing Ye]], [[Leaf In A Bitter Wind]] (England, Bantam Books, 2000) * Zhang Xianliang, Grass Soup, ISBN 0-7493-9774-8 ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons}} *[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9028164/Cultural-Revolution ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. The Cultural Revolution] *[http://library.thinkquest.org/26469/cultural-revolution/history.html History of The Cultural Revolution] {{Wayback|url=http://library.thinkquest.org/26469/cultural-revolution/history.html |date=20070429003300 }} *[http://www.sinohits.net/posters/index.htm Chinese propaganda posters gallery (Cultural Revolution, Mao, and others)] *[http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/64162/64168/64563/65449/4526439.html Hua Guofeng's speech to the 11th Party Congress, 1977] *[http://www.morningsun.org/ Morning Sun – A Film and Website about Cultural Revolution] and the [http://www.morningsun.org/images/index.html# photographs] of the subject available from the film's site. *[http://www.chinese-memorial.org/ Memorial for Victims of the Chinese Cultural Revolution] *[http://www.monthlyreview.org/0305pugh.htm "William Hinton on the Cultural Revolution"] {{Wayback|url=http://www.monthlyreview.org/0305pugh.htm |date=20110317040851 }} by Dave Pugh *[http://www.cnd.org/CR/english/articles/violence.htm "Student Attacks Against Teachers: The Revolution of 1966"] by [[Youqin Wang]] *[http://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/06/world/a-tale-of-red-guards-and-cannibals.html A Tale of Red Guards and Cannibals] by [[Nicholas D. Kristof]]. ''[[The New York Times]]'', January 6, 1993. {{mbegu-historia}} [[Category:Karne ya 20]] [[Category:Mapinduzi]] [[Category:Ukomunisti]] [[Category:Historia ya China]] [[Category:Mao Zedong]] rmeeu1hy2iqqc6cccfxykj25439v33c 0 75968 1580049 1498107 2026-07-17T23:27:49Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580049 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Karl Marx 001.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Karl Marx]]]] '''Umaksi''' (pia: '''Umarksi''', '''Umarx''', kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''Marxism'') ni [[falsafa]] ambayo inafuata [[uyakinifu]] na inakusudia kuleta [[maendeleo]] ya [[haraka]] katika [[jamii]] kuanzia [[uchumi]] unaotazamwa kuwa msingi wa mahusiano yote. Lengo kuu ni kuondoa ma[[tabaka]] katika jamii na kuleta [[usawa]] katika ya [[binadamu]]. Njia ni kuwawezesha wanyonge kudai [[haki]] zao kwa kuungana na kuleta [[mapinduzi]] dhidi ya [[wanyonyaji]]. Katikati ya [[karne ya 19]], [[waanzilishi]] wa [[jitihada]] hizo walikuwa [[Wajerumani]] wawili: [[Karl Marx]] na [[Friedrich Engels]]. Jina Umaksi linatokana na wa kwanza kati yao, Marx. Umaksi uliendelezwa na watu mbalimbali hasa katika [[karne ya 20]] kadiri [[siasa]] hiyo ilivyozidi kuenea [[dunia]]ni, hadi kuongoza maisha ya [[theluthi]] ya binadamu wote. Kati yao, [[Lenin|Vladimir Ilich Lenin]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Stalin|Joseph Stalin]] nchini [[Urusi]] na [[Mao Zedong]] huko [[China]]. Katika [[Umoja wa Kisovyeti]] na nchi zilizotawaliwa na Wakomunisti mabadiliko ya fundisho hili yaliitwa Umaksi-Ulenin (''Marxism-Leninism'') na kuwa [[itikadi]] rasmi. Baada ya [[ukomunisti]] kushindikana [[Ulaya Mashariki]] pamoja na Urusi kusambaratika ([[1989]]), mvuto wa falsafa hiyo umepungua sana. ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book |title=Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro|url=https://archive.org/details/fidelbiographyof0000bour|last=Bourne |authorformat=scap|first=Peter G.|date=1986|publisher=Dodd, Mead & Company|location=New York|ref=Bou86}} * {{cite book |title=The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx|url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionaryide0000call_i2b6|last=Callinicos |authorformat=scap|first=Alex|authorlink=Alex Callinicos|date=2010|origyear=1983|publisher=Bookmarks|location=Bloomsbury, London|isbn=978-1-905192-68-7|ref=Cal10}} * {{cite book |title=My Life: A Spoken Autobiography|url=https://archive.org/details/fidelcastromylif0000cast|last1=Castro |authorformat=scap|first1=Fidel|last2=Ramonet|first2=Ignacio (interviewer)|date=2009|publisher=Scribner|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4165-6233-7|ref=Cas09}} * {{cite book |title=The Real Fidel Castro|url=https://archive.org/details/realfidelcastro00colt_0|last=Coltman |authorformat=scap|first=Leycester|date=2003|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven and London|isbn=978-0-300-10760-9|ref=Col03}} * {{cite book |title=Prehistorian: A Biography of V. Gordon Childe|last=Green |authorformat=scap|first=Sally|date=1981|publisher=Moonraker Press|location=Bradford-on-Avon, Wiltshire|isbn=0-239-00206-7|ref=Gre81}} * {{cite book |title=Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism|last=Lenin |authorformat=scap|first=Vladimir|authorlink=Vladimir Lenin|date=1967|origyear=1913|publisher=Foreign Languages Press|location=Peking|isbn=|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm|accessdate=2014-06-17|nopp=|ref=Len67}} * {{cite book |title=Wage Labour and Capital|last=Marx |authorformat=scap|first=Karl|authorlink=Karl Marx|date=1849|publisher=Neue Rheinische Zeitung|location=Germany|isbn=|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/wage-labour/index.htm|accessdate=2014-06-17|nopp=|ref=Mar49}} * {{cite book |title=A History of Archaeological Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofarchaeo0000trig|edition=2nd|last=Trigger |authorformat=scap|first=Bruce G.|authorlink=Bruce Trigger|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-521-60049-1|nopp=|ref=Tri07}} {{Refend}} * {{cite book |author=Avineri, Shlomo|date=1968|title=The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx|url=https://archive.org/details/socialpoliticalt0000avin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|authorlink=Shlomo Avineri}} * {{cite book |author=Dahrendorf, Ralf|title=Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society|url=https://archive.org/details/classclassconfli00dahr|date=1959|authorlink=Ralf Dahrendorf|location=Stanford, CA|publisher=Stanford University Press}} * [[Jon Elster]], ''An Introduction to Karl Marx''. Cambridge, England, 1986. * Michael Evans, ''Karl Marx''. London, 1975. * Stefan Gandler, [http://www.brill.com/products/book/critical-marxism-mexico ''Critical Marxism in Mexico: Adolfo Sánchez Vázquez and Bolívar Echeverría''], Leiden/Boston, Brill Academic Press, 2015. 467 pages. ISBN 978-90-04-22428-5. * {{cite book |author=Kołakowski, Leszek|title=Main Currents of Marxism|date=1976|publisher=Oxford University Press|authorlink=Leszek Kołakowski}} * {{cite book |author=Parkes, Henry Bamford|title=Marxism: An Autopsy|url=https://archive.org/details/marxismautopsy00park|date=1939|location=Boston|publisher=Houghton Mifflin|authorlink=Henry Bamford Parkes}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Prychitko |first1=David L. |authorlink1= David Prychitko |last2= |first2= |authorlink2= |editor= [[David R. Henderson]] (.) |encyclopedia=[[Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]] |title=Marxism |url=http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Marxism.html |date=2008 |edition= 2nd |publisher=[[Library of Economics and Liberty]]}} * [[Cedric Robinson|Robinson, Cedric J.]]: ''Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition'', 1983, Reissue: Univ North Carolina Press, 2000 * [[R. J. Rummel|Rummel, R.J.]] (1977) ''[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE12.HTM Conflict In Perspective]'' Chap. 5 ''[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/CIP.CHAP5.HTM Marxism, Class Conflict, and the Conflict Helix]'' * {{cite book |last=Screpanti|first=E|author2=S. Zamagna|date=1993|title=An Outline of the History of Economic Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/outlineofhistory0000scre}} * Shenfield, S.D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081112101246/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/2008-204.cfm ''Vladislav Bugera: Portrait of a Post-Marxist Thinker''] * {{cite book |author=McLellan, David|title=Marxism After Marx|url=https://archive.org/details/alf.3540.355.430.9.mcl|date=2007|location=Basingstoke|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|authorlink=David McLellan (academic)}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Marxism}} * [http://www.marxists.org/ Marxists Internet Archive] ([[Marxists Internet Archive|MIA]]) * [http://www.marxmail.org/ Marxmail.org] {{Wayback|url=http://www.marxmail.org/ |date=20090815180358 }} * [http://marxmyths.org/ Marx Myths & Legends] {{Wayback|url=http://marxmyths.org/ |date=20140427181835 }} * [http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/ Marxism Page] * [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Marx.htm London Philosophy Study Guide on Marxism] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Marx.htm |date=20090131225927 }} (offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject) * [http://homepage.newschool.edu/~het/schools/marxian.htm History of Economic Thought: Marxian School] {{Wayback|url=http://homepage.newschool.edu/~het/schools/marxian.htm |date=20120616003216 }} * [http://homepage.newschool.edu/~het/schools/neomarx.htm History of Economic Thought: Neo Marxian] {{Wayback|url=http://homepage.newschool.edu/~het/schools/neomarx.htm |date=20120620161730 }} {{mbegu-siasa}} [[Jamii:Falsafa]] [[Jamii:Siasa]] [[Jamii:Uchumi]] [[Jamii:Ukomunisti]] 83o82ihh3g5w04nx9hjhkke5mggjsuc 0 76747 1580194 1144539 2026-07-18T01:05:44Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580194 wikitext text/x-wiki [[file:Traum-der-roten-Kammer.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Mchoro]] wa kumwonyesha [[Xu Baozhuan]], mnamo [[1810]]]], '''''Ndoto ya Chumba Chekundu''''' ni [[riwaya]] kutoka nchini [[China]] iliyotungwa katikati ya [[karne ya 18]]. Inahesabiwa kati ya riwaya 4 muhimu zaidi katika [[fasihi ya China]]. [[Mwandishi]] wake alikuwa [[Cao Xueqin]] (kwa [[Kichina]]: 曹雪芹). Riwaya inasimulia habari za [[familia]] ya [[kabaila|kikabaila]] ya Jia, mafanikio na hatimaye anguko lao. Kenye [[kitovu]] cha ma[[simulizi]] iko [[hadithi]] ya Jia Baoyu anayelelewa katika [[nyumba]] ya [[wazazi]] [[tajiri|matajiri]]. Ana [[maisha]] mema bila mahangaiko kuhusu [[riziki]] zake; hahitaji kufanya [[kazi]]. Lakini haridhiki na maisha na hatimaye anaachana na dunia na kuwa [[mtawa]]. [[Uhusiano]] wake na [[wanawake]] walio muhimu maishani mwake unasimuliwa kwa [[upana]]. Kutokana na nafasi kubwa ambayo wanawake wanapewa, riwaya hii imeitwa ya [[kifeministi]]. Watendaji wengi wa riwaya wanaonyeshwa wakiwa [[vijana]] na hivyo [[kitabu]] hiki kilipendwa sana na vijana wa China kabla ya [[mapinduzi ya utamaduni]]. [[Lugha]] ya ''Ndoto ya Chumba Chekundu'' ilikuwa lugha ya kawaida jinsi watu walivyosema kati yao, si lugha iliyotazamiwa kuwa sanifu wakati ule ambayo haikutumiwa katika majadiliano. ==Kujisomea== ;Kwa jumla * C.T. Hsia, Ch VII, "The Dream of the Red Chamber," in ''The Classic Chinese Novel: A Critical Introduction'' (1968; rpr. Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University, Cornell East Asia Series, 1996. ISBN 1885445741), pp.&nbsp;245–297.. * {{cite book |last1 = Schonebaum|first1= Andrew|first2 =Tina |last2 = Lu |year = 2012 |title = Approaches to Teaching the Story of the Stone (Dream of the Red Chamber) |url = https://archive.org/details/approachestoteac0000unse_b7l1|publisher = Modern Language Association of America| location = New York |isbn = 9781603291101|ref = harv}} * Anthony Yu, "Dream of the Red Chamber," in Barbara Stoller Miller, ed., ''Masterworks of Asian Culture'' (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe), pp.&nbsp;285–299. ;Utafiti wa kiundani * {{cite book |last = Levy |first = Dore J.|year = 1999 |title = Ideal and Actual in the Story of the Stone |publisher = Columbia University Press| location = New York|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uOwwDQnmxgMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 0231114060|ref = harv}} * Zaifu Liu, Yunzhong Shu, ''Reflections on Dream of the Red Chamber''''' '''(Amherst, N.Y.: Cambria Press, 2008).''' ''' * [[Andrew H. Plaks]], ''Archetype and Allegory in the "Dream of the Red Chamber"''''' '''(Princeton, NJ Princeton University Press, 1976).''' ''' Reprinted: (Ann Arbor: U.M.I. Books on Demand, Reprint, 1993). * Shih-Ch'ang Wu, ''On the Red Chamber Dream: A Critical Study of Two Annotated Manuscripts of the 18th Century''''' '''(Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1961).''' ''' * Chi Xiao, ''The Chinese Garden as Lyric Enclave: A Generic Study of the Story of the Stone''''' '''(Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Chinese Studies Publications, 2001).''' ''' * {{cite book |last = Yu |first = Anthony C. |year = 1997 |title = Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber |publisher = Princeton University Press| location = Princeton, N.J.|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=l1pFLo0pR0YC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 0691015619|ref = harv}} * Ruchang Zhou, Edited by Ronald R. Gray, Mark S. Ferrara, ''Between Noble and Humble: Cao Xueqin and the Dream of the Red Chamber''''' '''(New York: Peter Lang, 2009).''' '''Translated by Liangmei Bao and Kyongsook Park. ISBN 978-1-4331-0407-7 Google Book ([http://books.google.com/books?id=1ROFO8h-e6IC&dq=between+noble+and+humble&source=gbs_navlinks_s link]) ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://faculty.vassar.edu/brvannor/StoryStone.pdf Guide to Reading "Dream of the Red Chamber."] {{Wayback|url=http://faculty.vassar.edu/brvannor/StoryStone.pdf |date=20161010173603 }} * [http://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/d/dream-of-the-red-chamber/about-dream-of-the-red-chamber Zhang Xiugui, CliffsNotes]. Summary and notes. * Richard Smith (Rice University) [http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~asia/DreamRedChamberOutline.html ''Dream of the Red Chamber''] Outline of Vol I of ''Story of the Stone'', with comments. *[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-11/12/content_494366.htm Article on China Central Television Program about Red Chamber] – [[China Daily]]. Raymond Zhou. November 12, 2005. [[Category:Fasihi ya China]] dhzi2h09nwxs8jmaskr5j9gyhrl4nnv 0 76847 1580206 1529709 2026-07-18T01:19:09Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580206 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Vrksasana.jpg|300px|thumbnail|Mazoezi ya Yoga katika kikundi]] '''Yoga''' ni mazoezi ya kiroho na kimwili yenye asili katika falsafa ya [[Uhindi]]. Tangu miaka ya 1980 yoga ilisambaa pia nje ya Uhindi katika nchi za magharibi kama mazoezi ya kimwili. Katika utamaduni wa Kihindi yoga inatekelezwa pamoja na jitihada za kiroho na kidini kwenye msingi wa [[Uhindu]] na pia [[Ubuddha]]. Mtu anayefanya mazoezi ya yoga huitwa [[yogi]]. ==Shabaha za Yoga== Shabaha ya mazoezi ya yoga ni kujikamilisha kama binadamu mwenye mwili, nafsi na roho. Hapa ni wazo muhimu kutawala tamaa za mwili na roho zinazotazamiwa kama kizuizi kwenye njia ya kufikia ukamilifu. Kwa hiyo mwanafunzi wa yoga apate kujifunza nidhamu ya ndani na nidhamu ya kimwili. Njia muhimu kuelekea shabaha hii ni kufanya mazoezi ya kudhibiti pumzi na kumakinisha fikra na hisia. Watendaji na walimu wa yoga huamini ya kwamba mazoezi haya yanachangia kwenye afya ya kimwili na kiroho. Kujifunza mikao fulani ya mwili ni mbinu ya kufikia shabaha za yoga. ==Yoga katika Magharibi== Yoga ilisambazwa na walimu kutoka Uhindini katika [[Ulaya]] na [[Marekani]]. Katika nchi hizi za magharibi ni zaidi mazoezi ya kimwili na elimu ya mikao yaliyopokelewa bila kuelewa asili katika roho ya Uhindu na falsafa yake. Yoga imependekezwa kama mbinu za kunpunza matatizo ya afya, kuimarisha musuli na hasa uti wa mgongo kwa watu wanaoketi muda mrefu ofisini, na kupunguza dhiki na shinikizo ya maisha ya kisasa (stress). Kwa hiyo matumizi yayoga inafanana kiasi na aina ya michezo. ==Yoga na dini nyingine== Kiasi mazoezi ya yoga yanaweza kufanana na [[taamuli za kiroho]] jinsi zinavyopatikana pia katika dini kama Ukristo na Uislamu. ===Ubuddha=== Madhehebu kadhaa za Ubuddha yanajua mazoezi yanayofanana na yoga, hasa upande wa [[Zen]]. Hapa njia za kutawala pumzi na fikra zinafundishwa pia, pamoja na mikao mbalimbali ya mwili. Ilhali kulikuwa na kipindi ca athira kubwa ya Kibuddha katika Uhindi inawezekana ya kwamba sehemu za mazoezi ya Yoga zina asili katika Ubuddha. ===Ukristo=== *Kuna [[wakristo]] wanaotoa onyo dhidi ya matumizi ya yoga wakikazia asili yake katika Uhindu<ref>Dr Ankerberg, John & Dr Weldon, John, Encyclopedia of New Age Beliefs, Harvest House Publishers, 1996</ref> *katika kanisa katoliki mazoezi ya yoga yametumiwa kwa idhini ya papa na maaskofu ndani ya [[mazoezi ya kiroho]]<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/07/weekinreview/ideas-trends-trying-to-reconcile-the-ways-of-the-vatican-and-the-east.html Trying to reconcile the ways of the Vatican and of te East, New York Times January 7, 1990]</ref> ===Uislamu=== *walimu na viongozi mbalimbali wa [[Uislamu]] wamekataza matumizi ya yoga, kwa mfano Misri, Indonesia na Malaysia<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.islam.gov.my/portal/yoga_Bi.php |title=Fatwa ya Halmashauri Kuu ya Waislamu wa Malaysia inatangaza yoga kuwa haraam, ikitofautisha na mazoezi ya kimwili tu |accessdate=2008-12-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222125337/http://www.islam.gov.my/portal/yoga_Bi.php |archivedate=2008-12-22 }}</ref> *jumuiya za [[Wasufi]] wanatumia mbinu za kusimamia pumzi na mikao kadhaa yenye asili katika yoga. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.unc.edu/~cernst/pdf/jras2.pdf |title=Carl W. Ernst, Situating Sufism and Yoga, review of article in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Apr., 2005), pp. 15- 43 |accessdate=2015-05-21 |archivedate=2014-08-24 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824031249/http://www.unc.edu/%7Ecernst/pdf/jras2.pdf }}</ref> ==Mifano ya mazoezi ya yoga== <gallery mode="packed-hover" heights="180"> File:Sivakempfort.jpg|Sanamu ya mungu Siva katika mkao wa Yoga |Mkao wa yoga File:Project Yoga Richmond 1.jpg|Mazoezi ya kwanza ya yoga katika kikundu cha wanafunzi huko Marekani file:Acro Yoga - star (side view).jpg|Mkao mgumu wa yoga kwa watu wawili </gallery> ==Marejeo== <references/> == Kujisomea== * {{cite book |last= Bryant |first=Edwin |authorlink= Edwin Bryant (author)|title= The Yoga Sutras of Patañjali: A New Edition, Translation, and Commentary |url= https://archive.org/details/yogastrasofpataj0000brya |year= 2009 |publisher= North Point Press |location= New York, USA |isbn= 978-0865477360 }} * {{Citation | last =Crangle | first =Edward Fitzpatrick | year =1994 | title =The Origin and Development of Early Indian Contemplative Practices | publisher =Otto Harrassowitz Verlag}} * {{cite book |last=Dhillon|first=Dalbir Singh|title=Sikhism, Origin and Development|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=osnkLKPMWykC&pg=PA249|year=1988|publisher=Atlantic Publishers|id=GGKEY:BYKZE4QTGJH }} * {{cite book | last = De Michelis | first = Elizabeth | year = 2004 | title = A History of Modern Yoga | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderny0000demi | publisher = Continuum | location = London | isbn=0-8264-8772-6 }} * {{cite book |last1=Dumoulin|first1=Heinrich|last2=Heisig|first2=James W.|last3=Knitter|first3=Paul F.|title=Zen Buddhism: a History: India and China|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9CYeWYtYBS4C|year=2005|publisher=World Wisdom, Inc|isbn=978-0-941532-89-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Eliade | first = Mircea | authorlink = Mircea Eliade | year = 1958 | title = Yoga: Immortality and Freedom | url = https://archive.org/details/yogaimmortalityf0000mirc | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton | isbn=978-0-691-14203-6 }} * {{cite book | last = Feuerstein | first = Georg | authorlink = Georg Feuerstein | year = 1996 | title = The Shambhala Guide to Yoga. 1st ed. | location = Boston & London | publisher = Shambhala Publications }} * {{Citation | last =Flood | first =Gavin D. | year =1996 | title =An Introduction to Hinduism | publisher =Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book | last = Goldberg | first = Philip | year = 2010 | title = American Veda. From Emerson and the Beatles to Yoga and Meditation. How Indian Spirituality Changed the West | url = https://archive.org/details/americanvedafrom00gold | publisher= Harmony Books | location = New York | isbn= 978-0-385-52134-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Flood | first = Gavin | year = 1996 | title = An Introduction to Hinduism| publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | isbn=0-521-43878-0 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C }} * {{cite book | last = Gambhirananda | first = Swami | year = 1998 | title = Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad_Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā| publisher = [[Advaita Ashrama]] Publication Department| location = Calcutta | isbn=81-7505-194-9 }} * {{cite book |last1=Jacobsen|first1=Knut A.|last2=Larson|first2=Gerald James|title=Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=TDGFFNYvrokC|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-14757-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Larson |first=Gerald James |title=The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p6pURGdBBmIC |year=2008 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-3349-4 }} * {{cite book |last=Lidell |first=Lucy |title=The Sivananda Companion to Yoga |url=http://selfdefinition.org/yoga/Lucy%20Lidell%20-%20The%20Sivananda%20Companion%20to%20Yoga.pdf |year=1983 |publisher=Gaia Books Limited | location = London |isbn=0-684-87000-2 }} * {{cite book |last=McEvilley|first=Thomas|title=The shape of ancient thought|publisher=Allworth Communications|year=2002|isbn=978-1-58115-203-6|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Vpqr1vNWQhUC}} * {{cite book | last = Müller | first = Max | authorlink= Max Müller |year = 1899 | title = Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika | publisher = Susil Gupta (India) Ltd.| location = Calcutta | isbn=0-7661-4296-5 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=hiH57a0tGpcC}} Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of "The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy." * {{cite book |last=Possehl |first=Gregory|authorlink=Gregory Possehl |title=The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective |year=2003 |publisher=AltaMira Press |isbn=978-0-7591-0172-2 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC}} * {{cite book |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |authorlink=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |last2=Moore|first2= CA |title=A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh |year=1967 |publisher=Princeton |isbn=0-691-01958-4 }} * {{Citation |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |title=The Origins of Yoga and Tantra |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-69534-3 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=JAvrTGrbpf4C}} * {{cite book |last=Satyananda |first=Swami |authorlink=Swami Satyananda |title=Asana Pranayama Mudra Bandha |url=http://www.znakovi-vremena.net/en/Swami-Satyananda-Saraswati---Asana-Pranayama-Mudra-Bandha.pdf |year=2008 |publisher=Yoga Publications Trust |location=Munger |isbn=978-81-86336-14-4 |access-date=2015-05-21 |archive-date=2015-08-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150807084750/http://www.znakovi-vremena.net/en/Swami-Satyananda-Saraswati---Asana-Pranayama-Mudra-Bandha.pdf |dead-url=yes }} * {{cite book |last=Taimni |first=I. K. |title=The Science of Yoga |url=https://archive.org/details/scienceofyogayog00unse |year=1961 |publisher=The Theosophical Publishing House |location=Adyar, India |isbn=81-7059-212-7 }} * {{cite book | title=Yoga And Indian Philosophy (1977, Reprinted in 1998) | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ | last=Werner|first= Karel | year=1998 | isbn=81-208-1609-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Whicher |first=Ian |title=The Integrity of the Yoga Darśana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_Qo9K9hPvQgC |year=1998 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3815-2 }} * {{Citation | last =White | first =David Gordon | year =2011 | title =Yoga, Brief History of an Idea (Chapter 1 of "Yoga in practice") | publisher =Princeton University Press | url =http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i9565.pdf}} * Worthington, Vivian (1982). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5aI9AAAAIAAJ A History of Yoga]''. Routledge. ISBN 0-7100-9258-X. * Wynne, Alexander [http://books.google.com/books?id=ElIupyX_SYAC&pg=PA51 "The Origin of Buddhist Meditation."] Routledge, 2007, ISBN 1-134-09741-7. * {{Citation |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |authorlink=Heinrich Zimmer |title=Philosophies of India |year=1951 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=New York, New York |isbn=0-691-01758-1 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bRQ5fpTmwoAC }} Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by Joseph Cambell. * Zydenbos, Robert. ''Jainism Today and Its Future''. München: Manya Verlag, 2006. p.&nbsp;66 * [http://www.kriyayoga-mahavatarbabaji.com Tovuti ya mwalimu wa yoga Kriya Yoga Mahavatar Babaji] [[jamii:Uhindu]] [[jamii:michezo]] dhj8r1mbdvdam9c0k0skqtorg2mytmg 0 76995 1580223 1578093 2026-07-18T01:29:31Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580223 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Handicapped Accessible sign.svg|thumbnail|[[Alama]] ya [[jengo]] linalofaa kwa watu wanaotumia [[Kitimaguru|kiti cha magurudumu]].]] '''Ulemavu''' ni hali ya kuwa na hitilafu ya kudumu [[mwili]]ni au [[akili]]ni inayomzuia mtu kutekeleza [[shughuli]] zilizo kawaida katika [[maisha]] ya [[jamii]]. Unamwekea mtu mipaka asiweze kutekeleza shughuli fulani katika maisha yake, tofauti na watu wengine. ==Hitilafu na ulemavu== [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] (WHO) limeunda mfumo wa kupanga alama za ulemavu. Hapa kuna tofauti kati ya *hitilafu ''(kwa [[Kiingereza]] impairment)'' kama kukosa uwezo wa kutumia [[kiungo]] cha mwili kama kawaida *ulemavu (''ing. disability)'' kama hitilafu inasababisha kukosa uwezo wa kutekeleza shughuli zinazotekelezwa na "watu wa kawaida". *hasara au kikwazo ''(ing. handicap)'' inayoweza kupatikana kwa mtu mwenye ulemavu akishindwa kutekeleza shughuli katika jamii. Kwa mfano, [[mtoto]] aliyeambukizwa [[ugonjwa wa kupooza]] ''(ing. cerebral palsy)'' anabaki na hitilafu ya viungo vya miguu: hawezi kuvikunja wala haiwezi kustahimili [[uzito]] wa mwili wake. Hitilafu hiyo inamzuia kutembea kwa njia ya kawaida. Kama [[Tiba|hatibiwi]], hitilafu inaweza kuongezeka kwa sababu [[misuli]] ya miguu inajikaza zaidi na zaidi. Kukosa uwezo wa kutembea ni ulemavu. Lakini kiwango chake kinaweza kupunguzwa kwa tiba na vifaa vya pekee. Akijifunza kutembea kwa kutumia vyuma vilivyofungwa kando ya miguu, vizuizi vya kutekeleza shughuli vinapungua sana. Kutegemeana na mazingira anapoishi ataona hasara ndogo au kubwa zaidi akitafuta njia yake katika maisha. [[Faili:Pieter Bruegel d. Ä. 024.jpg|thumb|250px|Vilema, [[picha]] ya [[Pieter Brueghel Mzee]], [[Uholanzi]], mnamo 1568.]] ==Ulemavu wa kimwili== Ulemavu wa kimwili unatokana na hitilafu yoyote inayoiwekea mipaka kazi ya kawaida ya viungo vya mwili kama vile [[mikono]] au miguu na sehemu nyingine za mwili ==Ulemavu wa milango ya fahamu== Hapo ni hasa hitilafu zinazohusu uwezo wa kuona au kusikia. Kuna pia watu wenye hitilafu za kunusa au kuonja. ==Ulemavu wa akili== Hitilafu mbalimbali katika [[ubongo]] na [[mfumo wa neva]] zinaweza kuonekana katika *kuchelewa kwa watoto kuketi, kutambaa, kutembea au kusema *matumizi ya [[lugha]] *matatizo ya kukumbuka *matatizo ya kujifunza kanuni za kijamii *matatizo ya kutambua na kuelewa matatizo na kutafuta [[suluhisho]] *uhaba wa uwezo wa kujitunza, kama kuvaa, kula na kukuta njia. Ulemavu wa kiakili unatokea kwa viwango tofauti sana. Mara nyingi hautambuliki hadi mtoto anapoingia [[shule]] na huko anachelewa kujifunza. Hata hapo ni lazima kutofautisha kama tatizo ni ulemavu wa akili au ulemavu wa kujifunza tu. Wengine wanaishia kiwango cha [[elimu]] kinacholingana na uwezo wa mtoto wa wastani mwenye miaka 9-12<ref>[http://www.aafp.org/afp/2000/0215/p1059.html Identification and Evaluation of Mental Retardation, American Family Physician, Feb 15, 2000]</ref> na wanaweza kujifunza [[kazi]] inayowawezesha kudumisha maisha yao wakiwa [[watu wazima]]. ==Haki za watu wenye ulemavu== [[Mwaka]] [[2006]] [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] ulianzisha [[Mkataba wa kimataifa kuhusu haki za watu wenye ulemavu]] (UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities = UNCRPD) kwa [[shabaha]] ya kulinda na kuboresha hali ya walemavu [[milioni]] 650 duniani. Hadi mwaka [[2015]] mataifa 159 yaliutia [[sahihi]] [[mkataba]] huo na 154 kati ya hayo yaliidhinisha hatua hiyo. Mataifa yaliyokubali mkataba huo yamepokea [[wajibu]] wa kuhakikisha [[haki]] sawa za elimu, [[ajira]], kumiliki [[mali]] na [[ndoa|kuoa]] sawa na watu wote. Ni [[marufuku]] kuwatumia bila [[kibali]] kwa [[majaribio ya kiganga]]. [[Taasisi]] na shirika mbalimbali zinafuatilia jinsi gani masharti hayo yanatekelezwa na [[serikali]] mbalimbali. Kwa mfano, katika [[Afrika ya Mashariki]] kuna ''United Disabled Persons of Kenya'' (UDPK) au ''Shirikisho la Vyama vya Watu Wenye Ulemavu'' [[Tanzania]]. Nchini Tanzania katiba ya [[1977]] ilitambua haki za watu wenye ulemavu na kukataza aina zote za [[ubaguzi]]. Mnamo mwaka wa 2004, [[Wizara ya kazi, Maendeleo ya Vijana na Michezo]] ilitoa [[Sera ya Taifa]] ya watu wenye ulemavu, inayosisitiza kujitolea kwa [[wizara]] hiyo katika kuhakikisha kwamba kuna haki sawa kwa watu wenye ulemavu. ==Michezo ya walemavu== [[Faili:Wheelchair basketball at the 2008 Summer Paralympics.jpg|250px|thumbnail|[[Mechi]] ya [[mpira wa kikapu]] kwenye [[Paralimpiki]] mwaka [[2008]]]] Kuna nchi nyingi ambako walemavu wana [[klabu]] za [[michezo]] au kuendesha michezo katika vitengo vya pekee vya klabu za kawaida. Kwa kawaida wanatekeleza michezo ya kawaida lakini kufuatana na kanuni zinazolingana na hitilafu zao. Kwenye ngazi ya kimataifa kuna mashindano makubwa ambayo ni hasa *Michezo ya paralimpiki (Paralympics) kwa walemavu wa mwili *Olimpiki za pekee (Special Olympics) kwa walemavu wa akili *Deaflympics kwa watu wasiosikia ==Marejeo== <references/> ==Kujisomea== * C. G. Mung'ong'o, Njozi iliyopotea, Tanzania Pub. House, 1980, ISBN 9976100205, 9789976100204 * {{cite conference |last1=Arditi |first1=A. |last2=Rosenthal |first2=B. |year=1998 |title=Developing an objective definition of visual impairment |conference=Vision '96: Proceedings of the International Low Vision Conference |pages=331–334 |location=Madrid, Spain: [[ONCE]] |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last1=Burkhauser |first1=Richard V. |last2=Schmeiser |first2=Maximilian D.|last3=Weathers II |first3=Robert R.|date=Jan 2012 |title=The Importance of Anti-Discrimination and Workers' Compensation Laws on the Provision of Workplace Accommodations Following the Onset of a Disability |journal=Industrial & Labor Relations Review |volume=65 |issue=1 |ref=harv}} * {{cite journal |last=Darling |first=Peter |date=Aug 2007 |title=Disabilities and the Workplace |journal=Business NH Magazine |volume=24 |issue=8 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last1=DePoy |first1=Elizabeth |last2=Gilson |first2=Stephen French |year=2004 |title=Rethinking Disability: Principles for Professional and Social Change |url=https://archive.org/details/rethinkingdisabi0000depo |location=Pacific Grove, CA |publisher=Brooks Cole |isbn=978-0-534-54929-9 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |last=Donovan |first=Rich |date=March 1, 2012 |title=The Global Economics of Disability |url=http://www.returnondisability.com/pdf-docs/The_Global_Economics_of_Disability_2012.pdf |publisher=Return on Disability |accessdate=August 11, 2012 |ref=harv |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120913222254/http://www.returnondisability.com/pdf-docs/The_Global_Economics_of_Disability_2012.pdf |archivedate=2012-09-13 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Ducy |first1=Elizabeth McAdams |last2=Stough |first2=Laura M. |last3=Clark |first3=M. Carolyn |year=2012 |title=Choosing Agency in the Midst of Vulnerability: Using Critical Disability Theory to Examine a Disaster Narrative |work=Critical Qualitative Research Reader |editor1-last=Steinberg |editor1-first=Shirley R. |editor2-last=Cannella |editor2-first=Gaile S. |location=New York |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-1-4331-0688-0}} * {{cite journal |last=Miles |first=Albert S |year=1994 |title=Brown v. Board of Education and the American with Disabilities Act: Vistas of equal educational opportunities for African Americans |journal=Journal of Negro Education |volume=63 |issue=3 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |last1=Nikora |first1=Linda Waimari |last2=Karapu |first2=Rolinda |last3=Hickey |first3=Huhana |last4=Te Awekotuku |first4=Ngahuia |year=2004 |title=Disabled Maori and Disability Support Options |url=http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/bitstream/10289/460/1/content.pdf |publisher=Maori&nbsp;& Psychology Research Unit, University of Waikato |accessdate=August 11, 2012 |ref=harv |archivedate=2020-05-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513220653/https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10289/460/content.pdf;jsessionid=CC679321B8E56B193727B2B489F9B94F?sequence=1 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Stough |first=Laura M. |year=2009 |title=The Effects of Disaster on the Mental Health of Individuals With Disabilities |work=Mental Health and Disasters |editor1-last=Neria |editor1-first=Yuval |editor2-last=Galea |editor2-first=Sandro |editor3-last=Norris |editor3-first=Fran H. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-41282-8 |ref=harv}} * {{cite web |last=Yeo |first=Rebecca |year=2005 |title=Disability, poverty, and the new development agenda |publisher=Disability Knowledge and Research Programme |url=http://www.dfid.gov.uk/r4d/PDF/Outputs/Disability/RedPov_agenda.pdf |accessdate=June 19, 2013 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Albrecht |editor-first=Gary L. |year=2005 |title=Encyclopedia of disability |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |isbn=978-0-7619-2565-1}} * {{cite book |last=Bowe |first=Frank |year=1978 |title=Handicapping America: Barriers to disabled people |url=https://archive.org/details/handicappingamer00bowe |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=978-0-06-010422-1}} * {{cite book |last=Charlton |first=James I. |title=Nothing about us without us : disability oppression and empowerment |year=2004 |publisher=Univ. of California Press |location=Berkeley, Calif. [u.a.] |isbn=9780520224810 |edition=[3. Dr]}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Glenn |first=Eddie |year=1995 |title=African American Women with Disabilities: An Overview |url=http://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/Us_Eu/ada_e/pres_com/pres-dd/glenn.html |encyclopedia=[http://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/Us_Eu/ada_e/pres_com/pres-dd/glenn.html Disability and diversity: New leadership for a new era] |editor1-last=Walker |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Turner |editor2-first=K. A. |editor3-last=Haile-Michael |editor3-first=M.|editor4-last=Vincent |editor4-first=A. |editor5-last=Miles |editor5-first=M. D. |location=Washington, DC |publisher=President’s Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities and Howard University Research and Training Center for Access to Rehabilitation and Economic Opportunity}} * {{cite book |last=Johnstone |first=David |year=2001 |edition=2nd |title=An Introduction to Disability Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontodi0000john_k7w3 |location= |publisher=Fulton |isbn=978-1-85346-726-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Masala |first1=Carmelo |last2=Petretto |first2=Donatella Rita |year=2008 |title=Psicologia dell'Handicap e della Riabilitazione |trans_title=The Psychology of Handicap and Rehabilitation |language=Italian |location=Rome |publisher=Kappa |isbn=978-88-15-06226-0}} * {{cite book |last=Oliver |first=Michael |year=1997 |title=The Politics of Disablement |location=London |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |isbn=978-0-333-43293-8}} * {{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Charlotte |year=2006 |title=Direct Payments and Personalisation of Care |url=https://archive.org/details/directpaymentspe0000unse |location=Edinburgh |publisher=Dunedin Academic Press |isbn=978-1-903765-62-3}} * {{cite book |last=Shakespeare |first=Tom |author2=with Anne Kerr |year=1999 |title=Genetic Politics: from Eugenics to Genome |url=https://archive.org/details/geneticpoliticsf0000kerr |location=Cheltenham |publisher=New Clarion Press |isbn=978-1-873797-25-9}} * {{cite journal |last=Burch |first=Susan |date=July 2009 |title=(Extraordinary) Bodies of Knowledge: Recent Scholarship in American Disability History |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_magazine-of-history_2009-07_23_3/page/29 |journal=OAH Magazine of History |volume=23 |pages=29–34|issn=0882-228X |doi=10.1093/maghis/23.3.29 |issue=3}} * {{cite journal |last=Kaushik |first=R. |year=1999 |title=Access Denied: Can we overcome disabling attitudes |journal=Museum International |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=48–52 |publisher=UNESCO|issn=1468-0033 |doi=10.1111/1468-0033.00217}} * {{cite journal |last=Lansing |first=Michael J. |date=January 2009 |title='Salvaging the Man Power of America': Conservation, Manhood, and Disabled Veterans during World War I |pages=32–57 |journal=Environmental History |volume=14 |location= |publisher=|issn=1084-5453 |doi=10.1093/envhis/14.1.32}} * {{cite journal |last=Longmore |first=Paul |date=July 2009 |title=Making Disability an Essential Part of American History |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_magazine-of-history_2009-07_23_3/page/11 |journal=OAH Magazine of History |volume=23 |pages=11–15|isbn=|issn=0882-228X |doi=10.1093/maghis/23.3.11 |issue=3}} * {{cite journal | author = Masala C, Petretto DR | title = From disablement to enablement: conceptual models of disability in the 20th century | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_disability-and-rehabilitation_2008_30_17/page/n4 | journal = Disability and Rehabilitation | volume = 30 | issue = 17 | pages = 1233–1244 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18821191 | doi = 10.1080/09638280701602418 | issn = 0963-8288 }} ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons cat|Disabled people}} *[http://shivyawata.or.tz/ Shirikisho la Vyama vya watu wenye ulemavu Tanzania SHIVYAWATA - Tanzania Federation of Disabled People’s Organizations] {{Wayback|url=http://shivyawata.or.tz/ |date=20151025010156 }} *[http://shivyawata.or.tz/surveys/download/Fact%20Sheet%20Tanzania%20_Swa.pdf Taarifa: Hali ya haki za watu wenye ulemavu Tanzania, imetolewa na SHIVYAWATA] {{Wayback|url=http://shivyawata.or.tz/surveys/download/Fact%20Sheet%20Tanzania%20_Swa.pdf |date=20160304224638 }} *[http://hakielimu.org/files/publications/document172Sauti_Elimu-22.pdf Walemavu wana haki ya kupata elimu, Hakielimu Sautielimu toleo 9-2009] {{Wayback|url=http://hakielimu.org/files/publications/document172Sauti_Elimu-22.pdf |date=20160306194202 }} *[http://www.unicef.org/tanzania/AdvocacyBrief-DISABILITY-SWA-WEB.pdf Watoto na Ulemavu - ajenda ya watoto, muhtasari wa utetezi watoto; UNICEF Tanzania] {{Wayback|url=http://www.unicef.org/tanzania/AdvocacyBrief-DISABILITY-SWA-WEB.pdf |date=20160304201659 }} *[http://kenya.thebeehive.org/content/29/703 Ishara za ulemavu wa masomo, beehive Kenya] {{Wayback|url=http://kenya.thebeehive.org/content/29/703 |date=20160412130111 }} *[http://chavita.or.tz/about-us/ Tovuti ya Chama cha Viziwi Tanzania CHIVITA - Tanzania Association of the Deaf] {{Wayback|url=http://chavita.or.tz/about-us/ |date=20150510221413 }} *[https://envaya.org/TUSPO/home Tovuti ya Tanzania Users and Survivors of Psychiatry Organisation TUSPO] {{Wayback|url=https://envaya.org/TUSPO/home |date=20160304200635 }} [[Jamii:Afya]] [[Jamii:Ulemavu]] [[Jamii:Ubaguzi]] l7fqn9xmyeys0tb8k5lih0h0evcc3py 0 77230 1580164 1468565 2026-07-18T00:45:24Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580164 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Second Mariote kingdom.png|300px|thumbnail|Eneo la [[milki ya Mari]] mnamo [[2500 KK]].]] '''Mari''' (leo hii [[Tell Hariri]] nchini [[Syria]]) ilikuwa [[dola-mji]] wa [[ustaarabu]] wa [[Mesopotamia]] baina ya miaka [[2900 KK|2900]] - [[1760 KK|1760]] hivi [[KK]]. [[Mji]] huo ulikuwa kando ya [[mto Frati]], takriban katikati ya [[kitovu]] cha [[Mesopotamia]] na [[pwani]] ya [[Mediteranea]] na hivyo kitovu muhimu cha [[biashara]] ya kimataifa ya wakati ule. Ulikuwa pia kitovu muhimu cha [[utamaduni]] na [[sanaa]] na kwa vipindi kadhaa ulitawala [[milki]] kubwa, ukishindana hasa na [[Ebla]]. Katika mabaki yake yamepatikana [[maandishi]] mengi katika [[kigae|vigae]]. ==Sanaa kutoka Mari== <gallery mode=packed heights=200px> File:Cylinder seal battle Louvre AO18359.jpg|[[Mihuri]] kutoka Mari File:Statue of lion-AO 19520 19824-P5280748-gradient.jpg|[[Sanamu]] ya [[simba]] kutoka Mari File:Deesse au vase (Mari).jpg|[[Miungu|Mungu wa kike]] mwenye [[chombo]] kutoka Mari File:Bust orant Louvre AO17557.jpg|Sanamu ya [[mwombaji]] iliyopatikana katika [[hekalu]] la Mari </gallery> ==Marejeo== * {{cite book | last2 = Schwartz |first2= Glenn M |last1= Akkermans |first1= Peter M. M. G | title = The Archaeology of Syria: From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (c.16,000-300 BC) | url = https://archive.org/details/archaeologyofsyr0000akke | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0-521-79666-8}} * {{cite book | last2 = Wallenfels |first2= Ronald |last1= Aruz |first1= Joan | title = Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus | url = https://archive.org/details/artoffirstcities0000unse | publisher = [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-1-588-39043-1}} *{{cite book | last1 = Bryce | first1 = Trevor | title = Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History | url = https://archive.org/details/ancientsyriathre0000bryc | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0-191-00292-2}} *{{cite book | last1 = Bryce | first1 = Trevor | title = The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire | url = https://archive.org/details/routledgehandboo0000bryc | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-1-134-15908-6}} * {{cite book | last1 = Coogan |first1= Michael David | title = The Oxford History of the Biblical World | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-19-513937-2}} *{{cite book | last1 = Crawford | first1 = Harriet | title = The Sumerian World | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-1-136-21912-2}} * {{cite book | last1 = Dalley | first1 = Stephanie | title = Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities | publisher = [[Gorgias Press]] | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-1-931956-02-4}} * {{cite book |last1= Feliu |first1= Lluís | title = The God Dagan in Bronze Age Syria | publisher = [[Brill Publishers|Bill]] | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-9-004-13158-3}} *{{cite book | last1 = Frayne | first1 = Douglas | title = Old Babylonian Period (2003–1595 BC) | publisher = [[University of Toronto Press]] | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0-8020-5873-7}} * {{cite book | last1 = Frayne | first1 = Douglas | title = Pre-Sargonic Period: Early Periods, Volume 1 (2700-2350 BC) | publisher = University of Toronto Press | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-1-442-69047-9}} * {{cite book | last1 = Green |first1= Alberto Ravinell Whitney | title = The Storm-god in the Ancient Near East | url = https://archive.org/details/stormgodinancien0000gree | publisher = [[Eisenbrauns]] | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-1-57506-069-9}} * {{cite book | last3 = Winter |first3= Nathan |last2 = Rendsburg |first2= Gary |last1 = Gordon |first1= Cyrus | title = Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4 | publisher = [[Eisenbrauns]] | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-1-57506-060-6}} * {{cite book |last1= Heimpel |first1= Wolfgang | title = Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, with Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary | publisher = [[Eisenbrauns]] | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-1-575-06080-4}} * {{cite book | last3 = Kreppner |first3= Florian | last2 = Czichon |first2= Rainer |last1=Kühne |first1= Hartmut | title = 4 ICAANE | publisher = [[Harrassowitz Verlag]] | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-3-447-05757-8}} *{{cite book | last1 = Leick | first1 = Gwendolyn | title = Who's Who in the Ancient Near East | url = https://archive.org/details/whoswhoinancient0000leic_v7s4 | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-1-134-78795-1}} * {{cite book | last1 = Liverani |first1= Mario | title = The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy | url = https://archive.org/details/ancientneareasth0000live | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-1-134-75091-7}} * {{cite book | last1 = Podany | first1 = Amanda | title = Brotherhood of Kings: How International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-0-199-79875-9}} *{{cite book | last1 = Viollet | first1 = Pierre-Louis | title = Water Engineering in Ancient Civilizations: 5,000 Years of History | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-9-078-04605-9}} {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Mesopotamia]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Syria]] [[Jamii:Historia ya kale]] 4n776rx406n91xe6oou5zsx4spb9sdc 0 79657 1580268 1524908 2026-07-18T02:04:59Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580268 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Noahs Ark.jpg|thumb|''Safina ya Noah'' ([[1846]]), [[mchoro]] wa [[Edward Hicks]].]] '''Safina''' ya [[Noah]] (kutoka [[Kiarabu]]: سفينة نوح‎, Safina Nuh; kwa [[Kiebrania]] ni: תיבת נח‎, Tevat Noaḥ) ni chombo kikubwa ambamo, kadiri ya simulizi la [[Kitabu cha Mwanzo]] ([[Biblia]]), Noah na [[familia]] yake walikombolewa wakati wa [[gharika kuu]]. Pamoja nao [[wanyama]] wa kila aina waliokolewa humo wasife [[maji]]. Kadiri ya kitabu hicho cha [[Agano la Kale]], [[sura]] 6-9, [[Mungu]] ndiye aliyemuagiza Noah atengeneze chombo hicho. Habari hiyo inapatikana pia, kwa tofauti kadhaa, katika [[Quran]]. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|2}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} * {{citation |last=Bandstra |first=Barry L. |title=Reading the Old Testament : An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible |year=2008 |publisher=Wadsworth/ Cengage Learning |location=Belmont, CA |isbn=0495391050 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q=%22not%20really%20contradictory%22&f=false |edition=4th |pages=61–63}} * {{citation |last=Blenkinsopp |first=Joseph |title=Creation, Un-creation, Re-creation: A Discursive Commentary on Genesis 1-11 |year= 2011|publisher= A&C Black |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=B12qwOSMD20C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{citation |last=Chen |first=Y.S. |title=The Primeval Flood Catastrophe: Origins and Early Development in Mesopotamian Traditions |year=2013 |publisher=OUP Oxford |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=UrZGAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|first=Norman|last=Cohn|authorlink=Norman Cohn|title=Noah's Flood: The Genesis Story in Western Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/noahsfloodgenesi0000cohn|location=New Haven & London|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=1996|isbn=0-300-06823-9|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Cotter|first=David W.|title=Genesis|publisher=[[Liturgical Press]]|year=2003|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=6lCVzr4cT9QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Genesis+David+W.+Cotter#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref=harv|isbn=9780814650400}} * {{citation |last=Enns |first=Peter |title=The Evolution of Adam: What the Bible Does and Doesn't Say about Human Origins |year=2012 |publisher=Baker Books |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=BNxeoqoTg-YC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{citation |last=Finkel |first=Irving L. |title=The Ark Before Noah: Decoding the Story of the Flood |year=2014 |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |url=|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Gooder|first=Paula|title=The Pentateuch: a story of beginnings|publisher=T&T Clark|year=2005|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=49XpvvO-Oq0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Pentateuch+Paula+Gooder#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref=harv|isbn=9780567084187}} * {{cite book|last=Hamilton|first=Victor P.|title=The book of Genesis: chapters 1-17|publisher=Eerdmans|year=1990|url=http://books.google.com/?id=WW31E9Zt5-wC&pg=PR3&dq=Genesis#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref=harv|isbn=9780802825216}} * {{cite book|last1=Kessler|first1=Martin|last2=Deurloo|first2=Karel Adriaan|title=A commentary on Genesis: the book of beginnings|publisher=Paulist Press|year=2004|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=mBWeLCTgT0QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+commentary+on+Genesis:+the+book+of+beginnings+Martin+Kessler,+Karel+Adriaan+Deurloo#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref=harv|isbn=9780809142057}} * {{cite book |last=Knight |first=Douglas A. |editor= Watson E. Mills (General Editor) |title=Mercer Dictionary of the Bible |publisher= Mercer University Press |location=Macon, Georgia |page= |isbn=0-86554-402-6 |chapter=Cosmology |year= 1990 |url= http://books.google.com/?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA176&dq=Mercer+Dictionary+of+the+Bible+Cosmology#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{citation |last=Kvanvig |first=Helge |title=Primeval History: Babylonian, Biblical, and Enochic: An Intertextual Reading |year=2011 |publisher=BRILL |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=e1hnJYbShWMC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=McKeown |first=James |title=Genesis |url=http://books.google.com/?id=-gqTTl1iPr8C&pg=PA65&lpg=PA65&dq=westermann+tabernacle+ark#v=onepage&q=westermann%20tabernacle%20ark&f=false |series=Two Horizons Old Testament Commentary |year=2008 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |isbn=0-8028-2705-5 |page=398 |ref=harv }} *{{Rejea kitabu| last = Isaak| first = Mark| title = The Counter Creationism Handbook| chapter= Creationist claim CD750| chapterurl = http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CD/CD750.html| publisher = University of California Press| publication-date=2007| location = Berkeley and Los Angeles, California| pages = 330| isbn = 978-0-520-24926-4|ref=harv}} * {{citation |last=Nigosian |first=S.A. |title=From Ancient Writings to Sacred Texts: The Old Testament and Apocrypha |year=2008 |publisher=JHU Press |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=gpAAKpmMHYoC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|ref=harv}} *{{Rejea kitabu| last = Numbers| first = Ronald L.| authorlink = Ronald Numbers| title = [[The Creationists]]: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design, Expanded Edition| publisher = Harvard University Press| year = 2006| pages = 624| ref=harv| isbn = 0-674-02339-0}} *{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Stewart | first1 = Melville Y. | title = Science and religion in dialogue | year = 2010 | publisher = Wiley-Blackwell | location = Malden, MA | isbn = 1-4051-8921-5 | pages = 123|url=http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=AaGhngEACAAJ|ref=harv}} *{{Rejea kitabu|last=Young|first=Davis A.|title=The Biblical Flood: a case study of the Church's response to extrabiblical evidence|publisher=Eerdmans|location=Grand Rapids, Mich|year=1995|pages=340|isbn=0-8028-0719-4|url=http://books.google.com?id=hL7YAAAAMAAJ|ref=harv|accessdate=16 September 2008}} *{{Rejea kitabu | last1 = Young | first1 = Davis A. | last2 = Stearley | first2 = Ralph F. | title = The Bible, rocks, and time : geological evidence for the age of the earth | url = https://archive.org/details/biblerockstimege0000youn | year = 2008 | publisher = IVP Academic | location = Downers Grove, Ill. | isbn = 978-0-8308-2876-0 | ref = harv }} *{{cite journal|last=Parkinson|first=William|date=January–February 2004|title=Questioning 'Flood Geology': Decisive New Evidence to End an Old Debate|journal=NCSE Reports|volume=24|issue=1|publisher=National Center for Science Education|url=http://ncse.com/rncse/24/1/questioning-flood-geology|accessdate=2 November 2010|ref=harv|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000058/http://ncse.com/rncse/24/1/questioning-flood-geology|url-status=dead}} *{{cite journal| last = Schadewald| first = Robert J.| date = Summer 1982| title = Six Flood Arguments Creationists Can't Answer| journal = Creation/Evolution Journal| volume = 3| issue = 3| pages = 12–17| publisher = National Center for Science Education| url = http://ncse.com/cej/3/3/six-flood-arguments-creationists-cant-answer| accessdate = 16 November 2010| ref = harv| archive-date = 2010-03-31| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100331062514/http://ncse.com/cej/3/3/six-flood-arguments-creationists-cant-answer| url-status = dead}} *{{cite journal|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/cre-error.html| last=Schadewald|first=Robert|year=1986|title=Scientific Creationism and Error|journal=Creation/Evolution|volume=6|issue=1|pages=1–9|accessdate=29 March 2007|ref=harv}} *{{cite web |url=http://www.news.wisc.edu/16176 |title=Reason or faith? Darwin expert reflects |first=Gwen |last=Evans |date=3 February 2009 |work=UW-Madison News |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Madison |accessdate=18 June 2010|ref=harv}} *{{cite web|url= http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html#CD|title=Index to Creationist Claims, Geology|first=Mark|last=Isaak|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|date=5 November 2006|accessdate =2 November 2010 |ref=harv}} *{{cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-noahs-ark.html|title=Problems with a Global Flood|last=Isaak|first=M.|year=1998|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|accessdate=29 March 2007|ref=harv|quote=Isaak no a geologist}} *{{cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/geocolumn/|title=The Geologic Column and its Implications for the Flood|first=Glenn|last=Morton|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|accessdate =2 November 2010|date=17 February 2001|ref=harv|quote=Morton not a geologist}} *{{citation|url=http://ncse.com/rncse/23/1/my-favorite-pseudoscience|first=Eugenie C.|last=Scott|title=My Favorite Pseudoscience|ref=harv|volume=23|issue=1|date=January–February 2003|access-date=2015-11-03|archive-date=2016-04-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160426073534/http://ncse.com/rncse/23/1/my-favorite-pseudoscience|url-status=dead}} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== '''Ufafanuzi wa Mwanzo''' {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Rogerson|first=John William|title=Genesis 1-11|publisher=T&T Clark|year=1991|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=EFle13pCS0wC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Genesis+1-11+John+William+Rogerson#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780567083388}} * {{cite book|last=Sacks|first=Robert D.|title=A Commentary on the Book of Genesis|publisher=Edwin Mellen|year=1990|url=http://www.archive.org/details/RobertSacksACommentaryOnTheBookOfGenesis}} * {{cite book|last=Towner|first=Wayne Sibley|title=Genesis|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=2001|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=6ONdsoa7MHUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Genesis+Wayne+Sibley+Towner#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780664252564}} * {{cite book|last=Von Rad|first=Gerhard|title=Genesis: A Commentary|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1972|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=IbuBa8Qy3AwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Genesis:+A+Commentary+Gerhard+Von+Rad#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780664227456}} * {{cite book|last=Wenham|first=Gordon|chapter=Genesis|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA34&dq=Eerdmans+Genesis+his+rise+to+be+ruler+of+all+Egypt#v=onepage&q&f=false|editor=James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson|title=Eerdmans Bible Commentary|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn=9780802837110}} * {{cite book|last=Whybray|first=R. N.|chapter=Genesis|url= http://books.google.com.au/books?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA38&dq=4.+Genesis+Whybray+Genesis+and+the+Pentateuch#v=onepage&q=4.%20Genesis%20Whybray%20Genesis%20and%20the%20Pentateuch&f=false|editor=John Barton|title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=9780198755005}} {{refend}} '''Vingine''' {{refbegin}} * {{cite book | last1 = Aune | first1 = David E. | authorlink = David Aune | title = Westminster Dictionary of the New Testament and Early Christian Literature | chapter = Cosmology | editor1-last = | editor1-first = | editor2-last = | editor2-first = | year = 2003 | publisher = Westminster John Knox Press | isbn = 9780664219178| url = http://books.google.com/?id=nhhdJ-fkywYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dictionary+New+Testament#v=onepage&q=cosmology&f=false }} * {{cite book|last=Batto|first=Bernard Frank|title=Slaying the Dragon: Mythmaking in the Biblical Tradition|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1992|url=http://books.google.com/?id=eWrDOxHQ7-oC&pg=PA68&lpg=PA68&dq=atrahasis+noah#v=onepage&q=ark&f=false|isbn=9780664253530}} * {{cite book|first = Janet|last = Browne|authorlink = Janet Browne|title = The Secular Ark: Studies in the History of Biogeography|url = https://archive.org/details/seculararkstudie0000brow|year = 1983|location = New Haven & London|publisher = Yale University Press|isbn = 0-300-02460-6|ref=harv|page=[https://archive.org/details/seculararkstudie0000brow/page/n291 276]}} * {{cite book|last=Brueggemann|first=Walter|title=Reverberations of faith: a theological handbook of Old Testament themes|publisher=Westminster John Knox|year=2002|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=dBJQ71RIpdMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=theological+handbook+of+Old+Testament+themes#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780664222314}} * {{cite book|last1=Campbell|first1=Antony F.|last2=O'Brien|first2=Mark A.|title=Sources of the Pentateuch: texts, introductions, annotations|publisher=Fortress Press|year=1993|url=http://books.google.com/?id=cwhICpcHBsQC&pg=PR3&dq=Sources+of+the+bible#v=onepage&q=Sources%20of%20the%20bible&f=false|isbn=9781451413670}} *{{cite book|title=Sources of the Pentateuch: Texts, Introductions, Annotations|author1=Campbell, A. F.|author2=O'Brien, M. A.|date=1993|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=9781451413670|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cwhICpcHBsQC}} * {{cite book|last=Carr|first=David M.|title=Reading the fractures of Genesis|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1996|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=8UJctZxFHikC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Reading+the+fractures+of+Genesis:+historical+and+literary+approaches#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780664220716}} * {{cite book|last=Clines|first=David A.|title=The theme of the Pentateuch|publisher=Sheffield Academic Press|year=1997|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=Z45ullcFRG8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Clines+Theme+of+the+Pentateuch#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780567431967}} * {{cite book|last=Davies|first=G. I.|chapter=Introduction to the Pentateuch|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA12&dq=Oxford+Bible+Commentary+Introduction+to+the+Pentateuch#v=onepage&q=Oxford%20Bible%20Commentary%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Pentateuch&f=false|editor=John Barton|title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=9780198755005}} * {{cite book|last1=Kugler|first1=Robert|last2=Hartin|first2=Patrick|title=The Old Testament between theology and history: a critical survey|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2009|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=L8WbXbPjxpoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Robert+Kugler,+Patrick+Hartin#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780802846365}} * {{cite book|last1=Levin|first1=Christoph L.|title=The Old testament: a brief introduction|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2005|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=7geSuBAQ1e0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Old+testament:+a+brief+introduction+Christoph+Levin#v=onepage&q&f=true}} *{{cite book|title=The Old Testament: A Brief Introduction|author=Levin, C.|date=2005|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=9780691113944|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=7geSuBAQ1e0C}} * {{cite book|last=Longman|first=Tremper|title=How to read Genesis|publisher=InterVarsity Press|year=2005|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=SKEJ3kT7S2kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+to+read+Genesis+Tremper+Longman#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=McEntire|first=Mark|title=Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch|publisher=Mercer University Press|year=2008|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VwOs9f1FpmsC&pg=PA87&dq=william+propp+exodus+1-18#v=onepage&q=william%20propp%20exodus%201-18&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=Ska|first=Jean-Louis|title=Introduction to reading the Pentateuch|publisher=Eisenbrauns|year=2006|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=7cdy67ZvzdkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Introduction+to+reading+the+Pentateuch+Jean+Louis+Ska#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=Van Seters|first=John|title=Prologue to History: The Yahwist As Historian in Genesis|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1992|url=http://www.google.ca/books?id=zRl8aj_KiM4C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=Van Seters|first=John|chapter=The Pentateuch|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=owwhpmIVgSAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Hebrew+Bible+today:+an+introduction+to+critical+issues#v=onepage&q&f=false|editor=Steven L. McKenzie, Matt Patrick Graham|title=The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1998}} * {{cite book|last=Van Seters|first=John|title=The Pentateuch: a social-science commentary|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2004|url=http://books.google.com/?id=T-Vi9eK_vS0C&pg=PA7&dq=Sources+of+the+bible#v=onepage&q=Sources%20of%20the%20bible&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=Walsh|first=Jerome T.|title=Style and structure in Biblical Hebrew narrative|publisher=Liturgical Press|year=2001|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=hGeXrcQTZ2kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=style+and+structure+in+biblical+hebrew+narrative#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|first = Lloyd R.|last = Bailey|title = Noah, the Person and the Story|url = https://archive.org/details/noahpersonstoryi0000bail|year = 1989|location = South Carolina|publisher = [[University of South Carolina Press]]|isbn = 0-87249-637-6}} * {{cite book|last1=Campbell|first1=Antony F.|last2=O'Brien|first2=Mark A.|title=Sources of the Pentateuch: texts, introductions, annotations|publisher=Fortress Press|year=1993|url=http://books.google.com/?id=cwhICpcHBsQC&pg=PR3&dq=Sources+of+the+bible#v=onepage&q=Sources%20of%20the%20bible&f=false|isbn=9781451413670}} *{{cite book|title=Sources of the Pentateuch: Texts, Introductions, Annotations|author1=Campbell, A. F.|author2=O'Brien, M. A.|date=1993|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=9781451413670|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cwhICpcHBsQC}} * {{cite book|first = Robert M.|last = Best|title = Noah's Ark and the Ziusudra Epic|url = https://archive.org/details/noahsarkziusudra0000best|year = 1999|location = Fort Myers, Florida|publisher = Enlil Press|isbn = 0-9667840-1-4}} * {{cite book |author=Compilation |editor-last=Hornby |editor-first=Helen |year = 1983|title = Lights of Guidance: A Bahá'í Reference File|publisher = Bahá'í Publishing Trust, New Delhi, India|isbn = 81-85091-46-3|url=http://books.google.com/?id=MZ7g-BIfXu0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Noah%27s+Flood:+The+Genesis+Story+in+Western+Thought#v=onepage&q=Noah%27s%20Flood%3A%20The%20Genesis%20Story%20in%20Western%20Thought&f=false |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Dalrymple |first=G. Brent |title=The Age of the Earth |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofearth00unse |year=1991 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-2331-1 |ref=harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Emerton | first = J. A. | editor-last = Joosten | editor-first=J. | year = 1988 | title = An Examination of Some Attempts to Defend the Unity of the Flood Narrative in Genesis: Part II | journal = [[Vetus Testamentum]] | volume = XXXVIII | issue = 1 | publisher = International Organization for the Study of the Old Testament | ref = harv }} * {{cite book|last=Nicholson|first1=Ernest W.|title=The Pentateuch in the twentieth century: the legacy of Julius Wellhausen|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=opBBTHT13yoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Pentateuch+in+the+twentieth+century:+the+legacy+of+Julius+Wellhausen#v=onepage&q&f=false}} * {{cite book|last=Plimer|first=Ian|title=Telling Lies for God: Reason vs Creationism|url=https://archive.org/details/tellingliesforgo0000plim|year=1994|publisher=Random House Australia|isbn=0-09-182852-X|page=[https://archive.org/details/tellingliesforgo0000plim/page/n17 303]|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last = Speiser|first = E. A.|authorlink = E. A. Speiser|title = Genesis|url = https://archive.org/details/genesis0000unse_j2t1|series = The [[Anchor Bible]]|year = 1964|publisher = Doubleday|isbn = 0-385-00854-6|ref=harv}} :{{cite book|author = Tigay, Jeffrey H., |title = The Evolution of the Gilgamesh Epic|url = https://archive.org/details/evolutionofgilga0000tiga |location =|publisher = [[University of Pennsylvania Press]], Philadelphia|year = 1982|isbn = 0-8122-7805-4}} * {{cite book|last=Van Seters|first=John|title=The Pentateuch: a social-science commentary|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2004|url=http://books.google.com/?id=T-Vi9eK_vS0C&pg=PA7&dq=Sources+of+the+bible#v=onepage&q=Sources%20of%20the%20bible&f=false}} * {{cite book |last=Wenham |first=Gordon |editor1-last=Hess |editor1-first=Richard S. |editor2-last=Tsumura |editor2-first=David Toshio |title=I studied inscriptions from before the flood |format=Google Books |series=Sources for Biblical and Theological Study |volume=4 |year=1994 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |isbn=0-931464-88-9 |page=480 |chapter=The Coherence of the Flood Narrative |chapterurl=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=g5MGVP6gAPkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=I+studied+inscriptions+from+before+the+flood#v=onepage&q&f=false |ref=harv }} * {{cite book |last=Young |first=Davis A. |title=The Biblical Flood: A Case Study of the Church's Response to Extrabiblical Evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/biblicalfloodcas0000youn |date=March 1995 |publisher=Eerdmans Pub Co |location = Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=0-8028-0719-4 |page=340 |ref=harv }} * {{cite book|title=Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary|url=https://archive.org/details/zondervanillustr0000unse_l4e2|editor=Douglas, J. D., and Tenney, Merrill C.|year=2011|publisher=Zondervan|location=Grand Rapids, Mich.|isbn=0310229839|edition=Revised|others=revised by Moisés Silva|ref=harv}} {{refend}} {{mbegu-Biblia}} [[Jamii:Biblia]] [[Jamii:Misahafu]] ogzziawjt85c0wuopubvryk9qgs3p01 0 80463 1580224 1578209 2026-07-18T01:30:07Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580224 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg|thumb|250px|''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' iliyokuzwa mara 200 ikiwa na [[lebo ya fluoro]]. [[Bakteria]] hii ndiyo sababu ya aina mbalimbali za [[tauni]].]] [[File:Plague -buboes.jpg|thumb|Tauni ya majipu inasababisha tezi za limfu zifure.]] '''Tauni''' (au '''kipukusa'''; kwa [[Kiingereza]]: [[w:plague|plague]] au pestilence) ni [[ugonjwa]] unaoambukiza [[mtu|watu]] wengi sana unaosababishwa na [[bakteria]] ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' ya [[familia (biolojia)|familia]] [[Enterobacteriaceae]]. Inapatikana kwa kawaida katika maeneo kadhaa ya [[dunia]] yasiyo na [[maendeleo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/ihr/ihr_brief_no_2_en.pdf |title=WHO IHR Brief No. 2. Notification and other reporting requirements under the IHR (2005) |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2014-08-24}}</ref> Kadiri ya athira juu ya [[mapafu]] na hali nyingine za [[mgonjwa]], inaweza kuenea kupitia [[hewa]], kwa kugusana na kwa nadra kwa njia ya [[chakula]] kisichopikwa vya kutosha. [[Dalili]] zinategemea ugonjwa umemshika mtu wapi zaidi: [[tezi]], [[mishipa ya damu]] au mapafu. [[Tiba]] ikiwahi inaweza kumponya mtu. ==Historia== Zamani tauni iliua watu wengi: kwa miaka michache hata [[nusu]] ya [[Wachina]] wote, halafu [[theluthi]] ya [[Wazungu]] wote. [[Biblia]] inazungumzia ugonjwa huo. [[Bara]]ni [[Afrika]] ugonjwa ulienea mara kadhaa, lakini mtawanyiko wa watu katika maeneo makubwa haukuisaidia tauni kuwapata watu wengi zaidi kama kwenye [[msongamano]] mkubwa. Ni maarufu juhudi za [[Wajerumani]] kukomesha tauni katika [[koloni]] lao la [[Afrika Mashariki ya Kijerumani]] mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 19]] kwa kulipa kiasi kadhaa kwa kila [[mzoga]] wa [[panya]], [[mnyama]] anayesambaza bakteria hizo kupitia [[viroboto]] wake.<ref>Pugu Hadi Peramiho - kimehaririwa na P. Gerold Rupper, OSB, BPNP, Peramiho 1988, ISBN 9967 67 031 1</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|30em}} == Tazama Pia == [[Tauni ya Kucheza dansi ya 1518]] ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|30em}} * Weatherford 2004: 242-250 * {{cite book|author=Ole Jrgen Benedictow|title=Black Death 1346-1353: The Complete History|url=https://archive.org/details/blackdeath1346130000olej| year =2004|isbn=978-1-84383-214-0 }} * Biraben, Jean-Noel. ''Les Hommes et la Peste'' The Hague 1975. * Buckler, John and Bennet D. Hill and John P. McKay. "A History of Western Society, 5th Edition." New York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1995. * {{cite book| author = Norman F. Cantor| title = In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World It Made| url = https://archive.org/details/inwakeofplague00norm| date = 2002-04-16| publisher = Harper Perennial| isbn = 978-0-06-001434-6 }} * {{cite journal | pmid = 11500756 | volume=96 | issue=5 | title=Small rodents fleas from the bubonic plague focus located in the Serra dos Orgãos Mountain Range, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil | url = https://archive.org/details/memorias-do-instituto-oswaldo-cruz_2001-07_96_5/page/603 |date=July 2001 | author=de Carvalho RW, Serra-Freire NM, Linardi PM, de Almeida AB, da Costa JN | journal=Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz | pages=603–9 | doi=10.1590/S0074-02762001000500003 | ref = harv| last2=Serra-Freire | last3=Linardi | last4=De Almeida | last5=Da Costa }}. ''this manuscript reports a census of potential plague vectors (rodents and fleas) in a Brazilian focus region (i.e. region associated with cases of disease); free PDF download'' Retrieved 2005-03-02 * {{cite book| author = Marilyn Chase| title = The Barbary Plague: The Black Death in Victorian San Francisco| url = https://archive.org/details/barbaryplaguebla0000chas_z5s0| date = 2004-03-09| publisher = Random House Trade Paperbacks| isbn = 978-0-375-75708-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Cohn | first = Samuel K. | authorlink = | title = The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in Early Renaissance Europe | publisher = A Hodder Arnold |year=2003 | location = | page = 336 | url = | isbn= 0-340-70646-5 }} * {{cite book| author = Charles T. Gregg| title = Plague!: The Shocking Story of a Dread Disease in America Today| url = https://archive.org/details/plagueshockingst00greg| year = 1978| isbn = 978-0-684-15372-8 }} * {{cite book| author = Ernest Jawetz| title = 1989 Medical Microbiology| year = 1989| publisher = McGraw-Hill/Appleton & Lange| isbn = 978-0-8385-6238-3 }} * {{cite book| author = John Kelly| title = The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, The Most Devastating Plague of All Time| url = https://archive.org/details/greatmortality00kell| date = 2005-02-01| publisher = Harper| isbn = 978-0-06-000692-1 }} * {{cite book| author = William Hardy McNeill| title = Plagues and peoples| year = 1998| publisher = Anchor| isbn = 978-0-385-12122-4 }} * {{cite book| author = James C. Mohr| title = Plague and Fire:Battling Black Death and the 1900 Burning of Honolulu's Chinatown: Battling Black Death and the 1900 Burning of Honolulu's Chinatown| url = https://archive.org/details/plaguefirebattli0000mohr| date = 2004-11-15| publisher = Oxford University Press, USA| isbn = 978-0-19-516231-8 }} * {{cite book| author = A. Lloyd Moote|author2=Dorothy C. Moote | title = The Great Plague: The Story of London's Most Deadly Year| url = https://archive.org/details/greatplaguestory0000moot| date = 2004-01-20| publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press| isbn = 978-0-8018-7783-4 }} * {{cite book| author = Wendy Orent| title = Plague: The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease| url = https://archive.org/details/plaguemysterious00oren| date = 2004-05-01| publisher = Free Press| isbn = 978-0-7432-3685-0 }} * Patrick, Adam. "Disease in Antiquity: Ancient Greece and Rome," in ''Diseases in Antiquity'', editors: [[Don Brothwell]] and A. T. Sandison. Springfield, Illinois; Charles C. Thomas, 1967. * Platt, Colin. ''King Death: The Black Death and its Aftermath in Late-Medieval England'' [[Toronto University]] Press, 1997. * {{cite book | last = Rosen | first = William | authorlink = | title = Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire, and the Birth of Europe | publisher = Viking Penguin | year = 2007 | location = | page = [https://archive.org/details/justiniansfleapl00rose/page/367 367] | url =https://archive.org/details/justiniansfleapl00rose | isbn= 978-0-670-03855-8}} * Simpson, W. J. ''A Treatise on Plague''. Cambridge, England: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1905. * {{cite book| author = Jackson J. Spielvogel| title = Western Civilization to 1715: A Brief History| date = 1998-01-01| publisher = Wadsworth Publishing Company| isbn = 978-0-534-56062-1 }} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== * World Health Organization ** [http://www.who.int/topics/plague/en/ Health topic] ** [http://www.who.int/csr/disease/plague/en/ Communicable Disease Surveillance & Response]&nbsp;– Impact of plague & Information resources * Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ** [http://www.cdc.gov/plague CDC Plague] map world distribution, publications, information on bioterrorism preparedness and response regarding plague ** [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/submenus/sub_plague.htm Infectious Disease Information] more links including travelers' health * [http://www.upmc-biosecurity.org/website/focus/agents_diseases/fact_sheets/plague.html Agent Fact Sheet: Plague] {{Wayback|url=http://www.upmc-biosecurity.org/website/focus/agents_diseases/fact_sheets/plague.html |date=20110206215539 }}, Center for Biosecurity * [http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic428.htm Symptoms, causes, pictures of bubonic plague] * [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_plague/ Secrets of the Dead. Mystery of the Black Death] {{Wayback|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_plague/ |date=20140325105354 }} [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] * {{PDFlink|[http://www.wood.army.mil/chmdsd/Army_Chemical_Review/pdfs/Jul-Dec%202005/Kirby.pdf Flea As Weapon]|281&nbsp;KB}} * [http://www.pasteur.fr/actu/presse/press/07pesteTIGR_E.htm Researchers sound the alarm: the multidrug resistance of the plague bacillus could spread] {{Wayback|url=http://www.pasteur.fr/actu/presse/press/07pesteTIGR_E.htm |date=20071014012153 }} * [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Plague Plague - LoveToKnow 1911] * Genome information is available from the [http://patricbrc.vbi.vt.edu/ NIAID PathoSystems Resource Integration Center (PATRIC)] {{Wayback|url=http://patricbrc.vbi.vt.edu/ |date=20141231185632 }} {{mbegu-tiba}} [[Jamii:Magonjwa ya bakteria]] 4hkgy1irx3e2cou50i0kermvq1pgz9h 0 81452 1580021 1574213 2026-07-17T23:09:18Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580021 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:HH Polizeihauptmeister MZ.jpg|thumb|[[Askari polisi]] wa [[Ujerumani]].]] '''Polisi''' (kutoka [[neno]] la [[Kiingereza]] ''police'' lilikopwa kutoka [[Kifaransa]] ''police''<ref>{{cite web|title=Police|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/146823|website=Oxford English Dictionary|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref> ambalo awali lilikuwa la [[Kilatini]] ''politia'',<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dpolitia politia], Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, ''A Latin Dictionary'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> na kabla yake tena la [[Kigiriki]] πολιτεία, ''politeia'', "uraia, usimamizi, ustaarabu wa mjini".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpolitei%2Fa πολιτεία], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> Msingi ni neno πόλις, ''polis'', "mji".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpo%2Flis πόλις], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>) ni [[idara]] ya [[serikali]] ambayo lengo lake ni kutekeleza [[sheria]] za nchi,<ref>{{cite book| last =Walker| first =Samuel| title =A Critical History of Police Reform: The Emergence of Professionalism| url =https://archive.org/details/criticalhistoryo0000walk| publisher =Lexington Books| year =1977| location =Lexington, MT| page =[https://archive.org/details/criticalhistoryo0000walk/page/n162 143]| isbn = 978-0-669-01292-7}}</ref> kulinda [[mali]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Siegel |first=Larry J. |title=Criminolgy |url=https://archive.org/details/criminolgy00larr |pages=515, 516 |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2005}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=PRmhu3M2jv8C&pg=PA515&lpg=PA515&dq=police+american+colonies&source=web&ots=Dxk8AuzQR6&sig=KokKB0NmB0Gs5DWxF3Jl3OhQQcI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result Google Books Search]</ref> kudumisha usalama na kupunguza [[vurugu]], kutokomeza vifo visivyokuwa vya lazima, pamoja na kuokoa mali.<ref>{{cite book| last =Neocleous| first =Mark| title =Fabricating Social Order: A Critical History of Police Power| url =https://archive.org/details/fabricationofsoc0000neoc| publisher =Pluto Press| year =2004| location = | pages =[https://archive.org/details/fabricationofsoc0000neoc/page/93 93]–94| isbn = 978-0-7453-1489-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title =The Role and Responsibilities of the Police|publisher =[http://www.psi.org.uk/ Policy Studies Institute]|url =http://www.psi.org.uk/publications/archivepdfs/Role%20pol/INDPOL-0.P.pdf|accessdate =2009-12-22|page =xii|archivedate =2017-08-29|archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20170829011701/http://www.psi.org.uk/publications/archivepdfs/Role%20pol/INDPOL-0.P.pdf}}</ref> Polisi pekee inaruhusiwa kutumia [[nguvu]] katika [[jamii]]. Kwa kawaida polisi hutofautiana na [[wanajeshi]] ambao kazi yao ni kulinda nchi dhidi ya wavamizi kutoka nje. Mara nyingi polisi wanajulikana kuathiriwa na [[ufisadi]] kwa kiasi tofautitofauti. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} {{mbegu}} [[Jamii:Serikali]] qme3ixtd7ew2xu0aohvnbgz9ywlzw13 0 81490 1580066 1465837 2026-07-17T23:42:31Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580066 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Epilpesia.ogv|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Picha za video]] kuhusu matukio ya kifafa.]] [[File:Bittentongue.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|[[jeraha|Majeraha]] [[ulimi|ulimini]] yaliyosababishwa na anguko.]] <!-- Definition and symptoms --> '''Kifafa''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''Epilepsyis'', kutoka [[kitenzi]] cha [[Kigiriki]] ἐεπιλαμβάνειν, eepilambanein, ''kuteka'' au ''kutesa''<ref name=magiorkinis_2010>{{cite journal | author=Magiorkinis E, Kalliopi S, Diamantis A | title=Hallmarks in the history of epilepsy: epilepsy in antiquity | journal=Epilepsy & behavior : E&B | volume=17 | issue=1 | pages=103–108 |date=January 2010 | doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.10.023 | pmid=19963440}}</ref>) ni [[kundi]] la [[maradhi ya neva]] yanayofanana kwa [[dalili]] za matukio ya [[kupatwa]],<ref name=NEJM2003>{{cite journal | author = Chang BS, Lowenstein DH | title =Epilepsy | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2003-09-25_349_13/page/1256 | year = 2003 | journal = N. Engl. J. Med. | volume = 349 | issue = 13 | pages = 1257–66 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra022308 | pmid = 14507951}}</ref> ambayo yanaweza kudumu [[muda]] mfupi sana karibu bila kugundulika hadi muda mrefu wa kutikisika kwa nguvu [[mwili]] mzima.<ref name=WHO2012/> Matukio hayo yanaelekea kurudiarudia bila sababu inayoeleweka kwa kila tukio<ref name=NEJM2003/> wakati matukio ya namna hiyo yenye sababu inayoeleweka si ya kifafa kweli. ==Visababishi== Sababu ya kesi nyingi haijulikani, ingawa baadhi ya watu wanapatwa na kifafa kutokana na [[jeraha la ubongo]], [[kiharusi]], [[saratani ya ubongo]] na matumizi mabaya ya [[dawa]]. [[Mabadiliko ya DNA]] yanahusiana moja kwa moja na [[asilimia]] ndogo za kesi zote.<ref name="Longo 2012"/> Matukio ya kifafa yanatokana na [[utendaji]] mkubwa mno wa [[neva]] za [[ubongo]].<ref name=Fisher2005>{{cite journal| author = Fisher R, van Emde Boas W, Blume W, Elger C, Genton P, Lee P, Engel J| title = Epileptic seizures and epilepsy: definitions proposed by the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) and the International Bureau for Epilepsy (IBE)| journal = Epilepsia| volume = 46| issue = 4| pages = 470–2| year = 2005| pmid = 15816939| url = http://doi.org/10.1111/j.0013-9580.2005.66104.x| doi = 10.1111/j.0013-9580.2005.66104.x}}</ref> Ili kusema ni kifafa, [[daktari]] anapaswa kwanza kutambua hakuna sababu zinazoeleweka za dalili kama hizo, kwa mfano kuzimia.<ref name="Longo 2012">{{cite book |last1=Longo |first1=Dan L |title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780071748872_2 |year=2012 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-174887-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780071748872_2/page/3258 3258] |edition=18th|chapter=369 Seizures and Epilepsy}}</ref> Mara nyingi kifafa kinaweza kuthibitishwa na [[electroencephalogram]] (EEG).<ref name="Longo 2012"/> ==Tiba== Katika 70% za matukio inawezekana kuyadhibiti.<ref name=Ead2012>{{cite journal|last=Eadie|first=MJ|title=Shortcomings in the current treatment of epilepsy.|journal=Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics|date=December 2012|volume=12|issue=12|pages=1419–27|pmid=23237349|doi=10.1586/ern.12.129}}</ref> Isipowezekana tiba, pengine [[upasuaji]], [[uchocheaji wa neva]] na mabadiliko ya ulaji vinatumika. Si kila mara kifafa kinadumu [[maisha]] yote: kuna watu wanaopata [[nafuu]] kiasi cha kutohitaji tena dawa. ==Uenezi== Karibu 1% ya watu wote duniani ([[milioni]] 65) wana kifafa,<ref name=Thur2011>{{cite journal|last=Thurman|first=DJ|author2=Beghi, E; Begley, CE; Berg, AT; Buchhalter, JR; Ding, D; Hesdorffer, DC; Hauser, WA; Kazis, L; Kobau, R; Kroner, B; Labiner, D; Liow, K; Logroscino, G; Medina, MT; Newton, CR; Parko, K; Paschal, A; Preux, PM; Sander, JW; Selassie, A; Theodore, W; Tomson, T; Wiebe, S; ILAE Commission on, Epidemiology|title=Standards for epidemiologic studies and surveillance of epilepsy.|journal=Epilepsia|date=September 2011|volume=52 Suppl 7|pages=2–26|pmid=21899536|doi=10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03121.x}}</ref> na karibu 80% za kesi zinatokea katika [[nchi zinazoendelea]].<ref name=WHO2012>{{cite web | url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs999/en/ | title = Epilepsy | series = Fact Sheets |date =October 2012 | accessdate = January 24, 2013 | publisher = [[World Health Organization]]}}</ref> [[Mwaka]] [[2013]] vilitokea [[Kifo|vifo]] 116,000, ambavyo ni vingi kuliko vile 112,000 vya mwaka [[1990]].<ref name=GDB2013>{{cite journal|last1=GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death|first1=Collaborators|title=Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.|journal=Lancet|date=17 December 2014|pmid=25530442|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2|volume=385|issue=9963|pages=117–71|pmc=4340604}}</ref> Kifafa kinazidi kutokea kadiri watu wanavyokua.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brodie|first=MJ|author2=Elder, AT|author3=Kwan, P|title=Epilepsy in later life|journal=Lancet neurology|date=November 2009|volume=8|issue=11|pages=1019–30|pmid=19800848|doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70240-6}}</ref><ref name=Holmes2008>{{cite book|last=Holmes|first=Thomas R. Browne, Gregory L.|title=Handbook of epilepsy|year=2008|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-7397-3|edition=4th|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gLOv8XZ5u48C&pg=PA7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Wyllie's treatment of epilepsy : principles and practice.|year=2010|publisher=Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-58255-937-7|edition=5th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mxE2FYWoY0wC&pg=PA291}}</ref><ref name=Berg2008>{{cite journal |last=Berg |first=AT|title=Risk of recurrence after a first unprovoked seizure |journal=Epilepsia |volume=49 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=13–8|year=2008 |pmid=18184149 |doi=10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01444.x}}</ref> ==Tazama pia== * [[Shambulio la mfululizo la kifafa]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book|title=Atlas, epilepsy care in the world, 2005|year=2005|publisher=Programme for Neurological Diseases and Neuroscience, Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse, World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=92-4-156303-6|url=http://www.who.int/mental_health/neurology/Epilepsy_atlas_r1.pdf|author=World Health Organization, Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse, Programme for Neurological Diseases and Neuroscience; Global Campaign against Epilepsy; International League against Epilepsy|format=pdf}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Epilepsy}} * {{dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Neurological_Disorders/Epilepsy/}} * [http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs999/en/ World Health Organization fact sheet] {{mbegu-tiba}} [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] [[Jamii:Ubongo]] [[Jamii:Tiba]] [[Jamii:Neva]] f992pmyazoy34tjtfuykmphv13z9s1w 0 82502 1580166 1578159 2026-07-18T00:46:43Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580166 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:An old man diagnosed as suffering from senile dementia. Colo Wellcome L0026689.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Mzee mwenye Dimenshia]] {{Infobox disease |Name=Dimenshia |Image=Alzheimer's_disease_brain_comparison.jpg |Caption=Comparison of a normal aged brain (left) and the brain of a person with [[Alzheimer's]] (right). Differential characteristics are pointed out. | Name = Dementia | ICD10 = {{ICD10|F|00||f|00}}-{{ICD10|F|07||f|00}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|290}}-{{ICD9|294}} | MedlinePlus = 000739 | DiseasesDB = 29283 | MeshID = D003704 }} <!--Ufasili na dalili --> '''Dimenshia''' ni kategoria pana ya [[magonjwa ya ubongo]] yanayosababisha upunguaji wa muda mrefu na mara kwa mara wa polepole katika uwezo wa [[kufikiria]] na kukumbuka kiasi kwamba utendakazi wa kawaida wa mtu unaathiriwa.<ref name=WHO2014/> Dalili zingine zinazotokea sana ni matatizo ya kihisia, matatizo ya [[lugha]], na upungufu katika [[motisha]].<ref name=WHO2014/><ref name=BMJ2009>{{cite journal|last1=Burns|first1=A|last2=Iliffe|first2=S|title=Dementia.|journal=BMJ (Clinical research ed.)|date=5 February 2009|volume=338|pages=b75|pmid=19196746|doi=10.1136/bmj.b75}}</ref> [[Ufahamu]] wa mtu hauathiriwi.<ref name=WHO2014/> Ili utambuzi uweze kufaulu, ni lazima kuwe na mabadiliko kutoka kwa utendakazi wa kawaida wa akili ya mtu na upungufu mkubwa kuliko utokanao na kuzeeka.<ref name=WHO2014/><ref name="Memory Loss">{{cite book|last=Solomon|first=Andrew E. Budson, Paul R.|title=Memory loss : a practical guide for clinicians|url=https://archive.org/details/memorylosspracti0000buds|year=2011|publisher=Elsevier Saunders|location=[Edinburgh?]|isbn=9781416035978}}</ref> Magonjwa haya pia yana athari kubwa kwa watunzaji wa mtu.<ref name=WHO2014/> == Kisababishi, utambuzi, uzuiaji == Aina inayopatikana sana ya dimenshia ni [[ugonjwa wa Alzheimer]] unaochangia asilimia 50 hadi 70 ya visa.<!-- <ref name=WHO2014/><ref name=BMJ2009/> --> Aina zingine zinazopatikana sana ni [[dimenshia ya mishipa]] (asilimia 25), [[dimenshia ya Lewy body]] (asilimia 15), na [[dimenshia ya muda ya upande wa mbele]].<ref name=WHO2014/><ref name=BMJ2009/> Visababishi visivyopatikana sana ni [[hidrosefalasi ya shinikizo la kawaida]], [[ugonjwa wa Parkinson]], [[kaswende]], na [[ugonjwa wa Creutzfeldt–Jakob]] miongoni mwa vingine.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gauthier|first1=Serge|title=Clinical diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease|date=2006|publisher=InformaHealthcare|location=Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=9780203931714|pages=53–54|edition=3rd ed.|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=a221hX4WuwUC&pg=PA54}}</ref> Zaidi ya aina moja ya dimenshia zinaweza kuwa kwa mtu mmoja.<ref name=WHO2014/> Kiasi kidogo cha visa huathiri familia.<ref name=Genetic2014/> Katika [[DSM-5]], dimenshia iliainishwa upya kama [[DSM-5#matatizo ya neva tambuzi|tatizo la neva tambuzi]], na viwango tofauti vya ukali.<ref name=DSM5>{{cite book|last1=Association|first1=American Psychiatric|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5.|url=https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse|date=2013|publisher=American Psychiatric Association|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=9780890425541|pages=[https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/591 591]–603|edition=5th ed.}}</ref> Utambuzi hutegemea historia ya maradhi hayo na [[uchunguzi wa utambuzi]] kwa [[picha za mwanga wa kitabibu]] na vipimo vya damu kuondoa visababishi vingine vinavyoweza kuwepo.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dementia diagnosis and assessment|url=http://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/dementia/dementia-diagnosis-and-assessment.pdf|website=pathways.nice.org.uk|accessdate=30 November 2014|archivedate=2014-12-05|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205184403/http://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/dementia/dementia-diagnosis-and-assessment.pdf}}</ref> [[Uchunguzi mdogo wa hali ya akili]] ni kipimo cha ufahamu kinachotumika sana.<ref name=BMJ2009/> Juhudi za kuzuia dimenshia ni kujaribu kupunguza visababishi vya hatari kama vile [[hipatensheni|shinikizo la juu la damu]], kuvuta, [[kisukari melitasi|kisukari]] na [[unene]].<ref name=WHO2014/> Uchujaji umma kwa jumla kwa ugonjwa huu haupendekezwi.<ref name=NICE2014>{{cite web|title=Dementia overview|url=http://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/dementia/dementia-overview.pdf|website=http://pathways.nice.org.uk/|accessdate=30 November 2014|archivedate=2014-12-05|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205184234/http://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/dementia/dementia-overview.pdf}}</ref> == Kudhibiti == Hakuna tiba ya dimenshia.<ref name=WHO2014/> [[Kizuio cha asetikolinisteresi|vizuio vya Kolinisteresi]] kama vile [[donepezil]] hutumiwa mara kwa mara na vinaweza kusaidia katika ugonjwa mdogo ili kupunguza.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Birks|first1=J|title=Cholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease.|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=25 January 2006|issue=1|pages=CD005593|pmid=16437532|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005593}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rolinski|first1=M|last2=Fox|first2=C|last3=Maidment|first3=I|last4=McShane|first4=R|title=Cholinesterase inhibitors for dementia with Lewy bodies, Parkinson's disease dementia and cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease.|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=14 March 2012|volume=3|pages=CD006504|pmid=22419314|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006504.pub2}}</ref><ref name=Kav2007>{{cite journal|last1=Kavirajan|first1=H|last2=Schneider|first2=LS|title=Efficacy and adverse effects of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in vascular dementia: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials.|journal=The Lancet. Neurology|date=September 2007|volume=6|issue=9|pages=782–92|pmid=17689146|doi=10.1016/s1474-4422(07)70195-3}}</ref> Faida ya jumla, hata hivyo, inaweza kuwa ndogo.<ref name=Kav2007/><ref name=Comm2012>{{cite journal |author=Commission de la transparence |title=Médicaments de la maladied'Alzheimer : à éviter|trans_title=Drugs for Alzheimer's disease: best avoided. No therapeutic advantage |journal=PrescrireInt |volume=21 |issue=128|pages=150 |date=June 2012 |pmid=22822592 |doi= |url=}}</ref> Kwa watu walio na dimenshia na wale wanaowatunza, hatua nyingi zinaweza kuboresha maisha yao.<ref name=WHO2014/> [[Tiba za kiufahamu za kitabia |Tatuzi za kiufahamu za kitabia]] zinaweza kuwa bora.<ref name=WHO2014/> Kuelimisha na kutoa msaada wa kihisia kwa [[mtunzaji]] ni muhimu.<ref name=WHO2014/> Programu za mazoezi ni muhimu kulingana na [[shughuli za maisha ya kawaida]] na huboresha matokeo.<ref name=Forb2013>{{cite journal|last1=Forbes|first1=D.|last2=Thiessen|first2=E.J.|last3=Blake|first3=C.M.|last4=Forbes|first4=S.C.|last5=Forbes|first5=S.|title=Exercise programs for people with dementia.|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=4 December 2013|volume=12|pages=CD006489|pmid=24302466|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006489.pub3}}</ref> Matibabu ya matatizo ya kitabia au [[saikosisi]] kutokana na dimenshia kwa [[vizuia saikosisi]] hutumika sana lakini hayapendekezwi kutokana na suala kuwa huwa na faida ndogo na hatari zaidi ya kifo.<ref>{{cite web|author1=National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence|title=Low-dose antipsychotics in people with dementia|url=https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/ktt7/resources/non-guidance-lowdose-antipsychotics-in-people-with-dementia-pdf|website=nice.org.uk|accessdate=29 November 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205183329/https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/ktt7/resources/non-guidance-lowdose-antipsychotics-in-people-with-dementia-pdf|archivedate=2014-12-05|=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205183329/https://www.nice.org.uk/advice/ktt7/resources/non-guidance-lowdose-antipsychotics-in-people-with-dementia-pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Information for Healthcare Professionals: Conventional Antipsychotics|url=http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm124830.htm|website=fda.gov|accessdate=29 November 2014|date=June 16 2008}}</ref> == Epidemiolojia, prognosisi, na jamii == Ulimwenguni, dimenshia huathiri watu milioni 36.<ref name=WHO2014>{{cite web|title=Dementia Fact sheet N°362|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs362/en/|website=who.int|accessdate=28 November 2014|date=April 2012}}</ref> Takribani asilimia 10 ya watu hupata ugonjwa huu wakati fulani maishani mwao.<ref name=Genetic2014>{{cite journal|last1=Loy|first1=CT|last2=Schofield|first2=PR|last3=Turner|first3=AM|last4=Kwok|first4=JB|title=Genetics of dementia.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_march-1-7-2014_383_9919/page/828|journal=Lancet|date=1 March 2014|volume=383|issue=9919|pages=828–40|pmid=23927914|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60630-3}}</ref> Hupatikana sana umri unapoongezeka.<ref name=Larson2013>{{cite journal|last1=Larson|first1=EB|last2=Yaffe|first2=K|last3=Langa|first3=KM|title=New insights into the dementia epidemic.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2013-12-12_369_24/page/2275|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=12 December 2013|volume=369|issue=24|pages=2275–7|pmid=24283198|doi=10.1056/nejmp1311405}}</ref> Takribani asilimia 3 ya watu wa umri wa kati ya miaka 65–74 wana dimenshia, asilimia 19 kati ya umri wa miaka 75 na 84 na karibu nusu ya walio na umri wa miaka 85.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Umphred|first1=Darcy|title=Neurological rehabilitation|date=2012|publisher=Elsevier Mosby|location=St. Louis, Mo.|isbn=9780323075862|page=838|edition=6th ed.|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=I9ltC-ZrNOMC&pg=PA838}}</ref> Katika mwaka wa 2013 dimenshia ilisababisha takribani vifo milioni 1.7, juu kutoka milioni 0.8 katika mwaka wa 1990.<ref name=GDB2013>{{cite journal|last1=GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death|first1=Collaborators|title=Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.|journal=Lancet|date=17 December 2014|pmid=25530442|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2|volume=385|issue=9963|pages=117–71}}</ref> Watu wengi wanapoishi zaidi, dimenshia inaendelea kupatikana sana kwa watu wote.<ref name=Larson2013/> Kwa watu wa umri mahususi; hata hivyo, huenda ikawa kuwa unapungua, angalau katika nchi zilizostawi, kutokana na kupungua kwa visababishi vya hatari.<ref name=Larson2013/> Ni mojawapo ya visababishi vikuu vya [[ulemavu]] miongoni mwa wazee.<ref name=BMJ2009/> Inaaminika kusababisha gharama za kiuchumi za dola bilioni 604 kila mwaka.<ref name=WHO2014/> watu walio na dimenshia mara nyingi huwa na vizuizi vya kimwili au [[kikemikali]] kwa kiwango kikubwa kupita kiasi, na kuibua masuala ya [[haki za kibinadamu]].<ref name=WHO2014/> [[Shutuma za kijamii]] dhidi ya waathiriwa hutokea sana.ref name=BMJ2009/> ==Marejeo== <references /> [[Jamii:Ubongo]] [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] [[Jamii:Tiba]] [[Jamii:Saikolojia]] pi4m4oeysrpwncatwwhdt200c1g0aej 0 82771 1580179 1578151 2026-07-18T00:57:44Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 4 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580179 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Zacuelu2.jpg|thumbnail|300px|[[Hekalu]] - [[piramidi]] ya Kimaya.]] [[Picha:Madrid Codex 9.jpg|thumbnail|300px|[[Ukurasa]] kutoka [[kitabu]] cha [[Kimaya]] kwa mwandiko ya [[hiroglifi]].]] '''Maya''' ni jina la [[ustaarabu]] uliostawi kusini mwa [[Meksiko]] ya leo ([[rasi]] ya [[Yucatan]]) pamoja na [[Gwatemala]], [[Belize]] na sehemu za [[Honduras]] na [[El Salvador]] kuanzia mwaka [[2000 KK|2000]] hivi [[KK]] hadi waliposhindwa na [[Wahispania]] kutoka [[Ulaya]] ([[karne ya 16]] na [[Karne ya 17|ya 17]] [[BK]]). ==Historia== Watu wa kwanza waliofika huko kutoka kaskazini walikuwa [[Waindio]], wajukuu wa wahamiaji walioingia [[Amerika]] kutoka [[Asia ya Kaskazini]]. Hakuna uhakika kufika huko kulitokea lini: labda miaka 10,000 iliyopita<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Qxp-GWiDPioC&pg=PA386#v=onepage&q&f=false Michael S. Werner (January 2001). Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico. Taylor & Francis. pp. 386–. ISBN 978-1-57958-337-8]</ref>. Hao Waindio walikuwa [[wakulima]] hodari sana na [[mazao]] mbalimbali ambayo leo ni msingi wa [[chakula]] kote [[duniani]] yalianzishwa na kupandishwa nao, yakiwa pamoja na [[mahindi]], [[mboga]] na [[nyanya]]. [[Kilimo]] cha mahindi hukadiriwa kilianzishwa takriban mnamo mwaka [[9000 KK]]<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC122905/ A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002 Apr 30; 99(9): 6080–6084. doi: 10.1073/pnas.052125199]</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/selection/corn |title="The Evolution of Corn". University of Utah HEALTH SCIENCES. Retrieved 2 January 2016 |accessdate=2016-04-01 |archive-date=2016-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401040226/http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/selection/corn/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>. Kilimo kiliweka msingi kwa [[Kijiji|vijiji]] na [[jamii]] zilizoshirikiana katika maeneo makubwa. [[Miji]] ya kwanza inajulikana kuanzia takriban mwaka [[1500 KK]]. Wamaya waliishi katika vijiji na miji iliyojitegemea na kugombana kati yao mara kwa mara. Wamaya walibuni mwandiko wa [[hiroglifi]] wenye [[alama]] nyingi kupita maandishi mengine katika [[Amerika ya Kale]] na kutunga [[vitabu]]. Waliendeleza pia [[hisabati]], wakijua [[namba]] "[[sifuri]]" na kuboresha mfumo wa kalenda. Walikuwa hodari sana katika [[astronomia]] yaani [[elimu]] ya [[nyota]]. Walipamba miji yao kwa [[Jengo|majengo]] makubwa na mazuri na kuwa [[wafanyabiashara]] hodari. Sanaa yao ilijua [[uchongaji]] wa mawe na pia [[uchoraji]]. Jamii ya Wamaya ilifikia kiwango cha juu kuanzia mwaka [[500 KK]] wakati miji mikubwa ya kwanza ilipotokea. Mnamo mwaka [[800]] [[BK]] jamii za Wamaya katika Yucatan ziliporomoka; [[wataalamu]] wengi huamini ya kwamba mabadiliko ya [[ekolojia]] na [[halihewa]] pamoja na kuchoka kwa [[rutuba]] ya [[ardhi]] yalisababisha kutoka kwa watu katika makazi ya awali. Lakini ustaarabu huu uliona tena kipindi cha kustawi katika maeneo mengine hadi kuja kwa [[Wahispania]]. Miji mbalimbali ya Wamaya iliendelea kujitetea dhidi ya wavamizi na [[Nojpeten]], mji wa mwisho wa kujitegemea ulitekwa mwaka [[1696]] tu. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{Refbegin|indent=yes}} <!--BEGIN biblio format. If indent param. is used, Pls use a colon (:) instead of asterisk (*) for bullet markers in the references list --> :{{cite book |author=Abrams, Elliot M. |title=How the Maya Built Their World: Energetics and Ancient Architecture |year=1994 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas, US |isbn=0-292-70461-5 |oclc=29564628 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hsYZJkPV9jkC }} :{{cite book |author1=Adams, Richard E. W. |title=Prehistoric Mesoamerica |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWZ3nQ2ObtEC |edition=3rd |origyear=1977 |year=2005 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location=Norman, Oklahoma, US |isbn=0-8061-3702-9 |oclc=58975830 }} :{{cite journal |author1=Adams, R. E. W. |author2=W. E. Brown |author3=T. 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Wilcox (eds.) |title=The Mesoamerican Ballgame |url=https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse |location=Tucson, Arizona, US |publisher=University of Arizona Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/317 317]–345 |isbn=0-8165-1360-0 |oclc=51873028}} :{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Susan D. |date=September 2000 |title=Rethinking Ancient Maya Social Organization: Replacing "Lineage" with "House" |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=467–484 |publisher=Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/683405 |jstor=683405 |issn=0002-7294 |oclc=1479294 |subscription=y }} :{{cite book |author=Guillemín, Jorge F. |year=1965 |title=Iximché: Capital del Antiguo Reino Cakchiquel |publisher=Tipografía Nacional de Guatemala |location=Guatemala City, Guatemala |oclc=1498320|language=es |trans_title=Iximche: Capital of the Ancient Kaqchikel Kingdom}} :{{cite journal |author1=Hammond, Norman |author2=Duncan Pring |author3=Rainer Berger |author4=V. R. Switsur |author5=A. P. Ward |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v260/n5552/abs/260579a0.html |title=Radiocarbon chronology for early Maya occupation at Cuello, Belize |journal=Nature |issue=260 |doi=10.1038/260579a0 |date=1976-04-15 |issn=0028-0836 |accessdate=2010-08-01 |volume=260 |pages=579–581 |bibcode=1976Natur.260..579H }} : {{cite journal |author=Hansen, Richard D. |authorlink=Richard D. Hansen |year=1991 |title=Resultados preliminares de las investigaciones arqueológicas en el sitio Nakbe, Petén, Guatemala |trans_title=Preliminary Results of the Archaeological Investigations of Nakbe, Peten, Guatemala |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/23.88%20-%20Richard%20Hansen%20-%20en%20PDF.pdf |format=PDF |volume=II (1988) |journal=Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala |editor=J.P. Laporte, S. Villagrán, H. Escobedo, D. de González and J. Valdés |pages=163–178 |publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología |location=Guatemala City, Guatemala |accessdate=2010-07-21 |language=es |oclc=27267772 |archive-date=2011-07-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707182102/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/23.88%20-%20Richard%20Hansen%20-%20en%20PDF.pdf |dead-url=yes }} : :{{cite book |author=Hohmann-Vogrin |origyear=2006 |year=2011 |chapter=Unidad de espacio y tiempo: la arquitectura Maya |language=es |pages=194–215 |trans_title=Unity of Space and Time: Maya Architecture |publisher=Tandem Verlag |location=Potsdam, Germany |isbn=978-3-8331-6293-0 |type=hardback |title=Los Mayas: Una Civilización Milenaria |editor=Nikolai Grube |oclc=828120761}} :{{cite journal |author1=Houston, Stephen |author2=John Robertson |author3=David Stuart |title=The Language of Classic Maya Inscriptions |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=41 |issue=3 |date=June 2000 |pages=321–356 |publisher=University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research |doi=10.1086/300142 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/300142 |jstor=10.1086/300142 |issn=0011-3204 |location=Chicago, Illinois, US |pmid=10768879 |subscription=y }} :{{cite journal |author=Hutson, Scott R. |date=December 2011 |title=The Art of Becoming: The Graffiti of Tikal, Guatemala |journal=Latin American Antiquity |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=403–426 |publisher=Society for American Archaeology |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23072567 |jstor=23072567 |issn=2325-5080 |location=Washington, DC, US |doi=10.7183/1045-6635.22.4.403 |subscription=y }} :{{cite book |author=Jackson, Sarah E. |title=Politics of the Maya Court: Hierarchy and Change in the Late Classic Period |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofmayaco0000jack |year=2013 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location=Norman, Oklahoma, US |isbn=978-0-8061-4341-5 |oclc=813300656}} :{{cite book |author1=Johnson, Scott A. J. |title=Translating Maya Hieroglyphs |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AHdzXz7le3gC |isbn=978-0-8061-4333-0 |oclc=814707434 |year=2013 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location=Norman, Oklahoma, US }} :{{cite book |author=Jones, Grant D. |year=1998 |title=The Conquest of the Last Maya Kingdom |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PeOWl54Mt7UC&pg=RA2-PT82#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, California, US |isbn=978-0-8047-3522-3 }} :{{cite book |author=Justeson, John |year=2010 |title=The Archaeology of Measurement: Comprehending Heaven, Earth and Time in Ancient Societies |chapter=Numerical cognition and the development of 'zero' in Mesoamerica |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=TzrNgAsJY1MC&oi=fnd&pg=PA43 |pages=43–53 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York, US |isbn=978-0-521-11990-0 |oclc=501396677 }} :{{cite web |author1=Kettunen, Harri |author2=Helmke, Christopher |year=2008 |title=Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs: Workshop handbook |url=http://www.mesoweb.com/resources/handbook/WH2008.pdf |format=PDF |work=Mesoweb articles |publisher=[[Mesoweb]]: An Exploration of Mesoamerican Cultures |accessdate=2015-03-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808134017/http://www.mesoweb.com/resources/handbook/WH2008.pdf |archivedate=2014-08-08 }} :{{cite web |author=Kimbell Art Museum |year=2015 |title=Presentation of Captives to a Maya Ruler |publisher=Kimbell Art Museum |url=https://www.kimbellart.org/collection/search/view/675?text=maya&page=1 |location=Fort Worth, Texas, US |accessdate=2015-03-07 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307004136/https://www.kimbellart.org/collection/search/view/675?text=maya&page=1 |archivedate=2015-03-07 }} :{{cite book |author=Koch, Peter O. |title=John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood: Pioneers of Mayan Archaeology |publisher=McFarland |year=2013 |isbn=9780786471072 |oclc=824359844 |location=Jefferson, North Carolina, US}} :{{cite book |author1=Kristan-Graham, Cynthia |author2=Jeff Karl Kowalski |year=2007 |chapter=Chichén Itzá, Tula, and Tollan: Changing Perspectives on a Recurring Problem in Mesoamerican Archaeology and Art History |pages=13–84 |title=Twin Tollans: Chichén Itzá, Tula, and the Epiclassic to Early Postclassic Mesoamerican World |publisher=Trustees for Harvard University |location=Washington, DC, US |isbn=978-0-88402-323-4 |oclc=71243931 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=GZVUd9I0gpAC }} :{{cite journal |author=Laporte, Juan Pedro |authorlink=Juan Pedro Laporte |author2=Vilma Fialko |date=1994 |title=Mundo Perdido, Tikal: Los enunciados actuales |trans_title=Mundo Perdido, Tikal: Current questions |volume=VII (1993) |journal=Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala |editor=J.P. Laporte |editor2=H. Escobedo |pages=335–348 |publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología |language=es |location=Guatemala City, Guatemala |accessdate=2012-02-26 |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/31.93%20-%20Laporte%20y%20Fialko.pdf |oclc=33865804 |archive-date=2011-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915002143/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/31.93%20-%20Laporte%20y%20Fialko.pdf |dead-url=yes }} :{{cite journal|author=Looper, Matthew G. |year=1999 |title=New Perspectives on the Late Classic Political History of Quirigua, Guatemala |url=https://archive.org/details/ancient-mesoamerica_fall-1999_10_2/page/263 |journal=Ancient Mesoamerica |location=Cambridge and New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=263–280 |issn=0956-5361 |oclc=86542758|doi=10.1017/S0956536199101135}} :{{cite book |author=Looper, Matthew G. |year=2003 |title=Lightning Warrior: Maya Art and Kingship at Quirigua |url=https://archive.org/details/lightningwarrior0000loop |series=Linda Schele series in Maya and pre-Columbian studies |location=Austin, Texas, US |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=0-292-70556-5 |oclc=52208614 }} :{{Rejea jarida |author=Love, Michael |date=December 2007 |title=Recent Research in the Southern Highlands and Pacific Coast of Mesoamerica |journal=Journal of Archaeological Research |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=275–328 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |issn=1573-7756 |doi=10.1007/s10814-007-9014-y |url=http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10814-007-9014-y |accessdate=2006-02-01 }} :{{cite book |author=Lovell, W. George |year=2000 |chapter=The Highland Maya |editor=Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. Macleod (eds.) |title=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, {{nowrap|Vol. II}}: Mesoamerica, {{nowrap|part 2}} |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=392–444|isbn=0-521-65204-9 |oclc=33359444}} :{{cite book |author=Lovell, W. George |year=2005 |title=Conquest and Survival in Colonial Guatemala: A Historical Geography of the Cuchumatán Highlands, 1500–1821 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |location=Montreal, Canada |edition=3rd |isbn=0-7735-2741-9 |oclc=58051691 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=05wSqQiu52MC }} :{{cite book |author1=Macri, Martha J. |author2=Matthew George Looper |year=2003 |title=The New Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs |volume=1: The Classic period inscriptions |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location=Norman, Oklahoma, US |series=The civilization of the American Indian series |isbn=9780806134970 |oclc=773482216 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tNO424luPRYC }} :{{cite book |author=Marcus, Joyce |year=2004a |title=Ancient Maya Commoners |location=Austin, Texas, US |publisher=University of Texas Press |chapterurl=http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780292797239/9780292797239-13.pdf |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780292797239 |isbn=9780292705715 |oclc=60745417 |subscription=yes |via=[[Project MUSE]] |pages=255–284 |chapter=Maya Commoners: The Stereotype and the Reality |editor1=Jon C. Lohse |editor2=Fred Valdez, Jr. }} :{{cite book |author=Marcus, Joyce |year=2004 |chapter=The Maya and Teotihuacan |title=The Maya and Teotihuacan : reinterpreting early classic interaction |url=https://archive.org/details/mayateotihuacanr0000unse |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mayateotihuacanr0000unse/page/n358 337]–356 |editor=Geoffrey E. Braswell |origyear=2003 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas |isbn=9780292705876 |oclc=254181446}} :{{cite book |author=Martin, Simon |authorlink=Simon Martin (Mayanist) |author2=Nikolai Grube |year=2000 |title=Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya |url=https://archive.org/details/chronicleofmayak00mart |location=London and New York |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-05103-8 |oclc=47358325 }} :{{cite book |author1=Masson, Marilyn A. |author2=Carlos Peraza Lope |chapter=Commoners in Postclassic Maya society: Social versus economic class constructs |title=Ancient Maya Commoners |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmayacommo0000unse |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas, US |year=2004 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientmayacommo0000unse/page/197 197]–223 |isbn=0-292-70571-9 |oclc=803179517 |editors=Jon C. Lohse and Fred Valdez, Jr. }} :{{cite journal |author=Masson, Marilyn A. |date=2012-11-06 |title=Maya collapse cycles |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=109 |issue=45 |pages=18237–18238 |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41829886 |jstor=41829886 |issn=1091-6490 |location=Washington, DC, US |doi=10.1073/pnas.1213638109 |subscription=y |bibcode=2012PNAS..10918237M }} :{{cite book |author=Matthew, Laura E. |year=2012 |title=Memories of Conquest: Becoming Mexicano in Colonial Guatemala |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina, US |isbn=978-0-8078-3537-1 |oclc=752286995 |series=First Peoples |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RVAFbknbo_EC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |format=hardback }} :{{cite journal |title=The "Mayanized" Mexicans |author=McVicker, Donald |journal=American Antiquity |volume=50 |issue=1 |date=January 1985 |pages=82–101 |publisher=Society for American Archaeology |doi=10.2307/280635 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/280635 |jstor=280635 |issn=2325-5080 |location=Washington, D.C., US |subscription=y }} :{{cite book |author=Milbrath, Susan |year=1999 |title=Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore, and Calendars |location=Austin, Texas, US |publisher=University of Texas Press |chapterurl=https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780292797932/9780292797932-11.pdf |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780292797932 |isbn=0292752253 |oclc=40848420 |subscription=yes |via=[[Project MUSE]] |pages=249–293 |chapter=Stars, the Milky Way, Comets, and Meteors }} :{{cite book |author=Miles, Susanna W. |chapter=An Analysis of the Modern Middle American Calendars: A Study in Conservation |title=Acculturation in the Americas |editor=Sol Tax |location=Chicago, Illinois, US |publisher=University of Chicago Press |series=Proceedings and selected papers of the International Congress of Americanists |year=1952 |oclc=180504894 |pages=273–284}} :{{cite book |author=Miller, Mary |authorlink=Mary Miller |year=1999 |title=Maya Art and Architecture |url=https://archive.org/details/mayaartarchitect00mill |location=London, UK and New York, US |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-20327-X |oclc=41659173 }} :{{cite book |author=Miller, Mary |author2=Karl Taube |year=1993 |title=The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya |url=https://archive.org/details/godssymbolsofa00mill |publisher=Thames and Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-05068-6 |oclc=901448866 }} :{{cite book |author1=Oakley, Francis |author2=Rubin, Benjamin B. |title=Science and the World's Religions: Origins and Destinies |volume=1 |chapter=Sacral Kingship and the Origins of Religious, Social, and Political Orders |chapterurl=https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=3MK5u1_7CLYC&oi=fnd&pg=PA69 |pages=69–90 |oclc=768417915 |isbn=978-0-313-38732-6 |year=2012 |publisher=Praeger/ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, California, US |editor1=Patrick McNamara |editor2=Wesley J. Wildman }} :{{cite book |author=Olmedo Vera, Bertina |year=1997 |chapter=The Mayas of the Classic Period |editor=A. Arellano Hernández|title=The Mayas of the Classic Period |location=Mexico City, Mexico |publisher=Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (CONACULTA) |pages=9–99 |isbn=970-18-3005-9 |oclc=42213077|display-editors=etal}} :{{cite book |author=Phillips, Charles |title=The Complete Illustrated History of the Aztecs & Maya: The definitive chronicle of the ancient peoples of Central America & Mexico&nbsp;– including the Aztec, Maya, Olmec, Mixtec, Toltec & Zapotec |origyear=2006 |year=2007 |publisher=Anness Publishing Ltd |location=London, UK |isbn=1-84681-197-X |oclc=642211652}} :{{cite journal |author=Popenoe de Hatch, Marion |author2=Christa Schieber de Lavarreda |year=2001 |title=Una revisión preliminar de la historia de Tak'alik Ab'aj, departamento de Retalhuleu |trans_title=A Preliminary Revision of the History of Takalik Abaj, Retalhuleu Department |volume=XIV (2000) |journal=Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala |editor=J.P. Laporte, A.C. Suasnávar and B. Arroyo |pages=990–1005 |publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología |location=Guatemala City, Guatemala |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/77.00.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2009-02-01 |language=es |oclc=49563126 |archive-date=2009-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211140452/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/77.00.pdf |dead-url=yes }} :{{cite journal |author1=Pugh, Timothy W. |author2=Leslie G. Cecil |year=2012 |title=The contact period of central Petén, Guatemala in color |journal=Social and Cultural Analysis, Department of |volume=Paper 6 |series=Faculty Publications |url=http://scholarworks.sfasu.edu/sca/6/ |publisher=Stephen F. Austin State University |location=Nacogdoches, Texas, US }} :{{cite book |author=Quezada, Sergio |year=2011 |title=La colonización de los mayas peninsulares |trans_title=The Colonisation of the Peninsula Maya |format=PDF |url=http://www.bibliotecabasica.yucatan.gob.mx/archivos_modulos/biblioteca/pdf_201106170236.pdf |isbn=978-607-7824-27-5 |oclc=796677890 |accessdate=2013-01-20 |series=Biblioteca Básica de Yucatán |location=Merida, Yucatan, Mexico |publisher=Secretaría de Educación del Gobierno del Estado de Yucatán |volume=18 |language=es |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104200933/http://www.bibliotecabasica.yucatan.gob.mx/archivos_modulos/biblioteca/pdf_201106170236.pdf |archivedate=2013-11-04 }}{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.bibliotecabasica.yucatan.gob.mx/archivos_modulos/biblioteca/pdf_201106170236.pdf |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2016-04-01 |archive-date=2013-11-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104200933/http://www.bibliotecabasica.yucatan.gob.mx/archivos_modulos/biblioteca/pdf_201106170236.pdf |url-status=dead }} :{{cite book |author=Recinos, Adrian |authorlink=Adrián Recinos |origyear=1952 |year=1986 |title=Pedro de Alvarado: Conquistador de México y Guatemala |trans_title=Pedro de Alvarado: Conqueror of Mexico and Guatemala |edition=2nd |location=Antigua Guatemala, Guatemala |publisher=CENALTEX Centro Nacional de Libros de Texto y Material Didáctico "José de Pineda Ibarra" |oclc=243309954|language=es}} :{{cite journal |author=Reents-Budet, Dorie |author2=Antonia E. Foias |author3=Ronald L. Bishop |author4=M. James Blackman |author5=Stanley Guenter |year=2007 |title=Interacciones políticas y el Sitio Ik' (Motul de San José): Datos de la cerámica |trans_title=Political Interactions and the Ik' Site (Motul de San Jose): Ceramic Data |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf |format=PDF |volume=XX (2006) |work=Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala |editor=J.P. Laporte, B. Arroyo and H. Mejía |pages=1416–1436 |publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología, Guatemala |accessdate=2009-11-14 |language=es |oclc=173275417 |journal= |archive-date=2011-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914133722/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf |dead-url=yes }}{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2016-04-01 |archive-date=2011-09-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914133722/http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/87_-_Reents_et_al.pdf |url-status=dead }} :{{cite book |author=Restall, Matthew |authorlink=Matthew Restall |author2=Florine Asselbergs |year=2007 |title=Invading Guatemala: Spanish, Nahua, and Maya Accounts of the Conquest Wars |url=https://archive.org/details/invadingguatemal0000unse |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |location=University Park, Pennsylvania, US |isbn=978-0-271-02758-6 |oclc=165478850}} :{{cite book |author=Rice, Prudence M. |author2=Don S. Rice |year=2009 |chapter=Introduction to the Kowoj and their Petén Neighbors |editor=Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) |title=The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala |url=https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig00rice |location=Boulder, Colorado, US |publisher=University Press of Colorado |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig00rice/page/n25 3]–15 |isbn=978-0-87081-930-8 |oclc=225875268 }} :{{cite book |author=Rice, Prudence M. |author2=Don S. Rice |author3=Timothy W. Pugh |author4=Rómulo Sánchez Polo |year=2009 |chapter=Defensive Architecture and the Context of Warfare at Zacpetén |editor=Prudence M. Rice and Don S. Rice (eds.) |title=The Kowoj: identity, migration, and geopolitics in late postclassic Petén, Guatemala |url=https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig00rice |location=Boulder, Colorado, US |publisher=University Press of Colorado |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kowojidentitymig00rice/page/n145 123]–140 |isbn=978-0-87081-930-8 |oclc=225875268 }} :{{cite web |author=Ros, Narin |title=Maya Museum Database |url=http://www.famsi.org/research/museum_database.html |publisher=Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies |accessdate=2015-06-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708162851/http://www.famsi.org/research/museum_database.html |archivedate=2014-07-08 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20150608160339/http://research.famsi.org/museum_list.php?name=&city=&state=&country=&focus=&x=13&y=19 Full list from FAMSI]archived from [http://research.famsi.org/museum_list.php?name=&city=&state=&country=&focus=&x=13&y=19 the original] on 2015-06-08. :{{cite book |author=Rosenwig, Robert M. |year=2010 |title=The Beginnings of Mesoamerican Civilization: Inter-Regional Interaction and the Olmec |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York, US |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hMMaL4L_vMsC |isbn=978-0-521-11102-7 |oclc=402542556 }} :{{cite journal |author=Ross, Nanci J. |title=Modern tree species composition reflects ancient Maya "forest gardens" in northwest Belize |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=21 |issue=1 |date=January 2011 |pages=75–84 |publisher=Ecological Society of America |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/29779638 |jstor=29779638 |issn=1051-0761 |location=Washington, DC, US |doi=10.1890/09-0662.1 |subscription=y }} :{{cite journal |author=Salisbury, David |author2=Mimi Koumenalis |author3=Barbara Moffett |date=19 September 2002 |title=Newly revealed hieroglyphs tell story of superpower conflict in the Maya world |url=http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/print/pdfs/news/news_dospilas_feature.pdf |journal=Exploration: the online research journal of Vanderbilt University |publisher=Vanderbilt University Office of Science and Research Communications |location=Nashville, Tennessee |oclc=50324967 |accessdate=2015-05-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102134600/http://exploration.vanderbilt.edu/print/pdfs/news/news_dospilas_feature.pdf |archivedate=2015-05-20 }} :{{cite journal |author1=Saturno, William A. |author2=David Stuart |author3=Boris Beltrán |title=Early Maya Writing at San Bartolo, Guatemala |journal=Science |series=New Series |volume=311 |issue=5765 |date=2006-03-03 |pages=1281–1283 |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3845835 |jstor=3845835 |issn=1095-9203 |oclc=863047799 |doi=10.1126/science.1121745 |pmid=16400112 |subscription=y |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1281S }} :{{cite book |author=Schele, Linda |authorlink=Linda Schele |author2=Peter Mathews |year=1999 |title=The Code of Kings: The language of seven Maya temples and tombs |url=https://archive.org/details/codeofkingslangu00lind |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York, US |isbn=978-0-684-85209-6 |oclc=41423034 }} :{{cite web |author=SFU Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology |title=Featured Artifacts: Mayan Eccentric Flints |url=http://www.sfu.museum/hola/en/artifacts/featured/17/ |publisher=Simon Fraser University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology |location=Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada |accessdate=2015-03-31 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102160800/http://www.sfu.museum/hola/en/artifacts/featured/17/ |archivedate=2014-11-02 }} :{{cite book |author=Sharer, Robert J. |authorlink=Robert Sharer |year=2000 |chapter=The Maya Highlands and the Adjacent Pacific Coast |editor=Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. Macleod (eds.) |title=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, {{nowrap|Vol. II}}: Mesoamerica, {{nowrap|part 1}} |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=449–499|isbn=0-521-35165-0 |oclc=33359444}} :{{cite book |author=Sharer, Robert J. |author2=Loa P. Traxler |year=2006 |title=The Ancient Maya |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmaya0006shar |edition=6th, fully revised |location=Stanford, California, US |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=0-8047-4817-9 |oclc=57577446 }} :{{cite book |author=Stuart, David |author2=George Stuart |year=2008 |title=Palenque: Eternal City of the Maya |url=https://archive.org/details/palenqueeternalc0000stua |location=London, UK |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-05156-6 |oclc=227016561 }} :{{cite web |author=Szymanski, Jan |year=2013 |title=Between Death and Divinity. Rethinking the Significance of Triadic Groups in Ancient Maya Culture |url=https://depotuw.ceon.pl//bitstream/handle/item/358/Between%20Death%20and%20Divinity.pdf?sequence=1 |format=PDF |work=PhD Dissertation |publisher=University of Warsaw |location=Warsaw, Poland |accessdate=2014-01-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103025416/https://depotuw.ceon.pl//bitstream/handle/item/358/Between%20Death%20and%20Divinity.pdf?sequence=1 |archivedate=2014-11-03 }} :{{cite book |author=Taladoire, Eric |author2=Benoit Colsenet |year=1991 |chapter="Bois Ton Sang, Beaumanoir": The Political and Conflictual Aspects of the Ballgame in the Northern Chiapas Area |editor=Vernon Scarborough and David R. Wilcox (eds.) |others=|title=The Mesoamerican Ballgame|url=https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse |location=Tucson, Arizona, US|publisher=University of Arizona Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/161 161]–174|isbn=0-8165-1360-0 |oclc=51873028}} :{{cite book |author=Tanaka, Yuki |year=2008 |title=A Comparative Study of Maya Hieroglyphic Writing and Japanese Orthography in the Quirigua Hieroglyphic Corpus |isbn=9780549999898 |publisher=ProQuest |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan, US}} :{{cite book |author=Taube, Karl A. |year=2004 |chapter=Tetitla and the Maya Presence at Teotihuacan |title=The Maya and Teotihuacan : reinterpreting early classic interaction |url=https://archive.org/details/mayateotihuacanr0000unse |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mayateotihuacanr0000unse/page/n294 273]–314 |editor=Geoffrey E. Braswell |origyear=2003 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas, US |isbn=9780292705876 |oclc=254181446}} :{{cite book |author=Tedlock, Barbara |year=1992 |title=Time and the Highland Maya |edition=Revised |origyear=1982 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-8263-1358-4 |location=Albuquerque, New Mexico, US |oclc=45732799 |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UZnlFVVYe9sC }} :{{cite journal |author=Thompson, J. Eric S. |authorlink=J. Eric S. Thompson |title=A Maya Calendar from the Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala |journal=American Anthropologist |series=New Series |volume=34 |issue=3 |date=July–September 1932 |pages=449–454 |publisher=Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/661903 |jstor=661903 |issn=0002-7294 |oclc=1479294 |doi=10.1525/aa.1932.34.3.02a00090 |subscription=y }} :{{cite journal |author=Thompson, J. Eric S. |year=1966 |title=The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |issue=1966 |pages=23–37 |publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland |location=London, UK |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3031712 |jstor=3031712 |accessdate=2013-12-04 |doi=10.2307/3031712 |subscription=y }} :{{cite book |author=Thompson, J. Eric S. |title=Maya History and Religion |url=https://archive.org/details/mayahistoryrelig0000thom |origyear=1970 |year=1990 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |location=Norman, Oklahoma |isbn=0-8061-2247-1 |oclc=715926981}} :{{cite journal |author=Thompson, J. Eric S. |title=Maya Astronomy |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |series=Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences |volume=276 |issue=1257, The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World |date=2 May 1974 |pages=83–98 |publisher=The Royal Society |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/74276 |jstor=74276 |issn=0261-0523 |location=London, UK |doi=10.1098/rsta.1974.0011 |subscription=y |bibcode=1974RSPTA.276...83T }} :{{cite journal |author=Tiesler, Vera |author2=Andrea Cucina |date=December 2006 |title=Procedures in Human Heart Extraction and Ritual Meaning: A Taphonomic Assessment of Anthropogenic Marks in Classic Maya Skeletons |journal=Latin American Antiquity |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=493–510 |publisher=Society for American Archaeology |issn=2325-5080 |jstor=25063069 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25063069 |location=Washington, D.C., US |doi=10.2307/25063069 |subscription=y }} :{{cite web |author=Tobin, Thomas J. |title=The Construction of the Codex in Classic- and Postclassic-Period Maya Civilization |url=http://www.mathcs.duq.edu/~tobin/maya/ |date=2001 |publisher=Duquesne University |location=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US |accessdate=2015-03-09 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021017172935/http://www.mathcs.duq.edu/~tobin/maya/ |archivedate=2002-10-17 }} :{{cite journal |author=Valdés, Juan Antonio |year=1994 |title=El Grupo A de Uaxactun: Manifestaciones arquitectónicas y dinásticas durante el Clásico Temprano. |trans_title=Uaxactun Group A: Architectural Manifestations and Dynasties during the Early Classic |journal=I Simposio de Investigaciones Arqueológicas en Guatemala, 1987 (edited by J.P. Laporte, H. Escobedo and S. Villagrán) |pages=98–111 |publisher=Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología |location=Guatemala |url=http://www.asociaciontikal.com/pdf/16.87%20-%20Juan%20Antonio%20Valdes%20-%20en%20PDF.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103025416/https://depotuw.ceon.pl//bitstream/handle/item/358/Between%20Death%20and%20Divinity.pdf?sequence=1 |archivedate=2014-11-03 |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-07-21 |language=es |oclc=31177419 }} :{{cite journal|author=Van Stone, Mark|journal=Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union|title=It’s not the End of the World: emic evidence for local diversity in the Maya Long Count|year=2011|issue=278|doi=10.1017/S1743921311012610}} :{{cite book |author=Viqueira, Juan Pedro |year=2004 |origyear=1995 |chapter=Chiapas y sus regiones |trans_chapter=Chiapas and its Regions |editors=Juan Pedro Viqueira and Mario Humberto Ruz (eds.) |title=Chiapas: los rumbos de otra historia |trans_title=Chiapas: The courses of a different history |location=Mexico City, Mexico |publisher=Centro de Investigaciones Filológicas with Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social (CIESAS) |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RhAI3Js9zWcC&pg=PA19 |pages=19–40 |isbn=968-36-4836-3 |oclc=36759921 |language=es }} :{{cite web |author=WAYEB |publisher=European Association of Mayanists (WAYEB) |title=Museums & Collections |url=http://www.wayeb.org/resourceslinks/collections.php |accessdate=2015-06-08 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511132259/http://www.wayeb.org/resourceslinks/collections.php |archivedate=2015-05-11 }} :{{cite journal |author=Webster, David |title=The Not So Peaceful Civilization: A Review of Maya War |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |volume=14 |issue=1 |date=March 2000 |pages=65–119 |publisher=Springer |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/25801154 |issn=1573-7802 |jstor=25801154 |doi=10.1023/a:1007813518630 |subscription=y }} :{{cite book |author1=Webster, David |author2=William L. Fash, Jr. |author3=Claude F. Baudez |author4=Berthold Riese |author5=William T. Sanders |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/41263469.pdf |jstor=41263469 |title=The House of the Bacabs, Copan, Honduras |journal=Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology |issue=29 |date=1989 |pages=i–iv, 1–111, 113–116 |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University |isbn=9780884021773 |oclc=18557303 |subscription=y }} :{{cite web |author=Williams, Josh |year=2010 |title=Mississippian and Maya Eccentric Flints |url=http://art.missouristate.edu/arthist/exhibit1.php?E=2&P=49 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141102170643/http://apps.missouristate.edu/art/arthist/exhibit1.php?E=2&P=49 |archivedate=2014-11-02 |publisher=Board of Governors, Missouri State University |location=Springfield, Missouri |accessdate=2012-12-29 }} :{{cite book |author=Wise, Terence |author2=McBride, Angus |title=The Conquistadores |series=Men-at-Arms |volume=101 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-0-85045-357-7 |oclc=12782941 |location=Oxford, UK and New York, US |origyear=1980 |year=2008}} :{{cite book |author1=Witschey, Walter R. T. |author2=Clifford T. Brown |title=Historical Dictionary of Mesoamerica |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=59jPo4mhrOcC |year=2012 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |location=Plymouth, Devon, UK |isbn=978-0-8108-7167-0 |oclc=754105610 }} :{{cite journal |author=Zorich, Zach |title=The Maya Sense of Time |journal=Archaeology |volume=65 |issue=6 |date=November–December 2012 |pages=25–29 |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41804605 |jstor=41804605 |location=New York, US |issn=0003-8113 |oclc=1481828 |subscription=y }} {{Refend}}<!-- END biblio format style --> ==Marejeo mengine== {{Refbegin|30em}} *{{cite book |last=Braswell |first=Geoffrey E. |title=The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction |url=https://archive.org/details/mayateotihuacanr0000unse |year=2003 |edition= |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas |isbn=0-292-70914-5 |oclc=49936017}} *{{cite book |last=Braswell |first=Geoffrey E. |title=The Maya and their Central American Neighbors: Settlement patterns, architecture, hieroglyphic texts, and ceramics |year=2014 |edition= |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxford, UK and New York, US |isbn=978-0-415-74487-4 |oclc=857897947}} *{{cite book |last=Christie |first=Jessica Joyce |title=Maya Palaces and Elite Residences: An Interdisciplinary Approach |url=https://archive.org/details/mayapalaceselite0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas |isbn=0-292-71244-8 |oclc=50630511}} *{{cite book |last=Demarest |first=Arthur Andrew, Prudence M. Rice, and Don Stephen Rice |title=The Terminal Classic in the Maya Lowlands: Collapse, Transition, and Transformation |url=https://archive.org/details/terminalclassici00arth |year=2004 |publisher=University Press of Colorado |location=Boulder, Colorado |isbn=0-87081-739-6 |oclc=52311867}} *{{cite book |last=Fitzsimmons |first=James L. |title=Death and the Classic Maya Kings |year=2009 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas, US |isbn=978-0-292-71890-6 |oclc=699216836}} *{{cite book |last=Garber |first=James |title=The Ancient Maya of the Belize Valley: Half a Century of Archaeological Research |year=2004 |publisher=University Press of Florida |location=Gainesville, Florida |isbn=0-8130-2685-7 |oclc=52334723}} *{{cite book |last=Herring |first=Adam |title=Art and Writing in the Maya cities, AD 600–800: A Poetics of Line |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, England; New York |isbn=0-521-84246-8 |oclc=56834579}} *{{cite book |last=Lohse |first=Jon C. and Fred Valdez |title=Ancient Maya Commoners |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmayacommo0000unse |year=2004 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas |isbn=0-292-70571-9 |oclc=54529926}} *{{cite book |last=Lucero |first=Lisa Joyce |title=Water and Ritual: The Rise and Fall of Classic Maya Rulers |url=https://archive.org/details/waterritualrisef00luce |year=2006 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas |isbn=0-292-70999-4 |oclc=61731425}} *{{cite book |last=McKillop |first=Heather Irene |title=In Search of Maya Sea Traders |year=2005 |publisher=Texas A & M University Press |location=College Station, Texas |isbn=1-58544-389-1 |oclc=55145823}} *{{cite book |last=McKillop |first=Heather Irene |title=Salt: White Gold of the Ancient Maya |url=https://archive.org/details/saltwhitegoldofa0000mcki |year=2002 |publisher=University Press of Florida |location=Gainesville, Florida |isbn=0-8130-2511-7 |oclc=48893025}} *{{cite book |last=Rice |first=Prudence M. |title=Maya Political Science: Time, Astronomy, and the Cosmos |url=https://archive.org/details/mayapoliticalsci0000rice |year=2004 |edition=1st |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin, Texas |isbn=0-292-70261-2 |oclc=54753496}} *{{cite book |last=Tiesler |first=Vera and Andrea Cucina |title= Janaab' Pakal of Palenque: Reconstructing the Life and Death of a Maya Ruler |year=2006 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |location=Tucson, Arizona |isbn=0-8165-2510-2 |oclc=62593473}} *{{cite book |author=Webster, David L. |year=2002 |title=The Fall of the Ancient Maya |url=https://archive.org/details/fallofancientmay0000webs |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-05113-5}} {{Refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Maya}} *[http://www.famsi.org/ Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc (FAMSI)] *[http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/539-primary-sources-of-maya-history-part-one Primary sources of Maya history – part one by Ronald A. Barnett] *[http://www.mesoweb.com/ Mesoweb] by Joel Skidmore. *[http://www.mayamap.org/ Maya Map] – A map of the Maya civilization. [[Category:Ustaarabu]] [[Category:Historia ya Mexiko]] [[Category:Historia ya Guatemala]] [[Category:Historia ya Belize]] [[Category:Historia ya El Salvador]] 69xs8jdi4rm66zkpnbnf3wwypasdo0y 0 84713 1580218 1441538 2026-07-18T01:25:49Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580218 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Andaman.jpg|thumb|Visiwa vya Andaman kutoka [[Anga|angani]].]] '''Visiwa vya Andaman''' ni [[funguvisiwa]] la [[Bahari ya Hindi]]. Kiutawala, sehemu kubwa iko chini ya [[India|Jamhuri ya India]] na sehemu ndogo chini ya [[Myanmar]]. [[File:Andamanese comparative distribution.png|thumb|Eneo la wenyeji wa Andaman, lilivyokuwa kabla ya [[karne ya 18]] na lilivyo leo.]] Wakazi wake walibaki [[karne]] nyingi bila [[mawasiliano]] na [[watu]] wengine; hivyo wenyeji wana sifa za pekee upande wa [[jenetikia]], ingawa siku hizi wakazi wengi ni [[walowezi]] na [[wahamiaji]] hasa kutoka India bara. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== *India Home Department. The Andaman Islands: with notes on Barren Island. C.B. Lewis, Baptist Mission Press, 1859 [https://books.google.com/books?id=E0xFAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Andaman+islands&hl=en&ei=EL9UTbuYE8KblgfPppWjBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false read online or download] ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Andaman Islands}} *[http://www.andamantravelagent.com/about-andaman History & Culture. The Andaman Islands with destination quide] * [https://andamanholidaytravels.com Andaman Holiday Travels] * [http://www.andamanandnicobarislandsonline.com Andaman Islands] {{Wayback|url=http://www.andamanandnicobarislandsonline.com/ |date=20190706183839 }} * [http://www.trip2andaman.com Andaman Tourism Site] {{Wayback|url=http://www.trip2andaman.com/ |date=20160828233105 }} * [http://www.mountainedge.in/places-to-visit.php Beaches & Historical Monuments in Andaman] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mountainedge.in/places-to-visit.php |date=20160405023654 }} * [http://www.and.nic.in/ Official Andaman and Nicobar Tourism Website] * [https://www.andamantourism.gov.in/ Andaman District] (official site) * [http://www.trip2andaman.com/ Andaman Islands Tourism] {{Wayback|url=http://www.trip2andaman.com/ |date=20160828233105 }} * [http://www.go2andaman.com/ Andaman & Nicobar Islands: Tourism Portal] * [http://www.mountainedge.in/ Andaman & Nicobar Islands: Destination Guide] * [http://www.andamanpadminitravels.com/ Andaman & Nicobar Islands: Tourism Guide] {{Wayback|url=http://www.andamanpadminitravels.com/ |date=20160820014106 }} * [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0Bx2JmLY7XYYBbV9USktrTGJpbm8&hl=en_GB Andaman Islands-A Travelogue] * [http://www.andamanexcursion.com Andaman Excursion] * [https://www.experienceandamans.com/ Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Travel Information and Latest Updates] {{Wayback|url=https://trip.experienceandamans.com/ |date=20151127063545 }} * [https://www.paradiseandaman.com Paradise Andaman] * [https://andamanholidays.com/blog/ Andaman Destination Guide] {{Wayback|url=https://andamanholidays.com/blog/ |date=20171023130932 }} {{mbegu-jio-Asia}} [[Jamii:Visiwa vya Bahari ya Hindi]] [[Jamii:Visiwa vya India]] [[Jamii:Visiwa vya Myanmar]] lgxa8wyt8b2wymhi1wt3jka9xttdfbr 0 85492 1580112 1537604 2026-07-18T00:13:49Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580112 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Boethius initial consolation philosophy.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Boesyo akifundisha<br />([[mchoro mdogo]] wa mwaka [[1385]] katika nakala ya ''Consolation of Philosophy''.)]] [[Image:Boethius.consolation.philosophy.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Bibi Falsafa na Boesyo kutoka ''Consolatio'', ([[Ghent]], [[1485]]).]] '''Severini Boesyo''' ([[jina]] kamili kwa [[Kilatini]]: '''Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius'''<ref>The name Anicius demonstrated his connection with a noble family of the Lower Empire, while ''Manlius'' claims lineage from the [[Manlia (gens)|Manlii Torquati]] of the Republic. The name Severinus was given to him in honour of [[Severino wa Noriko|Severinus of Noricum]].</ref><ref name="v">Hodgkin, Thomas. ''Italy and Her Invaders''. London: Adamant Media Corporation, 2001.</ref><ref>"Boethius" has four syllables in English, the ''o'' and ''e'' are pronounced separately. It is hence traditionally written with a diæresis, viz. "Boëthius", a spelling which has been disappearing due to the limitations of typewriters.</ref> [[Roma]], [[480]] – [[Pavia]], [[524]] [[BK]]), alikuwa [[seneta]] wa [[Bunge la Roma]], [[gavana]], ''[[magister officiorum]]'', na [[mwanafalsafa]] wa mwanzo wa [[karne ya 6]]. Maarufu kwa [[elimu]] na kwa [[maandishi]] yake, alimtumikia [[Mungu]] kwa [[uaminifu]] hadi [[Mfiadini|kifodini]] chake <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/90400</ref>. ==Maisha== Aliishi na kufanya kazi chini ya [[utawala]] wa [[Waostrogoti]] walioteka [[Italia]] na kumaliza [[Dola la Roma]] miaka 4 kabla hajazaliwa. Hatimaye [[mfalme]] [[Theodoriki Mkuu]] aliagiza auawe mwaka 524 kwa [[tuhuma]] ya kufanya [[njama]] ya kumuua.<ref name="mu">The Online Library of Liberty, Boethius. Internet. Available from http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.phpoption=com_content&task=view&id=215&Itemid=269; accessed November 3, 2009.</ref> Akiwa gerezani, Boesyo aliandika [[kitabu]] chake bora, ''[[De Consolatione Philosophiae]]'' ("Faraja ya Falsafa"), ambacho ni kati ya vile vilivyoathiri zaidi [[Karne za Kati]]<ref>Benedictine Monks of St. Augustine's Abbey, ''The Book of Saints'', 6th ed., 1989, p. 507</ref>. ==Heshima baada ya kifo== [[Image:0372 - Pavia - S. Pietro - Cripta - Tomba Boezio - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, Oct 17 2009.jpg|thumb|[[Kaburi]] la Boesyo ndani ya [[kanisa]] la [[San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro]], [[Pavia]].]] Tangu mwaka [[1883]] [[Kanisa Katoliki]] linamheshimu Boesyo kama [[mtakatifu]] [[mfiadini]].<ref>He was declared a saint by the Sacred Congregation of Rites in 1883</ref> [[Papa Benedikto XVI]] alifafanua umuhimu wa Boesyo kwa Wakristo wa leo kwa kuhusianisha mafundisho yake na uelewa wa [[Maongozi ya Mungu]]. <ref>http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2008/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20080312_en.html General Audience of Pope Benedict XVI, 12 March 2008</ref> [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa tarehe [[23 Oktoba]].<ref>[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/cult-martyrum/martiri/009.html#ottobre Roman Martyrology]</ref> ==Maandishi== {{div col}} ; Hisabati * ''De arithmetica'' (On Arithmetic, c. 500) adapted translation of the ''Introductionis Arithmeticae'' by [[Nicomachus|Nicomachus of Gerasa]] (c. 160 – c. 220). * ''De musica'' (On Music, c. 510), based on a lost work by Nicomachus of Gerasa and on [[Ptolemy]]’s ''Harmonica''. * Possibly a treatise on geometry, extant only in fragments.<ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Menso|editor-last=Folkerts|title=Boethius’ Geometrie II. Ein mathematisches Lehrbuch des Mittelalters|place=Wiesbaden|publisher=Franz Steiner|date=1970}}</ref> ; Mantiki ; A) Tafsiri * ''[[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]]’s ''[[Isagoge]]'' * ''In Categorias Aristotelis'': [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]'' * ''De interpretatione vel periermenias'': Aristotle's [[De Interpretatione]]'' * ''Interpretatio priorum Analyticorum'' (two versions): Aristotle's ''[[Prior Analytics]]'' * ''Interpretatio Topicorum Aristotelis'': Aristotle's ''[[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]]'' * ''Interpretatio Elenchorum Sophisticorum Aristotelis'': Aristotle's ''[[Sophistical Refutations]]'' ; B) Ufafanuzi * ''In Isagogen Porphyrii commenta'' (two commentaries, the first based on a translation by Marius Victorinus, (c. 504-5059); the second based on Boethius’ own translation (507-509). * ''In Categorias Aristotelis'' (c. 509-511) * ''In librum Aristotelis de interpretatione Commentaria minora'' (not before 513) * ''In librum Aristotelis de interpretatione Commentaria majora'' (c. 515–16) * ''In Aristotelis Analytica Priora'' (c. 520–23) * ''Commentaria in Topica Ciceronis'' (incomplete: the end the sixth book and the seventh are missing) ; Vitabu vya pekee * ''De divisione'' (515–520?) * ''De syllogismo cathegorico'' (505–506) * ''Introductio ad syllogismos cathegoricos'' (c. 523) * ''De hypotheticis syllogismis'' (516-522) * ''De topicis differentiis'' (c. 522–23) * ''Opuscola Sacra'' (Theological Treatises) ** ''De Trinitate'' (c. 520–21) ** ''Utrum Pater et Filius et Spiritus Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter praedicentur'' (Whether Father and Son and Holy Spirit are Substantially Predicated of the Divinity) ** ''Quomodo substantiae in eo quod sint bonae sint cum non sint substantialia bona'' [also known as ''De hebdomadibus''] (How Substances are Good in that they Exist, when They are not Substantially Good) ** ''De fide Catholica'' ** ''Contra Eutychen et Nestorium'' (Against Eutyches and Nestorius) * ''De consolatione Philosophiae'' (524–525). {{div col end}} ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|30em|refs=}} ==Marejeo== [[File:Inter latinos aristotelis interpretes et aetate primi, et doctrina praecipui dialectica.tif|thumb|''Dialectica'', 1547]] *{{cite book |last=Attwater |first=Donald |author2=Catherine Rachel John |year=1995 |title=The Penguin Dictionary of Saints |url=https://archive.org/details/penguindictionar03edattw |isbn=0-14-051312-4 |location=London |oclc=34361179 |publisher=Penguin Books}} *{{cite book | last = Baird | first = Forrest E. | authorlink = |author2=Walter Kaufmann | title = From Plato to Derrida | publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall | year = 2008 | location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey | pages = | url =https://archive.org/details/philosophicclass0005unse| doi = | id = | isbn = 0-13-158591-6 }} *{{cite book |last=Chadwick |first=Henry |year=1981 |title=Boethius, the Consolations of Music, Logic, Theology, and Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/boethiusconsolat0000chad |isbn=0-19-826549-2 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |oclc=8533668}} *{{cite book |last=Colish |first=Marcia L. |year=2002 |title=Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400-1400 |isbn=0-300-07852-8 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |oclc=185694056}} *{{cite book |last=Magee |first=John |year=1989 |title=Boethius on Signification and Mind |isbn=9-0040-9096-7 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden}} *{{cite book |last=Marenbon |first=John |year=2004 |title=Boethius |isbn=0-19-513407-9 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |oclc=186379876}} *{{cite book |last=Marenbon |first=John |year=2009 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Boethius |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_e7f3 |isbn=0-52-187266-9 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge}} *{{cite book |last=Suto |first=Taki |year=2011 |title=Boethius on Mind, Grammar and Logic. A Study of Boethius' Commentaries on Peri Hermeneias |isbn=978-9004214187 |publisher=Brill |location=Cambridge}} *{{cite book |last=Westfall |first=Joseph |editor-first=Jon |editor-last=Stewart |title=Kierkegaard and the Patristic and Medieval Traditions |publisher=Ashgate |year=2008 |pages=207–222 |chapter=Boethius: Kierkegaard and ''The Consolation'' |isbn=9780754663911}} == Marejeo mengine == * Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (1926), trans., [[H. F. Stewart]], E. K. Rand, and "I. T.". ''The Theological Tractates and The Consolation of Philosophy''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, Loeb Classical Library, parallel text. * Papahagi, Adrian (2010). [http://www.zetabooks.com/new-releases/adrian-papahagi-boethiana-mediaevalia.html ''Boethiana Mediaevalia – A Collection of Studies on the Early Medieval Fortune of Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy''] {{Wayback|url=http://www.zetabooks.com/new-releases/adrian-papahagi-boethiana-mediaevalia.html |date=20110709192731 }}. Bucharest: Zeta Books. ISBN 978-973-199-779-7. ==Viungo vya nje== ===Maandishi=== {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category|Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus Boethius}} {{wikisourcelang|la|Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus Boethius|Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus Boethius}} * {{Gutenberg author |id=Boethius | name=Boethius}} * {en} [http://pvspade.com/Logic/docs/BoethiusDeTrin.pdf ''De Trinitate'' (On the Holy Trinity)] — Boethius, Erik Kenyon (trans.) * {en} [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/boethius/tracts.toc.html ''Theological Tractates'']; Christian Classics Ethereal Library * [http://laurentius.lub.lu.se/volumes/Mh_1/ A 10th-century manuscript of ''Institutio Arithmetica'' is available online from Lund University, Sweden] {{Wayback|url=http://laurentius.lub.lu.se/volumes/Mh_1/ |date=20020905034243 }} * [http://historical.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/cul.math/docviewer?did=cdl274&seq=3 The Geoffrey Freudlin 1885 edition of the Arithmetica, from the Cornell Library Historical Mathematics Monographs] * [http://hos.ou.edu/galleries/02LateAncient/Boethius/ Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries] {{Wayback|url=http://hos.ou.edu/galleries/02LateAncient/Boethius/ |date=20201113103207 }} High resolution images of works by Boethius in .jpg and .tiff format. * [http://warburg.sas.ac.uk/publications/surveys-and-texts/codices-boethiani/ Codices Boethiani: A Conspectus of Manuscripts of the Work of Boethius] {{Wayback|url=http://warburg.sas.ac.uk/publications/surveys-and-texts/codices-boethiani/ |date=20160329193807 }} * H. R. James (translator) [1897], The Consolation of Philosophy of Boethius, eBooks @ Adelaide, The [[University of Adelaide]], https://web.archive.org/web/20070427131932/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/b/boethius/ *{{cite book |last=Boethius |first=Anicius Manlius Severinus |editor=Gottfried Friedlein |title=Anicii Manlii Torquati Severini Boetii De institutione arithmetica libri duo: De institutione musica libri quinque. Accedit geometria quae fertur Boetii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwS0VRBsJLgC |accessdate=2008-08-03 |year=1867 |publisher=in aedibus B.G. Teubneri |pages=1–173 |chapter=De institutione arithmetica libri duo |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwS0VRBsJLgC&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA1,M1 |language=Latin}} *{{cite book |last=Boethius |first=Anicius Manlius Severinus |editor=Gottfried Friedlein |title=Anicii Manlii Torquati Severini Boetii De institutione arithmetica libri duo: De institutione musica libri quinque. Accedit geometria quae fertur Boetii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwS0VRBsJLgC |accessdate=2015-10-08 |year=1867 |publisher=in aedibus B.G. Teubneri |pages=177–371 |chapter=De institutione musica libri quinque |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwS0VRBsJLgC&pg=PA177 |language=Latin}} ===Maisha na umuhimu=== * [http://saints.sqpn.com/saints0g.htm Blessed Severinus Boethius] {{Wayback|url=http://saints.sqpn.com/saints0g.htm |date=20080420181214 }} at Patron Saints Index * [[Stephen J. Blackwood|Blackwood, Stephen.]][https://etd.library.emory.edu/view/record/pid/emory:7r5f2 ''The Meters of Boethius: Rhythmic Therapy in the Consolation of Philosophy.''] {{Wayback|url=https://etd.library.emory.edu/view/record/pid/emory:7r5f2 |date=20100803040230 }} * {{cite book | last = Blackwood | first = Stephen | authorlink = Stephen J. Blackwood | title = The ''Consolation'' of Boethius as Poetic Liturgy | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | series = [http://global.oup.com/academic/content/series/o/oxford-early-christian-studies-oecs/?cc=us&lang=en Oxford Early Christian Studies] | volume = | edition = | date = 2015 | location = | pages = 398 | language = | url = http://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-consolation-of-boethius-as-poetic-liturgy-9780198718314;jsessionid=F14EC59F0332F5B936CF7F76BF2F96B4?cc=us&lang=en& | doi = | id = | isbn = 9780198718314 | mr = | zbl = | jfm = }} * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Boethius}} * Phillips, Philip Edward. [http://boethius.blogspot.com/p/bibliography.html Boethius: A Selected Bibliography for Students] * [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/AuthorBioPage.php?recordID=0054 Boethius] {{Wayback|url=http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/AuthorBioPage.php?recordID=0054 |date=20070416104741 }} at ''The Online Library of Liberty'' * [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2008/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20080312_en.html On Boethius and Cassiodorus] — [[Papa Benedikto XVI]] ===Mantiki na falsafa yake=== * [http://www.ontology.co/biblio/boethius-editions.htm The Philosophical Works of Boethius. Editions and Translations] * [http://www.historyoflogic.com/biblio/boethius-logic-biblio.htm Boethius' Logic and Metaphysics. An Annotated Bibliography] {{mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 480]] [[Category:Waliofariki 524]] [[Category:Watu wa Roma ya Kale]] [[Category:Wanafalsafa wa Italia]] [[Category:Wanahisabati wa Italia]] [[Category:Waandishi wa Kilatini]] [[Category:Wafiadini Wakristo]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Italia]] fiwxgxhpiqcsq2h15i82hm9q0nn5mf7 0 85523 1580247 1532851 2026-07-18T01:47:39Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580247 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Saint Tabitha.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Picha takatifu]] ya Mt. Tabita.]] '''Tabita wa Yopa''' (kwa [[Kiaramu]] טביתא, ''Ṭabītā'', pia '''Dorkas''', kwa [[Kigiriki]] Δορκάς, ''Dorkás''<ref>The name ''Dorcas'' is a Greek translation of the Aramaic name ''Tabitha'', meaning "[[gazelle]]".</ref><ref name=Lockyer>{{cite book|last=Lockyer|first=Herbert|title=All the women of the Bible|year=1967|publisher=Zondervan|location=Grand Rapids|isbn=0310281512|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0YrW3bxxGAsC&pg=PA46 |pages=46–48}}</ref><ref>One species of gazelle is now known as the [[Dorcas Gazelle|dorcas gazelle]].{{cite book|last=Hildyard |first= Anne [ed.] |title=Endangered wildlife and plants of the world|year=2001|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|location=New York [u.a.]|isbn=0761471944|page=606}}</ref>) alikuwa [[mwanamke]] [[Mkristo]] aliyeishi [[Jaffa|Joppa]] katika [[karne ya 1]] [[BK]]. Habari zake zinapatikana katika [[kitabu]] cha [[Agano Jipya]] kinachoitwa [[Matendo ya Mitume]] (9:36–42) .<ref name=Syswerda>{{cite book|last=Syswerda|first=Jean E.|title=Women of the Bible : 52 Bible studies for individuals and groups|url=https://archive.org/details/womenofbible00jean|year=2002|publisher=Zondervan|location=Grand Rapids, Mich.|isbn=0310244927|page=[https://archive.org/details/womenofbible00jean/page/214 214]}}</ref> Humo tunasoma kwamba alikuwa anafuma au kushona [[nguo]] kwa faida ya [[fukara|mafukara]], na hiyo inadokeza kwamba alikuwa na hali nzuri kiuchumi.<ref name=Syswerda /> <ref>The Greek construct used in this passage indicates that the widows were the recipients of her charity,</ref><ref name="Bock">{{cite book|last=Bock|first=Darrell L. |title=Acts (Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament) |year=2007|publisher=Baker Books |isbn=1441200266|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=smkvXcfFBBwC&pg=PA378|page=378}}</ref>.<ref name="Gangel">{{cite book|last=Gangel|first=Kenneth O. |title=Holman New Testament Commentary - Acts |year=1998|publisher=B&H Publishing Group |isbn=0805402055 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s_rs-CRacHYC&pg=PA146 |page=146}}</ref><ref name="Witherington">{{cite book|last=Witherington |first=Ben |title=The Acts of the Apostles: A Socio-rhetorical Commentary |year=1998|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=0802845010 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2P7zSnM9BjMC&pg=PA331 |pages=331–332}}</ref> Alipokufa, wafuasi wenzake wa [[Yesu]] walikwenda kumuita [[Mtume Petro]] katika [[mji]] jirani, [[Lod|Lydda]], naye alipofika alimfufua.<ref name="Witherington"/> [[File:Raising of Tabitha.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Sehemu ya ''Uponyaji wa kiwete na Ufufuko wa Tabita'', [[mchoro]] wa [[Masolino da Panicale]], [[1425]].]] Anaheshimiwa na [[madhehebu]] mbalimbali ya [[Ukristo]] kama [[mtakatifu]] katika [[tarehe]] tofauti: [[27 Januari]]<ref name="Pfatteicher">{{cite book|last=Pfatteicher|first=Philip H.|title=The new book of festivals and commemorations : a proposed common calendar of saints|url=https://archive.org/details/newbookoffestiva0000pfat|year=2008|publisher=Fortress Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=9780800621285|page=[https://archive.org/details/newbookoffestiva0000pfat/page/683 683]}}</ref>, na hasa [[25 Oktoba]]<ref name="Pfatteicher"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Kinnaman|first=Scot A.|title=Lutheranism 101|url=https://archive.org/details/lutheranism1010000unse|year=2010|publisher=Concordia Publishing House|location=St. Louis|isbn=9780758625052|page=[https://archive.org/details/lutheranism1010000unse/page/278 278]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Sheehan|first=Thomas W.|title=Dictionary of Patron Saints' Names |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofpatr0000shee|year=2001|publisher=Our Sunday Visitor Publishing |isbn=0879735392|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofpatr0000shee/page/268 268]}}</ref><ref name="Pfatteicher"/><ref>https://catholicsaints.info/saint-tabitha/</ref> [[File:Dorcas Window Mytholmroyd.jpg|thumb|right|Kioo cha rangi, [[Mytholmroyd]], [[West Yorkshire]].]] ==Tazama pia== *[[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Raising of Tabitha|Tabitha}} {{mbegu-mtu-Biblia}} [[Category:Waliofariki karne ya 1]] [[Category:Watu wa Biblia]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Israeli]] bbf7kj5ot6zfezp8rjm43oybyqhwfzg 0 85807 1580152 1545319 2026-07-18T00:38:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580152 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:PSM V72 D574 Lewis Henry Morgan.png|thumb|Lewis Henry Morgan]] [[Picha:Bronisław Malinowski among Trobriand tribe 3.jpg|thumb|Bronisław Malinowski]] [[Picha:Margaret Mead (1972).jpg|thumb|Margaret Mead]] [[Picha:Edward Sapir.jpg|thumb|Edward Sapir ]] [[Picha:Claude Lévi-Strauss KNAW.jpg|thumb|Claude Lévi-Strauss ]] '''Anthropolojia''' ni [[fani]] ya [[elimu]] inayochunguza pande zote [[binadamu]] kuanzia wale wa kale<ref name=oed>{{cite web | title=anthropology | url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/anthropology?q=anthropology | work=Oxford Dictionaries | publisher=Oxford University Press | accessdate=10 August 2013 | archivedate=2016-07-09 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160709182856/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/anthropology?q=anthropology }}</ref><ref name=eb>{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/27505/anthropology | title=anthropology | work=Encyclopedia Britannica | accessdate=23 March 2015}}</ref><ref name=aaa>{{cite web | title=What is Anthropology? | url=http://www.aaanet.org/about/whatisanthropology.cfm | publisher=[[American Anthropological Association]] | accessdate=10 August 2013 | archive-date=2015-10-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015065744/http://www.aaanet.org/about/WhatisAnthropology.cfm | url-status=dead }}</ref>. Matawi yake mbalimbali yanachunguza maisha ya jamii, utamaduni pamoja na taratibu na tunu, athari ya lugha, mabadiliko ya kimwili n.k.<ref name=oed/><ref name=eb/><ref name=aaa/> Kwa vyovyote, anthropolojia inahitaji ushirikiano wa [[sayansi]] mbalimbali, ikiwemo [[teolojia]]. [[Akiolojia]] inaweza kutazamwa kama sehemu ya anthropolojia (k.mf. [[Marekani]]<ref>{{citation| title=Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge |first1=William A. |last= Haviland |first2= Harald E. L. |last2= Prins |first3=Bunny |last3=McBride |first4=Dana |last4=Walrath |publisher=Cengage Learning |year= 2010 |edition=13th |isbn=0-495-81082-7}}</ref> ) au ya [[historia]], lakini pia kama fani ya pekee (k.mf. [[Ulaya]]). ==Jina== [[Jina]] linatokana na [[neno]] la [[Kiingereza]] ''anthropology'' lililotumika mara ya kwanza kwa [[Kilatini]] mwaka [[1593]] kuhusiana na historia.<ref name=oed2/>[<ref>[Richard Harvey (astrologer)|Richard Harvey]]'s 1593 ''Philadelphus'', a defense of the legend of [[Brutus of Britain|Brutus]] in [[History of Britain|British history]], includes the passage "Genealogy or issue which they had, Artes which they studied, Actes which they did. This part of History is named Anthropology." Its present use first appeared in [[German Renaissance|Renaissance]] [[Holy Roman Empire|Germany]] in the works of [[Magnus Hundt]] and [[Otto Casmann]].</ref><ref name="Medicine">{{cite book|author=Israel Institute of the History of Medicine|title=Koroth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lev_H1Ie0zcC&pg=PA19|publisher=BRILL|page=19|id=GGKEY:34XGYHLZ7XY}}</ref> Asili yake ni maneno mawili ya [[Kigiriki]], ἄνθρωπος, ''ánthrōpos'' "[[mtu]]") na λόγος, ''lógos'', "neno, somo, elimu").<ref name=oed2>''Oxford English Dictionary'', 1st&nbsp;ed. "anthropology, ''n.''" Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1885.</ref> ==Tazama pia== *[[Anthropolojia ya Kimarekani]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist|20em}} ==Marejeo== ===Kamusi elezo=== {{refbegin|20em}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last=Barnard | editor1-first=Alan | editor2-last=Spencer | editor2-first=Jonathan | year=2010 | encyclopedia=The Routledge Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology | location=London | publisher=Routledge}} * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Barfield | first=Thomas | year=1997 | encyclopedia=The dictionary of anthropology | location=Hoboken | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell Publishing}}. * {{cite encyclopedia | last=Jackson | first=John L.| year=2013 | encyclopedia=Oxford Bibliographies: Anthropology | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite encyclopedia | editor1-last=Levinson | editor1-first=David | editor2-first=Melvin | editor2-last=Ember |year=1996 | encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology | volume=Volumes 1–4 | location=New York | publisher=Henry Holt}} * {{cite book | last1=Rapport | first1=Nigel | last2=Overing | first2=Joanna | year=2007 | title=Social and Cultural Anthropology: The Key Concepts| url=https://archive.org/details/socialculturalan0002edrapp | location=New York | publisher=Routledge}} {{refend}} ===Kumbukumbu=== {{refbegin|20em}} * {{cite book | last=Barley | first=Nigel | year=1983 | title=The innocent anthropologist: notes from a mud hut | location=London | publisher=British Museum Publications}} * {{cite book | last=Geertz | first=Clifford | year=1995 | title=After the fact: two countries, four decades, one anthropologist | url=https://archive.org/details/afterfacttwocoun00geer | location=Cambridge, MA | publisher=Harvard University Press}} * {{cite book| last=Lévi-Strauss | first=Claude | year=1967 | title=Tristes tropiques | others=Translated from the French by John Russell | location=New York | publisher=Atheneum}} * {{cite book | last=Malinowski | first=Bronisław | year=1967 | title=A diary in the strict sense of the term | url=https://archive.org/details/diaryinstrictsen0000mali | others=Translated by Norbert Guterman | location=New York | publisher=Harcourt, Brace & World}} * {{cite book | last=Mead | first=Margaret | year=1972 | title=Blackberry winter: my earlier years | url=https://archive.org/details/blackberrywinter00meadrich | location=New York | publisher=William Marrow}} * {{cite book | authormask=2 | last=Mead | first=Margaret | year=1977 | title=Letters from the field, 1925–1975 | url=https://archive.org/details/lettersfromfield00mead | location=New York | publisher=Harper & Row}} * {{cite book | last=Rabinow | first=Paul | year=1977 | title=Reflections on fieldwork in Morocco | url=https://archive.org/details/reflectionsonfie0000rabi | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press | series=Quantum Books}} {{refend}} ===Historia=== {{refbegin|20em}} * {{cite book | editor-last=Asad | editor-first=Talal | year=1973 | title=Anthropology & the Colonial Encounter | location=Atlantic Highlands, NJ | publisher=Humanities Press}} * {{cite book | last1=Barth | first1=Fredrik | first2=Andre | last2=Gingrich | first3=Robert | last3=Parkin | title=One Discipline, Four Ways: British, German, French, and American anthropology | year=2005 | location=Chicago | publisher=University of Chicago Press}} * {{cite book | last=Darnell | first=Regna.| year=2001 | title=Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology | url=https://archive.org/details/invisiblegenealo0000darn | location=Lincoln, NE | publisher=University of Nebraska Press}} * {{cite book | last=Gisi | first=Lucas Marco | year=2007 | title=Einbildungskraft und Mythologie. Die Verschränkung von Anthropologie und Geschichte im 18. Jahrhundert | location=Berlin; New York | publisher=de Gruyter}} * {{cite book | last=Harris | first=Marvin.| year=2001 | origyear=1968 | title=The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture | url=https://archive.org/details/nlsiu.306.09.har.30017 | publisher=AltaMira Press | location=Walnut Creek, CA}} * {{cite journal | ref=harv | first=James | last=Hunt | title=Introductory Address on the Study of Anthropology | journal=The Anthropological Review | volume= I | year=1863 | location=London | publisher=Trübner & Co. | url={{Google books|pzYpAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}} * {{cite book | last=Kehoe | first=Alice B. | year=1998 | title=The Land of Prehistory: A Critical History of American Archaeology | url=https://archive.org/details/landofprehistory0000keho | location=New York; London | publisher=Routledge}} *{{Cite journal | last1 = Lewis | first1 = H. S. | title = The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequences | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-anthropologist_1998-09_100_3/page/716 | doi = 10.1525/aa.1998.100.3.716 | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 100 | issue = 3 | pages = 716–731 | year = 1998 | pmid = | pmc = }} * {{cite journal | last=Lewis | first=H. S | authormask=2 | year=2004 | title=Imagining Anthropology's History | journal=Reviews in Anthropology | volume=v. 33}} * {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=H. S. | authormask=2 | year=2005 | chapter=Anthropology, the Cold War, and Intellectual History | editor1-first=R. | editor1-last=Darnell | editor2-first=F.W. | editor2-last=Gleach | title=Histories of Anthropology Annual, Vol. I}} * {{cite book | editor1-last=Pels | editor1-first=Peter | editor2-first=Oscar | editor2-last=Salemink | year=2000 | title=Colonial Subjects: Essays on the Practical History of Anthropology | location=Ann Arbor | publisher=University of Michigan Press}} * {{cite book | last=Price | first=David | year=2004 | title=Threatening Anthropology: McCarthyism and the FBI's Surveillance of Activist Anthropologists | url=https://archive.org/details/threateninganthr0000pric | location=Durham | publisher=Duke University Press}}. * {{cite book | last=Sera-Shriar | first=Efram | year=2013 | title=The Making of British Anthropology, 1813–1871 | series=Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century, 18 | location=London; Vermont | publisher=Pickering and Chatto}} * {{cite book | ref=harv | title=Paul Broca, Founder of French Anthropology, Explorer of the Brain | first=Francis | last=Schiller | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press | year=1979 | url={{Google books|C5dtJxYrkDYC|plainurl=yes}}}} * {{cite book | last=Stocking | first=George, Jr. | year=1968 | title=Race, Culture and Evolution | url=https://archive.org/details/racecultureevolu0000unse | location=New York | publisher=Free Press}} * {{cite book | last=Trencher | first=Susan | year=2000 | title=Mirrored Images: American Anthropology and American Culture, 1960–1980 | url=https://archive.org/details/mirroredimagesam0000tren | location=Westport, Conn. | publisher=Bergin & Garvey}} * {{cite book | last=Wolf | first=Eric | year=1982 | title=Europe and the People Without History | url=https://archive.org/details/europepeoplewit008258 | location=Berkeley; Los Angeles | publisher=California University Press}} {{refend}} ===Vitabu vya kiada=== {{refbegin|20em}} * {{cite book | last1=Clifford | first1=James | first2=George E. | last2=Marcus | year=1986 | title=Writing culture: the poetics and politics of ethnography | url=https://archive.org/details/writingculturepo00clif | location=Berkeley | publisher=University of California Press}} * {{cite book | last=Geertz | first=Clifford | year=1973 | title=The Interpretation of Cultures | url=https://archive.org/details/interpretationof00geer_1 | location=New York | publisher=Basic Books}} * {{cite book | last=Harris | first=Marvin | year=1997 | title=Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology | url=https://archive.org/details/culturepeoplenat07edharr_l0u5 | edition=7th | location=Boston | publisher=Allyn & Bacon}} * {{cite book | last=Salzmann | first=Zdeněk | year=1993 | title=Language, culture, and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology | url=https://archive.org/details/languagecultures0000salz_i4n8 | location=Boulder, CO | publisher=Westview Press}} * {{cite book | editor1-last=Shweder | editor1-first=Richard A. | editor2-first=Robert A. | editor2-last=LeVine | year=1984 | title=Culture Theory: essays on mind, self, and emotion | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0521267196 | location=Cambridge, UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book | ref=harv | first=Theodor | last=Waitz | title=Introduction to Anthropology | others=Translated by J. Frederick Collingwood for the Anthropological Society of London | location=London | publisher=Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts | year=1863 | url={{Google books|G4FQAAAAcAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{sister project links}} * {{cite web | first=Dieter | last=Haller | title=Interviews with German Anthropologists: Video Portal for the History of German Anthropology post 1945 | publisher=Ruhr-Universität Bochum | url=http://www.germananthropology.com/ | accessdate=22 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.aaanet.org/ | title=AAANet Home | publisher=American Anthropological Association | year=2010 | accessdate=2016-10-10 | archive-date=2015-10-13 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013043844/http://www.aaanet.org/ | url-status=dead }} * {{cite web | url=http://www.easaonline.org/ | title=Home | year=2015 | publisher=European Association of Social Anthropologists}} * {{cite web | first=Ed | last=Hagen | year=2015 | title=AAPA | url=http://www.physanth.org/ | publisher=American Association of Physical Anthropologists | accessdate=2016-10-10 | archive-date=2008-10-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020153531/http://www.physanth.org/ | url-status=dead }} * {{cite web | url=http://www.aas.asn.au/ | publisher=Australian Anthropological Society | title=Home | accessdate=23 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.aibr.org/ | title=AIBR, Revista de Antropología Iberoamericana | publisher=Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red | language=Spanish | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://hraf.yale.edu | title=Home | publisher=Human Relations Area Files | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.practicinganthropology.org/ | title=Home | publisher=National Association for the Practice of Anthropology | accessdate=24 March 2015 | archivedate=2021-01-05 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105004752/http://www.practicinganthropology.org/ }} * {{cite web | url=http://radicalanthropologygroup.org/about | title=About | publisher=Radical Anthropology Group | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.therai.org.uk/ | title=Home | publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute | accessdate=24 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=http://www.sfaa.net/ | title=Home | publisher=The Society for Applied Anthropology | accessdate=24 March 2015 | archivedate=2019-05-08 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508064749/http://www.sfaa.net/ }} * {{cite web | url=http://anthro.amnh.org/ | title=Anthropology |publisher=American Museum of Natural History | accessdate=25 March 2015}} * {{cite web | title=Department of Anthropology | url=http://anthropology.si.edu/ | publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History | accessdate=25 March 2015}} * {{cite web | url=https://aio.therai.org.uk/aio.php | title=AIO Home | work=Anthropological Index Online | publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute | accessdate=25 March 2015}} {{mbegu-sayansi}} [[Jamii:Biolojia]] [[Jamii:Historia]] [[Jamii:Utamaduni]] [[Jamii:Elimu jamii]] [[Jamii:Teolojia]] 4yvszh38n6mxkdrd17bfc5lwec06n4p 0 86989 1580230 1544498 2026-07-18T01:35:21Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580230 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Uainishaji | rangi = pink | jina = ''Homo neanderthalensis'' | picha = Homo sapiens neanderthalensis-Mr. N.jpg| | upana_wa_picha = 250px | maelezo_ya_picha = Sanamu ya mwanamume katika makumbusho | picha2 =|''Homo neanderthalensis'' mwanamke | upana_wa_picha2 = 250px | maelezo_ya_pich2 = Sanamu ya mwanamke katika makumbusho | domeni = [[Eukaryota]] | himaya = [[Animalia]] (Wanyama) | faila = [[Chordata]] (Wanyama wenye ugwe wa neva mgongoni) | ngeli = [[Mamalia]] (Wenye viwele wanaonyonyesha wadogo wao) | oda = [[Primates]] (Wanyama wanaofanana kiasi na binadamu) | familia_ya_juu = [[Hominoidea]] (Wanaofanana zaidi na binadamu) | familia = [[Hominidae]] (Walio karibu na binadamu kimaumbile) | nusufamilia = [[Homininae]] | kabila = [[Hominini]] | jenasi = ''[[Homo]]'' | bingwa_wa_jenasi = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | spishi = ''[[Homo neanderthalensis|H. neanderthalensis]]'' | bingwa_wa_spishi = [[William King|King]], 1864 }} '''''Homo neanderthalensis''''' alikuwa [[kiumbehai]] wa [[jamii]] ya [[binadamu]] ([[Hominidae]]). Pengine [[spishi]] hii inachukuliwa kama [[nususpishi]] (kwa jina la ''Homo sapiens neanderthalensis''). Utafiti wa [[DNA]] umeonyesha walifanana na [[binadamu]] wa leo kwa [[asilimia]] 99.7. Wote wawili wana [[chembeuzi]] 46, tofauti na [[Sokwe (Hominidae)|sokwe]] ambao wanazo 48. Walienea katika [[Mashariki ya Kati]], [[Ulaya Magharibi]] na [[ulaya kusini|kusini]] hadi [[Asia ya Kati]]. Kabla hawajatoweka miaka 40,000 iliyopita, waliweza kuzaliana na [[Homo sapiens]]<ref name="2023Harris">{{cite journal |author1=Daniel Harris |author2=Alexander Platt |author3=Matthew E.B. Hansen |author4=Shaohua Fan |author5=Michael A. McQuillan |author6=Thomas Nyambo |author7=Sununguko Wata Mpoloka |author8=Gaonyadiwe George Mokone |author9=Gurja Belay |author10=Charles Fokunang |author11=Alfred K. Njamnshi |author12=Sarah A. Tishkoff |title=Diverse African genomes reveal selection on ancient modern human introgressions in Neanderthals |journal=Current Biology |date=2023 |volume=33 |issue=22 |pages=4905–4916.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.066 |pmid=37837965 |issn=0960-9822|pmc=10841429 }}</ref> baada ya huyo kutoka nje ya [[Afrika]] na hivi kurithisha sehemu ya [[jeni]] zao<ref name=vernot2014>{{cite journal |title=Resurrecting surviving Neandertal lineages from modern human genomes |journal=Science |volume=343 |issue=6174 |pages=1017–1021 |year=2014 |bibcode=2014Sci...343.1017V |last1=Vernot |first1=B. |last2=Akey |first2=J. M. |doi=10.1126/science.1245938 |pmid=24476670 |s2cid=23003860|doi-access=free }}</ref> kwa binadamu wote wa leo, hasa wasio wa [[Kusini kwa Sahara]]<ref name="Chen Wolf Fu Li Akey">{{cite journal |first1=L. |last1=Chen |first2=A. B. |last2=Wolf |first3=W. |last3=Fu |first4=J. M. |last4=Akey |year=2020 |title=Identifying and Interpreting Apparent Neanderthal Ancestry in African Individuals |journal=Cell |volume=180 |issue=4 |pages=677–687.e16 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2020.01.012 |pmid=32004458 |s2cid=210955842|doi-access=free |pmc=12805117 }}</ref>. [[File:Neanderthal_Flintworkers_(Knight,_1920).jpg|left|thumb|[[Familia]] ya Homo neanderthalensis katika [[Ufaransa]] wa leo.]] == Tanbihi == {{marejeo}} ==Vyanzo== *{{cite book|last=Broodbank |first=Cyprian |title=The Making of the Middle Sea: A History of the Mediterranean from the Beginning to the Emergence of the Classical World |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofmiddlese0000cypr |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location =London |year=2013|isbn=978-0-500-29208-2}} * {{cite book |first1=K. |last1=Brown |first2=D. A. |last2=Fa |first3=G. |last3=Finlayson |author3-link=Geraldine Finlayson |first4=C. |last4=Finlayson |author4-link=Clive Finlayson |year=2011 |chapter=Small game and marine resource exploitation by Neanderthals: the evidence from Gibraltar |title=Trekking the shore: changing coastlines and the antiquity of coastal settlement |series=Interdisciplinary contributions to archaeology |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-4419-8218-6 |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227198441 |ref={{harvid |Brown |2011}}}} * {{cite book |first=C. |last=Finlayson |author-link=Clive Finlayson |year=2019 |title=The smart Neanderthal: bird catching, cave art, and the cognitive revolution |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-251812-5 |url={{google books |plainurl=yes |id=7hqJDwAAQBAJ}}}} *{{cite book|last=French |first=Jennifer |title=Palaeolithic Europe: A Demographic and Social Prehistory |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021|isbn=978-1-108-49206-5}} *{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9As7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT171 |first1=D. |last1=Papagianni |first2=M. A. |last2=Morse |year=2013 |chapter=Still with us? |title=Neanderthals rediscovered: how modern science is rewriting their story |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-77311-6}} * {{cite book |first=D. |last=Reich |author-link=David Reich (geneticist) |year=2018 |chapter=Encounters with Neanderthals |title=Who we are and how we got here: ancient DNA and the new science of the human past |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-882125-0 |url={{google books |plainurl=yes |id=uLNSDwAAQBAJ |page=25}}}} * {{cite book |first=P. |last=Shipman |year=2015 |title=The invaders: how humans and their dogs drove Neanderthals to extinction |url=https://archive.org/details/invadershowhuman0000ship |publisher=Harvard University Press |jstor=j.ctvjf9zbs |isbn=978-0-674-42538-5 |chapter=How humans and their dogs drove Neanderthals to extinction|doi=10.2307/j.ctvjf9zbs }} * {{cite book |first=I. |last=Tattersall |author-link=Ian Tattersall |year=2015 |chapter=Neanderthals, DNA, and creativity |title=The strange case of the Rickety Cossack: and other cautionary tales from human evolution |url=https://archive.org/details/strangecaseofric0000tatt |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4668-7943-0}} ==Marejeo mengine== *{{cite journal| last= Hunt|first=Chris |display-authors=etal| journal= Journal of Archaeological Science|title=Shanidar et ses fleurs? Reflections on the palynology of the Neanderthal 'Flower Burial' hypothesis|volume= 159|number= |date=August 28, 2023|article-number=105822 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2023.105822 |bibcode=2023JArSc.159j5822H |s2cid=261325698 |issn= |doi-access=free}} *{{cite book|last1=Pettitt|first1=Paul|last2=White|first2=Mark|title=The British Palaeolithic: hominin societies at the edge of the Pleistocene world|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-67454-6}} * {{cite book |last1=Romagnoli |first1=Francesca |last2=Rivals |first2=Florent |last3=Benazzi |first3=Stefano |title=Updating Neanderthals: Understanding Behavioural Complexity in the Late Middle Palaeolithic |date=2022 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-821429-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTJcEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |language=en}} * {{cite book |last1=Stringer |first1=C. |author-link=Chris Stringer |last2=Gamble |first2=C. |year=1993 |title=In search of the Neanderthals |url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofneande00stri |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=0-500-05070-8 |ref={{harvid |Stringer |1993}}}} *{{cite book |first = Rebecca Wragg |last = Sykes | title=[[Kindred: Neanderthal Life, Love, Death and Art]] |year=2020 |publisher=Bloomsbury Sigma |location=London |isbn= 978-1-4729-3749-0}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Homo neanderthalensis}} * {{cite web | title = ''Homo neanderthalensis'' | publisher = The Smithsonian Institution | url = http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis| date = February 14, 2010 }} * [http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive Human Timeline (Interactive)] – [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]], [[National Museum of Natural History]] (August 2016). * {{cite web |title=Neanderthal DNA |publisher=International Society of Genetic Genealogy |url=http://www.isogg.org/neanderthaldna.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617204513/http://www.isogg.org/neanderthaldna.htm |archive-date=June 17, 2006 }}: Includes Neanderthal mtDNA sequences * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/search/all/?term=homo%20sapiens%20neanderthalensis GenBank records for ''H. s. neanderthalensis''] maintained by the [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI) * {{cite web |last1=Alex |first1=Bridget |title=What's Behind the Evolution of Neanderthal Portraits |url=https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/neanderthal-art-paleolithic-archaeology/ |website=SAPIENS |date=February 21, 2024}} *[https://theclimatechronicles.com/ The Climate Chronicles], explores the impact of Pleistocene climate change on Neanderthals and other hominins. {{mbegu-biolojia}} [[Jamii:Akiolojia]] [[Jamii:Binadamu]] 2z8xmk5k5fdh0pdn58axy6ly62600h9 0 88033 1580187 1513662 2026-07-18T01:02:42Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580187 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:After Hans Holbein the Younger - Portrait of Henry VIII - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|200px|Mfalme Henri VIII alivyochorwa na [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], [[Walker Art Gallery]], [[Liverpool]], Uingereza.]] '''Henry VIII''' ([[28 Juni]] [[1491]]&nbsp;– [[28 Januari]] [[1547]]) alikuwa [[mfalme]] wa [[Uingereza]] kuanzia tarehe [[21 Aprili]] [[1509]] hadi [[kifo]] chake. Ni wa pili kutoka [[nasaba ya Tudor]], akimfuata [[baba]] yake, [[Henry VII]]. ==Maisha na matukio== {{Wake wa Henry VIII}} Henry anajulikana hasa kwa [[Ndoa|kuoa]] [[wanawake]] [[sita]], mmoja baada ya mwingine, na hasa kwa juhudi zake za kubatilisha ndoa yake ya kwanza na [[Katerina wa Aragona]] zilizomfanya hatimaye atenganishe [[Anglikana|Kanisa la Uingereza]] na [[Papa]], akijifanya mkuu wa Kanisa. Pamoja na kutengwa na [[Kanisa Katoliki]] kwa sababu hiyo, aliendelea kusadiki mafundisho yake.<ref name="Scarisbrick361">{{harvnb|Scarisbrick|1997|p=361}}</ref> Katika masuala ya ndani, Henry alijulikana kwa kubadilisha sana [[katiba]] ya nchi, akizidisha [[mamlaka]] yake mwenyewe. Waliopinga walishutumiwa kama wasaliti na mara nyingi kuhukumiwa [[adhabu ya kifo]], akiwemo [[waziri mkuu]] [[Thomas More]]. Matumizi yake yalikuwa makubwa mno, kwa ajili ya [[fahari]] na [[vita]], hivi kwamba pesa nyingi alizofaulu kujipatia kwa kuteka [[mali]] ya [[monasteri]] na kuzuia [[kodi]] iliyokuwa inalipwa awali kwa Papa, hazikumtosha kamwe. Aliunganisha Uingereza na [[Wales]] akawa pia mfalme wa kwanza wa Uingereza kushika nafasi ya mfalme wa [[Ireland]]. Mwanzoni wengi walipendezwa naye<ref>{{harvnb|Guy|2000|p=41}}.</ref>, lakini baadaye alizidi kunenepa, [[afya]] yake ilitetereka, na hata nafsi yake ilivurugika na kumfanya mzinzi, mkatili, mwoga.<ref>{{harvnb|Ives|2006|pp=28–36}}</ref> Baada yake alitawala [[Mwana|mwanae]] [[Edward VI wa Uingereza|Edward VI]]. == Tanbihi == {{Reflist|20em}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|30em}} *{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Thomas |year= 2001 |title=The Renaissance at War |publisher=Cassell & Co. |location= London |isbn= 0-304-35270-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/renaissanceatwar0000arno|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Ashley |first=Mike |year= 2002 |title=British Kings & Queens |publisher=Running Press |location= |isbn= 0-7867-1104-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofbr0000ashl_f1a2|ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last=Ashrafian |first=Hutan |title=Henry VIII's Obesity Following Traumatic Brain Injury |journal=Endocrine |volume=42 |year=2011 |pages=218–9 |doi=10.1007/s12020-011-9581-z |url=http://www.bioportfolio.com/resources/pmarticle/267683/Henry-Viii-s-Obesity-Following-Traumatic-Brain-Injury.html |ref=harv |pmid=22169966 |issue=1 |archive-date=2012-03-10 |access-date=2017-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310003000/http://www.bioportfolio.com/resources/pmarticle/267683/Henry-Viii-s-Obesity-Following-Traumatic-Brain-Injury.html |url-status=dead }} *{{cite book |last=Bernard |first=G. W. |year= 2005 |title=The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church |publisher= |location= |isbn= 978-0-300-10908-5|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=p2MOt53sCCgC |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last=Betteridge |first=Thomas |title=The Henrician Reformation and Mid-Tudor Culture |journal=Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies |volume=35 |issue=1 |year=2005 |pages=91–109 |doi=10.1215/10829636-35-1-91 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-medieval-and-early-modern-studies_winter-2005_35_1/page/91 |ref=harv }} *{{cite book |first1=Thomas |last1=Betteridge |first2=Thomas S. |last2=Freeman |title=Henry VIII in History| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji_FpxQ4--QC |year=2012 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-1-4094-6113-5 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Brigden |first=Susan |year=2000 |title=New Worlds, Lost Worlds |url=https://archive.org/details/newworldslostwor0000brig |publisher=Penguin |location= |isbn=978-0-14-014826-8 |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last=Chibi |first=Andrew A. |title=Richard Sampson, His Oratio, and Henry VIII's Royal Supremacy |journal=Journal of Church and State |volume=39 |issue=3 |year=1997 |pages=543–560 |issn=0021-969X |doi=10.1093/jcs/39.3.543 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-church-and-state_summer-1997_39_3/page/543 |ref=harv }} *{{cite book |last=Churchill |first=Winston |year=1966 |title= The New World |series=History of the English Speaking Peoples |volume=2 |publisher=Cassell and Company |location= |isbn= |url= |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Crofton |first= Ian |year= 2006 |title=The Kings and Queens of England |publisher=Quercus Books |location= |isbn=978-1-84724-141-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/kingsqueensofeng0000crof_i1m0|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Cruz |first1=Anne J. |last2=Suzuki |first2=Mihoko |title=The Rule of Women in Early Modern Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2tCAjijsKQC |year=2009 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |ref=harv |isbn=978-0-252-07616-9}} *{{cite journal |last=Davies |first= Jonathan |title= 'We Do Fynde in Our Countre Great Lack of Bowes and Arrows': Tudor Military Archery and the Inventory of King Henry VIII |journal=Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research |volume=83 |year=2005 |pages=11–29 |issn=0037-9700 |ref=harv |issue=333}} *{{cite book |last=Elton |first=G. R. |title=The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII |origyear=1953 |year=1962 |edition=Revised |url=http://www.questia.com/read/2993196/the-tudor-revolution-in-government-administrative |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09235-7}} *{{cite book |last=Elton |first= G. R. |year= 1977 |title= Reform and Reformation: England, 1509–1558 |url=https://archive.org/details/reformreformatio0000elto_r4t4 |publisher= Edward Arnold |location= |isbn=0-7131-5952-9 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Farquhar |first= Michael |year=2001 |title=A Treasure of Royal Scandals |url=https://archive.org/details/treasuryofroyals0000farq |publisher=Penguin Books |location= |isbn=0-7394-2025-9 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |title=The Wives of Henry VIII |first=Antonia |last=Fraser |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=24UKxUPB5goC |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-0-679-73001-9 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |editor1-first=Sidney |editor1-last=Alexander|last=Guicciardini |first=Francesco |year=1968 |title=The History of Italy |publisher=Princeton University Press |location= |isbn=978-0-691-00800-4 |url= |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last=Gunn |first=Steven |title=Tournaments and Early Tudor Chivalry |journal=History Today |volume=41 |issue=6 |year=1991 |pages=543–560 |issn=0018-2753 |url= |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Guy |first=John |title=The Tudor monarchy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySRvQgAACAAJ |year=1997 |publisher=Arnold Publishers |isbn=978-0-340-65219-0 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Guy |first= John A. |year= 2000 |title= The Tudors: a Very Short Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/tudorsveryshorti0000guyj |publisher= |location= |isbn= |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=William |last2=Edelen |first2=Georges |year=1995 |origyear=1557 |title=The Description of England: Classic Contemporary Account of Tudor Social Life |url=https://archive.org/details/descriptionofeng0000harr_v5m4 |publisher=Dover Publications Inc. |location= |isbn=978-0-486-28275-6 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |title= The Burdens of Disease: Epidemics and Human Response in Western History |first=J. N. |last=Hays |publisher=Rutgers University Press |url=https://books.google.com/?id=AJReBNnOoL8C |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8135-4613-1 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |title=The Mistresses of Henry VIII |first=Kelly |last=Hart |edition=1 |year=2009 |publisher=The History Press |isbn=0-7524-4835-8 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=r6HGPAAACAAJ |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Hall |first=Edward |year=1904 |title=The Triumphant Reign of Henry VIII |publisher=T.C. & E.C. Jack |location= |url= |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Haigh |first=Christopher |year=1993 |title=English Reformations: Religion, Politics, and Society under the Tudors |url=https://archive.org/details/englishreformati0000haig |publisher=Clarendon Press |location= |isbn=978-0-19-822162-3|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Hibbert |first1=Christopher |last2=Weinreb |first2=Ben |last3=Keay |first3=Julia |last4=Keay |first4=John |title=''[[The London Encyclopaedia]]'' |edition=3 |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4050-4925-2 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Hutchinson |first=Robert |title=Young Henry: The Rise of Henry VIII |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zR6WdBzyvEC |isbn=978-1-250-01261-6 |year=2012 |publisher=Macmillan |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Ives |first=Eric |title=The Life and Death of Anne Boleyn: 'The Most Happy' |year=2005 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-4051-3463-7 |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last=Ives |first=Eric |title=Will the Real Henry VIII Please Stand Up? |journal=History Today |volume=56 |issue=2 |year=2006 |pages=28–36 |issn=0018-2753 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-today_2006-02_56_2/page/28 |ref=harv }} *{{cite book |last=Lehmberg |first= Stanford E. |year=1970 |title=The Reformation Parliament, 1529–1536 |url=https://archive.org/details/reformationparli0000lehm |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location= |isbn=978-0-521-07655-5 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Lipscomb |first=Suzannah |title=Who was Henry? |journal=History Today |year=2009 |volume=59 |issue=4 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |first=David |last=Loades |authorlink=David Loades |title=Henry VIII: Court, Church and Conflict |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781905615421 |publisher=The National Archives |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-905615-42-1 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Meyer | first =G. J. |title=The Tudors: The Complete Story of England's Most Notorious Dynasty |url=https://archive.org/details/tudorscompletest00meye |publisher=Presidio Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-385-34076-2 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book|last=Morris|first=T.A.|title=Tudor Government|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UwyTYcDxlSAC|accessdate=20 March 2013|year=1999|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-98167-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Pollard |first=A. F. |year= 1905 |title=Henry VIII |publisher=Longmans, Green & Company |location= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=q0cDAAAAMAAJ |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last=Rex |first=Richard |title=The Crisis of Obedience: God's Word and Henry's Reformation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1996-12_39_4/page/863 |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=39 |year=1996 |pages=863–894 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X00024687 |ref=harv |jstor=2639860 |issue=4 }} *{{cite book |last=Scarisbrick |first=J. J. |authorlink=J. J. Scarisbrick |year=1968 |title=Henry VIII |publisher=University of California Press |location= |isbn=978-0-520-01130-4 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=smr4IlxC7VMC |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Scarisbrick |first=J. J. |year=1997 |title=Henry VIII |publisher=Yale University Press |edition=2 |location= |isbn=0-300-07158-2 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Lacey Baldwin |year=1971 |title=Henry VIII: the Mask of Royalty |publisher= |location= |isbn=978-0-89733-056-5 |url= http://www.questia.com/read/85955084/henry-viii-the-mask-of-royalty |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Starkey |first=David |year=2003 |title=Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII |publisher=Chatto & Windus |location= |isbn=978-0-7011-7298-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/sixwivesqueensof0000star_d7r8|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Starkey |first=David |title=Henry: Virtuous Prince |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dNJZJP3ns-MC |year=2008 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-00-728783-3 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Stöber |first=Karen|title=Late Medieval Monasteries and Their Patrons: England and Wales, C.1300–1540 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rzanpUHWLQoC |year=2007 |publisher=Boydell Press |isbn=978-1-84383-284-3 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Andrea |year=2005 |title=Princelie Majestie: The Court of James V of Scotland 1528–1542 |publisher= John Donald Publishers Ltd |location= |isbn=978-0-85976-611-1 |url= |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Thurley |first=Simon |year=1993 |title=The Royal Palaces of Tudor England |publisher=Yale University Press |location= |isbn=978-0-300-05420-0 |url= |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |year=1991 |title=The Six Wives of Henry VIII |publisher=Grove Press |location= |isbn=0-8021-3683-4 |url= |ref=harv }} *{{cite book |last=Weir |first= Alison |year= 2002 |title=Henry VIII: The King and His Court |publisher= Random House Digital, Inc. |location= |isbn=0-345-43708-X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JW-seRfZ9toC |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last1=Whitley |first1= Catrina Banks |last2=Kramer |first2= Kyra |title=A New Explanation for the Reproductive Woes and Midlife Decline of Henry VIII |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=52 |issue=4 |year=2010 |pages=827 |issn= 0018-246X |doi= 10.1017/S0018246X10000452 |url= |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Wilkinson |first= Josephine |year=2009 |title=Mary Boleyn: the True Story of Henry VIII's Favourite Mistress |publisher= Amberley Publishing |edition=2 |location= |isbn=0-300-07158-2 |url= |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last=Williams |first= James |title= Hunting and the Royal Image of Henry VIII |journal= Sport in History |volume=25 |year=2005 |pages=41–59 |issn=1746-0263 |doi= 10.1080/17460260500073082 |url= |ref=harv |issue=1}} *{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Neville |year=1971 |title=Henry VIII and his Court |publisher=Macmillan Publishing Co |location= |isbn=978-0-02-629100-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/henryviiihiscour00will|ref=harv}} {{refend}} == Marejeo mengine == {{refbegin|30em}} === Maisha === *{{cite book |first=John |last=Bowle |authorlink=John Edward Bowle |title=Henry VIII: a Study of Power in Action |url=https://archive.org/details/henryviii0000unse_s0t1 |year=1964 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company }} *{{cite book |last=Erickson |first=Carolly |title=Mistress Anne: the Exceptional Life of Anne Boleyn |url=https://archive.org/details/mistressanne00eric |year=1984 }} *{{cite journal |last=Cressy |first=David |title=Spectacle and Power: Apollo and Solomon at the Court of Henry VIII |journal=History Today |year=1982 |volume=32|issue=Oct |pages=16–22 |issn=0018-2753}} *{{cite book |last=Gardner |first=James |chapter=Henry VIII |title=Cambridge Modern History |volume=2 |year=1903 |url=http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh213.html |access-date=2017-02-13 |archive-date=2011-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408075546/http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh213.html |dead-url=yes }} *{{cite book |last=Graves |first=Michael |title=Henry VIII' |url=https://archive.org/details/henryviiistudyin00grav |year=2003 }} *{{cite book |last=Ives |first=E. W |chapter=Henry VIII (1491–1547) |title=The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} *{{cite book |last=Rex |first=Richard |title=Henry VIII and the English Reformation |url=https://archive.org/details/henryviiienglish0000rexr |year=1993 }} *{{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Jasper |title=Henry VIII |url=https://archive.org/details/henryviii0000ridl |year=1985 }} *{{cite book |last=Starkey |first=David |authorlink=David Starkey |title=The Reign of Henry VIII: Personalities and Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/reignofhenryviii0000star_h2r4 |year=2002 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-0-09-944510-4}} *{{cite book |last1=Starkey |first1=David |first2=Susan |last2=Doran |title=Henry VIII: Man and Monarch |year=2009 |publisher=British Library Publishing Division |isbn=978-0-7123-5025-9}} *{{Rejea jarida |last=Tytler |first=Patrick Fraser |author-link=Patrick Fraser Tytler |year=1837 |title=Life of King Henry the Eighth |edition= |publisher=Oliver & Boyd |location=Edinburgh |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lWUDAAAAQAAJ |accessdate=17 August 2008 }} *{{cite book |last=Weir |first=Alison |title=The Children of Henry VIII |url=https://archive.org/details/childrenofhenryv0000weir |year=1996 }} === Utafiti wa kitaalamu === *{{cite book |last=Bernard |first=G. W. |title=War, Taxation, and Rebellion in Early Tudor England: Henry VIII, Wolsey, and the Amicable Grant of 1525 |url=https://archive.org/details/wartaxationrebel0000bern |year=1986}} *{{cite journal |last=Bernard |first=G. W. |title=The Making of Religious Policy, 1533–1546: Henry VIII and the Search for the Middle Way |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-journal_1998-06_41_2/page/321 |journal= Historical Journal |year=1998 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=321–349 |issn=0018-246X |jstor=2640109 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X98007778}} *{{cite journal |last=Bush |first=M. L. |title=The Tudor Polity and the Pilgrimage of Grace |journal=Historical Research |volume=80 |issue=207 |year=2007 |pages=47–72 |issn=0950-3471 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2281.2006.00351.x}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Coleman |editor1-first=Christoper |editor2-first=David |editor2-last=Starkey|title=Revolution Reassessed: Revision in the History of Tudor Government and Administration |year=1986}} *{{cite book | pages=[https://archive.org/details/tudorchronicles0000dora/page/n81 78]–203 |last=Doran |first=Susan |title=The Tudor Chronicles: 1485 - 1603 | url=https://archive.org/details/tudorchronicles0000dora |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4351-0939-1|publisher=Sterling Publishing}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Fox |editor1-first=Alistair |editor2-first=John |editor2-last=Guy |title=Reassessing the Henrician Age: Humanism, Politics and Reform 1500–1550|url=https://archive.org/details/reassessinghenri0000foxa |year=1986}} * Guy, John. ''The Children of Henry VIII'' (Oxford University Press; 2013) 258 pages; traces the lives of Edward VI, Mary I, Elizabeth I, and Henry Fitzroy, Duke of Richmond. *{{cite journal |last=Head |first=David M. |title=Henry VIII's Scottish Policy: a Reassessment|journal=Scottish Historical Review |year=1982 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |issn=0036-9241}} *{{cite journal |last=Head |first=David M. |title='If a Lion Knew His Own Strength': the Image of Henry VIII and His Historians |journal=International Social Science Review |year=1997 |volume=72 |issue=3–4 |pages=94–109|issn= 0278-2308}} *{{cite journal |last=Hoak |first=Dale |title=Politics, Religion and the English Reformation, 1533–1547: Some Problems and Issues |journal=History Compass |year=2005 |issue=3 |issn=1478-0542}} *{{cite book |last=Lindsey |first=Karen |year=1995 |title=Divorced, Beheaded, Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII |publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. |location=Reading, MA., US |isbn=0-201-60895-2 |url=http://www.questia.com/read/6981860/divorced-beheaded-survived-a-feminist-reinterpretation }} *{{cite book |editor1-last=MacCulloch |editor1-first=Diarmaid |title=The Reign of Henry VIII: Politics, Policy, and Piety |year=1995}} *{{cite book |last=Marshall |first=Peter |title=(Re)defining the English Reformation |journal=Journal of British Studies |year=2009 |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=564–85}} *{{cite book |last=Mackie |first=J. D. |title=The Earlier Tudors, 1485–1558 |year=1952 |url=http://www.questia.com/read/8546253/the-earlier-tudors-1485-1558 }} *{{cite book|first=William J.|last=Maloney|title=Diseases, Disorders and Diagnoses of Historical Individuals|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AhDUCgAAQBAJ|publisher=Anaphora Literary Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-68114-193-0|ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Moorhouse |first=Geoffrey |year=2003 |title=The Pilgrimage of Grace: the Rebellion That Shook Henry VIII's Throne |url=https://archive.org/details/pilgrimageofgrac0000moor |publisher=Phoenix |location= |isbn=978-1-84212-666-0}} *{{cite book |last=Moorhouse |first=Geoffrey |title=Great Harry's Navy: How Henry VIII Gave England Seapower |url=https://archive.org/details/greatharrysnavyh0000moor_k8h2 |year=2007 }} *{{cite book |last=Moorhouse |first=Geoffrey |title=The Last Divine Office: Henry VIII and the Dissolution of the Monasteries |url=https://archive.org/details/lastdivineoffice0000moor |year=2009 }} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Slavin |editor1-first=Arthur J |title=Henry VIII and the English Reformation |year=1968 |url=http://www.questia.com/read/97615501/henry-viii-and-the-english-reformation }} *{{cite book |last=Smith |first=H. Maynard |title=Henry VIII and the Reformation |year=1948 |url=http://www.questia.com/read/8851653/henry-viii-and-the-reformation }} *{{cite journal |last=Thurley |first= Simon |title= Palaces for a Nouveau Riche King |journal= History Today |volume=41 |year=1991 |issue=6}} *{{cite book |last=Trollope |first=William |title=A practical and historical commentary on the liturgy and ritual of the Church of England: with examination questions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oE4-AAAAYAAJ |year=1874 |publisher=J. Hall }} *{{cite book |last=Wagner |first=John A. |title=Bosworth Field to Bloody Mary: An Encyclopedia of the Early Tudors |url=https://archive.org/details/bosworthfieldtob0000wagn |year=2003|isbn=1-57356-540-7}} *{{cite book |last=Walker |first=Greg |title=Writing under Tyranny: English Literature and the Henrician Reformation |url=https://archive.org/details/writingundertyra0000walk |year=2005}} * Wernham, Richard Bruce. ''Before the Armada: the growth of English foreign policy, 1485-1588'' (1966), a standard history of foreign policy === Vyanzo === * Williams, C. M. A. H. ''[http://www.questia.com/read/104189416 English Historical Documents], 1485–1558'' (1996) * ''Letters and papers, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII: preserved in the Public Record Office, the British Museum and elsewhere'', volume 1 edited by John S. Brewer, Robert H. Brodie, James Gairdner. (1862); [https://books.google.com/books?id=q4Y9AAAAcAAJ full text online vol 1]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=Udk9AAAAcAAJ full text vol 3] See also [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/catalogue.aspx?type=3&gid=126 ''Letters & Papers, Henry VIII'', 21 vols., at British History Online], * [https://archive.org/details/privypurseexpen02nicogoog Nicolas, Nicholas Harris, ed., ''The Privy Purse Expences of Henry VIII, 1529–1532'', Pickering, London (1827)] * [[Martin Luther]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=oEy_3aDT61sC&vid=OCLC02338418&dq=%22%09Luther%27s+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters%22&jtp=333 to Henry VIII, 1 September 1525] *[https://books.google.com/books?id=oEy_3aDT61sC&vid=OCLC02338418&dq=%22%09Luther%27s+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters%22&jtp=374 Henry VIII to Martin Luther. August 1526] *[https://books.google.com/books?id=oEy_3aDT61sC&vid=OCLC02338418&dq=%22%09Luther%27s+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters%22&jtp=160 Henry VIII to Frederic, John, and George, Dukes of Saxony. January. 20, 1523] re: Luther. {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == *{{Commons category-inline|Henry VIII of England}} *{{IMSLP|Henry VIII|Henry VIII}} *{{ChoralWiki|Henry VIII}} * {{Gutenberg author | id=Henry+VIII,+King+of+England}} * [http://www.marileecody.com/henry8images.html Portraits of Henry VIII] {{Wayback|url=http://www.marileecody.com/henry8images.html |date=20181212153427 }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Henry 08 wa Uingereza}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 1491]] [[Category:Waliofariki 1547]] [[Category:Wafalme na malkia wa Uingereza]] [[Category:Waanglikana]] [[Category:Historia ya Ukristo]] [[Category:Nasaba ya Tudor]] [[Category:Renaissance]] ar9fsjl14mzc7lv5jq4699asymdnv4r 0 88185 1580246 1498084 2026-07-18T01:47:07Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580246 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Epicurus bust2.jpg|thumb|Sanamu ya Kirumi ya Epicurus.]] '''Epikur''' (kwa [[Kilatini]] na [[lugha]] mbalimbali '''Epicurus''', kutoka [[Kigiriki]] Ἐπίκουρος, ''Epíkouros'', yaani "Mwenzi"; [[341 KK|341]]–[[270 KK]]) alikuwa [[mwanafalsafa]] wa [[Ugiriki wa Kale]], maarufu kama [[mwanzilishi]] wa [[shule]] ya [[falsafa]] yenye jina lake (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: Epicureanism). ==Maandishi== Kati ya [[maandishi]] yake 300 hivi, zimebaki tu sehemu na [[barua]] chache; zaidi tunajua kutoka kwa wafuasi wake na wengineo waliofafanua mafundisho yake. ==Mafundisho== Kwake, lengo la falsafa ni kufikia [[maisha]] yenye [[heri]], [[utulivu]], [[amani]], kutoogopa, kutoteseka, kujitegemea na kuzungukwa na [[rafiki|marafiki]]. Kwake [[raha]] na [[maumivu]] ndio vigezo vya [[uadilifu]] au [[uovu]] wa mambo yoyote. Pia [[kifo]] ni mwisho wa [[mwili]] na [[roho]], hivyo hakitakiwi kuogopwa. Tena hakuna [[miungu]] ambao waadhibu wala kutuza [[binadamu]]. [[Ulimwengu]] hauna mipaka na ni wa [[milele]]. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== ; Maandishi yake * {{cite book |last=Epicurus |editor1-last=Inwood |editor1-first=Brad |editor2-last=Gerson |editor2-first=Lloyd P. |title=The Epicurus Reader. Selected Writings and Testimonia |url=https://archive.org/details/epicurusreaderse0000epic |year=1994 |publisher=Hackett |location=Indianapolis |isbn=0-87220-242-9}} * {{cite book |last=Epicurus |title=The essential Epicurus : letters, principal doctrines, Vatican sayings, and fragments |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialepicuru0000epic |year=1993 |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=Buffalo, N.Y. |isbn=0-87975-810-4 |others=Eugene O'Connor, trans}} * {{cite book |last=Epicurus |title=Letters, principal doctrines, and Vatican sayings |url=https://archive.org/details/lettersprincipal0000epic |year=1964 |publisher=Bobbs-Merrill |location=Indianapolis |others=Russel M. Geer, trans}} * {{cite book |last=Laertius |first=Diogenes |editor-last=Caponigri |editor-first=A. Robert |title=Lives of the Philosophers |url=https://archive.org/details/livesofphilosoph0000diog |year=1969 |publisher=Henry Regnery Co |location=Chicago}} * {{cite book |last=Lucretius Carus |first=Titus |title=On the nature of the universe |url=https://archive.org/details/liang.lucretiusonnatur0001lucr |year=1976 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London |isbn=0-14-044018-6 |others=R. E. Latham, trans}} * {{cite book |last=Körte |first=Alfred |title=Epicureanism : two collections of fragments and studies |year=1987 |publisher=Garland |location=New York |isbn=0-8240-6915-3 |language=Greek}} * Oates, Whitney J. (1940). ''The Stoic and Epicurean philosophers, The Complete Extant Writings of Epicurus, Epictetus, Lucretius and Marcus Aurelius''. New York: Modern Library. * {{cite book |last=Diogenes of Oinoanda |title=The Epicurean inscription |year=1993 |publisher=Bibliopolis |location=Napoli |isbn=88-7088-270-5 |others=Martin Ferguson Smith, trans}} ; Ufafanuzi * Bailey C. (1928). ''The Greek Atomists and Epicurus'', Oxford: Clarendon Press. * {{cite book |last=Bakalis |first=Nikolaos |title=Handbook of Greek Philosophy from Thales to the Stoics. Analysis and fragments |year=2005 |publisher=Trafford |location=Victoria |isbn=1-4120-4843-5}} * {{cite book |last=Gordon |first=Pamela |title=Epicurus in Lycia. The Second-Century World of Diogenes of Oenoanda |year=1996 |publisher=Univ. of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=0-472-10461-6}} * {{cite book |last=Gottlieb |first=Anthony |title=The Dream of Reason. A History of Western Philosophy from the Greeks to the Renaissance |url=https://archive.org/details/dreamofreasonhis00anth |year=2000 |publisher=W.W. Norton |location=New York |isbn=0-393-04951-5}} * {{cite book |last=Hibler |first=Richard W. |title=Happiness Through Tranquillity. The school of Epicurus |url=https://archive.org/details/happinessthrough0000hibl |year=1984 |publisher=University Press of America |location=Lanham, MD |isbn=0-8191-3861-4}} * {{cite book |last=Hicks |first=R. D. |title=Stoic and Epicurean |url=https://archive.org/details/stoicandepicurea00colluoft |year=1910 |publisher=Scribner |location=New York}} * {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Howard |title=The Epicurean Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/epicureantraditi0000jone |year=1989 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-415-02069-7}} * {{cite book |last=O'Keefe |first=Tim |title=Epicureanism |year=2009 |publisher=University of California Press}} * {{cite book |last=Panichas |first=George Andrew |title=Epicurus |url=https://archive.org/details/epicurus0000pani |year=1967 |publisher=Twayne Publishers |location=New York}} * {{cite book |last=Rist |first=J.M. |title=Epicurus. An introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/epicurusintroduc0000rist |year=1972 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=London |isbn=0-521-08426-1}} * {{cite book |last=Warren |first=James |title=The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism |year=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-05218-7347-5}} * [[William Wallace]]. [https://archive.org/details/epicureanism00walluoft ''Epicureanism'']. SPCK (1880) ==Viungo vya nje== * {{commons}} * [http://societyofepicurus.com/ Society of Friends of Epicurus] – Epicurean community * [https://archive.org/details/stoicandepicurea002438mbp ''Stoic And Epicurean''] by [[Robert Drew Hicks]] (1910) (Internet Archive) * [http://www.epicurus.net Epicurus.net] {{Wayback|url=http://www.epicurus.net/ |date=20190816001125 }} – Epicurus and Epicurean Philosophy * [http://www.societasviaromana.net/Collegium_Philosophicum/epicurus.php Epicurus and Lucretius] – small article by "P. Dionysius Mus" * ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1841/dr-theses/index.htm The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature]'' – [[Karl Marx]]'s doctoral thesis * [http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/philosophers/epicurus/ Epicurus on Free Will] * [http://www.pinktriangle.org.uk/leaflet/epicurus.html The Garden of Epicurus] – useful summary of the teachings of Epicurus * [https://sites.google.com/site/nilshorn2/file-cabinet/PhilosophyofHappiness.pdf?attredirects=0&d=1/ Philosophy of Happiness (PDF)] {{Wayback|url=https://sites.google.com/site/nilshorn2/file-cabinet/PhilosophyofHappiness.pdf?attredirects=0&d=1%2F |date=20160512222822 }} * [https://rucore.libraries.rutgers.edu/rutgers-lib/24248/ Epicurea, Hermann Usener - full text] ;Sura * [http://www.digitalsculpture.org/epicurus/index.html Discussion, bibliography, 3D models of the lost portrait] ;Vyanzo * [http://www.epicurus.net/en/principal.html Principal Doctrines] {{Wayback|url=http://www.epicurus.net/en/principal.html |date=20070407084128 }} – unidentified translation * [http://lexundria.com/epic_kd/0/ Principal Doctrines] – the original Greek, two English translations, and a parallel mode * [http://www.epicurus.net/en/vatican.html Vatican Sayings] {{Wayback|url=http://www.epicurus.net/en/vatican.html |date=20190321060326 }} – unidentified translation * [http://www.monadnock.net/epicurus/vatican-sayings.html Vatican Sayings] – the original Greek with an English translation * [http://www.epicurus.net/en/herodotus.html Letter to Herodotus] {{Wayback|url=http://www.epicurus.net/en/herodotus.html |date=20181009042821 }} * [http://www.epicurus.net/en/pythocles.html Letter to Pythocles] {{Wayback|url=http://www.epicurus.net/en/pythocles.html |date=20181009042851 }} * [http://www.epicurus.net/en/menoeceus.html Letter to Menoeceus] {{Wayback|url=http://www.epicurus.net/en/menoeceus.html |date=20170103164840 }} * [http://www.attalus.org/translate/epicurus.html Epicurus: Fragments] - Usener's compilation in English translation {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 341 KK]] [[Category:Waliofariki 270 KK]] [[Category:Wanafalsafa wa Ugiriki ya Kale]] [[Category:Waandishi wa Kigiriki]] [[Category:Uyakinifu]] ramozk4ev66kxg6o04gdz72rxiunk5p 0 88432 1580022 1294138 2026-07-17T23:10:01Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580022 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Joto''' ni hali ya umotomoto wa [[mtu]], kitu au sehemu fulani. Linapozidi huweza kusababisha kuungua kwa kitu kilichokabiliwa au kushika kitu chenye joto lililozidi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Van Wylen |first1=Gordon |last2=Sonntag |first2=Richard |title=Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofcl0000vanw_a8y9 |date=1978 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chapter 4.7, Definition of Heat |isbn=0-471-04188-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofcl0000vanw_a8y9/page/n93 76] |edition=Second edition, SI Version, Revised Printing}}</ref> Pia ipo [[mikoa]] yenye joto kali (kama vile nchini [[Tanzania]], [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Pemba]]). Mikoa hii ipo karibu na [[bahari ya Hindi]] kwani [[wanasayansi]] huelezea zaidi kuhusu kisa cha mikoa hii kuwa na joto kali kadiri unaposogea karibu na [[usawa wa bahari]] ndivyo joto linavyoongezeka. Pia kunapotokea msuguano baina ya vitu viwili huweza kuleta joto. [[Babu|Mababu]] waliweza kupata joto kwa kukaa karibu na [[moto]], hivyo hali hii huonesha kwamba moto huweza kusababisha joto na joto huweza kusababisha moto. Lakini moto si joto, wala joto si moto. Joto lina umuhimu mkubwa kwa [[binadamu]] kwani joto la binadamu ni [[nyuzi joto]] 36.9 au 37, hivyo joto linapozidi au linapopungua huweza kumsababishia [[binadamu]] kufariki kwa kiasi cha joto lililopungua au kuongezeka endapo atakosa [[matibabu]]. Pia joto hutumika katika uhifadhi wa [[chakula]]. Mfano wa vyakula vinavyoweza kuhifadhiwa ni [[mihogo]], [[mahindi]] n.k. <ref name=schroeder>{{cite book |title=An Introduction to Thermal Physics |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoth0000schr_k1f1 |author=D.V. Schroeder |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=1999 |isbn=0-201-38027-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoth0000schr_k1f1/page/15 15] }}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-sayansi}} [[Jamii:Fizikia]] 64xzlcb88iergwpjgmwio7vwcjnh7mr 0 88559 1580118 1534164 2026-07-18T00:18:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580118 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Isak Sirin.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Isaka wa Ninawi]] '''Isaka wa Ninawi''' (kwa [[Kiaramu]] ܡܪܝ ܐܝܣܚܩ ܕܢܝܢܘ; kwa [[Kiarabu]]: إسحاق النينوي Ishak an-Naynuwī; kwa [[Kigiriki]] Ἰσαὰκ Σύρος, Isaac Syuros; kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''Isaac of Nineveh''<ref>Great Synaxaristes: {{gr}} ''[http://www.synaxarion.gr/gr/sid/1930/sxsaintinfo.aspx Ὁ Ὅσιος Ἰσαὰκ ὁ Σύρος Ἐπίσκοπος Νινευΐ].'' 28 Ιανουαρίου. ΜΕΓΑΣ ΣΥΝΑΞΑΡΙΣΤΗΣ.</ref><ref>''[http://oca.org/saints/lives/2013/01/28/100333-st-isaac-the-syrian-the-bishop-of-nineveh St Isaac the Syrian the Bishop of Nineveh].'' OCA - Lives of the Saints.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Fromherz|first=Allen|title=Qatar: A Modern History|url=https://archive.org/details/qatarmodernhisto0000from|year=2012|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-58901-910-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/qatarmodernhisto0000from/page/43 43]}}</ref>; [[613]] hivi – [[700]] hivi) alikuwa [[mwanateolojia]] na [[askofu]] wa [[Kanisa la Asiria]]. Ni maarufu hasa kwa [[maandishi]] yake juu ya [[maisha ya Kiroho]]. Yapo hadi leo katika [[lugha]] asili ya [[Kisiria]] na katika [[tafsiri]] za kale za Kigiriki na Kiarabu. Yametumiwa sana na [[Wakristo]] wa [[madhehebu]] mengine, hasa ya [[Ukristo wa Mashariki|Mashariki]] <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/100701</ref>. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa kama [[mtakatifu]], katika [[Kanisa]] lake na makanisa ya [[Waorthodoksi wa Mashariki]] na [[Waorthodoksi]]. [[Tarehe]] [[9 Novemba]] [[2024]] [[Papa Fransisko]] alitangaza rasmi kwamba ataingizwa katika orodha ya [[Martyrologium Romanum]] <ref>https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2024/11/09/0870/01748.html</ref>. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa tarehe [[28 Januari]]. ==Maisha== Alizaliwa [[Beth Qatraye]], kati ya [[Mesopotamia]] na [[Arabia]] ([[Qatar]] ?)<ref name="markose">{{cite book|last=Markose|first=Biji|title=Prayers and Fasts According to Bar Ebroyo (AD 1225/6-1286): A Study on the Prayers and Fasts of the Oriental Churches|year=2004|publisher=LIT Verlag|isbn=9783825867959|pages=32}}</ref><ref name="kurian">{{cite book|last=Kurian|first=George|title=The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature, Volume 2|year=2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=081086987X|pages=385}}</ref><ref name="johnston">{{cite book|last=Johnston|first=William M.|title=Encyclopedia of Monasticism: A-L|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo0001unse_n6v7|year=2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=1579580904|pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo0001unse_n6v7/page/664 665]}}</ref>. Akiwa bado [[kijana]] sana alijiunga na [[monasteri]] akafanya bidii sana. Akitumia pia [[maktaba]] iliyokuwepo, alijipatia sifa upande wa [[teolojia]] akaanza kufundisha [[dini]] katika eneo lake asili. [[Patriarki]] Georges alipotembelea eneo hilo katikati ya [[karne ya 7]] ili kushiriki [[sinodi]], alimfanya Isaka kuwa askofu wa [[Ninawi]], [[Assyria]], mbali sana, katika Mesopotamia ya [[Kaskazini]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kozah|first1=Mario|last2=Abu-Husayn|first2=Abdulrahim|last3=Al-Murikhi|first3=Saif Shaheen|last4=Al-Thani|first4=Haya|title=The Syriac Writers of Qatar in the Seventh Century|publisher=Gorgias Press LLC|year=2014|page=263|edition=print|isbn=978-1463203559}}</ref>. Majukumu hayo mapya hayakufaa tabia yake, hivyo baada ya miezi 5 alijiuzulu akarudi [[kusini]] katika [[upweke]] wa [[Mlima Matout]]. Huko aliishi miaka mingi akila [[mkate|mikate]] 3 tu kwa [[juma]] pamoja na [[mboga]] kidogo. Hatimaye [[uzee]] na [[upofu]] vilimlazimisha kurudi monasterini. Huko [[Shabar]] alifariki na kuzikwa. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== * Misemo ya Mababa wa Jangwani (Apophthegmata Patrum) – tafsiri ya W. Ngowi, O.F.M.Cap. – ed. Salvatorianum – [[Morogoro]] [[2000]] –ISBN 0-264-66350-0 ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons category|Isaac of Nineveh}} {{wikiquote}} *{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n85-275908}} *[http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=100333 St Isaac of Nineveh] Orthodox Icon and Synaxarion *[https://web.archive.org/web/20160310233854/http://www.isaacthesyrian.com/ A collection of resources on St. Isaac] *{{CathEncy|wstitle=Isaac of Nineveh}} *[http://orthodoxwiki.org/Isaac_of_Syria Saint Isaac, the Syrian in orthodoxwiki.com] *[https://archive.org/details/IsaacOfNinevehMysticTreatises Online edition of the Ascetical Homilies] *[https://www.facebook.com/stisaacofnineveh/ Saint Isaac of Nineveh Facebook Page, featuring new translations from Syriac and Arabic] {{mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 613]] [[Category:Waliofariki 700]] [[Category:Wamonaki]] [[Category:Wakaapweke]] [[Category:Maaskofu]] [[Jamii:Mababu wa jangwani]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Irak]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Katar]] tjjzjhz6n2djijsg55kce7aqnb4mtpx 0 88757 1580165 1574260 2026-07-18T00:45:56Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580165 wikitext text/x-wiki {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 260 | image1 = Plato Pio-Clemetino Inv305.jpg | caption1 = [[Plato]], ambaye pamoja na [[Sokrates]] na [[Aristotle]], aliweka msingi wa [[falsafa]] ya magharibi. | image2 = Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg | caption2 = Mchoro maarufu wa [[Leonardo da Vinci]] unaoonyesha umuhimu wa [[binadamu]] katika mtazamo wa [[magharibi]] kuanzia [[Renaissance]]. | image3 = The Beatles arrive at JFK Airport.jpg | caption3 = [[The Beatles]], bendi lililouza albamu nyingi kuliko yote, linaendelea kuathiri magharibi si upande wa [[muziki]] tu. }} [[File:Clash of Civilizations map.png|thumb|300px|Aina kuu za ustarabu baada ya mwaka 1990 kadiri ya Huntington (ule wa magharibi una rangi ya buluu iliyokolea).]] '''Ustaarabu wa magharibi''' ni [[utamaduni]] wenye [[taratibu za kijamii]], [[maadili]], [[desturi]], [[sheria]], [[falsafa]], [[imani]], [[siasa]], [[sanaa]] na [[teknolojia]] maalumu ambavyo asili yake ni Ulaya hata kame vimezidi kustawi sehemu nyingine za dunia ambazo historia yake ilikuwa na uhusiano wa pekee na bara hilo. Kwa kiasi kikubwa ni [[urithi]] wa [[Ugiriki wa Kale]], [[Roma wa Kale]], [[Uyahudi]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/The-Judaic-tradition Role of Judaism in Western culture and civilization], "Judaism has played a significant role in the development of Western culture because of its unique relationship with Christianity, the dominant religious force in the West". [http://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism Judaism] at [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]</ref> na utamaduni wa makabila mengine<ref>Kim Ann Zimmermann, 2012, "What is Culture? Definition of Culture," LiveScience, July 9, 2012, see [http://www.livescience.com/21478-what-is-culture-definition-of-culture.html], accessed on 8 December 2014.</ref><ref>Anon. (Western Culture Global), 2009, "Western Culture Knowledge Center: What is Western Culture?," see [http://www.westerncultureglobal.org/what-is-western-culture.html] {{Wayback|url=http://www.westerncultureglobal.org/what-is-western-culture.html |date=20071214201933 }}, accessed on 8 December 2014.{{better source|date=February 2015}}</ref>lakini hasa wa [[Ukristo]] na [[madhehebu]] yake ya kwanza, [[Kanisa Katoliki]],<ref>{{cite book|last=J. Spielvogel|first=Jackson|title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1715|url=https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat0000spie_q0c7|year=2016|isbn= 9781305633476|edition=Cengage Learning|author2=|page=[https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat0000spie_q0c7/page/156 156]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Neill|first=Thomas Patrick |title=Readings in the History of Western Civilization, Volume 2|year=1957|isbn=|edition=Newman Press|author2=|page=224}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=[[Gerald O'Collins|O'Collins]]|first= [[Gerald O'Collins|Gerald]]|title=''Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity'' |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_2900199259952|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-925995-3|edition= Oxford University Press|author2=Farrugia, Maria|page= v (preface)}}</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507284/Roman-Catholicism Roman Catholicism], "Roman Catholicism, Christian church that has been the decisive spiritual force in the history of Western civilization". [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]</ref><ref name="Caltron J.H Hayas">Caltron J.H Hayas, ''Christianity and Western Civilization'' (1953),Stanford University Press, p. 2: That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant.</ref><ref name="Orlandis">Jose Orlandis, 1993, "A Short History of the Catholic Church," 2nd edn. (Michael Adams, Trans.), Dublin:Four Courts Press, ISBN 1851821252, preface, see [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYdbpwAACAAJ], accessed 8 December 2014. p. (preface)</ref><ref name="How The Catholic Church Built Western Civilization">[[Thomas E. Woods]] and Antonio Canizares, 2012, "How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization," Reprint edn., Washington, D.C.: Regnery History, ISBN 1596983280, PG. NOS: "Western civilization owes far more to Catholic Church than most people—Catholic included—often realize. The Church in fact built Western civilization."</ref><ref name="Perry2012">{{cite book|author=Marvin Perry|title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC&pg=PA33|date=1 January 2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=1-111-83720-1|pages=33–}}</ref> pamoja na [[Makanisa ya Kiorthodoksi]]<ref>{{cite book|last= H. McNeill|first=William|title=History of Western Civilization: A Handbook|year= 2010|isbn=0226561623|edition=University of Chicago Press|author2=|page=204}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last= Faltin|first=Lucia|title=The Religious Roots of Contemporary European Identity|url= https://archive.org/details/religiousrootsco00falt|year= 2007|isbn= 9780826494825|edition=A&C Black|author2=Melanie J. Wright|page=[https://archive.org/details/religiousrootsco00falt/page/n99 83]}}</ref>. Baada ya [[Matengenezo ya Kiprotestanti]], athari yake imekuwa kubwa pia, hasa [[Ulaya Kaskazini]] na [[Koloni|makoloni]] yake, kama yale yaliyounda [[Marekani]], ambayo katika [[karne ya 20]] imeshika uongozi wa dunia na kuzidi kusambaza ustarabu huo.<ref>{{cite book|last=Toynbee|first= Arnold|title=A Study of History: Abridgement of, Volumes 1-6 |year=1947|isbn=9780199826698|edition= Oxford University Press|author2=|page=155}}</ref><ref name="Dawson 1961 108">{{cite book|last=Dawson|first=Christopher|title=Crisis in Western Education|url=https://archive.org/details/crisisofwesterne0000chri|year=1961|isbn=9780813216836|edition=reprint|author2=Glenn Olsen|page=[https://archive.org/details/crisisofwesterne0000chri/page/108 108]}}</ref> Tabia yake ya msingi ni kujali na kustawisha [[akili]] badala ya kutegemea [[visasili]] na [[mapokeo]]. Ilikuwa hivyo kuanzia falsafa ya [[Shule ya Athene]], ikaendelea baada ya uenezi wa Ukristo kupitia [[Teolojia ya Shule]], [[Renaissance]], [[Mapinduzi ya Kisayansi]] hadi [[Falsafa ya Mwangaza]]. Hiyo ilisaidia kutambua [[tunu]] kama [[haki za binadamu]], [[usawa]] na [[demokrasia]]. <ref name="Daly2013">{{cite book|author=Jonathan Daly|title=The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aZPAQAAQBAJ|date=19 December 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1851-6|pages=7–9}}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Marejeo== * {{Rejea kitabu|last= Ankerl |first= Guy |title= Global communication without universal civilization |series= INU societal research |volume= Vol. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western |publisher= INU Press |location= Geneva |isbn= 2-88155-004-5 |pages=|year= 2000}} * Barzun, Jacques ''From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life 1500 to the Present'' HarperCollins (2000) ISBN 0-06-017586-9. * Daly, Jonathan. "[http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/the-rise-of-western-power-9781441161314/ The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization] {{Wayback|url=http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/the-rise-of-western-power-9781441161314/ |date=20170630100152 }}" (London and New York: Bloomsbury, 2014). ISBN 978-1441161314. * Daly, Jonathan. "[http://www.tandfindia.com/books/details/9781138774810/ Historians Debate the Rise of the West]" (London and New York: Routledge, 2015). ISBN 978-1138774810. * Jones, Prudence and Pennick, Nigel ''A History of Pagan Europe'' Barnes & Noble (1995) ISBN 0-7607-1210-7. * Merriman, John ''Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present'' W. W. Norton (1996) ISBN 0-393-96885-5. * Derry, T. K. and Williams, Trevor I. ''A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900'' Dover (1960) ISBN 0-486-27472-1. * Eduardo Duran, Bonnie Dyran ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qgVoY7mypa4C Native American Postcolonial Psychology]'' 1995 Albany: State University of New York Press ISBN 0-7914-2353-0 * McClellan, James E. III and Dorn, Harold ''Science and Technology in World History'' Johns Hopkins University Press (1999) ISBN 0-8018-5869-0 * Stein, Ralph ''The Great Inventions'' Playboy Press (1976) ISBN 0-87223-444-4. * Asimov, Isaac ''Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology: The Lives & Achievements of 1510 Great Scientists from Ancient Times to the Present'' Revised second edition, Doubleday (1982) ISBN 0-385-17771-2. * [[Ludwig von Pastor|Pastor, Ludwig von]], ''History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the [[Vatican Secret Archives|Secret Archives of the Vatican]] and other original sources'', 40 vols. St. Louis, B. Herder (1898ff.) * [[James Joseph Walsh|Walsh, James Joseph]], ''The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time'', Fordam University Press, 1908, reprinted 2003, Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3646-9 Reviews: [https://books.google.com/books?vid=02tZKPD5CJrIa31EgK&id=G57Y1rlQVP0C&pg=PT2&lpg=PT2&dq=%22the+popes+and+science%22 P.462] [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1407075] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130801120209/http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1407075 |date=2013-08-01 }} * Ankerl, Guy (2000). C''oexisting Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western''. INUPRESS, Geneva, 119–244. ISBN 2-88155-004-5 * Atle Hesmyr (2013). ''Civilization, Oikos, and Progress'' ISBN 978-1468924190 * [[Victor Davis Hanson|Hanson, Victor Davis]]; Heath, John (2001). ''Who Killed Homer: The Demise of Classical Education and the Recovery of Greek Wisdom'', Encounter Books * Stearns, P.N. (2003). ''Western Civilization in World History'', Routledge, New York * [[Bruce Thornton|Thornton, Bruce]] (2002). ''Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization'', Encounter Books ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Western culture}} * [http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/1320Hist&Civ/PP/slides/00westciv.pdf An overview of the Western Civilization] {{Wayback|url=http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/1320Hist%26Civ/PP/slides/00westciv.pdf |date=20211024231522 }} {{mbegu-utamaduni}} [[Category:Utamaduni| ]] [[Category:Historia ya Ulaya]] [[Category:Elimu jamii]] b6whgwoissy31fw8t5fd8fvu84p3jru 0 89884 1580040 1154797 2026-07-17T23:22:39Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580040 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Walls of Troy (2).jpg|thumb|320px|Kuta mashuhuri za Troia zilizotajwa mara nyingi katika utenzi wa [[Iliadi]] ya [[Homer]]]] [[Image:Plan Troy-Hisarlik-en.svg|thumb|320px|Awamu za kukua kwa Troia kufuatana na utafiti wa akiolojia]] [[File:Homeric Greece-en.svg|thumb|320px|Ramani ya Ugiriki ya Kale zamani za Homer]] '''Troia''' (kwa [[Kigiriki]]: Τροία, ''troia'', pia: Ίλιον, ''ilion''; kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''Troy'')<ref>{{cite web|first=Charlton T.|last=Lewis|coauthors=Charles Short|title=Ilium|work=A Latin Dictionary|publisher=Tufts University: The Perseus Digital Library|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?layout.reflang=la;layout.refdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059;layout.reflookup=Ilium;layout.refcit=;doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2321459|accessdate=2008}}</ref> ulikuwa [[mji]] wa [[Asia Ndogo]] zamani za [[Ugiriki ya Kale]]. Inajulikana kutokana na [[Iliadi|utenzi wa Iliadi]] ambamo [[mshairi]] [[Homer]] alisimulia habari za [[Vita ya Troia]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Jenny|last=March|title=The Penguin Book of Classical Myths|url=https://archive.org/details/penguinbookofcla0000marc_o8c8|date=2008|isbn=978-0-141-02077-8|publisher=Penguin Books|page=[https://archive.org/details/penguinbookofcla0000marc_o8c8/page/294 294]}}</ref> Kwa [[karne]] nyingi mahali pa mji hapakujulikana ingawa watu wengi walijaribu kupakuta kwa sababu ya umaarufu wa utenzi huo uliokuwa na maana sana katika [[utamaduni]] wa [[Ulaya]]. Mnamo mwaka [[1868]] [[Mjerumani]] [[Heinrich Schliemann]] alianza kuchimba kwenye [[kilima]] cha [[Hisarlik]] kilichopo karibu na mji wa [[Çanakkale]] [[magharibi]] [[kaskazini]] mwa [[Uturuki]]. Alikuta mabaki ya [[Jengo|majengo]] na kuta kubwa na baada ya majadiliano marefu leo hii [[wataalamu]] hukubaliana hapa palikuwa mahali pa Troia ya Kale. [[Maghofu]] ya Troia yamepokelewa katika orodha ya [[urithi wa dunia]] ya [[UNESCO]]. Azimio hili lilitolewa kwa maelezo yafuatayo: "Mahali pa [[Akiolojia|kiakiolojia]] pa Troia ni muhimu sana kwa kuelewa vyanzo vya [[maendeleo]] ya [[ustaarabu]] wa Ulaya. Pana pia umuhimu mkubwa wa kiutamaduni kutokana na athira kubwa ya Iliadi ya Homer juu ya [[sanaa]] kwa muda wa zaidi ya [[milenia]] [[mbili]]". <ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849 UNESCO citation]</ref> ==Tanbihi== <references/> {{mbegu-jio-Uturuki}} [[Jamii:Ugiriki ya Kale]] [[Jamii:Urithi wa Dunia]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Uturuki]] 305k643fhedpi77y9shi7ds2gqwy0nr 0 91213 1580018 1509209 2026-07-17T23:05:57Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580018 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Riischildren.jpg|300px|thumb|Watoto wakilala katika Mulberry Street, [[New York City]], [[1890]].]] [[Picha:KabulStreet04a.jpg|thumb|right|Watoto wa mitaani huko [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]].]] '''Watoto wa mitaani''' ni [[watoto]] ambao wamekosa [[makazi]] bora, [[malazi]] na [[mavazi]] kutoka kwa [[wazazi]] au [[walezi]] wao. Jambo hilo limesababisha kutokuwa na mahali maalumu pa kuishi. [[Idadi]] yao [[duniani]] hukadiriwa kuwa [[milioni]] [[mia moja]] hivi. ==Sababu== Kuwa mtoto wa mitaani husababishwa na [[ugomvi]] wa wazazi ambao hatimaye hutengana; hapo mtoto hukosa [[haki]] na [[mahitaji]] yake ya msingi. Mtoto huona bora akaishi [[mtaa|mtaani]] ili aweze kufanya japo [[kazi]] ndogo aweze kupata mahitaji yake. Pengine hutokana na [[Kifo|vifo]] vya wazazi wote wawili, ambapo baadhi yao hutengwa na [[ndugu]] na kukosa mahali pa kwenda. Kuna wakati watoto hao hukosa [[chakula]], hivyo huona bora aibe ili apate kula. Wengine huingia kwenye makundi ya [[uuzaji]] wa [[madawa ya kulevya]] na [[ujambazi]]. ==Majukumu== [[Jamii]] inatakiwa ichukue [[jukumu]] la kuwasaidia watoto haO ili kuwaepusha na mambo hayo. Sisi sote kama jamii tunatakiwa tuliangalie suala hilo kwa umakini kwa usaidizi wa [[serikali]]; jukumu hili ni la kila [[mtu]]. Ingawa serikali nyingine zimetekeleza mipango ya kukabiliana na matatizo ya watoto wa mitaani, mpaka sasa suluhisho la jumla linahusisha kuwaweka katika makazi ya mayatima, nyumba za vijana, au taasisi za marekebisho. Huko [[Kolombia]], serikali imejaribu kutekeleza mipango ya kuweka watoto hawa katika [[nyumba]] zinazoendeshwa na serikali, lakini jitihada hizo zimeshindwa kwa kiasi kikubwa, na watoto wa mitaani wamekuwa kundi la watu walioathiriwa na ukatili wa [[Polisi]] na [[Usalama wa Taifa]], kwa sababu, wanadhani ni watumiaji wa madawa ya kulevya na wahalifu. Katika [[Australia]], majibu ya msingi kwa wasio na makazi ni Programu ya Usaidizi wa Makazi ya Usaidizi (SAAP). Mpango huo ni mdogo kwa ufanisi wake. Inakadiriwa moja kati ya vijana wawili ambao wanatafuta [[kitanda]] kutoka SAAP hugeuzwa kwa sababu huduma zimejaa. Jitihada za kufaa zaidi zimefanywa na serikali mbalimbali kusaidia au kushirikiana na mashirika yasiyo ya serikali. ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|32em}} *{{cite book |last=Ansell |first=Nicola |year=2005 |title=Children, Youth, and Development |series=Routledge perspectives on development |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |isbn=9780415287692 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Ball |first=Alan M. |year=1994 |title=And Now My Soul is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918-1930 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DKLnzsfG5cC |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20694-6 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Boswell |first=John |year=1988 |title=The Kindness of Strangers: the Abandonment of Children in Western Europe from Late Antiquity to the Renaissance |url=https://archive.org/details/kindnessofstrang0000bosw |location=Chicago, IL |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226067124 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |editor1-last=Brown |editor1-first=B. Bradford |editor2-first=Reed W. |editor2-last=Larson |editor3-first=T.&nbsp;S. |editor3-last=Saraswathi |year=2002 |title=The World's Youth: Adolescence in Eight Regions of the Globe |url=https://archive.org/details/worldsyouthadole0000unse |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521809108 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511613814.005 |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last=Cottrell-Boyce |first=Joe |title=The role of solvents in the lives of Kenyan street children: an ethnographic perspective |journal=[[African Journal of Drug and Alcohol Studies]] |year=2010 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=93–102 |url=http://www.streetchildrenresources.org/wp-content/uploads/gravity_forms/1-07fc61ac163e50acc82d83eee9ebb5c2/2013/05/The-Role-of-Solvents-in-the-Lives-of-Street-Children.pdf |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] |doi=10.4314/ajdas.v9i2.64142 |ref=harv |access-date=2017-07-16 |archive-date=2016-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420110609/http://www.streetchildrenresources.org/wp-content/uploads/gravity_forms/1-07fc61ac163e50acc82d83eee9ebb5c2/2013/05/The-Role-of-Solvents-in-the-Lives-of-Street-Children.pdf |dead-url=yes }} *{{cite book |last1=Ennew |first1=Judith |first2=Brian |last2=Milne |year=1990 |title=The Next Generation: Lives of Third World Children |url=https://archive.org/details/nextgenerationli00judi |location=Philadelphia, PA |publisher=New Society |isbn= |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Flowers |first=R. Barri |year=2010 |title=Street Kids: the Lives of Runaway and Thrownaway Teens |url=https://archive.org/details/streetkidsliveso0000flow |location=Jefferson, NC |publisher=McFarland |isbn=9780786456635 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Green |first=Duncan |year=1998 |title=Hidden Lives: Voices of Children in Latin America and the Caribbean |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=9780304336883 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Hecht |first=Thomas |year=1998 |title=At Home in the Street: Street Children of Northeast Brazil |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521598699 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/At_home_in_the_street.html?id=RJNYZI405aIC |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last=Kirk |first=Robin |year=1994 |chapter=Bogotá |chapterurl=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1994/colombia/gener1.htm |editor=Cynthia Arnson |title=Generation Under Fire: Children and Violence in Colombia |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1994/colombia/genertoc.htm |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |isbn=9781564321442 |ref=harv}} *{{cite journal |last1=Scanlon |first1=Thomas J. |first2=Andrew |last2=Tomkins |first3=Margaret A. |last3=Lynch |first4=Francesca |last4=Scanlon |year=1998 |title=Street children in Latin America |journal=[[British Medical Journal]] |volume=316 |issue=7144 |pages=1596–1600 |pmc=1113205 |pmid=9596604 |doi=10.1136/bmj.316.7144.1596 |ref=harv}} *{{cite book |last1=Verma |first1=Suman |last2=Saraswathi |first2=T.&nbsp;S. |year=2002 |chapter=Adolescence in India: street urchins or Silicon Valley millionaires? |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worldsyouthadole00brow/page/n118 105]–140 |editor=B. Bradford Brown |editor2=Reed W. Larson |editor3=T. S. Saraswathi |title=The World's Youth: Adolescence in Eight Regions of the Globe |url=https://archive.org/details/worldsyouthadole00brow |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521809108 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511613814.005 |ref=harv}} {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{commons category}} * [http://www.street-child.co.uk/ Street Child]: is a UK charity, that aims to create educational opportunity for some of the most vulnerable children in West Africa. * [http://thehopefoundation.org.uk/ The Hope Foundation] {{Wayback|url=http://thehopefoundation.org.uk/ |date=20171105214050 }}: Offering protection, education and healthcare to street children in Kolkata, India * [http://elephantcloud.net/?p=1130 Street Children in Gimbi, Ethiopia, including documentary of a specific boy] * [http://streetconnect.org/ Streetconnect.org] {{Wayback|url=http://streetconnect.org/ |date=20100420112442 }}: A clearing house of information for and about homeless youth * [http://www.hummingbirdmovie.com/ Hummingbird: a documentary about two NGOs in Brazil that work with street kids] * [http://www.thegoodmanproject.org/ The Goodman Project] {{Wayback|url=http://www.thegoodmanproject.org/ |date=20170619163439 }}: A foundation set up to help the street kids in India and Asia * [http://childrensrightsportal.org/focus/street-children/ Street Children] {{Wayback|url=http://childrensrightsportal.org/focus/street-children/ |date=20110923191022 }}: Article on the Children's Rights Portal {{mbegu}} [[Jamii:Elimu jamii]] [[Jamii:Umri]] [[Jamii:Haki za binadamu]] pav4tm4jlo2ojwgmj5mv9dyqe8pna7g 0 91903 1580271 1413594 2026-07-18T02:06:36Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580271 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image: Ndege wa Peponi Apus.png |thumb|right|400px|Nyota za kundinyota Ndege wa Peponi (Apus) katika sehemu yao ya angani]] '''Ndege wa Peponi''' (kwa [[Kilatini]] na [[Kiingereza]] ''[[:en:Apus|Apus]]'') <ref>[[Uhusika milikishi]] ''([[:en:genitive]])'' ya neno "Apus" katika lugha ya [[Kilatini]] ni "Apodis" na hili ni umbo la jina linaloonekana katika majina ya nyota za kundi hili kama vile Alfa Apodis, nk.</ref> ni [[jina]] la [[kundinyota]] kwenye [[nusutufe ya kusini]] ya [[dunia]] yetu. ==Mahali pake== Ndege wa Peponi liko jirani na kundinyota [[Pembetatu ya Kusini (kundinyota)| Pembetatu ya Kusini]] (''[[:en: Triangulum Australe|Triangulum Australe]]''). Pia lipo karibu na Nyota angavu la [[Rijili Kantarusi]]. ==Jina== Ndege wa Peponi linapatikana kati ya makundinyota yaliyobuniwa tangu mabaharia Wazungu walipozunguka Dunia yote katika karne ya 16 na kuona mara ya kwanza nyota ya kusini. Kundinyota hili lilielezwa mara ya kwanza na mabaharia Waholanzi [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] na Frederick de Houtman katika safari yao ya kuelekea Indonesia zikaonyeshwa mara ya kwanza mwaka 1598 katika [[globu ya nyota]] ya [[Petrus Plancius]]. Keyser alitumia jina la [[Kiholanzi]] la ''De Paradijs Voghel'' ([[Ndege wa Peponi]], wa paradiso) lililotajwa baadaye na jina la Kigirikiki „Apus“<ref>Bayer aliiiandika kwa jina "Apis Indica" inayomaanisha Nyuki wa Uhindi lakini hapa inaonekana alikosea "apis"= nyuki kwa "avis" = ndege. Johannes Kepler aliandika tayari "Avis Indica". Ling. Wagman, Morton (2003). Lost Stars: Lost, Missing and Troublesome Stars from the Catalogues of Johannes Bayer, Nicholas Louis de Lacaille, John Flamsteed, and Sundry Others. Blacksburg, Virginia: The McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company. pp. 30–32. ISBN 978-0-939923-78-6.</ref> yaani „bila miguu“ kwa sababu wataalamu wa Ulaya waliamini mwanzoni ya kwamba Ndege wa Peponi hawana miguu. Baadaye ndege hawa waliitwa "ndege wa paradiso" kutokana na rangi nyingi za kupendeza walizo nazo. Leo liko kati ya kundinyota 88 zinazoorodheshwa na [[Umoja wa Kimataifa wa Astronomia]] <ref>[https://www.iau.org/public/themes/constellations/ The Constellations] {{Wayback|url=https://www.iau.org/public/themes/constellations/ |date=20130604014156 }}, tovuti ya International Astronomical Union , iliangaliwa Julai 2017</ref> ==Nyota== Nyota angavu zaidi ni α Alfa Apodis yenye [[mwangaza unaoonekana]] wa 3.83 [[mag]] .<ref name=ridpath01>{{cite book |last = Ridpath |first = Ian |date = 2001 |title = Stars and Planets Guide |url = https://archive.org/details/starsplanets0000ridp_t5g9 |publisher = Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn = 0-691-08913-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/starsplanets0000ridp_t5g9/page/76 76]–77}}</ref> ikiwa umbali wa Dunia wa [[miakanuru]] 447 ± 8,<ref name="vanLeeuwen2007">{{cite journal | first=F. | last=van Leeuwen | title=Validation of the New Hipparcos Reduction | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | volume=474 | issue=2 | pages=653–64 | date=2007 | bibcode=2007A&A...474..653V | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20078357 | arxiv=0708.1752}}</ref> .Ni nyota jitu yenye kipenyo mara 48 kuliko Jua <ref name=aaa367_521>{{cite journal | last1=Pasinetti Fracassini | first1=L. E. | last2=Pastori | first2=L. | last3=Covino | first3=S. | last4=Pozzi | first4=A. | title=Catalogue of Apparent Diameters and Absolute Radii of Stars (CADARS) - Third edition - Comments and statistics | journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics | volume=367 | pages=524 | date=2001 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20000451 | bibcode=2001A&A...367..521P | arxiv=astro-ph/0012289}}</ref> na uangavu halisi mara 928 kulio Jua. Halijoto usoni ni 4312 K.<ref name=Mcdonald>{{cite journal|author=McDonald, I.|author2=Zijlstra, A. A.|author3=Boyer, M. L.|date=2012|title=Fundamental Parameters and Infrared Excesses of Hipparcos Stars|journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|volume=427|issue=1|pages=343–57|bibcode=2012MNRAS.427..343M|arxiv = 1208.2037 |doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21873.x }}</ref> ==Tanbihi== <references/> ==Marejeo== * Richard Hinckley Allen: Star-Names and their Meanings; kwa G. E. Stechert New York, Leipzig, London, Paris 1899, ukurasa 336 ff ([https://ia801402.us.archive.org/14/items/starnamesandthe00allegoog/starnamesandthe00allegoog.pdf online kwenye archive.org]) {{Makundinyota}} ab460n7g855vcmenwhvtsobmu3xohfy 0 92508 1580354 1418205 2026-07-18T10:04:56Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580354 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Android logo 2023 (stacked).svg|thumb|200x200px|Android logo 2023]] '''Android''' ni [[jina]] la aina ya [[mfumo wa uendeshaji|mfumo huria wa uendeshaji]] wa [[simu za mikononi]]. Mfumo huo hutumiwa hasa katika [[simujanja]], kama vile [[Google]] inavyomiliki [[Google Nexus]], vilevile [[kampuni]] nyingine zinafanya vivyohivyo ikiwa ni pamoja na [[HTC Corporation|HTC]] na [[Samsung]]. Mfumo huo wa uendeshaji umepata kutumika pia katika [[kompyuta bapa]] kama vile [[Motorola]], [[Xoom]] na [[Amazon.com|Amazon]] [[Kindle Fire]].<ref>[http://code.google.com/android/ Android Project Home]</ref> Google imetoa pia Android nyingine kama vile [[Android TV]] ya [[televisheni]], [[Android Auto]] ya [[magari]], [[Android Things]] kwa ajili ya [[vifaajanja]] na [[Wear OS]] ya [[saa ya mkononi]]. Aina nyingine za Android hutumiwa pia kwa [[michezo ya kompyuta]] na [[Kamera|kamera]] za [[Dijiti|kidijiti]]. Android mwanzoni iliundwa na [[Android Inc.]] kabla ya kununuliwa na Google mwaka [[2005]]. Matumizi rasmi ya [[Biashara|kibiashara]] yalianza mnamo Septemba [[2008]]. Toka mwaka huo Android imetoa matoleo mbalimbali. Toleo la sasa ni [[9 "Pie"]] lililotolewa Agosti [[2018]]. Android Q beta ilitolewa [[Machi 13]], [[2019]]. Programu ya msingi ya Android inaitwa Android Open Source Project (AOSP) ambayo hutolewa kwa [[Leseni ya Apache]]. Google inasema zaidi ya [[simujanja]] [[milioni]] 1.3 zenye mfumo wa Android zinauzwa kila [[siku]].<ref name="Eric Schmidt">{{cite web | title= There Are Now 1.3 Million Android Device Activations Per Day |publisher= [[:en:TechCrunch|TechCrunch]] |date= 2012-09-05 |url= https://techcrunch.com/2012/09/05/eric-schmidt-there-are-now-1-3-million-android-device-activations-per-day/ }}</ref> Hii imeifanya Android kuwa miongoni mwa mifumo ya uendeshaji wa simu inayotumika sana duniani. == Programu za Android == Programu za Android, zinaitwa [["apps" za simu za mkononi]], ambazo zinatoka [[duka]] la [[Google Play]]. Programu hizi zinatumia mtindo wa *.apk faili. Programu za Android zimetengenezwa na lugha ya [[Python]], [[C]], [[C++]], au lugha za [[Java]] lakini [[Kusano za mtumiaji]] daima hutengenezwa kwa kutumia [[Java]] na [[XML]]. Kuna apps zaidi ya milioni 2.8 zinapatikana katika Android.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.statista.com/statistics/276623/number-of-apps-available-in-leading-app-stores/|title = Number of apps on Android Devices|first = |last = |date = |website = |publisher = |accessdate = }}</ref> Kati ya programu hizi kuna apps za manufaa kama vile za kusaidia utendaji kazi wa simu kwa mfano app ya kusaidia utendaji kazi wa simu mtu akicheza michezo ya simu<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://androidhackers.net/game-booster-2x-speed-for-games/|title=Game Booster: 2X Speed for games Android Free|author=Anon|language=en-US|work=Androidhackers Net|accessdate=2018-08-13|archivedate=2018-08-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810132326/http://androidhackers.net/game-booster-2x-speed-for-games}}</ref>, burudani kama vile muziki na michezo ya simu na apps za kulaghai watumiaji au za kutumia kufanya ulaghai kama vile apps za kufichua nenosiri au kuiba mtandao wa intaneti. Ni muhimu mtu kuwa na uhakika na apps anazoziweka kwa simu yake. == Matoleo ya Android na majina yake == {{Multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | caption_align = center | image1 = Android Foldable Phone.jpg | image2 = Android Foldable.jpg | footer = [[Samsung Galaxy]] yenye toleo la Android | total_width = 350 }} Kila toleo la bidhaa la Android lina namba na jina linatokana na majina ya vitu vitamutamu. Namba za matoleo na majina yake ni: * Matoleo ya Beta: Ni Astro na Bender * 1.5: Cupcake * 1.6: Donut * 2.0 and 2.1: Eclair * 2.2: Froyo (Frozen Yogurt) * 2.3: Gingerbread * 3.x: Honeycomb (a tablet-only version) * 4.0: Ice Cream Sandwich * 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3: Jelly Bean * 4.4: KitKat * 5.0 and 5.1: Lollipop * 6.0 and 6.0.1: Marshmallow<ref>{{cite web|title=Introducing new Android OS Marshmallow 6.0|url=https://www.android.com/versions/marshmallow-6-0/|publisher=Android Official|accessdate=1 June 201|archive-date=2019-06-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609104214/https://www.android.com/versions/marshmallow-6-0/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * 7.0 and 7.1: Nougat * 8.0 and 8.1: Oreo<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://reviewstation.in/android-oreo-8-0-top-features/|2=|title=Top Oreo Features|4=|accessdate=2019-04-21|archive-date=2019-04-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421020706/https://reviewstation.in/android-oreo-8-0-top-features/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * 9.0: Pie * 10: Quince Tart * 11: Red Velvet Cake * 12: Snow Cone * 13: Tiramisu * 14: Upside Down Cake * 15: Vanilla Ice Cream {| class="wikitable" ! Jina la<br/>Toleo ! Nambali ya<br/>Toleo ! Linux Kernel<br/>inayotumika ! Tarehe ya<br/>Uzinduzi ! kiwango cha<br/>API |- | Android 1.0|(Haina Jina la Toleo)|| 1.0 | dunno | 2008 Septemba 23 || 1 |- | Android 1.1|Petit Four (jina lisilo rasmi) || 1.1 |2.6.X | 2009 Februali 9 || 2 |- | [[#Android 1.5 Cupcake (API 3)|Cupcake]] || 1.5 |2.6.27 || 2009 Aprili 27 || 3 |- | [[#Android 1.6 Donut (API 4)|Donut]] || 1.6 |2.6.29|| 2009 Septemba 15 || 4 |- | [[#Android 2.0 Eclair (API 5)|Eclair]]|| 2.0 – 2.1 |2.6.29 || 2009 Oktoba 26 || 5 – 7 |- | [[#Android 2.2 Froyo (API 8)|Froyo]] || 2.2 – 2.2.3 |2.6.32|| 2010 Mei 20 || 8 |- | [[#Android 2.3 Gingerbread (API 9)|Gingerbread]] || 2.3 – 2.3.7 |2.6.35 || 2010 Decemba 6 || 9 – 10 |- | [[#Android 3.0 Honeycomb (API 11)|Honeycomb]] || 3.0 – 3.2.6 |2.6.36|| 2011 Februari 22 || 11 – 13 |- | [[#Android 4.0 Ice Cream Sandwich (API 14)|Ice Cream Sandwich]] || 4.0 – 4.0.4 |3.0.1 || 2011 Oktoba 18 || 14 – 15 |- | [[#Android 4.1 Jelly Bean (API 16)|Jelly Bean]] || 4.1 – 4.3.1 |3.0.31 to 3.4.39 || 2012 Julai 9 || 16 – 18 |- | [[#Android 4.4 KitKat (API 19)|KitKat]] || |4.4 – 4.4.4 |3.10|| 2013 Oktoba 31 || 19 – 20<!-- See [[Android KitKat#Support status|clarification]]--> |- | [[#Android 5.0 Lollipop (API 21)|Lollipop]] || 5.0 – 5.1.1 |3.16.1 || 2014 Novemba 12 || 21 – 22 |- | [[#Android 6.0 Marshmallow (API 23)|Marshmallow]] || 6.0 – 6.0.1 |3.18.10 || 2015 Agosti 5 || 23 |- | [[#Android 7.0 Nougat (API 24)|Nougat]] || 7.0 – 7.1.2 |4.4.1 || 2016 Agosti 22 || 24 – 25 |- | [[#Android 8.0 Oreo (API 26)|Oreo]] || 8.0 – 8.1 |4.10|| 2017 Agosti 21 || 26 – 27 |- | [[#Android 9.0 Pie (API 28)|Pie]] || 9.0 || 4.4.107, 4.9.84, and 4.14.42 || 2018 Agosti 6 || 28 |- |} * Coloring Boook For Kids for Android<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.neta.mycoloring|title=Coloring Book for Kids|author=Anon|language=en-US|work=Android Studio|accessdate=2018-09-13}}</ref> == Kileta bahati == [[File:Android-robot-googleplex-2008.jpg|thumb|150px|Kileta bahati cha Android kwenye ofisi za [[Googleplex]] mwaka 2008]] Kileta bahati cha Android ni cha rangi ya kijani. Ingawa hakina jina maalum, inaaminika kuwa wafanyakazi wa Android hukiita "Bugdroid".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.neatorama.com/2012/11/29/8-Famous-Mascots-Whose-Names-You-Didnt-Know/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2017-12-31 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101082254/http://www.neatorama.com/2012/11/29/8-Famous-Mascots-Whose-Names-You-Didnt-Know/ |archivedate=January 1, 2018 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Kilibuniwa na aliyekuwa mbunifu wa Google [[Irina Blok]] Novemba 5, 2007. == Tazama pia == * [[Mfumo wa uendeshaji]] * [[Linux]] * [[Google Nexus]] * [[Google Pixel]] * [[Samsung Galaxy]] * [[Androidland]] * [[iOS]] == Marejeo == {{marejeo}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Android_(smartphone) Android (smartphone)] - Citizendium {{en}} [[Jamii:Google]] [[Jamii:Linux]] [[Jamii:Teknolojia]] 073j4vf903encbfw9bcbj4pmtl01gjs 0 92578 1580055 1152140 2026-07-17T23:32:33Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580055 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Perugino, Viaggio di Mosè in Egitto 02.jpg|thumb|Sehemu ya ''Mose akihama Misri'', [[mchoro]] wa [[Pietro Perugino]], [[1482]] hivi. Zipora amevaa [[nguo]] ya [[rangi]] ya [[buluu]].]] '''Zipora''' (kwa [[Kiebrania]] צִפוֹרָה, Tsippora au Ṣippôrā, yaani ''ndege''; kwa [[Kigiriki]] Σεπφώρα, Sepphōra; kwa [[Kiarabu]] صفورة, Ṣaffūrah) anatajwa katika [[kitabu cha Kutoka]] kama [[mke]] wa [[Mose]], na [[binti]] [[Yetro]], [[kuhani]] wa [[Midiani]].<ref name="Corduan 2013 107">{{cite book|last=Corduan|first=Winfried|title=Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions|year=2013|isbn=0-8308-7197-7|page=107}}</ref><ref name="Mackey 2009 28">{{cite book|last=Mackey|first=Sandra|title=Mirror of the Arab World: Lebanon in Conflict|year=2009|isbn=0-3933-3374-4|page=28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140251|title=MK Kara: Druze are Descended from Jews|last=Lev|first=David|date=25 October 2010|work=Israel National News|publisher=Arutz Sheva|accessdate=13 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Blumberg 1985 201">{{cite book|last=Blumberg|first=Arnold|title=Zion Before Zionism: 1838-1880|url=https://archive.org/details/zionbeforezionis0000blum|year=1985|publisher=Syracuse University Press|location=Syracuse, NY|isbn=0-8156-2336-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/zionbeforezionis0000blum/page/201 201]}}</ref><ref name="Rosenfeld 1952 290">{{cite book|last=Rosenfeld|first=Judy|title=Ticket to Israel: An Informative Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/tickettoisraelin0000rose|year=1952|page=[https://archive.org/details/tickettoisraelin0000rose/page/290 290]}}</ref> Alimzalia Mose watoto wawili wa kiume: [[Gershom]] na [[Eliezer]]. [[Mambo ya Nyakati I|Kitabu cha kwanza cha Mambo ya Nyakati]] <ref>23:16-17</ref> kinataja [[mjukuu|wajukuu]] wake wawili: [[Shebueli]], [[mwana]] wa Gershom, na [[Rehabia]], mwana wa Eliezer. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * Pardes, Ilana (1992). "Zipporah and the Struggle for Deliverance" in ''Countertraditions in the Bible: A Feminist Approach''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674175426 *{{cite web |first=John |last=Piper |authorlink=John Piper (theologian) |date=September 2007 |title=Did Moses Marry a Black Woman? |url=http://www.9marks.org/journal/did-moses-marry-black-woman |publisher=9Marks}} {{mbegu-mtu-Biblia}} [[Category:Watu wa Biblia]] [[Category:Musa]] gczcasmam5n1oz3fh9pokvix2w403tc 0 92628 1580297 1579861 2026-07-18T08:28:08Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580297 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:African print on cloth.JPG|thumb|Khanga [[Duka|dukani]].]] '''Khanga''' (au '''kanga''') ni [[vazi]] au [[nguo]] nyepesi pia ndefu ya [[rangi]] ambayo hupendwa kuvaliwa na [[wanawake]], hasa nchi za [[Afrika Mashariki]] na [[Afrika Magharibi]]. Kanga inafanana na [[Kikoi Vazi|kikoi]] ambacho kawaida huvaliwa na [[wanaume]]. Kwa kawaida kanga huwa na [[upana]] wa [[sentimita]] 150 na [[urefu]] wa sentimita 110. Kanga huweza kutumiwa kama vazi rasmi, [[kitambaa]] cha [[Kichwa|kichwani]], [[taulo]], kitambaa cha [[Meza|mezani]] na kwa shughuli mbalimbali kama kubeba [[watoto]] au kubeba mizigo kichwani. Hutumiwa pia kama [[zawadi]] kwenye [[sherehe]] za kuzaliwa, [[harusi]], sikukuku kama vile Eid n.k.<ref name=":1">{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/34052769|title=The art of African textiles : technology, tradition, and lurex|last=John.|first=Picton,|date=1995|publisher=Barbican Art Gallery|others=Becker, Rayda., Barbican Art Gallery.|isbn=0853316821|location=London|oclc=34052769}}</ref> Hutolewa pia kwa [[familia]] iliyofiwa na [[ndugu]] yao nchini [[Tanzania]] na hata Kenya. Mwanzoni kanga ilikuwa ikirembwa kwa vitone vidogo ambavyo vilionekana na [[unyonya|manyonya]] ya [[Ndege (mnyama)|ndege]] aina ya [[kanga]]. Ndiyo sababu ilipewa [[jina]] hili, kwa sasa Kanga inarembeshwa kwa chapa za maua, majani na hata matunda. Kanga huwa na sehemu tatu: ''pindo'', ''mji'' (sehemu ya kati), na ''ujumbe''. [[Ujumbe]] mara nyingi huwa ni [[kitendawili]] au [[fumbo]]. Ujumbe huo kwenye kanga hutumika kupitisha ujumbe au fumbo kwa mtu, mfano mke kwa mumewe au swahiba kwa swahibae au kwa swahiba/marafiki, ujumbe unaweza kuwa kwa nia ya kumshukuru, kumkanya, kutoa hongera au kwa ajili ya mapenzi. Hii ni mifano ya ujumbe wa kwenye kanga. *''Majivuno hayafai''f<ref name="translations">{{cite web |url=http://www.erieartmuseum.org/exhibits/exhibits2008/kanga/documents/Translations.pdf |title=Alphabetical List of Inscriptions and Their Translations: Kanga & Kitenge: Cloth and Culture in East Africa |publisher=[[Erie Art Museum]] |accessdate=18 December 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/69pcPEZ7C?url=http://www.erieartmuseum.org/exhibits/exhibits2008/kanga/documents/Translations.pdf |archivedate=11 August 2012 |df= }}</ref> *''Mkipendana mambo huwa sawa'' *''Japo sipati tamaa sikati'' <ref name="translations" /> *''Wazazi ni dhahabu kuwatunza ni thawabu'': <ref name="translations" /> *''Sisi sote abiria dereva ni Mungu''<ref name="translations" /> *''Fimbo la mnyonge halina nguvu''<ref>{{cite news |last=Howden |first=Daniel |title=Kangalicious: Let your dress do the talking |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/news/kangalicious-let-your-dress-do-the-talking-1820408.html |work=The Independent |date=14 November 2009 |accessdate=14 November 2009 |quote=Anyone wearing a kanga with the proverb Fimbo La Mnyonge Halina Nguvu" (Might is Right) may know something about the darker side of the garment's journey from the coast into the interior.}}</ref> *''Mwanamke mazingira tunataka, usawa, amani, maendeleo''<ref name="translations" /> *''Naogopa simba na meno yake siogopi mtu kwa maneno yake''<ref name="translations" />. *''Leo ni siku ya shangwe na vigelegele'' *Subira huvuta kheri. *Wawili wakipenda adui hana nafasi. *Hakuna kama mama. ==Asili== Kanga imekuwa vazi la jadi linalovaliwa makhsusi na wanawake katika Pwani ya Afrika Mashariki tangu karne ya 19. <ref>https://www.glcom.com/hassan/kanga_history.html</ref> ===Merikani=== Kulingana na baadhi ya vyanzo, kanga zilitokamana na kitambaa cheupe kisichokua na rangi kilichoagiziwa kutoka Marekani. Kitambaa hicho kilijulikana Zanzibar kwa jina la Merikani, nomino ya kiswahili ilotokamana na kivumishi '''''American''' (Mmarekani) ikionesha jina la nchi kilikotokea.'' Ili kukifanya kiwe na muonekano wa kike zaidi, watwana (watumwa wa kike) wakati mwengine wakikipaka rangi nyeusi au buluu iliokolea kwa kutumia rangi ya asili ya zambarau iliopatikana katika maeneo hayo. Merikani ilotiwa rangi hio iliitwa kaniki. Baada ya utumwa kufungwa rasmi mwaka 1897, kanga zilitumika kama namna za kuwawezesha wanawake kujitambulisha na kuonesha kwamba mvaaji ni mwenye kumiliki mali yake binafsi na mwenye kujitegemea.<ref>ISBN&#x20;<bdi>9780821413845</bdi></ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons category|Kanga}} *[http://www.glcom.com/hassan/kanga/kanga1.html Picha za kanga] *[http://www.glcom.com/hassan/kanga.html Ujumbe wa kanga] {{mbegu-utamaduni}} [[Jamii:Mavazi]] [[Jamii:Utamaduni wa Afrika]] llsrh351l3jd5c0noi5s49e49sruzt1 0 92847 1580063 1575937 2026-07-17T23:38:08Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580063 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Graduale Aboense 2.jpg|thumb|[[Wimbo wa mwanzo]] ''Gaudeamus omnes'', ulioandikwa kwa [[nota]] maalumu za mraba katika [[karne ya 14]] au [[karne ya 15|15]].]] {{Ukristo}} '''Muziki wa Kigregori''' ni aina nyofu ya [[muziki wa Kikristo]] inayotumia [[sauti]] [[moja]] tu tena bila ya kusindikizwa na [[ala]] yoyote. Ndio muziki rasmi wa [[Kanisa la Kilatini]]<ref name=Catholic>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/v8.html The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Second Vatican Council] {{Wayback|url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/v8.html |date=20170908060338 }}; [[Pope Benedict XVI]]: [http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=44963 Catholic World News 28&nbsp;June&nbsp;2006] both accessed 5&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006</ref> ambao ulistawi [[Ulaya magharibi]] na [[Ulaya ya Kati|ya kati]] katika [[karne ya 9]] na [[Karne ya 10|ya 10]]. [[Jina]] linatokana na [[hadithi]] ya kwamba [[Papa Gregori I]] ndiye aliyeagiza utumike [[Kanisa|kanisani]]. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * ''Graduale triplex'' (1979). Tournai: Desclée& Socii. ISBN 2-85274-094-X * ''Graduale Novum'', Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2011 ISBN 978-3-940768-15-5 * ''Graduale Lagal'' (1984 / 1990) Chris Hakkennes, Stichting Lagal Utrecht ISBN 90-800408-2-7 * ''Liber usualis'' (1953). Tournai: Desclée& Socii. * [http://www.musicasacra.com/pdf/liberusualis.pdf Liber Usualis (1961) in PDF format] (115 MB) * {{cite book |last=Apel |first=Willi |year=1990 |title=Gregorian Chant |publisher=Indiana University Press |location=Bloomington, Indiana |isbn=0-253-20601-4}} * {{cite web |last=Chew |first=Geoffrey |last2=Szendrei |first2=Richard Rastall, David Hiley and Janka |url=http://www.grovemusic.com |title=Notation |work=Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy |accessdate=27 June 2006 |archivedate=2007-07-21 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5QVcssKES?url=http://www.grovemusic.com/ }} * {{cite book |last=Crocker |first=Richard |title=The Early Medieval Sequence |url=https://archive.org/details/earlymedievalseq0000croc |publisher=University of California Press |year=1977 |isbn=0-520-02847-3 }} * {{cite web |last=Dyer |first=Joseph |url=http://www.grovemusic.com |title=Roman Catholic Church Music |pages=Section VI.1 |work=Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy |accessdate=28 June 2006 |archivedate=2007-07-21 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5QVcssKES?url=http://www.grovemusic.com/ }} * {{cite book |last=Grout |first=Donald |title=A History of Western Music |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofwestern0000grou_r4s8 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Co. |location=New York |year=1960 |isbn=0-393-09537-1 }} * {{cite book |last=Hiley |first=David |year=1990 |chapter=Chant |title=Performance Practice: Music before 1600 |url=https://archive.org/details/performancepract0000unse_y1a4 |editor-first=Howard Mayer |editor-last=Brown |editor2-first=Stanley |editor2-last=Sadie |pages=[https://archive.org/details/performancepract0000unse_y1a4/page/n52 37]–54 |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-02807-0}} * {{cite book |last=Hiley |first=David |title=Western Plainchant: A Handbook | publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-19-816572-2}} * {{cite book |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Hoppin |title=Anthology of Medieval Music |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalmusic00hopp |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=1978 |isbn=0-393-09080-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Hoppin |first=Richard |title=Medieval Music |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalmusic00hopp |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=1978 |isbn=0-393-09090-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Le Mée |first=Katharine |title=Chant: The Origins, Form, Practice, and Healing Power of Gregorian Chant |url=https://archive.org/details/chantoriginsform0000leme |publisher=Harmony |year=1994 |isbn=0-517-70037-9 }} * {{cite web |last=Levy |first=Kenneth |url=http://www.grovemusic.com |title=Plainchant |pages=Section VI.1 |work=Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy |accessdate=20 January 2006 |archivedate=2007-07-21 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5QVcssKES?url=http://www.grovemusic.com/ }} * {{cite journal |last=Mahrt |first=William P |title=Gregorian Chant as a Paradigm of Sacred Music |journal=Sacred Music |volume=133 |issue=3 |pages=5–14 |url=http://www.musicasacra.com/publications/sacredmusic/133/1/1_1.html }} *{{cite book |last=Mahrt |first=William P. |year=2000 |chapter=Chant |title=A Performer's Guide to Medieval Music |editor-first=Ross |editor-last=Duffin |pages=1–22 |location=Bloomington, Indiana |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=0-253-33752-6}} * {{cite book |editor-last=McKinnon |editor-first=James |title= Antiquity and the Middle Ages |publisher=Prentice Hall |year=1990 |isbn=0-13-036153-4}} * {{cite web |last=McKinnon |first=James W |url=http://www.grovemusic.com |title=Christian Church, music of the early |work=Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy |accessdate=11 July 2006 |archivedate=2007-07-21 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5QVcssKES?url=http://www.grovemusic.com/ }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Neuls-Bates |editor-first=Carol |year=1996 |title=Women in Music |url=https://archive.org/details/womeninmusicanth0000neul |publisher=Northeastern University Press |location=Boston |isbn=1-55553-240-3 }} * {{cite web |last=Novum |first=Canticum |url=http://interletras.com/canticum/Eng/index1_Eng.html |title=Lessons on Gregorian Chant: Notation, characteristics, rhythm, modes, the psalmody and scores |accessdate=11 July 2006 }} * {{cite book |last=Parrish |first=Carl |year=1986 |title=A Treasury of Early Music |url=https://archive.org/details/treasuryofearlym0000unse_q6g3 |publisher=Dover Publications, Inc. |location=Mineola, New York |isbn=0-486-41088-9}} * {{cite book |editor-last= Robinson |editor-first=Ray |title= Choral Music |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_0393090620 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |year=1978 |isbn=0-393-09062-0}} * {{cite book |last=Wagner |first=Peter |year=1911 |title=Einführung in die Gregorianischen Melodien. Ein Handbuch der Choralwissenschaft |url=https://archive.org/details/einfhrungindie02wagn |language=de |location=Leipzig |publisher=Breitkopf & Härtel }} * {{cite journal |last=Ward |first=Justine Bayard |title=The Reform in Church Music |journal=The Atlantic Monthly |date=April 1906 |volume=97 |pages=455-463}} [http://www.musicasacra.com/publications/sacredmusic/pdf/ward.pdf Reprint] at MusicaSacra.com website (accessed 20 January 2014). * {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=David |title= Music of the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/musicofmiddleage0000wils | publisher=Schirmer Books |year=1990 |isbn=0-02-872951-X}} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Gregorian chant}} * [http://interletras.com/canticum/Eng/index1_Eng.html Canticum Novum, Lessons on Gregorian Chant] – Notation, characteristics, rhythm, modes, the psalmody and scores * "[http://musicasacra.com/communio/ Sheet Music, Chant Books, Hymns for download]" from musicasacra.com ([[Church Music Association of America]]) * The [https://archive.org/details/TheLiberUsualis1961 1961 ''Liber Usualis''] compares, ''inter alia'', modern and chant notations. It is also a handy reference for all the types of neumes. * [http://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/music/Gregorian%20Chant/greg_chant.pdf Singing Gregorian Chant: Pitch and Mode] {{Wayback|url=http://www.u.arizona.edu/~aversa/music/Gregorian%20Chant/greg_chant.pdf |date=20160305092130 }} * [http://www.thecatholicchoirbook.com/ Free Gregorian Chant School Online] {{Wayback|url=http://www.thecatholicchoirbook.com/ |date=20170913102708 }} * [http://sites.google.com/site/gregorianicantus/Home Gregoriani Cantus. Gregorian Chant Free Fonts under Creative Commons License (Spanish)] * [http://www.communityofjesus.org/worship/gregorian-chant/ The Divine Office in Latin at the Community of Jesus] {{Wayback|url=http://www.communityofjesus.org/worship/gregorian-chant/ |date=20140626111609 }} * [http://gregoriano.Paulinyi.com Course for Gregorian Chant in Brasília] * [http://digitalcollections.library.ubc.ca/cdm/landingpage/collection/logrono Spanish Chant Manuscript] – A collection of Gregorian chants, hymns and psalms (Spain, 1575–1625) from the UBC Library Digital Collections * Concertzender Gregoriaans Radio – [http://streams.greenhost.nl:8080/gregoriaans.m3u live stream] * [http://www.gregor-und-taube.de/index.html] Website of Anton Stingl jun. including articles and editions of Sankt Gallen notations * [http://www.aiscgre.de German speaking section of AISCGre] * [http://www.aiscgre.it Italian section of AISCGre] * [https://verbumchanting.wixsite.com/main "The living textbook" on the choral notation of the Gregorian chant] {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Muziki]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Kanisa Katoliki]] barl20tow3l6slq09b77crsrlet8jw5 0 93615 1580107 1574363 2026-07-18T00:10:19Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580107 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Synaxis of the Twelve Apostles by Constantinople master (early 14th c., Pushkin museum).jpg|thumb|Mkusanyiko wa Mitume Thenashara. [[Picha takatifu]] ya karne ya 14, [[Moscow]], [[Russia]].]] {{Ukristo}} '''Primasia''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] "Primacy", kutokana na [[Kilatini]] "Primus", yaani "wa kwanza") ni [[msamiati]] wa [[teolojia]] ya [[Ukristo]] ambao unajaribu kueleza kwa nini baadhi ya [[Askofu|maaskofu]] wana [[mamlaka]] juu ya wenzao, hasa [[Papa]] wa [[Roma]] kuwa na mamlaka juu ya maaskofu wote wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]]. Uwepo wa mamlaka ya namna hiyo unakubaliwa na [[Waorthodoksi]], [[Waorthodoksi wa Mashariki]], [[Wakatoliki wa Kale]] na [[Waanglikana]], ambao wote wana [[askofu mkuu|maaskofu wakuu]] na hata [[patriarki|Mapatriarki]] wenye mamlaka juu ya maaskofu wakuu. Tofauti zinajitokeza katika kueleza [[asili]] na [[utekelezaji]] wake unaotakiwa kuendana na [[usinodi]]. Kwa Wakatoliki, primasia ilitakwa na [[Yesu]] mwenyewe katika kuchagua [[Mitume wa Yesu|mitume wake]] pamoja na mkuu wao, [[Simoni Petro]], ambaye katika orodha zao zote [[nne]] zilizomo katika [[Agano Jipya]] anawatangulia wenzake, tena [[Injili ya Mathayo]] 10:1-4 inasema wazi kwamba ndiye "wa kwanza". Madondoo mengine yanayotumiwa na Wakatoliki kama uthibitisho ni [[Math]] 16:17‑19 [[Lk]] 22:32 na [[Yoh]] 21:15‑17. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist|20em}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|30em}} *{{cite wikisource|class=book|ref={{sfnRef|Augustine|''On 1 John''}}|author=Augustine of Hippo|editor1-last=Schaff|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-last=Wace|editor2-first=Henry|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|series=Series 1|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|edition=American|year=1888|volume=7|chapter=Gospel According to St. John/Part 10|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume VII|at=Tractate 10}} *{{cite wikisource|class=book|ref={{sfnRef|Augustine|''Donatists''}}|author=Augustine of Hippo|editor1-last=Schaff|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-last=Wace|editor2-first=Henry|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|series=Series 1|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|edition=American|year=1887|volume=4|chapter=The Correction of the Donatists/Chapter 10|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume IV/Donatist Controversy}} *{{cite wikisource|class=book|ref={{sfnRef|Augustine|''On Christian doctrine''}}|author=Augustine of Hippo|editor1-last=Schaff|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-last=Wace|editor2-first=Henry|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|series=Series 1|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|edition=American|year=1887|volume=2|chapter=On Christian Doctrine/Book I/Chapter 18|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume II}} *{{cite wikisource|class=book|ref={{sfnRef|Augustine|''On Gospel of John''}}|author=Augustine of Hippo|editor1-last=Schaff|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-last=Wace|editor2-first=Henry|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|series=Series 1|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|edition=American|year=1888|volume=7|chapter=Gospel According to St. John/Part 124|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume VII|at=Tractate 124}} *{{cite encyclopedia|ref={{sfnRef|Beal et al.|2000}}|editor1-last=Beal|editor1-first=John P|editor2-last=Coriden|editor2-first=James A|editor3-last=Green|editor3-first=Thomas J|year=2000|encyclopedia=New commentary on the Code of Canon Law|edition=study|location=New York|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=0-8091-0502-0}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Boadt|first=Lawrence|year=2008|title=The life of St. Paul|location=Mahwah, NJ|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-0519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=93FSZsiM5cAC&pg=PA88}} *{{cite encyclopedia|ref={{sfnRef|Caparros et al.|1993}}|editor1-last=Caparros|editor1-first=Ernest|editor2-last=Thériault|editor2-first=Michel|editor3-last=Thorn|editor3-first=Jean|year=1993|encyclopedia=Code of Canon Law annotated: Latin-English edition of the Code of Canon Law and English-language translation of the 5th Spanish-language edition of the commentary prepared under the responsibility of the Instituto Martín de Azpilcueta|location=Montréal|publisher=Wilson & Lafleur|isbn=2-89127-232-3|title=Canon 331|pages=272–273|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mgmAQAAMAAJ}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Carlton|first=Clark|year=1999|title=The truth: what every Roman Catholic should know about the Orthodox Church|series=|location=Salisbury, MA|publisher=Regina Orthodox Press|isbn=978-0-9649141-8-6|url=https://archive.org/details/truthwhateveryro0000clar}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Carson|first=Donald A.|year=1984|title=The expositor's Bible commentary: with the New International Version|volume=2|edition=|location=Grand Rapids, MI|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0-310-49961-9|url=}} *{{cite encyclopedia|ref={{sfnRef|CIC|1983}}|author=Catholic Church|year=1999|origyear=©1998|encyclopedia=Code of canon law: new English translation|version=IntraText|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Canon Law Society of America|isbn=0-943616-79-4|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_INDEX.HTM|via=vatican.va}} *{{cite encyclopedia|ref={{sfnRef|CCEO|1990}}|author=Catholic Church|year=|origyear=©1992|encyclopedia=Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches|version=IntraText|location=Washington, DC|publisher=Canon Law Society of America|isbn=978-0-943616-52-0|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG1199/_INDEX.HTM|via=intratext.com}} *{{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|CDF|1998}}|author=Catholic Church. Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith|date=1998-10-31|title=The primacy of the successor of Peter in the Mystery of the Church|website=vatican.va|location=Vatican City|publisher=|publication-date=|url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19981031_primato-successore-pietro_en.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101208164458/http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19981031_primato-successore-pietro_en.html|archivedate=2010-12-08|deadurl=no}} *{{cite book|ref={{sfnRef|CDF|2007}}|author1=Catholic Church. Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith|last2=Levada|first2=William|authorlink2=William Levada|date=2007-06-29|title=Responses to some questions regarding certain aspects of the Doctrine on the Church|website=vatican.va|location=Vatican City|publisher=|url=http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20070629_responsa-quaestiones_en.html|archiveurl=|archivedate=|deadurl=no}} *{{cite book|ref={{sfnRef|PA}}|author=Catholic Church. Vatican Council I|date=1870-07-18|title=First dogmatic constitution on the church of Christ: Pastor aeternus|url=http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0063/_PD.HTM|deadurl=no|location=Rome|publisher=Èulogos SpA|edition=IntraText|publication-date=2007|accessdate=2015-05-25|via=The IntraText Digital Library}} Translation taken from {{cite book|location=London|publisher=Sheed & Ward|editor-last=Tanner|editor-first=Norman P.|title=Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils|url=https://archive.org/details/decreesofecumeni0002unse|year=1990|isbn=0-87840-490-2}} *{{cite book|ref={{sfnRef|LG}}|author1=Catholic Church. Vatican Council II|author2=Paul VI|date=1964-11-21|title=Lumen gentium|location=Vatican City|publisher=|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html}} *{{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|catholicculture.org|2007}}|date=2007-11-14|title=Ecumenical talks reach partial accord on papal primacy|website=catholicculture.org|location=Manassas, VA|publisher=Trinity Communications|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/news/features/index.cfm?recnum=54768|access-date=2009-01-22|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101205193810/http://www.catholicculture.org/news/features/index.cfm?recnum=54768|archivedate=2010-12-05|deadurl=no}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Clapsis|first=Emmanuel|year=2000|title=Orthodoxy in conversation: Orthodox ecumenical engagements|location=Geneva|publisher=World Council of Churches|isbn=978-2-8254-1337-1}} Reprinted in {{cite web|date=|title=Papal primacy|website=goarch.org|location=New York|publisher=Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America|publication-date=|url=http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8523|access-date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203104411/http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8523|archivedate=2008-12-03|deadurl=no}} *{{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|''orthodoxanswers.org''}}|editor-last=Cleenewerck|editor-first=Laurent|date=|title=An Orthodox Christian historical timeline|website=orthodoxanswers.org|location=Eureka, CA|publisher=St. Innocent Orthodox Church|url=http://www.orthodoxanswers.org/history|access-date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101223102513/http://orthodoxanswers.org/history|archivedate=2010-12-23|deadurl=no}} *{{cite book|ref={{sfnRef|Cleenewerck|2009}}|last=Cleenewerck|first=Laurent|title=His Broken Body: Understanding and Healing the Schism Between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oeKOUb6OcG4C&pg=PA155|accessdate=28 October 2012|date=2009|edition=revised|publisher=Euclid University Press|isbn=978-0-615-18361-9}} *{{cite web|ref=harv|last=Colina|first=Jesús|date=2009-10-23|title=Orthodox-Catholic commission studies primacy of Peter|website=zenit.org|location=|publisher=|url=http://www.zenit.org/article-27320?l=english|access-date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027020136/http://www.zenit.org/article-27320|archivedate=2009-10-27|deadurl=no|accessdate=2017-10-11}} *{{cite web|ref=harv|last=Collins|first=Paul|title=Stress on papal primacy led to exaggerated clout for a pope among equals|website=natcath.org|location=|publisher=National Catholic Reporter|date=1997-10-24|url=http://natcath.org/NCR_Online/archives2/1997d/102497/102497f.htm|accessdate=2009-01-20}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Congar|first=Yves|year=1984|others=Translated by John Bowden|title=Diversity and communion|location=London|publisher=SMC Press|isbn=978-0-334-00311-3|pages=26–27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ej4tAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22regular+jurisdiction%22}} *{{cite web|ref=harv|last=Conte|first=Ronald L.|date=2006-03-03|title=The limits of the magisterium|website=catholicplanet.com|location=|publisher=|publication-date=|url=http://www.catholicplanet.com/TSM/limits-magisterium.htm|access-date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615184618/http://catholicplanet.com/TSM/limits-magisterium.htm|archivedate=2006-06-15|deadurl=no}} *{{cite wikisource|class=book|ref={{sfnRef|Council Of Chalcedon}}|author=Council Of Chalcedon|editor1-last=Schaff|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-last=Wace|editor2-first=Henry|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|series=Series 2|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|edition=American|year=1900|volume=14|chapter=Extracts from the Acts 1|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume XIV/The Fourth Ecumenical Council}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=D'Agostino|first=Michele G.|year=2008|title=Il primato della sede di Roma in Leone IX (1049–1054): studio dei testi latini nella controversia greco-romana nel periodo pregregoriano|language=Italian|series=Storia della Chiesa|volume=24|location=Cinisello Balsamo, IT|publisher=San Paolo|isbn=978-88-215-6062-0|page=}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Davis|first=Leo D.|year=1990|orig-year=|title=The first seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): their history and theology|series=Theology and life series|volume=21|location=Collegeville, MN|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5616-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMhzlnY0P0QC&pg=PA1}} *{{cite encyclopedia|ref={{sfnRef|DH}}|editor1-last=Denzinger|editor1-first=Heinrich|editor2-last=Hünermann|editor2-first=Peter|editor3-last=Fastiggi|editor3-first=Robert L.|editor4-last=Nash|editor4-first=Anne Englund|display-editors=2|year=2012|encyclopedia=Enchiridion symbolorum: a compendium of creeds, definitions and declarations of the Catholic Church|edition=43rd|location=San Francisco|publisher=Ignatius Press|isbn=0-89870-746-3}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Dvornik|first=Francis|year=1966|title=Byzantium and the Roman primacy|location=New York|publisher=Fordham University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WwfZAAAAMAAJ}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Dvornik|first=Francis|year=1979|orig-year=|title=Byzantium and the Roman primacy|others=Translated by Edwin A. Quain|edition=2nd print with corrections|location=New York|publisher=Fordham University Press|isbn=978-0-8232-0701-5|url=https://archive.org/details/byzantiumromanp00dvor}} *{{cite wikisource|class=book|ref={{sfnRef|Eusebius|''Church history''}}|author=Eusebius Pamphili|editor1-last=Schaff|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-last=Wace|editor2-first=Henry|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|series=Series 2|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|edition=American|year= |volume=1|chapter=Book V|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume I/Church History of Eusebius/}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Evans|first=Gillian R.|year=1986|title=The thought of Gregory the Great|series=Cambridge studies in medieval life and thought, 4th series|volume=2|edition=Reprint|publication-date=1999|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-30904-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=276qdQQzzXIC&pg=PA128}} *{{cite encyclopedia|ref=harv|editor-last=Farmer|editor-first=David H.|year=2004|orig-year=2003|title=Peter (1)|encyclopedia=The Oxford dictionary of saints|edition=5th|location=Oxford [u.a.]|publisher=Oxford University Press|series=Oxford paperback reference|isbn=978-0-19-860949-0|pages=|url=https://www.google.com/search?q=Farmer+%22is+not+explicitly+affirmed%22&btnG=Search+Books&tbm=bks&tbo=1}} *{{cite conference|ref={{sfnRef|ARCIC I|1976}}|author=First Anglican–Roman Catholic International Commission|year=1977|title=Agreed Statement on Authority in the Church|conference=Authority in the Church I, August 24 – September 2, 1976|location=Venice, IT|publisher=|url=https://iarccum.org/doc/?d=4|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6YnQiNA2W?url=https://iarccum.org/doc/?d=4|archivedate=2015-05-25|deadurl=no|access-date=2017-10-11}} *{{cite conference|ref={{sfnRef|ARCIC I|1981}}|author=First Anglican–Roman Catholic International Commission|date=1981-09-03|title=Agreed Statement on Authority in the Church|conference=Authority in the Church II, August 24 – September 2, 1981|location=Windsor, GB|publisher=|url=https://iarccum.org/doc/?d=7|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6YnQb2Xny?url=https://iarccum.org/doc/?d=7|archivedate=2015-05-25|deadurl=no|access-date=2017-10-11}} *{{cite wikisource|class=book|ref={{sfnRef|Gregory I|''to Mauricius Augustus''}}|author=Gregory I|editor1-last=Schaff|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-last=Wace|editor2-first=Henry|plaintitle=A select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian Church|series=Series 2|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|edition=American|year=1895|volume=12|chapter=Register of Epistles/Book VII/Chapter 21|wslink=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series II/Volume XII/Gregory the Great|at=Letter 33 (to Mauricius Augustus)}} *{{cite wikisource|class=book|ref={{sfnRef|Gregory I|''to Eulogius''}}|author=Gregory 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Blume|editor2-last=Kearley|editor2-first=Timothy|others=Translated by Fred H. Blume|encyclopedia=Annotated Justinian code|url=http://www.uwyo.edu/lawlib/blume-justinian/ajc-edition-2/novels/121-140/novel%20131_replacement.pdf|access-date=2015-05-31|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150531164310/http://www.uwyo.edu/lawlib/blume-justinian/ajc-edition-2/novels/121-140/novel%20131_replacement.pdf|archivedate=2015-05-31|deadurl=no|edition=electronic version of 2nd|location=Laramie, WY|publisher=University of Wyoming College of Law|publication-date=2009|oclc=189852432}} *{{cite encyclopedia|ref=harv|year=2010|orig-year=|last=Kelly|first=John N. D.|author-link=John Norman Davidson Kelly|title=Gregory I, St|editor-last=Walsh|editor-first=Michael J.|encyclopedia=The Oxford dictionary of popes|edition=2nd|location=Oxford [u.a.]|publisher=Oxford University Press|series=Oxford paperback reference|isbn=978-0-19-929581-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uVmcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA64}} *{{cite web|ref=harv|last=Knox|first=Ellis L.|year=1999|title=The papacy|website=the-orb.net|location=|publisher=Online Resource Book for Medieval Studies|oclc=35987956|url=http://www.the-orb.net/textbooks/westciv/papacy.html|access-date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20030918013403/http://the-orb.net/textbooks/westciv/papacy.html|archivedate=2003-09-18|deadurl=no}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Lançon|first=Bertrand|authorlink=Bertrand Lançon|others=Translated by Antonia Nevill|year=2000|title=Rome in late antiquity: everyday life and urban change, AD 312-609|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-92975-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaTzyXVX-NgC&pg=PA27}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Larchet|first=Jean-Claude|year=2006|chapter=The question of the Roman primacy in the thought of Saint Maximus the Confessor|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=3mxbj99yRaQC&pg=PA188|others=Translated by Brian Farrell|editor-last=Kasper|editor-first=Walter|title=The Petrine ministry: Catholics and Orthodox in dialogue: academic symposium held at the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity|url=|accessdate=22 December 2011|publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-4334-4|quote=The question of the primacy of the Roman pope has been and remains, together with the question of the Filioque, one of the main causes of separation between the Latin Church and the Orthodox churches and one of the principal obstacles to their union.}} *{{cite web|ref=harv|last=Larson|first=James|year=2003|title=Vatican I and the papal primacy|website=catholicculture.org|location=Manassas, VA|publisher=Trinity Communications|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?id=4748|access-date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526001111/http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?id=4748|archivedate=2015-05-26|deadurl=no}} Reprint of {{cite journal|last=|first=|date=June 2003|title=An exposition of Vatican I's teaching on papal primacy in its ''Dogmatic Constitution of the Church of Christ (Pastor Aeternus)''|journal=Homiletic & pastoral review|issn=0018-4268|volume=|issue=|location=San Francisco, CA|publisher=Ignatius Press|pages=50–55}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Lossky|first=Vladimir|authorlink=Vladimir Lossky|year=1976|orig-year=1957|title=The mystical theology of the Eastern Church|edition=reprint|others=Translated by members of the Fellowship of St. Alban and St. Sergius|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=978-0-913836-31-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxqvWwPSCSwC&pg=PA176}} *{{cite book|ref={{sfnRef|Mansi|''Concilium Remense''}}|chapter=Concilium Remense|year=1902|orig-year=1774|editor-last=Mansi|editor-first=Giovanni D.|editor-link=Giovanni Domenico Mansi|title=Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio|language=Latin|volume=19|edition=facsimile|location=Paris|publisher=H. 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Scott|edition=|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Blackie and Son|oclc=|page=27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afgpAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA27|accessdate=2011-11-01}} This work is found in numerous revisions. *{{cite book|ref=harv|editor-last=Meyendorff|editor-first=John|year=1995|orig-year=1963|title=The primacy of Peter: essays in ecclesiology and the early church|edition=reprinted and rev.|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=978-0-88141-125-6|url=https://archive.org/details/primacyofpeteres0000unse}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Miller|first1=J. 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Bromiley|encyclopedia=The encyclopedia of Christianity|location=Grand Rapids, MI|publisher=Eerdmans|volume=4|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA272}} *{{cite web|ref=harv|last=Shaw|first=Russell|date=2000|title=The battle over primacy|website=catholicculture.org|location=Manassas, VA|publisher=Trinity Communications|url=https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=3218|access-date=|archiveurl=|archivedate=|deadurl=no}} Reprint of {{cite journal|last1=|first1=|author-link1=|date=January 2000|title=The battle over primacy|journal=Crisis|volume=|issue=|location=Notre Dame, IN|publisher=Morley Publishing Group|pages=25–27|issn=1535-332X}} *{{cite book|last1=Shotwell|first1=James T.|last2=Loomis|first2=Louise Ropes|year=1927|title=The See of Peter|series=Records of civilization, sources and studies|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|oclc=614952967|url=https://archive.org/details/seeofpeter02shot|ref=harv}} *{{cite web|ref=harv|last=Speciale|first=Alessandro|date=2011-09-25|title=Ratzinger's Ecumenism between light and shadows|website=vaticaninsider.lastampa.it|location=Turin, IT|publisher=La Stampa|publication-date=|url=http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/en/homepage/inquiries-and-interviews/detail/articolo/germania-germany-alemania-8380/|access-date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731130439/http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/en/inquiries-and-interviews/detail/articolo/germania-germany-alemania-8380/|archivedate=2013-07-31|deadurl=no}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Ray|first=Stephen K.|year=1999|title=Upon this rock: St. Peter and the primacy of Rome in scripture and the early church|series=Modern apologetics library|edition=|location=San Francisco|publisher=Ignatius Press|isbn=978-0-89870-723-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RnQiVgUn728C&pg=PA11}} *{{cite web|ref=harv|last=Reilly|first=Patrick J.|website=catholicculture.org|location=Manassas, VA|publisher=Trinity Communications|year=2005|title=Teaching euthanasia|url=http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=6635|access-date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140920120312/http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=6635|archivedate=2014-09-20|deadurl=no}} Reprint of {{cite journal|last=Reilly|first=Patrick J.|date=June 2005|title=Teaching euthanasia|journal=Crisis|volume=|issue=|location=Notre Dame, IN|publisher=Morley Publishing Group|pages=28–35|issn=1535-332X}} *{{cite book|ref={{sfnRef|Sanchez|1968}}|last=Sánchez|first=Jesús Hortal|year=1968|orig-year=|title=De Initio potestatis primatialis romani pontificis: investigatio historico-juridica a tempore Sancti Gregorii Magni usque ad tempus Clementis V|language=Latin|series=Analecta Gregoriana|volume=167|location=Rome|publisher=Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana|oclc=864705|url=}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Schatz|first=Klaus|year=1996|chapter=The development of the primacy in the first five centuries|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=IeH4OKYflbkC&pg=PA1|title=Papal primacy: from its origins to the present|others=Translated by John A. Otto and Linda M. Maloney|location=Collegeville, MN|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5522-1}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Schimmelpfennig|first=Bernhard|year=1992|title=The papacy|others=Translated by James Sievert|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-07515-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05HtCjTpAFsC&pg=PA27}} *{{Catholic|prescript=|last=Shahan|first=Thomas|title=First Council of Constantinople|volume=4|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04308a.htm}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Sherrard|first=Philip|year=1978|title=Church, papacy, and schism: a theological enquiry|location=London|publisher=S.P.C.K.|isbn=978-0-281-03620-2|url=https://archive.org/details/churchpapacyschi0000sher}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Tajra|first=Harry W.|year=1994|title=The martyrdom of St. Paul: historical and judicial context, traditions, and legends|series=Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament, 2|volume=67|location=Tübingen|publisher=Mohr|issn=0340-9570|isbn=978-3-16-146239-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d--2wss0t1cC&pg=PA180}} *{{cite wikisource|ref={{sfnRef|Tertullian|''On modesty'', 21}}|class=book|editor1-last=Schaff|editor1-first=Philip|editor2-last=Roberts|editor2-first=Alexander|editor3-last=Donaldson|editor3-first=James|editor4-last=Coxe|editor4-first=A. Cleveland|display-editors=1|plaintitle=The Ante-Nicene Fathers: the writings of the fathers down to A.D. 325|location=Buffalo|publisher=Christian Literature|edition=American|year=1885|volume=4|author=Tertullian|chapter=On Modesty/Chapter 21|wslink=Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume IV/Tertullian: Part Fourth}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Thompson|first=Ernest T.|year=1965|title=Through the ages: a history of the Christian church|series=Covenant life curriculum|location=Richmond, VA|publisher=CLC Press|isbn=|oclc=|url=https://archive.org/details/throughageshisto0000erne_n2x5|page=}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Ware|first=Timothy|author-link=|year=1993|title=The Orthodox Church|series=Penguin religion and mythology|edition=New|location=London [u.a.]|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-014656-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f7D-5Q-Q19MC&pg=PA28}} *{{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|Webster}}|last=Webster|first=William A.|date=|title=The Church Fathers' interpretation of the Rock of Matthew 16:18&thinsp;: an historical refutation of the claims of Roman Catholicism|website=the-highway.com|location=|publisher=|url=http://www.the-highway.com/Matt16.18_Webster.html|access-date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020625185244/http://the-highway.com/Matt16.18_Webster.html|archivedate=2002-06-25|deadurl=no}} Possibly based on {{cite book|last=Webster|first=William A.|year=1995|title=The Church of Rome at the bar of history|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Banner of Truth Trust|isbn=978-0-85151-673-8|pages=43–ff|url=}} *{{cite encyclopedia|ref=harv|last=Wetterau|first=Bruce|year=1994|title=|encyclopedia=World history: a dictionary of important people, places, and events from ancient times to the present|location=New York|publisher=H. Holt|isbn=978-0-8050-2350-3|url=}} *{{cite web|ref=harv|last=Wijngaards|first=John|date=2012-10-11|title=Jubilee declaration on authority in the Catholic Church<!--the name has changed overtime -->|type=petition|website=churchauthority.org|location=|publisher=Wijngaards Institute for Catholic Research|url=http://www.churchauthority.org/index.asp|access-date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015022156/http://www.churchauthority.org/index.asp|archivedate=2012-10-15|deadurl=no}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Whelton|first=Michael|year=1998|title=Two paths: papal monarchy, collegial tradition|location=Salisbury, MA|publisher=Regina Orthodox Press|isbn=978-0-9649141-5-5|url=https://archive.org/details/twopathspapalmon0000mich}} *{{cite web|ref={{sfnRef|''02varvara.wordpress.com''}}|date=2010-09-24|title=Catholics and Orthodox discuss the role of the Pope of Rome in Vienna meeting|website=02varvara.wordpress.com|location=|publisher=|publication-date=|url=https://02varvara.wordpress.com/2010/09/24/catholics-and-orthodox-discuss-the-role-of-the-pope-of-rome-in-vienna-meeting/|access-date=2015-05-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718084916/http://02varvara.wordpress.com/2010/09/24/catholics-and-orthodox-discuss-the-role-of-the-pope-of-rome-in-vienna-meeting/|archivedate=2011-07-18|deadurl=no}} Translated from {{cite web|date=2010-09-21|language=Russian|script-title=Католики и православные пытаются преодолеть главную причину 1000-летнего раскола в Церкви|trans-title=Catholics and Orthodox trying to overcome main reason for 1000 year schism in the Church|website=interfax-religion.ru|location=Moscow|publisher=|url=http://www.interfax-religion.ru/?act=news&div=37468|access-date=2015-05-26|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018002418/http://www.interfax-religion.ru/?act=news&div=37468|archivedate=2010-10-18|deadurl=no}} {{refend}} ==Vyanzo== *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Anastos|first=Milton V.|author-link=|year=2001|orig-year=|chapter=|chapterurl=|chapter-format=|editor1-last=Vryonis|editor1-first=Speros|editor2-last=Goodhue|editor2-first=Nicholas|title=Aspects of the mind of Byzantium: political theory, theology, and ecclesiastical relations with the See of Rome|series=Variorum collected studies|volume=717|others=|location=Burlington, VT|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=978-0-86078-840-9|url=}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|year=2005|chapter=Annales Romani ''Description of the Synod of Sutri ca. 1046'' and Bonizo of Sutri ''Description of the Synod of Sutri ca. 1085''|chapterurl=|editor-last=Miller|editor-first=Maureen C.|editor-link=|title=Power and the holy in the age of the investiture conflict: a brief history with documents|location=New York|publisher=St. Martins Press|isbn=978-0-312-40468-0|url=https://archive.org/details/powerholyinageof0000mill}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Benson|first=Edward White|author-link=Edward Benson (bishop)|year=1897|orig-year=|title=Cyprian: his life, his times, his work|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan|oclc=697711774|url=https://archive.org/details/cyprianhislifehi00bensuoft}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=|first=|author-link=|year=2001|orig-year=|editor1-last=Braaten|editor1-first=Carl E.|editor2-last=Jenson|editor2-first=Robert W.|title=Church unity and the papal office: an ecumenical dialogue on John Paul II's encyclical Ut unum sint|series=|volume=|others=|edition=|location=Grand Rapids, MI|publisher=W. 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J.|year=2011|title=Orthodoxy and the Roman papacy: ''Ut Unum Sint'' and the prospects of East-West unity|series=|volume=|others=|edition=|location=Notre Dame, IN|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|isbn=978-0-268-02607-3|url=https://archive.org/details/orthodoxyromanpa0000devi}} *{{cite book|last=Chapman|first=John|year=1928|title=Studies on the early Papacy|location=London|publisher=Sheed & Ward|oclc=422117622|url=}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=|first=|author-link=|year=1974|orig-year=|chapter=|chapterurl=|chapter-format=|editor1-last=Empie|editor1-first=Paul C.|editor2-last=Murphy|editor2-first=T. Austin|title=Papal primacy and the universal church|series=Lutherans and Catholics in dialogue|volume=5|others=|edition=|location=Minneapolis, MN|publisher=Augsburg Publishing House|isbn=978-0-8066-1450-2|url=}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=FitzGerald|first=Kyriaki Karidoyanes|year=2006|title=Persons in communion: a theology of authentic relationships|series=Distinguished lecture series|volume=|location=Berkeley, CA|publisher=InterOrthodox Press|isbn=978-1-932401-08-0|url=https://archive.org/details/personsincommuni0000fitz}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Hasler|first=August B.|author-link=|year=1981|title=How the Pope became infallible: Pius IX and the politics of persuasion|series=|volume=|others=Translated by Peter Heinegg|location=Garden City, NY|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-15851-0|url=https://archive.org/details/howpopebecameinf0000hasl}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Herrin|first=Judith|author-link=|year=2007|title=Byzantium: the surprising life of a medieval empire|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-13151-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rktoAAAAMAAJ}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Hinson|first=E. 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D.|author-link=|year=1995|title=Golden mouth: the story of John Chrysostom, ascetic, preacher, bishop|location=Ithaca, NY|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-3189-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t2TNPY3qjlIC}} *{{Rejea kitabu|ref=harv|last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|year=1989|title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D.|series=The Church in history|volume=2|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=978-0-88141-056-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Morrison|first=John H.|year=1884|orig-year=|title=Disquisitions and notes on the Gospels: Matthew|edition=4th|location=Boston|publisher=American Unitarian Association|oclc=866896706|url=https://archive.org/stream/disquisitionsnot00moriuoft}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Neill|first=Stephen|author-link=|year=1990|orig-year=|editor-last=Chadwick|editor-first=Owen|editor-link=|title=A history of Christian mission|series=The Penguin history of the Church|volume=6|edition=2nd|location=London [u.a]|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-013763-7|url=}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|author=Palladius Helenopolitanus|author-link=Palladius of Galatia|year=1985|editor-last=Meyer|editor-first=Robert T.|editor-link=|title=Dialogue on the life of St. John Chrysostom|series=Ancient Christian writers: the works of the Fathers in translation|volume=45|others=Translated by Robert T. 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P. Dutton|oclc=844615469|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t044AQAAMAAJ}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Puller|first=Frederick W.|author-link=|year=1900|orig-year=|title=The primitive saints and the see of Rome|edition=3rd, rev. and enl.|location=London [u.a.]|publisher=Longmans, Green|oclc=679956657|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmhBAAAAYAAJ}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Romanides|first=John|author-link=|year=2004|editor-last=Dragas|editor-first=George D.|editor-link=|title=An outline of Orthodox patristic dogmatics|series=Orthodox theological library|volume=1|others=Translated by George D. Dragas|edition=|location=Rollinsford, NH|publisher=Orthodox Research Institute|isbn=978-0-9745618-4-4|url=}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Runciman|first=Steven|author-link=|year=1977|title=The Byzantine theocracy|series=Weil lectures, 1973|location=Cambridge; New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-21401-8|url=https://archive.org/details/byzantinetheocra0000runc}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Schaeffer|first=Frank|author-link=|year=1994|title=Dancing alone: the quest for Orthodox faith in the age of false religion|location=Brookline, MA|publisher=Holy Cross Orthodox Press|isbn=978-0-917651-36-6|url=https://archive.org/details/dancingaloneques0000scha_z7p6}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|author=Ignatius of Antioch|year=1919|orig-year=1900|editor-last=|editor-first=|editor-link=|title=The epistles of St. Ignatius: bishop of Antioch|series=Translations of Christian literature, Series I, Greek texts|volume=|others=Translated by James H. Srawley|edition=3rd|location=London|publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|oclc=608472045|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5WMMAAAAIAAJ}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Stephens|first=William R. W.|author-link=|year=1883|title=Saint John Chrysostom, his life and times: a sketch of the church and the empire in the fourth century|edition=3rd|location=London|publisher=J. Murray|oclc=499596765|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924079612101}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|author=Vasileios of Stavronikita|author-link=|year=1984|orig-year=|editor-last=|editor-first=|editor-link=|title=Hymn of entry: liturgy and life in the Orthodox church|series=Contemporary Greek theologians|volume=1|others=Translated by Elizabeth Briere|edition=|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=978-0-88141-026-6|pages=52–53|url=}} *{{cite book|ref=harv|last=Whelton|first=Michael|year=2006|title=Popes and patriarchs: an Orthodox perspective on Roman Catholic claims|location=Ben Lomond, CA|publisher=Conciliar Press|isbn=978-1-888212-78-5|url=}} [[Category:Teolojia]] [[Jamii:Mapapa]] mw2ndyp71q19jlx5s5k6vxecapvkuaw 0 94739 1580168 1574259 2026-07-18T00:49:05Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580168 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Mandaean-Mandi-Nasiriya-Iraq.jpg|thumbnail|right|[[Maabadi]] ya Wamandayo huko [[Nasiriya]], Iraq.]] '''Ujuzilio''' (pia: '''Unostiki''', '''Gnosi'''; kwa [[Kiingereza]]: "Gnosticism", kutoka [[neno]] la [[Kigiriki]] γνωστικός, gnostikos, "mwenye ujuzi", ambalo [[mzizi]] wake ni γνῶσις, gnōsis, "[[ujuzi]]") ni [[nadharia]] ya [[wokovu]] kupatikana kwa njia ya [[maarifa]].pia ==Historia== [[Mazingira]] ya [[asili]] ni [[Uyahudi]] wa [[karne ya 1]] na [[Karne ya 2|ya 2]] [[BK]]. Wafuasi wa Gnosi hiyo, wakitafsiri namna yao [[Torati]] na [[vitabu]] vingine vya [[Biblia]], walidai [[ulimwengu]] unaoonekana [[Uumbaji|haukuumbwa]] na [[Mwenyezi Mungu]], bali na [[roho]] nyingine iliyofunga [[chembe]] ya [[Mungu|Umungu]] katika [[mwili]]. Walidai kuwa maarifa, si [[imani]], yanaweza kukomboa hiyo chembe. [[Nadharia]] hiyo ilistawi hasa kando ya [[Bahari ya Kati]], ikichanganyikana na [[falsafa]] ya [[Plato]] na matapo ya [[Ukristo]] yaliyopingwa na [[uongozi]] wa [[Kanisa]] kama [[uzushi]]. Kuanzia [[karne ya 3]] nguvu ya nadharia hiyo ilipungua, lakini bila kufutika kabisa katika [[ustaarabu wa magharibi]] hadi leo. Kwa mfano, ulijitokeza katika [[Renaissance]]. [[Dini]] maalumu iliyoanzishwa kwenye [[msingi]] wa unostiki ilikuwa [[Umani]] (''Manichaeism''). Kutoka [[Dola la Persia]], unostiki huo ulienea hadi [[China]]. Leo hii kuna [[jumuiya]] moja iliyotokana na unostiki wa kale ambayo ni jumuiya ndogo ya [[Wamandayo]] katika [[Iraq|Iraki]] na [[kusini]] mwa [[Uajemi|Iran]]. ==Vyanzo== ===Vitabu=== {{refbegin}} <!-- A --> * {{cite book | last = Aland | first = Barbara | title = [[Festschrift]] für Hans Jonas | publisher = Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht | year = 1978 | isbn = 3-525-58111-4 }} * {{Citation | last =Albrile | first =Ezio | year =2005 | chapter =Gnosticism: History of Study | editor-last =Jones | editor-first= Lindsay |title =MacMillan Encyclopdia of Religion | publisher =MacMillan}} <!-- B --> * {{Citation | last =Bauer | first =Walter | authorlink = Walter Bauer | title =Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity | publisher =Fortress | isbn =0-8006-1363-5}} * {{Citation |last=Brakke |first=David |year=2010 |title=The Gnostics: Myth, Ritual, and Diversity in Early Christianity |publisher= Harvard University Press |asin =B004Z14APQ}} * {{Citation |last=Broek |first=Roelof van den |authorlink=Roel van den Broek | year =1996 |title=Studies in Gnosticism and Alexandrian Christianity}} * {{Citation |last=Broek |first=Roelof van den |year=2013 |title=Gnostic Religion in Antiquity |publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book |last=Burstein |first= Dan |title= Secrets of Mary Magdalene |url=https://archive.org/details/secretsofmarymag0000unse_z4d3 |publisher= CDS Books |year= 2006 |isbn= 1-59315-205-1 }} <!-- C --> * {{Citation | last1 =Cohen | first1 =Arthur A. | last2 =Mendes-Flohr | first2 =Paul | year =2010 | title =20th Century Jewish Religious Thought}} * {{Citation | last =Conze | first =Edward | year =1967 | chapter =Buddhism and Gnosis | editor-last =Bianchi | editor-first =U. | title =Origins of Gnosticism: Colloquium of Messina, 13–18 April 1966}} * {{Citation | last =Conze | first =Edward | year =1967 | title =Buddhist prajna and Greek Sophia | journal =Religion. Volume 5, Issue 2, Autumn 1975, Pages 160-167 | url =https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0048-721X(75)90017-2}} <!-- D --> * {{Citation | last =Dunderberg | first =Ismo | year =2008 | title =Beyond gnosticism: myth, lifestyle, and society in the school of Valentinus | publisher =Columbia University Press}} * {{Citation | last =Dunn | first =James D.G. | year =2016 | chapter ="The Apostle of the Heretics": Paul, Valentinus, and Marcion | editor-last1 =Porter | editor-first1 =Stanley E. | editor-last2 =Yoon | editor-first2 =David | title =Paul and Gnosis | publisher =BRILL | doi =10.1163/9789004316690_008}} <!-- E --> * {{Citation | last =Ehrman | first =Bart D. | year =2003 | title =Lost Christianities | publisher =Oxford University Press}} <!-- F --> * {{cite book | last= Filoramo | first = Giovanni | title = A History of Gnosticism | url= https://archive.org/details/historyofgnostic0000filo | publisher = Basil Blackwell | location= Oxford | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0631187073 }} * {{Citation | last1 =Freke | first1 =Timothy | last2 =Gandy | first2 =Peter | year =2002 | title =Jesus and the Lost Goddess : The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians | publisher =Three Rivers Press | isbn =0-00-710071-X }} * {{Citation | last1 =Freke | first1 =Timothy | last2 =Gandy | first2=Peter | title =De mysterieuze Jezus. Was Jezus oorspronkelijk een heidense god? | publisher =Uitgeverij Synthese}} <!-- G --> * {{cite book | last = Green | first = Henry | title = Economic and Social Origins of Gnosticism | publisher = Scholars P., U.S. | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-89130-843-1 }} <!-- H --> * {{cite book | last = Haardt | first = Robert | title = Die Gnosis: Wesen und Zeugnisse | url = https://archive.org/details/bwb_C0-AUK-592 | publisher = Otto-Müller-Verlag, Salzburg | year = 1967 | id = | pages = [https://archive.org/details/bwb_C0-AUK-592/page/n355 352] pages }}, translated as {{cite book | last = Haardt | first = Robert | title = Gnosis: Character and Testimony | url = https://archive.org/details/gnosischaractert0000haar | publisher = Brill, Leiden | year = 1971 | id = }} * {{Citation | last =Halsall | first =Guy | year =2008 | authorlink =Guy Halsall | title =Barbarian migrations and the Roman West | publisher =Cambridge University Press | isbn =0-521-43491-2}} * {{cite book | authorlink = Stephan A. Hoeller | last = Hoeller | first = Stephan A. | title = Gnosticism&nbsp;— New Light on the Ancient Tradition of Inner Knowing | url = https://archive.org/details/gnosticismnewlig0000hoel | publisher = Quest| year = 2002 | isbn = 0-8356-0816-6 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/gnosticismnewlig0000hoel/page/257 257] pages | location = Wheaton }} * {{Citation |last=Huidekoper |first=Frederic |year=1891|title=Judaism at Rome: BC 76 to AD 140 |publisher=D. G. Francis}} <!-- J --> * {{cite book | authorlink = Hans Jonas | last = Jonas | first = Hans | title = Gnosis und spätantiker Geist vol. 2:1–2, Von der Mythologie zur mystischen Philosophie | url = https://archive.org/details/gnosisundsptanti0000jona_r3o8 | publisher = Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht| year = 1993| isbn = 3-525-53841-3 | location = Göttingen }} * {{cite book | authorlink = Charles William King | last = King | first = Charles William | title = The Gnostics and Their Remains | year = 1887 | url = http://www.sacred-texts.com/gno/gar/ }} <!-- K --> * {{Citation | last =King | first =Karen L. | authorlink =Karen Leigh King | year =2003 | title =What is Gnosticism? | publisher =Harvard University Press | isbn =0-674-01071-X | pages =343 pages }} * {{cite book | last = Klimkeit | first = Hans-Joachim | title = Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia | url = https://archive.org/details/gnosisonsilkroad0000unse | publisher = Harper, San Francisco | year = 1993 | isbn = 0-06-064586-5 }} * Kosack, Wolfgang: ''Geschichte der Gnosis in Antike, Urchristentum und Islam.'' Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014. ISBN|978-3-906206-06-6 <!-- L --> * {{Citation | last =Lahe | first =Jaan | year =2006 | title =IST DIE GNOSIS AUS DEM CHRISTENTUM ABLEITBAR? EINE KRITISCHE AUSEINANDERSETZUNG MIT EINEM URSPRUNGSMODELL DER GNOSIS | journal =TRAMES, 2006, 10(60/55), 3, 220–231}} * {{cite book | last =Layton | first = Bentley | editor = edited by [[L. Michael White]], O. Larry Yarbrough | chapter = Prolegomena to the study of ancient gnosticism | title = The Social World of the First Christians: Essays in Honor of Wayne A. Meeks | url =https://archive.org/details/socialworldoffir0000unse | publisher = Fortress Press, Minneapolis | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-8006-2585-4 }} * {{cite book | author = Layton, Bentley (ed.) | title = The Rediscovery of Gnosticism: Sethian Gnosticism | url = https://archive.org/details/rediscoveryofgno0001bent | publisher = E.J. Brill | year = 1981 }} <!-- M --> * {{Citation | last =Magris | first =Aldo | year =2005 | chapter =Gnosticism: Gnosticism from its origins to the Middle Ages (further considerations) | editor-last =Jones | editor-first= Lindsay |title =MacMillan Encyclopdia of Religion | publisher =MacMillan}} * {{cite book | last = Markschies | first = Christoph | title = Gnosis: An Introduction | url = https://archive.org/details/gnosisintroducti00mark | publisher = T & T Clark | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-567-08945-2 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/gnosisintroducti00mark/page/145 145] pages | others = trans. John Bowden }} * {{Citation | last=Markschies | first="Christolph" | year=2003 | title=Gnosis: An Introduction | publisher=T.& T.Clark Ltd}} * {{Citation | last =McVey | first =Kathleen | year =1981 | title =Gnosticism, Feminism, and Elaine Pagels | journal =Princeton Theological Seminary, Vol 37, Issue 4, 1981 | url =http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/004057368103700411?journalCode=ttja}} * {{cite book | last = Mins | first = Denis | title = Irenaeus | url = https://archive.org/details/irenaeus0000deni | publisher = Geoffrey Chapman | year = 1994 | id = }} <!-- P --> * {{Citation | last =Pagels | first =Elaine | year =1975 | title =The Gnostic Paul: Gnostic Exegesis of the Pauline Letters | isbn =1-56338-039-0}} * {{Citation | last = Pagels | first = Elaine | authorlink = Elaine Pagels | year = 1979 | title = The Gnostic Gospels | publisher = Vintage Books| isbn = 0-679-72453-2 | pages = 182 pages | location = New York }} * {{cite book | last = Pagels | first = Elaine | title = The Johannine Gospel in Gnostic Exegesis | publisher = Scholars Press| year = 1989 | isbn = 1-55540-334-4 | pages = 128 pages | location = Atlanta, Ga. }} * {{Citation | last =Pearson | first =Birger Albert | year =2004 | title =Gnosticism and Christianity in Roman and Coptic Egypt}} * Petrement, Simone (1990), ''A Separate God: The Origins and Teachings of Gnosticsim'', Harper and Row ISBN|0-06-066421-5 * {{Citation | last =Perkins | first =Pheme | year =2005 | chapter =Gnosticism: Gnosticism as a Christian heresy | editor-last =Jones | editor-first= Lindsay | title =MacMillan Encyclopdia of Religion | publisher =MacMillan}} <!-- Q --> * {{Citation | last =Quispel | first =Gilles | year =2004 | chapter =Voorwoord | editor-last =Pagels | editor-first =Elaine | title =De Gnostische Evangelien | publisher =Servire}} * {{Citation | last =Quispel | first =Gilles | year =2005 | chapter =Gnosticism: Gnosticism from its origins to the Middle Ages [first edition] | editor-last =Jones | editor-first= Lindsay |title =MacMillan Encyclopdia of Religion | publisher =MacMillan}} <!-- R --> * {{Citation | last1 =Rousseau | first1 =A. | last2 =Doutreleau | first2 =L. | year =1974 | title =Saint Irénée de Lyon : Traité contre les hérésies}} * {{cite book | last = Rudolph | first = Kurt | authorlink= Kurt Rudolph | title = Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism | url = https://archive.org/details/gnosisnaturehist00rudo | publisher = Harper & Row | year = 1987 | isbn = 0-06-067018-5 }} <!-- S --> * {{Citation | last =Smith | first =Carl B. | year =2004 | title =No Longer Jews: The Search for Gnostic Origins | publisher =Hendrickson Publishers}} <!-- T --> * {{Citation | last1 =Temporini | first1 =Hildegard | last2 =Vogt | first2 =Joseph | last3 =Haase | first3 =Wolfgang | year =1983 | title =''[[Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt]]'' (Rise and Decline of the Roman World) Vl 21/1 Volume 2; Volume 21 | publisher =Walter de Gruyter | isbn =3-11-008845-2}} * {{cite book | author =[[Christopher M. Tuckett|Tuckett, Christopher M.]] | title=Nag Hammadi and the Gospel Tradition: Synoptic Tradition in the Nag Hammadi Library | url =https://archive.org/details/naghammadigospel0000tuck | publisher=T & T Clark | year=1986 | isbn=0-567-09364-6}} (206 pages) * {{Citation | last =Turner | first =John | year =1986 | chapter =Sethian Gnosticism: A Literary History | title =Nag Hammadi, Gnosticism and Early Christianity | url =http://jdt.unl.edu/lithist.html | deadurl =yes | archiveurl =https://archive.today/20121211123653/http://jdt.unl.edu/lithist.html | archivedate =2012-12-11 | df = }} <!-- W --> * {{cite book | last =Walker | first =Benjamin | year = 1990 | authorlink =Benjamin Walker (author) | title =Gnosticism: Its History and Influence | publisher =Harper Collins | isbn = 1-85274-057-4 }} * {{Citation | last =Williams | first =Michael | year =1996 | title =Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category | publisher =Princeton University Press | isbn =0-691-01127-3 }} <!-- Y --> * {{cite book | author=[[Edwin M. Yamauchi|Yamauchi, Edwin M.]] | title=Pre-Christian Gnosticism : A Survey of the Proposed Evidences | publisher= | year=1983 | isbn=0-8010-9919-6}} (278 pages) * Yamauchi, Edwin M., "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/3164879?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Pre-Christian Gnosticism in the Nag Hammadi Texts?]," in ''Church History'' vol. 48, (1979), pp.&nbsp;129–141. {{refend}} ===Tovuti=== * http://www.beliefnet.com/story/128/story_12865_1.html * http://www.nationalbook.org/nba1980.html {{Wayback|url=http://www.nationalbook.org/nba1980.html |date=20140813080254 }} * http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=gnwstikos&la=greek#lexicon * http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/wordfreq?lang=greek&lookup=gnwstiko%2Fs ==Marejeo mengine== ;Vyanzo vikuu * {{cite book | authorlink = Willis Barnstone | last = Barnstone | first = Willis | title = The Other Bible: Gnostic Scriptures, Jewish Pseudepigrapha, Christian Apocyrypha, Kabbalah, Dead Sea Scrolls | url = https://archive.org/details/otherbible0000unse_u8v3 | publisher = Harper & Row | year = 1984 | isbn = 978-0-06-081598-1 | pages = 771 | location = San Francisco }} * {{cite book | last1 = Barnstone | first1 = Willis | last2=Meyer | first2=Marvin | title = The Gnostic Bible | url = https://archive.org/details/gnosticbible00barn | publisher = Shambhala Books | year = 2003 | isbn = 1-57062-242-6 | pages = 880 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Barnstone | first1 = Willis | last2=Meyer | first2=Marvin | title = Essential Gnostic Scriptures | publisher = Shambhala Books | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-1590309254 | pages = 271 }} * {{cite book | authorlink = Bentley Layton | last = Layton | first = Bentley | title = The Gnostic Scriptures | publisher = SCM Press | year = 1987 | isbn = 0-334-02022-0 | pages = 526 pages }} * {{cite book | author = [[Plotinus]] | title = The [[Enneads]] | publisher = [[Harvard University|Harvard University Press]] | year = 1989 | id = | others = translated by A.H. Armstrong | isbn = 0-674-99484-1 | volume = 1 }} * {{cite book | authorlink = James M. Robinson | last = Robinson | first = James | title = The Nag Hammadi Library in English | publisher = Harper & Row| year = 1978 | isbn = 0-06-066934-9 | pages = 549 pages | location = San Francisco }} ;Vya jumla * {{Citation | last =King | first =Karen L. | year =2005 | title =What is Gnosticism? | publisher =Harvard University Press}} * {{Citation | last =Broek | first =Roelof van den | year =2013 | title =Gnostic Religion in Antiquity | publisher =Cambridge University Press}} ;Wasethi * {{Citation | last =Turner | first =John D. | year =2001 | chapter =Chapter Seven: The History of the Sethian Movement | title =Sethian Gnosticism and the Platonic Tradition | publisher =Presses Université Laval}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons category}} <!-- All external links are in alphabetical order by page title or, where available, by author. If you add to the lists, please maintain this layout. Also see the subpages, e.g., [[Gnosticism in modern times]] (which have their own link lists) so you place links in the appropriate page. --> ;Texts * [http://www.gnosis.org/library.html Gnostic Society Library]&nbsp;— primary sources and commentaries * [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/gnostics.html Early Christian Writings]&nbsp;— primary texts * [http://www.sacred-texts.com/gno/index.htm Gnostic texts] at sacred-texts.com ;Encyclopedia * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/gnostic/ Gnosticism], by Edward Moore, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy * [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gnosticism Gnosticism] by Kurt Rudolph, Encyclopædia Iranica * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06592a.htm Gnosticism] Catholic Encyclopedia {{mbegu-dini}} [[Jamii:Dini]] [[Jamii:Falsafa]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Ukristo]] ttwfyqzlpeqwzhfka28xhakz3km6nez 0 95817 1580104 1536636 2026-07-18T00:08:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580104 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Gravesites_of_Mellitus,_Justus_and_Laurence_at_St._Augustine's_Abbey.jpg|250px|thumb|Mahali pa kaburi la Deusdedit huko [[St Augustine's Abbey]], [[Canterbury]]. Makaburi mengine ni ya [[Justus wa Canterbury|Justus]], [[Melitus wa Canterbury|Mellitus]] na [[Laurence of Canterbury|Laurence]].]] '''Deusdedit''' (alifariki mwaka [[664]] hivi<ref>There is some controversy over the exact date of Deusdedit's death, owing to discrepancies in the medieval written work that records his life.</ref>) kuanzia mwaka [[655]] alikuwa [[askofu mkuu]] wa [[Canterbury]], wa kwanza mwenye asili ya [[Kigermanik]]. Ingawa [[maisha]] yanajulikana kidogo tu, ni kwamba tangu kale anaheshimiwa kama [[mtakatifu]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa na [[Wakatoliki]] na [[Waanglikana]] tarehe [[14 Julai]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal |author=Abels, Richard |date=Autumn 1983 |title=The Council of Whitby: A Study in Early Anglo-Saxon Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-british-studies_1983_fall_23_1/page/n7 |journal=[[Journal of British Studies]] |volume=23 |issue= 1|pages=1–25 |doi=10.1086/385808 |jstor= 175617}} * {{cite book |author1=Bede |authorlink1=Bede |others= Sherley-Price. Leo (translator) |title=A History of the English Church and People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00beda |publisher=Penguin Classics |location=London |year=1988 |isbn=0-14-044042-9 }} * {{cite book |author=Blair, Peter Hunter |authorlink= Peter Hunter Blair |title=The World of Bede |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1990 |edition=Reprint |origyear= 1970 |isbn=0-521-39819-3 }} * {{cite book |author=Brooks, Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Brooks |title=The Early History of the Church of Canterbury: Christ Church from 597 to 1066 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofch0000broo |publisher=Leicester University Press |location=London |year=1984 |isbn=0-7185-0041-5}} * {{cite book |author=Delaney, John P. |title=Dictionary of Saints|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofsain00dela |edition=Second |publisher=Doubleday |location=Garden City, NY |year=1980 |isbn=0-385-13594-7 }} * {{cite book| author=Farmer, David Hugh |title=Oxford Dictionary of Saints | url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000farm_a6q1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |edition=Fifth |location=Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-19-860949-0}} * {{cite book |author1=Fryde, E. B. |author2=Greenway, D. E. |author3=Porter, S. |author4=Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbritis0000unse_f1u2 |edition=Third revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X }} * {{cite book |author= Hindley, Geoffrey|title=A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons: The Beginnings of the English Nation |url= https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofan0000hind_b4f5|year= 2006|publisher= Carroll & Graf Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7867-1738-5 }} * {{cite journal |author=Kirby, D. P. |date=July 1963 |title=Bede and Northumbrian Chronology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_english-historical-review_1963-07_78_308/page/514 |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |volume=78 |issue= 308 |pages=514–527 |doi= 10.1093/ehr/LXXVIII.CCCVIII.514 |jstor= 562147}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Kornhammer, P. M. |title=The Origin the Bosworth Psalter|encyclopedia=Anglo-Saxon England 2 |year=1973 |pages=173–187|doi= 10.1017/S0263675100000417 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Lapidge, Michael |authorlink=Michael Lapidge |title=Deusdedit |page=140 |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Lapidge |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor-link3= Simon Keynes |editor4= Scragg, Donald|year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1 }} * {{cite journal |author=Maddicott, J. R. |authorlink= John Maddicott |title=Plague in Seventh-Century England|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_past-present_1997-08_156/page/7 |journal =Past and Present |number= 156 |date=August 1997 |pages=7–54 |jstor= 651177 |doi= 10.1093/past/156.1.7}} * {{cite book |author=Müller, Michael |title=God the Teacher of Mankind: or, Popular Catholic Theology, Apologetical, Dogmatical, Moral, Liturgical, Pastoral, and Ascetical|volume= 3|location= New York |publisher= Benziger Brothers|year= 1881}} * {{cite journal |author=Sharpe, R. |authorlink= Richard Sharpe (historian) |doi=10.1093/ehr/117.473.889 |title=The Naming of Bishop Ithamar |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_english-historical-review_2002-09_117_473/page/889 |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |volume=117 |issue=473 |date=September 2002 |pages=889–894 }} * {{cite web |author=Staff |url=http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/manuscripts/HITS0001.ASP?VPath=html/73767.htm&Search=Cott.+Vesp.+B.+xx.&Highlight=F |title=Full Description: Cotton Vespasian B.xx |work=Manuscripts Catalogue |publisher=British Library |accessdate=3 July 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021071805/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/manuscripts/HITS0001.ASP?VPath=html%2F73767.htm&Search=Cott.+Vesp.+B.+xx.&Highlight=F |archivedate=21 October 2012 |df=dmy-all }} * {{cite book |author=Stenton, F. M. |authorlink= Frank Stenton |title= Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonenglan0000sten |year= 1971|publisher= Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Thacker, Alan |title=Deusdedit (d. 664)| encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|publisher= Oxford University Press |year=2004|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/7560 |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/7560 |accessdate=21 August 2010}} {{ODNBsub}} * {{cite journal |author=Wood, Susan |title=Bede's Northumbrian Dates Again|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_english-historical-review_1983-04_98_387/page/280 |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |volume=98 |issue=387 |date=April 1983|pages=280–296 |jstor= 569438 |doi= 10.1093/ehr/XCVIII.CCCLXXXVII.280}} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== {{refbegin}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author= Orchard, N. |title= The Bosworth Psalter and the St Augustine's Missal |encyclopedia=Canterbury and the Norman Conquest |editor1=Eales, R. |editor2=[[Richard Sharpe (historian)|Sharpe, R.]] |year=1995|pages= 87–94 |isbn= 1-85285-068-X |publisher = Hambledon Press |location=London}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author= Sharpe, R. |authorlink= Richard Sharpe (historian) |title=The Setting to St Augustine's Translation, 1091 |encyclopedia=Canterbury and the Norman Conquest |editor1=Eales, R. |editor2=Sharpe, R. |year=1995|pages= 1–13 |isbn= 1-85285-068-X |publisher = Hambledon Press |location=London}} {{refend}} {{mbegu-Mkristo}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Deusdedit wa Canterbury}} [[Category:Waliofariki 664]] [[Category:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Uingereza]] 10637wn5uug5gx054y6k7z937jus088 0 95846 1580042 1536668 2026-07-17T23:24:08Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580042 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Staugustinescanterburygravejustus.jpg|thumb|220px|Kaburi la Mt. Justus huko [[Canterbury]].]] '''Justus wa Canterbury''' (alifariki [[10 Novemba]] [[627]]/[[631]]) kuanzia [[mwaka]] [[624]] alikuwa [[askofu mkuu]] wa [[nne]] wa [[Canterbury]] ([[Uingereza]])<ref name=PatSaintInd>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintjgo.htm |title=St. Justus of Canterbury |publisher=Patron Saints Index |accessdate=3 November 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619210528/http://saints.sqpn.com/saintjgo.htm |archivedate=19 June 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>. Alikuwa ametumwa huko na [[Papa Gregori I]] mwaka [[601]] kama [[mmisionari]] kwa [[Waangli]] na [[Wasaksoni]] kwa ombi la [[Augustino wa Canterbury]]<ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/90430</ref>. Miaka [[604]]-624 alikuwa [[askofu]] wa kwanza wa [[Rochester]]. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa kama [[mtakatifu]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa na [[Wakatoliki]], [[Waorthodoksi]] na [[Waanglikana]] [[tarehe]] [[10 Novemba]]<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |author=Bede |authorlink=Bede |others=Sherley-Price, Leo (translator) |title=A History of the English Church and People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00beda |publisher=Penguin Classics |location=New York |year=1988 |isbn=0-14-044042-9}} * {{cite book |author=Blair, Peter Hunter |authorlink= Peter Hunter Blair |title=The World of Bede |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1990 |edition=Reprint |origyear= 1970 |isbn=0-521-39819-3}} * {{cite book |author=Brooks, Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Brooks |title=The Early History of the Church of Canterbury: Christ Church from 597 to 1066 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofch0000broo |publisher=Leicester University Press |location=London |year=1984 |isbn=0-7185-0041-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Brooks, Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Brooks |title=From British to English Christianity: Deconstructing Bede's Interpretation of the Conversion |editor1=Howe, Nicholas |editor2=Karkov, Catherine |encyclopedia=Conversion and Colonization in Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies |location=Tempe, AZ |year=2006 |pages=1–30 |isbn=0-86698-363-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Brooks, N. P. |authorlink=Nicholas Brooks |title=Mellitus (d. 624) |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18531 |edition=October 2005 revised |accessdate=7 November 2007 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/18531 }} {{ODNBsub}} * {{cite book | editor= Campbell, A. |title= Charters of Rochester | series = Anglo-Saxon Charters |volume= 1 | publisher= British Academy/ Oxford University Press |location= London |year= 1973 | isbn= 0-19-725936-7 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Campbell, James |title=The First Century of Christianity in England |encyclopedia =Essays in Anglo-Saxon History |publisher=Hambledon Press |location=London |isbn=0-907628-32-X |pages=49–68}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Colgrave, Bertram |title=Introduction |encyclopedia=The Earliest Life of Gregory the Great |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |edition=Paperback reissue |origyear= 1968 |year=2007|isbn=978-0-521-31384-1}} * {{cite book |author=Delaney, John P. |title=Dictionary of Saints |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofsain00dela |edition=Second |publisher=Doubleday |location=Garden City, NY |year=1980 |isbn=0-385-13594-7 }} * {{cite book |author=Farmer, David Hugh |title=Oxford Dictionary of Saints |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000farm_a6q1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |edition=Fifth |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-19-860949-0 }} * {{cite book |author1=Fryde, E. B. |author2=Greenway, D. E. |author3=Porter, S. |author4=Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbritis0000unse_f1u2 |edition=Third revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Hayward, Paul Anthony |title=Justus |pages=267–268|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Lapidge |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor-link3= Simon Keynes |editor4= Scragg, Donald |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1}} * {{cite book |author=Higham, N. J. |title=The Convert Kings: Power and Religious Affiliation in Early Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/convertkingspowe0000high |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |year=1997 |isbn=0-7190-4827-3}} * {{cite book |author= Hindley, Geoffrey |title= A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons: The Beginnings of the English Nation |url= https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofan0000hind_b4f5 |year= 2006 |publisher= Carroll & Graf Publishers |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-7867-1738-5 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Hunt, William |authorlink=William Hunt (priest) |title=Justus (St Justus) (d. 627x31) |others=revised by N. P. Brooks |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/15176 |edition=October 2005 revised |accessdate=7 November 2007 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/15176 }} {{ODNBsub}} * {{cite book |author=Kirby, D. P. |title=The Earliest English Kings |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=0-415-24211-8}} * {{cite book |author=Lapidge, Michael |authorlink= Michael Lapidge |title=The Anglo-Saxon Library |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonlibrar0000lapi |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=2006 |isbn=0-19-926722-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|author=Lapidge, Michael |authorlink= Michael Lapidge |title=Mellitus |pages=305–306 |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Lapidge |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor-link3= Simon Keynes |editor4= Scragg, Donald|year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1}} * {{cite book | author =Levison, Wilhelm |authorlink= Wilhelm Levison | title =England and the Continent in the Eighth Century: The Ford Lectures Delivered in the University of Oxford, 1943 | url =https://archive.org/details/englandcontinent0000wilh_g0v6 | publisher = Clarendon Press | place= Oxford, UK | year =1946 | isbn = 0-19-821232-1}} * {{cite book |author=Mayr-Harting, Henry| authorlink= Henry Mayr-Harting |title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/comingofchristia0000mayr_a5a2|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |location=University Park, PA |year=1991 |isbn=0-271-00769-9 }} * {{cite web| author = Miller, Sean| title = New Regesta Regum Anglorum: Sawyer 1| url = http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S+1| publisher = Anglo-Saxons.net| accessdate = 4 August 2014| archive-date = 2012-03-29| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120329063230/http://www.anglo-saxons.net/hwaet/?do=seek&query=S%201| url-status = dead}} * {{cite book | author =Morris, John| title = Arthurian Sources, Vol. 2: Annals and Charters |series= Arthurian Period Sources | publisher = Phillimore | location = Chichester, UK | year = 1995 | isbn = 0-85033-757-7}} * {{cite journal |author=Smith, R. A. L. |date=September 1945 |title=The Early Community of St. Andrew at Rochester, 604-c. 1080 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_english-historical-review_1945-09_60_238/page/289 |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |volume=60 |issue=238 |pages=289–299 |doi=10.1093/ehr/LX.CCXXXVIII.289 |jstor=556594 }} * {{cite book |author=Stenton, F. M. |authorlink=Frank Stenton |title=Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonenglan0000sten |year=1971 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5 }} * {{cite book |author=Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. |authorlink=J. M. Wallace-Hadrill |title=Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People: A Historical Commentary |url=https://archive.org/details/bedesecclesiasti0000wall |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1988 |series=Oxford Medieval Texts |isbn=0-19-822269-6 }} * {{cite book|author=Walsh, Michael J.|title=A New Dictionary of Saints: East and West|url=https://archive.org/details/newdictionaryofs0000wals|year=2007|publisher=Burns & Oats|location=London|isbn=0-86012-438-X}} * {{cite journal |author=Wood, Ian |title=The Mission of Augustine of Canterbury to the English |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_speculum_1994-01_69_1/page/1 |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |date=January 1994 |doi=10.2307/2864782 |jstor=2864782 }} * {{cite book |author=Yorke, Barbara |authorlink=Barbara Yorke |title=Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/kingskingdomsofe0000york |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=0-415-16639-X }} {{refend}} {{mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa karne ya 6]] [[Category:Waliofariki karne ya 7]] [[Category:Wamonaki]] [[Category:Wamisionari]] [[Category:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Uingereza]] fw55khjc4wp1imprfgg0ck0g5bphhte 0 95849 1580084 1578107 2026-07-17T23:56:36Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580084 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Staugustinescanterburygravemellitus.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Kaburi]] la Mt. Melitus huko [[Canterbury]].]] '''Melitus wa Canterbury''' (kwa [[Kilatini]]: Mellitus; alifariki [[24 Aprili]] [[624]]) alikuwa [[askofu mkuu]] wa [[tatu]] wa [[Canterbury]] ([[Uingereza]]) kuanzia [[mwaka]] [[619]] <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=5070|title= St. Mellitus of Canterbury |publisher=Catholic Online}} Accessed on 12 November 2009</ref>. Alikuwa ametumwa huko na [[Papa Gregori I]] mwaka [[601]] kama [[abati]] [[mmisionari]] kwa [[Waangli]] na [[Wasaksoni]] kwa ombi la [[Augustino wa Canterbury]]. [[Papa]] huyo alimuandikia [[barua]] maarufu <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/50670</ref>. Miaka [[604]]-619 alikuwa [[askofu]] wa kwanza wa [[London]] alipopata matatizo mengi. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa na [[Wakatoliki]], [[Waorthodoksi]] na [[Waanglikana]] kama [[mtakatifu]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa [[tarehe]] 24 Aprili<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref><ref name=Days170>Holford-Strevens and Blackburn ''Oxford Book of Days'' p. 170</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |author=Bede |authorlink=Bede |editor= Sherley-Price, Leo (translator) |title=A History of the English Church and People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00beda |publisher=Penguin Classics |location=New York |year=1988 |isbn=0-14-044042-9 }} * {{cite book |author=Blair, Peter Hunter|authorlink= Peter Hunter Blair |title=The World of Bede |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1990 |edition=Reprint |origyear=1970 |isbn=0-521-39819-3}} * {{cite book |author=Brooks, Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Brooks |title=The Early History of the Church of Canterbury: Christ Church from 597 to 1066 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofch0000broo |publisher=Leicester University Press |location=London |year=1984 |isbn=0-7185-0041-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Brooks, N. P. |title=Mellitus (d. 624) |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]] |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/18531 |edition=October 2005 revised| accessdate=7 November 2007|doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/18531}} {{ODNBsub}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Campbell, James |title=Observations on the Conversion of England |encyclopedia =Essays in Anglo-Saxon History |publisher=Hambledon Press |location=London |isbn=0-907628-32-X |pages=69–84}} * {{cite journal |author=Church, S. D. |title=Paganism in Conversion-age Anglo-Saxon England: The Evidence of Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History'' Reconsidered |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-us_2008-04_93_310/page/162 |journal =[[History (The Journal of the Historical Association)|History]] |volume=93 |issue=310 |pages=162–180 |doi= 10.1111/j.1468-229X.2008.00420.x |date=April 2008}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Colgrave, Bertram |authorlink= Bertram Colgrave |editor=Colgrave, Bertram |title=Introduction |encyclopedia=The Earliest Life of Gregory the Great |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |edition=Paperback reissue |origyear=1968 |year=2007|isbn=978-0-521-31384-1}} * {{cite journal |author=Demacopoulos, George |title=Gregory the Great and the Pagan Shrines of Kent |url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-late-antiquity_fall-2008_1_2/page/353 |journal= [[Journal of Late Antiquity]] |date=Fall 2008 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=353–369 |doi= 10.1353/jla.0.0018}} * {{cite book| author=Farmer, David Hugh |title=Oxford Dictionary of Saints | url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000farm_a6q1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |edition=Fifth |location=Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-19-860949-0}} * {{cite book |author1=Fryde, E. B. |author2=Greenway, D. E. |author3=Porter, S. |author4=Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbritis0000unse_f1u2 |edition=Third revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Gem, Richard |title=The Significance of the 11th-century Rebuilding of Christ Church and St Augustine's, Canterbury, in the Development of Romanesque Architecture |encyclopedia=Medieval Art and Architecture at Canterbury Before 1220 |series = British Archaeological Association Conference Transactions |volume=V |publisher= Kent Archaeological Society |year=1982 |isbn=0-907307-05-1 |pages=1–19 }} * {{cite journal |author=Hayward, Paul Antony |title=An Absent Father: Eadmer, Goscelin and the Cult of St Peter, the First Abbot of St Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-medieval-history_2003-09_29_3/page/201 |journal=[[Journal of Medieval History]] |volume=29 |year=2003|pages= 201–218 |doi=10.1016/S0304-4181(03)00030-7 |issue=3}} * {{cite book |author=Higham, N. J. |title=The Convert Kings: Power and Religious Affiliation in Early Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/convertkingspowe0000high |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |year=1997 |isbn=0-7190-4827-3 }} * {{cite book |author=Higham, N. J. |title=An English Empire: Bede and the Early Anglo-Saxon Kings |url=https://archive.org/details/englishempirebed0000high |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |year=1995 |isbn=0-7190-4423-5}} * {{cite book |author= Hindley, Geoffrey |title=A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons: The Beginnings of the English Nation |url= https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofan0000hind_b4f5 |year= 2006|publisher= Carroll & Graf Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7867-1738-5 }} * {{cite book |author1=Holford-Strevens, Leofranc |author2=Blackburn, Bonnie J. |title=The Oxford Book of Days |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordbookofdays00blac |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-19-866260-2 }} * {{cite book |author=Lapidge, Michael |authorlink=Michael Lapidge |title=The Anglo-Saxon Library |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonlibrar0000lapi |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=2006 |isbn=0-19-926722-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|author=Lapidge, Michael |authorlink=Michael Lapidge |title=Mellitus|pages=305–306 |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor-link3= Simon Keynes |editor4= Scragg, Donald |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Markus, R. A. |title=Gregory the Great and a Papal Missionary Strategy |encyclopedia=Studies in Church History 6: The Mission of the Church and the Propagation of the Faith |year=1970 |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=29–38 |oclc= 94815 }} * {{cite journal|author=Markus, R. A. |title=Gregory the Great's Europe |journal = Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |series=Fifth Series|volume=31 |year=1981 |pages=21–36|doi=10.2307/3679043 |jstor= 3679043}} * {{cite book |author=Mayr-Harting, Henry| authorlink= Henry Mayr-Harting |title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/comingofchristia0000mayr_a5a2|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |location=University Park, PA |year=1991 |isbn=0-271-00769-9 }} * {{cite book |author=Nilson, Ben |title=Cathedral Shrines of Medieval England |publisher=Boydell Press |year=1998 |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=0-85115-540-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Spiegel, Flora |title=The 'tabernacula' of Gregory the Great and the Conversion of Anglo-Saxon England |encyclopedia =Anglo-Saxon England 36 |doi= 10.1017/S0263675107000014 |pages=1–13|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK |year=2007 |volume=36 }} * {{cite book |author=Stenton, F. M. |authorlink= Frank Stenton |title= Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonenglan0000sten |year= 1971|publisher= Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5 }} * {{cite book |author= Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. |authorlink=J. M. Wallace-Hadrill | title= Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People: A Historical Commentary |url= https://archive.org/details/bedesecclesiasti0000wall |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1988 |series= Oxford Medieval Texts |isbn=0-19-822269-6}} * {{cite book |author=Walsh, Michael J. |title= A New Dictionary of Saints: East and West |url=https://archive.org/details/newdictionaryofs0000wals |year=2007 |publisher= Burns & Oats |location=London |isbn=0-86012-438-X }} * {{cite journal |author=Wood, Ian |title=The Mission of Augustine of Canterbury to the English |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_speculum_1994-01_69_1/page/1 |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |date=January 1994 |doi=10.2307/2864782 |jstor= 2864782 }} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Epistola_ad_Mellitum ''Epistola ad Mellitum'' on Wikisource]&nbsp;– complete [[Latin]] text of the letter to Mellitus from Pope Gregory I. * [http://oll.libertyfund.org/?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1913&chapter=112691&layout=html&Itemid=27 ''Epistola ad Mellitum'' English translation] at libertyfund.org {{mbegu-Mkristo}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Melitus}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa karne ya 6]] [[Category:Waliofariki 624]] [[Category:Wamonaki]] [[Category:Wamisionari]] [[Category:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Italia]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Uingereza]] 94yx3aw9jve88z2awdhlu074jv1xutu 0 95853 1580227 1536673 2026-07-18T01:33:08Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580227 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Staugustinescanterburygravelaurence.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Kaburi]] la Mt. Laurenti huko [[Canterbury]].]] '''Laurenti wa Canterbury''' (alifariki [[2 Februari]] [[619]]) kuanzia [[mwaka]] [[604]] alikuwa [[askofu mkuu]] wa [[mbili|pili]] wa [[Canterbury]] ([[Uingereza]]). Alikuwa ametumwa huko na [[Papa Gregori I]] mwaka [[595]] kama [[mmisionari]] kwa [[Waangli]] na [[Wasaksoni]] pamoja na [[Augustino wa Canterbury]]<ref>http://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/92679</ref>. Aliendeleza na kustawisha kazi ya huyo mtangulizi wake, hasa kwa kumuongoa [[mfalme]] Edbati. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa na [[Wakatoliki]], [[Waorthodoksi]] na [[Waanglikana]] kama [[mtakatifu]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa [[tarehe]] ya [[kifo]] chake<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref> au [[3 Februari]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |author1=Bede |authorlink1=Bede |editors= Sherley-Price, Leo (translator) |title=A History of the English Church and People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00beda |publisher=Penguin Classics |location=New York |year=1988 |isbn=0-14-044042-9}} * {{cite book |author=Blair, Peter Hunter|authorlink= Peter Hunter Blair |title=The World of Bede |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1990 |edition=Reprint |origyear=1970 |isbn=0-521-39819-3}} * {{cite book |author=Brooks, Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Brooks |title=The Early History of the Church of Canterbury: Christ Church from 597 to 1066 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryofch0000broo |publisher=Leicester University Press |location=London |year=1984 |isbn=0-7185-0041-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Brooks, N. P. |authorlink=Nicholas Brooks |title=Laurence (d. 619) |encyclopedia =Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press| year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/16166|edition= October&nbsp;2005 revised|accessdate= 7 November 2007|doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/16166}} {{ODNBsub}} * {{cite book | author=Décarreaux, Jean |title=Monks and Civilization: From the Barbarian Invasions to the Reign of Charlemagne| others= Charlotte Haldane (trans.)|location= London |publisher=George Allen |year=1964 | oclc=776345}} * {{cite book |author=Delaney, John P. |title=Dictionary of Saints|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofsain00dela |edition=Second |publisher=Doubleday |location=Garden City, NY |year=1980 |isbn=0-385-13594-7}} * {{cite book| author=Farmer, David Hugh |title=Oxford Dictionary of Saints | url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000farm_a6q1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |edition=Fifth |location=Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-19-860949-0}} * {{cite book |author1=Fryde, E. B. |author2=Greenway, D. E. |author3=Porter, S. |author4=Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbritis0000unse_f1u2 |edition=Third revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X }} * {{cite book |author= Hindley, Geoffrey |title=A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons: The Beginnings of the English Nation |url= https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofan0000hind_b4f5 |year= 2006 |publisher= Carroll & Graf Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7867-1738-5}} * {{cite book |author=Kirby, D. P. |title=The Earliest English Kings |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=0-415-24211-8 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Lapidge, Michael |authorlink=Michael Lapidge |title=Laurentius|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |page=279 |editor=Lapidge, Michael |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=[[Simon Keynes|Keynes, Simon]] |editor4=Scragg, Donald |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1}} * {{cite book |author=Nilson, Ben |title=Cathedral Shrines of Medieval England|publisher=Boydell Press |year=1998 |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=0-85115-540-5}} * {{cite book |author=Stenton, F. M. |authorlink= Frank Stenton |title= Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonenglan0000sten |year= 1971|publisher= Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5}} * {{cite book |author=Walsh, Michael J. |title= A New Dictionary of Saints: East and West |url=https://archive.org/details/newdictionaryofs0000wals |year=2007 |publisher= Burns & Oats |location=London |isbn=0-86012-438-X}} * {{cite book |author=Ward, Benedicta |title=The Venerable Bede |url=https://archive.org/details/venerablebedeia18ward |publisher=Morehouse Publishing |location=Harrisburg, PA |year=1990 |isbn=0-8192-1494-9}} * {{cite book |author=Wright, J. Robert |authorlink=J. Robert Wright |title=A Companion to Bede: A Reader's Commentary on The Ecclesiastical History of the English People |url=https://archive.org/details/companiontobeder0000wrig |publisher=Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, MI |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8028-6309-6}} * {{cite book |author=Yorke, Barbara |authorlink= Barbara Yorke |title=The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800 |url=https://archive.org/details/conversionofbrit0000york |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=0-582-77292-3}} * {{cite book |author=Yorke, Barbara |authorlink= Barbara Yorke |title=Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/kingskingdomsofe0000york |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=0-415-16639-X}} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== * {{cite encyclopedia |author= Sharpe, R. |authorlink=Richard Sharpe (historian) |title=The Setting to St Augustine's Translation, 1091 |encyclopedia=Canterbury and the Norman Conquest: Churches, Saints, and Scholars, 1066-1109 |editor= Eales, R. |editor2=Sharpe, R. |year=1995 |publisher=Hambledon Press |location=London |isbn= 185285068X |pages= 1–13}} {{mbegu-Mkristo}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Laurenti wa Canterbury}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa karne ya 6]] [[Category:Waliofariki 619]] [[Category:Wamonaki]] [[Category:Wamisionari]] [[Category:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Italia]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Uingereza]] ssc9d0vt3bvusmmkxptbrcb60eeqi3z 0 96893 1580052 1536694 2026-07-17T23:30:10Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580052 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Saint Oswald Durham Cathedral.jpg|thumb|200px|Mt. Oswald alivyochorwa katika [[karne ya 12]] ([[kanisa kuu]] la [[Durham]]).]] '''Oswald wa Northumbria''' ([[Deira]], [[Northumbria]], [[604]] hivi &ndash; [[Maserfield]], [[5 Agosti]] [[641]]/[[642]]<ref name="Poole">Bede gives the year of Oswald's death as 642, however there is some question as to whether what Bede considered 642 is the same as what would now be considered 642. R. L. Poole (''Studies in Chronology and History'', 1934) put forward the theory that Bede's years began in September, and if this theory is followed (as it was, for instance, by [[Frank Stenton]] in his notable history ''Anglo-Saxon England'', first published in 1943), then the date of the Battle of Heavenfield (and the beginning of Oswald's reign) is pushed back from 634 to 633. Thus, if Oswald subsequently reigned for eight years, he would have actually been killed in 641. Poole's theory has been contested, however, and arguments have been made that Bede began his year on 25 December or 1 January, in which case Bede's years would be accurate as he gives them.</ref>) alikuwa [[mfalme]] wa [[Northumbria]] kuanzia [[mwaka]] [[634]] hadi [[kifo]] chake [[Vita|vitani]]. Aliunganisha tena nchi na kueneza [[Ukristo]] ndani yake<ref>http://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/65350</ref>. Ni kwamba [[mwaka]] [[616]] alilazimishwa kwenda uhamishoni katika [[kisiwa]] cha [[Kisiwa cha Iona|Iona]] ambako akabadilika kuwa Mkristo na [[ubatizo|kubatizwa]]. Mwaka [[634]] Oswald alirudishiwa ufalme wa Northumbria akaamua kuwaingiza katika Ukristo wananchi wake ambao wengi wao walikuwa [[Dini za jadi|Wapagani]]. Ili kutekeleza lengo hilo aliwaomba [[Mtawa|watawa]] wa Iona wamtumie [[mmisionari|wamisionari]], naye [[Aidani wa Lindisfarne]] akafika mwaka [[635]]. Aidan alichagua kisiwa cha [[Lindisfarne]] kiwe [[makao makuu]] ya [[dayosisi]] yake kwa vile kilikuwa karibu na [[ngome]] ya kifalme kule [[Bamburgh]]. Mwanzoni alikuwa mfalme Oswald mwenyewe aliyewatafsiria Aidan na watawa wake kwa vile walikuwa hawajajifunza [[lugha]] [[Kiingereza cha Kale|ya kale ya Kiingereza]]. [[Jamadari]] hodari, ingawa alipenda zaidi [[amani]], aliuawa na Wapagani waliomchukia [[Yesu]] [[Masiya|Kristo]]. [[Habari]] zake ziliandikwa hasa na [[Beda Mheshimiwa]][http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/sainto25.htm] {{Wayback|url=http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/sainto25.htm |date=20011122175746 }}. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa na [[Wakatoliki]], [[Waorthodoksi]] na [[Waanglikana]] kama [[mtakatifu]] [[mfiadini]]<ref>See entry for [https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-worship/worship/texts/the-calendar/holydays.aspx 5 August] {{Wayback|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-worship/worship/texts/the-calendar/holydays.aspx |date=20170618212051 }}.</ref><ref>Craig, Oswald</ref>. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa [[tarehe]] ya [[kifo]] chake<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo ya Kiswahili== * John Kabeya na wengine - Maisha ya Watakatifu – ed. T.M.P. Book Department – Tabora 1965, 1989, uk. 273-274 * Pd. Leandry Kimario, [[Wakapuchini|O.F.M.Cap.]] - Mfahamu Mtakatifu Somo Wako - Maisha ya Watakatifu wa Kila Siku pamoja na Watakatifu Wafransisko - Toleo la pili - Dar es Salaam 2021, uk. 234 == Marejeo ya lugha nyingine== * Adomnán, ''Life of Saint Columba'' translated and edited Richard Sharpe. ISBN 0-14-044462-9 * {{cite book|author=Bede|author-link=Bede|title=[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]] |year=731}} <small>(as {{cite book|author=Leo Sherley-Price (trans.)|title=The Ecclesiastical History of the English People|url=https://archive.org/details/ecclesiasticalhi00bede_0|publisher=Penguin|series=Penguin Classics|year=2008|isbn=978-0-14-044565-7|editor1-first=D. H.|editor1-last=Farmer|editor2-first=Ronald E.|editor2-last= Latham}})</small> * Bailey, Richard N., "St Oswald's Heads", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), ''Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint'' (1995, 1996). ISBN 1-871615-51-8 * [[Nicholas Brooks|Brooks, Nicholas]], "The formation of the Mercian kingdom", in S. Bassett (ed.), ''The Origins of Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms'' (1989). *{{cite encyclopedia |first=D. J.|last =Craig | publisher = Oxford University Press | encyclopedia= Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | title=Oswald (St Oswald) (603/4–642), king of Northumbria |format= | year = 2004 | url = http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/20916?docPos=2| accessdate=20 July 2012 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/20916 }} *{{cite book| last =Karkov|first =Catherine E.|title=The Ruler Portraits of Anglo-Saxon England|publisher=The Boydell Press|year =2004|isbn=1-84383-059-0}} * Kirby, D.P., ''The Earliest English Kings'' (1991, 2000). ISBN 0-04-445692-1 * Pelteret, David A.E. "Oswald: d. 642," ''Reader's Guide to British History'' (London: Routledge, 2003) online in Credo Reference. Historiography * Remfry, P.M., ''Annales Cambriae. A Translation of Harleian 3859; PRO E.164/1; Cottonian Domitian, A 1; Exeter Cathedral Library MS. 3514 and MS Exchequer DB Neath, PRO E'' (ISBN 1-899376-81-X) *Rollason, David, "St Oswald in Post-Conquest England", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), ''Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint'' (1995, 1996). * Stancliffe, Clare, "Oswald, 'Most Holy and Most Victorious King of the Northumbrians'", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), ''Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint'' (1995, 1996). * Stancliffe, Clare, "Where Was Oswald Killed?", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), ''Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint'' (1995). ISBN 1-871615-51-8 * Tudor, Victoria, "Reginald's ''Life of St Oswald''", in C. Stancliffe and E. Cambridge (eds), ''Oswald: Northumbrian King to European Saint'' (1995, 1996). ISBN 1-871615-51-8 * Ziegler, Michelle, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20110110054848/http://www.mun.ca/mst/heroicage/issues/2/ha2pen.htm The Politics of Exile in Early Northumbria]", ''The Heroic Age'', Issue 2, Autumn/Winter 1999. ==Marejeo mengine== * Adams, Max (2013), ''The King in the North: The Life and Times of Oswald of Northumbria''. ISBN 1781854181 ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Oswald of Northumbria}} *[http://www.bartleby.com/210/8/052.html "St. Oswald, King and Martyr"], ''Butler's Lives of the Saints'' *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11348c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] - Saint Oswald *[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/sainto25.htm Patron Saints Index] {{Wayback|url=http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/sainto25.htm |date=20011122175746 }} - Saint Oswald of Northumbria {{mbegu-Mkristo}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Oswald wa Northumbria}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 604]] [[Category:Waliofariki 642]] [[Category:Wafalme na malkia wa Uingereza]] [[Category:Wafiadini Wakristo]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Uingereza]] 3cfkh8hsfj3stuaaujnzdwm8uoiwmpn 0 98089 1580036 1574194 2026-07-17T23:20:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580036 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Catedrala din Reims6.jpg|230px|thumb|[[Kanisa kuu|Kanisa Kuu]] la [[Reims]] ([[Ufaransa]]) ni kielelezo cha mtindo wa Kigothi]] [[Picha:Domchor Prag.jpg|thumb|[[Nuru]] inajaza nafasi zote ndani ya Kanisa Kuu la [[Prague]] ([[Ucheki]]) ikipita kwenye madirisha makubwa. [[Tao (usanifu)|Tao]] la kuchongoka linatumiwa kote.]] '''Mtindo wa Kigothi''' (pia: '''Gotiki''', kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''Gothic style'', ''Gothic architecture'') katika [[usanifu majengo]] wa [[Ulaya]] ni [[Mitindo|mtindo]] ulioanza katika [[karne ya 12]] na kutumika hadi mnamo [[1500]]. Mtindo huo ulichukua nafasi ya [[mtindo wa Kiroma]] uliotumika kabla yake. Ulionekana pia katika [[tawi|matawi]] mengine ya [[sanaa]]. Katika [[karne ya 19]] ulitumika upya kwa [[jengo|majengo]] makubwa katika [[mtindo wa Kigothi mamboleo]]. ==Shabaha ya mtindo wa Kigothi== Vyanzo vya mtindo huo vilipatikana katika mabadiliko ya majengo yaliyobuniwa kufuatana na mtindo wa Kiroma na pia [[ubunifu]] wa nchi za [[Uislamu|Kiislamu]]. Badiliko kubwa lilikuwa ni kupatikana kwa [[Mwanga wa jua|mwanga]] ulioweza kufika ndani ya jengo kupitia [[dirisha|madirisha]] makubwa. Hapo [[ujenzi|wajenzi]] walihitaji kubuni njia za kupunguza [[unene]] wa [[ukuta|kuta]] na [[nguzo]] bila kuhatarisha uthabiti wa jengo. Shabaha ya ubunifu huo kwenye majengo ya [[dini|kidini]] ilikuwa kuvuta [[roho]] ya waumini kuelekea juu. ==Viashiria vya mtindo wa Kigothi== [[Picha:Lübeck Marienkirche Strebebögen.jpg|thumb|Viegemezo vya kuimarisha sehemu ya [[paa]] ya [[kanisa]] la Kigothi huko [[Lübeck]], [[Ujerumani]]]] [[Picha:Oleviste kirik2.JPG|thumb|Kuba ubavu za dari ya ukumbi wa kigothi]] [[Picha:Gotic3d2.jpg|thumb|Sehemu za uundaji wa jengo kubwa la Kigothi]] Kuna viashiria vitatu ambavyo vyote kwa pamoja vinatofautisha majengo makubwa ya Kigothi na mitindo mingine: *[[Tao (usanifu)|tao la kuchongoka]] (ing. ''pointed arch'') *[[Kuba (jengo)|Kuba ubavu]] (ing. ''rib vault'') *[[Kiegemezo cha nje]] (ing. ''flying buttress'') yaani gadimu za nje za kuhimili [[uzito]] wa ukuta na paa. Viashiria hivyo viliwawezesha wajenzi wa karne ya 12-[[karne ya 13|13]] kujenga majengo makubwa yenye nafasi kubwa ndani yake yaliyoruhusu kuingia kwa nuru nyingi iwezekanavyo kutokea nje. Madirisha yalipambwa kwa [[kioo cha rangi|vioo vya rangi]] vilivyowapa [[wasanii]] nafasi ya kuonyesha habari za [[Biblia]], za [[Mtakatifu|watakatifu]] au watu muhimu katika kanisa na [[serikali]] na hivyo kuwaelimisha waumini. Changamoto ya kujenga ukumbi mkubwa wenye nuru ndani yake ilikuwa kuweka madirisha makubwa, ambayo kimsingi ni [[tundu|matundu]] yanayodhoofisha ukuta, bila kuhatarisha uthabiti wa jengo lote. Katika mitindo ya awali kama ya Kiroma kuongezeka kwa [[kimo]] kulihitaji kuwa na ukuta mnene na nguzo kubwa. Mifumo iliyotajwa iliruhusu kugawa uzito wa [[dari]] na jengo lote kugawiwa na kubebwa kupitia [[Tao (usanifu)|matao ya kuchongoka]], [[Kuba (jengo)|bavu za kuba]] na gadimu za nje zilizokopea [[kani]] za [[masi]] ya juu. Wajenzi walihitaji [[elimu]] kubwa kuhusu mahitaji ya mahali pa jengo na misingi yake pamoja na [[kanuni]] za [[fizikia]] ya jengo. [[Tabia]] zilizotajwa zinapatikana hasa katika makanisa mengi yaliyojengwa kote Ulaya katika [[karne za kati]], lakini ilitumiwa pia kwenye majengo mengine kama [[monasteri|kumbi za monasteri]] au [[shirika]] za [[Mfanyabiashara|wafanyabiashara]] kwenye [[miji]], [[boma|maboma]] ya [[Kiongozi|watawala]], [[Chuo Kikuu|vyuo vikuu]] au kwa kiasi tu kwenye majengo ya watu binafsi waliokuwa na [[utajiri]] wa kutosha wa kujenga kwa [[Jiwe|mawe]] na kwa kumwajiri mjenzi hodari. ==Jina "Kigothi"== Wakati wake (kwenye karne za kati) mtindo huo uliitwa mara nyingi "wa Kifaransa" kwa sababu mifano yake ya kwanza ilitokea nchini Ufaransa. Baadaye wakati wa [[zama za mwamko]] (''renaissance'') kulikuwa na kipindi ambako watu waliona ni mtindo ambao haupendezi maana walilenga kurudia roho na ubunifu wa nyakati za kale. Hapo waliita mtindo mkuu wa karne za kati "wa Kigothi" kwa maana ya "wa kishenzi" maana waliamini ya kwamba [[uzuri]] wa [[Dola la Roma]] ya Kale uliharibiwa na [[Wagermanik|makabila ya Kigermanik]] kama [[Wagothi]] na tokeo la uharibifu huo ni mtindo waliouita "wa Kigothi". ==Tanbihi== {{reflist|30em}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last=Bony|first=Jean|year=1983|title=French Gothic Architecture of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries|publisher=[[University of California]] [[University of California Press|Press]]|location=[[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[United States]] ([[California]])|isbn=0-520-02831-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k7ytJ-gXonMC&printsec=frontcover|ref={{sfnref|Bony|1983}}}} * {{cite book|last=Ching|first=Francis D.K.|title=A Visual Dictionary of Architecture|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|isbn=978-0-470-64885-8|edition=2nd|ref={{sfnref|Ching|2012}}}} * {{cite book|last=Der Manuelian|first=Lucy|editor1-last=Cowe|editor1-first=S. Peter|editor1-link=S. Peter Cowe|title=Ani: World Architectural Heritage of a Medieval Armenian Capital|chapter=Ani: The Fabled Capital of Armenia|date=2001|publisher=Leuven Sterling|location=Peeters|isbn=978-90-429-1038-6|ref={{sfnref|Der Manuelian|2001}}}} * {{cite book|last=Fiske|first=Kimball|title=The Creation of the Rococo|date=1943|publisher=[[Philadelphia Museum of Art]]|location=[[Philadelphia]], [[United States]] ([[Pennsylvania]])|isbn=|ref={{sfnref|Fiske|1943}}}} * {{cite book|last=Fletcher|first=Banister|authorlink=Banister Fletcher|title=A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method|url=https://archive.org/details/sirbanisterfletc0000flet_c4l9|year=2001|publisher=[[Elsevier Science & Technology]]|location=[[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]|isbn=0-7506-2267-9|ref={{sfnref|Fletcher|2001}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Garsoïan|first1=Nina G.|editor1-last=Damico|editor1-first=Helen|editor1-link=Helen Damico|title=Medieval Scholarship: Biographical Studies on the Formation of a Discipline: Religion and Art|date=2015|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=[[Abingdon-on-Thames]], [[United Kingdom]] ([[England]])|chapter=Sirarpie Der Nersessian (1896–1989)|isbn=978-1-317-77636-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4XZACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT316|ref={{sfnref|Garsoïan|2015}}}} * {{cite book|last=Grodecki|first=Louis|authorlink=Louis Grodecki|editor1-last=Nervi|editor1-first=Luigi|others=In collaboration with Anne Prache and Roland Recht, translated from [[French language|French]] by I. Mark Paris|title=Gothic Architecture|url=https://archive.org/details/gothicarchitectu0000grod_n2y9|publisher=[[Abrams Books]]|location=[[New York City]], [[United States]] ([[New York (state)|New York]])|date=1977|isbn=0-8109-1008-X|ref={{sfnref|Grodecki|1977}}}} * {{cite book|last=Harvey|first=John|authorlink=John Harvey (author)|title=The Gothic World, 1100–1600|year=1950|publisher=[[Batsford (publisher)|Batsford]]|location=[[London]], United Kingdom (England)|isbn=9780002552288|ref={{snfref|Harvey|1950}}}} * {{cite book|last=Lang|first=David Marshall|authorlink=David Marshall Lang|title=Armenia: Cradle of Civilization|url=https://archive.org/details/armenianspeoplei00lang|date=1980|publisher=[[Allen & Unwin]]|location=[[Crows Nest, New South Wales|Crows Nest]], [[Australia]] ([[New South Wales]])|ref={{sfnref|Lang|1980}}}} * {{cite book|last=Mitchell|first=Ann|title=Cathedrals of Europe|url=https://archive.org/details/cathedralsofeuro00mitc|series=Great Buildings of the World|date=1968|publisher=[[Hamlyn (publishers)|Hamlyn]]|location=[[Feltham, Middlesex]], United Kingdom (England)|asin=B0006C19ES|ref={{sfnref|Mitchell|1968}}}} * {{cite book|last=Pevsner|first=Nikolaus|authorlink=Nikolaus Pevsner|title=An Outline of European Architecture|url=https://archive.org/details/outlineofeuropea0000pevs_n0b4|year=1964|publisher=[[Pelican Books]]|location=London, United Kingdom (England)|isbn=0-14-061613-6|ref={{sfnref|Pevsner|1964}}}} * {{cite book|last=Raeburn|first=Michael|others=With a forward by [[Sir Hugh Casson]]|title=Architecture of the Western World|url=https://archive.org/details/architectureofwe0000unse|date=1980|publisher=[[Rizzoli (publisher)|Rizzoli International]]|location=New York City, United States (New York)|isbn=0-8478-0349-X|ref={{sfnref|Raeburn|1980}}}} **Chapter: ''The Middle Ages'', written by Nicola Coldstream * {{cite book|last=Scott|first=Robert A.|title=The Gothic enterprise: a guide to understanding the Medieval cathedral|date=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], United States (California)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=26dGzdsX49gC&printsec=frontcover|ISBN=0-520-23177-5|ref={{sfnref|Scott|2003}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Stewart|first1=Cecil|title=History of Architectural Development: Early Christian, Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture|date=1959|publisher=[[Longman]]|location=London, United Kingdom (England)|ref={{sfnref|Stewart|1959}}}} * {{cite book|last=Swaan|first=Wim|title=The Gothic Cathedral|year=1988|publisher=Omega Books|isbn=090785348X|ref={{sfnref|Swaan|1988}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Talbot Rice|first1=David Talbot|authorlink1=David Talbot Rice|title=The Appreciation of Byzantine Art|url=https://archive.org/details/appreciationofby0000rice|date=1972|publisher=[[Oxford University]] [[Oxford University Press|Press]]|location=[[Oxford]], United Kingdom (England)|ref={{sfnref|Talbot Rice|1972}}}} * {{cite book|last=Vasari|first=Giorgio|editor1-last=Brown|editor1-first=Gerald Baldwin|editor1-link=Gerard Baldwin Brown|editor2-last=Maclehose|editor2-first=Louisa|title=Vasari on Technique: Being the Introduction to the Three Arts of Design, Architecture, Sculpture and Painting, Prefixed to the Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Architects|date=1907|publisher=[[J. M. Dent]] & Co.|location=London, United Kingdom (England)|url=https://archive.org/details/vasariontechniqu1907vasa|ref={{sfnref|Vasari|Brown|Maclehose}}}} * {{cite book|last=Vasari|first=Giorgio|authorlink=Giorgio Vasari|others=Translated with an introduction and notes by J.C. and [[Peter Bondanella|P. Bondanella]]|title=The Lives of the Artists|url=https://archive.org/details/livesofartists0000vasa|publisher=[[Oxford University]] [[Oxford University Press|Press]]|location=Oxford, United Kingdom (England)|date=1991|isbn=9780199537198|ref={{sfnref|Vasari|1991}}}} {{refend}} ===Marejeo mengine=== * [[Banister Fletcher|Fletcher, Banister]]; Cruickshank, Dan, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Gt1jTpXAThwC&printsec=frontcover ''Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture''], Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Two, Chapter 14. * {{cite book|last=Bumpus|first=T. Francis|title=The Cathedrals and Churches of Belgium|year=1928|publisher=[[T. Werner Laurie]]|location=[[London]], [[United Kingdom]] ([[England]])|isbn=9781313401852|ref={{sfnref|Bumpus|1928}}}} * {{cite book|last=Clifton-Taylor|first=Alec|authorlink=Alec Clifton-Taylor|title=The Cathedrals of England|url=https://archive.org/details/cathedralsofengl0000unse_a7m4|year=1967|publisher=[[Thames and Hudson]]|location=London, United Kingdom (England)|isbn=0-500-18070-9|ref={{sfnref|Clifton-Taylor|1967}}}} * {{cite book|last=Gardner|first=Helen|authorlink=Helen Gardner (art historian)|last2=Kleiner|first2=Fred S.|last3=Mamiya|first3=Christin J.|title=Gardner's Art Through the Ages|year=2004|publisher=[[Thomson Wadsworth]]|location=[[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]], United States ([[Connecticut]])|isbn=0-15-505090-7|ref={{sfnref|Gardner|2004}}}} * {{cite book|last=Harvey|first=John|authorlink=John Harvey (author)|title=English Cathedrals|year=1961|publisher=Batsford|location=United Kingdom (England)|asin=B0000CL4S8|ref={{sfnref|Harvey|1961}}}} * {{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Huyghe|editor-first=René|authorlink=René Huyghe|title=Larousse Encyclopedia of Byzantine and Medieval Art|year=1963|publisher=[[Hamlyn (publishers)|Hamlyn]]|location=London, United Kingdom (England)|isbn=9780600023579|ref={{sfnref|Huyghe|1963}}}} * {{cite book|last=Icher|first=Francois|authorlink=Francois Icher|title=Building the Great Cathedrals|url=https://archive.org/details/buildinggreatcat00iche|year=1998|publisher=[[Abrams Books]]|location=[[New York City]], United States ([[New York (state)|New York]])|isbn=0-8109-4017-5|ref={{sfnref|Icher|1998}}}} * {{cite book|last=von Simson|first=Otto Georg|year=1988|title=The Gothic cathedral: origins of Gothic architecture and the medieval concept of order|url=https://archive.org/details/gothiccathedralo0000sims_s3o7|isbn=0-691-09959-6}} * Glaser, Stephanie, "The Gothic Cathedral and Medievalism," in: ''Falling into Medievalism'', ed. Anne Lair and Richard Utz. Special Issue of ''UNIversitas: The University of Northern Iowa Journal of Research, Scholarship, and Creative Activity'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720093046/http://www.uni.edu/universitas/spring06/default.htm 2.1 (2006)]. (on the Gothic revival of the 19th century and the depictions of Gothic cathedrals in the Arts) * {{cite book|last=Moore|first=Charles|title=Development & Character of Gothic Architecture|url=https://archive.org/details/developmentchara0000char_c1q1|year=1890|publisher=Macmillan and Co.|isbn=1-4102-0763-3}} * Rudolph, Conrad ed., ''A Companion to Medieval Art: Romanesque and Gothic in Northern Europe'', 2nd ed. (2016) * Tonazzi, Pascal (2007) ''Florilège de Notre-Dame de Paris (anthologie)'', Editions [[Arléa]], Paris, ISBN 2-86959-795-9 * {{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Christopher|title=The Gothic Cathedral - Architecture of the Great Church|year=2005|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0500276815}} * {{cite book|last=Summerson|first=John|authorlink=John Summerson|title=Architecture in Britain, 1530–1830|year=1983|editor=Pelican Books|location=London, United Kingdom (England)|isbn=0-14-056003-3|ref={{sfnref|Summerson (1983)}}}} * {{cite book|last=Swaan|first=Wim|title=Art and Architecture of the Late Middle Ages|publisher=Omega Books|isbn=0-907853-35-8|ref={{snfref|Swaan}}}} * {{cite book|last=Tatton-Brown|first=Tim|last2=Crook|first2=John|title=The English Cathedral|year=2002|publisher=New Holland Publishers|isbn=1-84330-120-2|ref={{sfnref|Tatton-Brown|Crook (2002)}}}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons|Gothic architecture}} {{Wikivoyage|Gothic architecture}} * [http://mappinggothic.org Mapping Gothic France], a project by Columbia University and Vassar College with a database of images, 360° panoramas, texts, charts and historical maps * [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/239678/Gothic-architecture Gothic Architecture] Encyclopædia Britannica * {{cite book|first=Matthew|last=Holbeche Bloxam|title=Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture, Elucidated by Question and Answer|year=1841}} [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19737 Gutenberg.org], from [[Project Gutenberg]] * {{cite book|first=Raphael|last=Brandon|authorlink=John Raphael Rodrigues Brandon|first2=Arthur|last2=Brandon|authorlink2=Joshua Arthur Rodrigues Brandon|title=An analysis of Gothick architecture: illustrated by a series of upwards of seven hundred examples of doorways, windows, etc., and accompanied with remarks on the several details of an ecclesiastical edifice|url=https://archive.org/details/analysisofgothic02branuoft|year=1849}} [https://archive.org/details/analysisofgothic01branuoft Archive.org], from [[Internet Archive]] {{mbegu}} [[Category:Usanifu majengo]] [[Category:Karne za Kati]] [[jamii:Makanisa]] bokgwo8nug68w3gp2m16y4xjhp8q78h 0 98200 1580033 1545332 2026-07-17T23:17:37Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580033 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox book 2 | name = Tawasifu ya Malcolm&nbsp;X | title_orig = | translator = | image = AutobiographyOfMalcolmX.JPG | caption = Toleo la Kwanza | author = [[Malcolm&nbsp;X]] with [[Alex Haley]] | cover_artist = | country = Marekani | genre = Tawasifu | published = 1965 ([[Grove Press]]) | language = [[Kiingereza]] | isbn = | dewey = | congress = | oclc = 219493184 | preceded_by = | followed_by = }} '''''Tawasifu ya Malcolm X''''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: '''''The Autobiography of Malcolm X''''') kilichapishwa kwa mara ya kwanza mnamo 1965, likiwa tokeo la ushirikiano kati ya mwanaharakati wa haki za binadamu [[Malcolm&nbsp;X]] na mwandishi wa habari na mtunzi wa vitabu [[Alex Haley]]. Haley alisaidiana kuandika tawasifu hii kwa kulingana na matukio yaliyotokana na mahojiano mazito yaliyofanywa kati ya 1963 hadi 1965 mwaka ambao Malcolm&nbsp;X aliuawa kwa kupigwa risasi mfululizo. Tawasifu inahusu mazungumzo ya kiimani ambayo yanaelezea falsafa ya Malcolm&nbsp;X juu ya [[fahari ya mtu mweusi]], [[uzalendo wa mtu mweusi]], na [[Umajumui wa Afrika]]. Baada ya kiongozi kuawa, Haley aliandika hitimisho la kitabu. Ambalo jambo hili walikubaliana kabla umauti haujamfika. Katika hitimisho alielezea namna walivyokuwa wanachakata habari za matukio mbalimbali hadi mwisho wa maisha ya Malcolm&nbsp;X. Wakati Malcolm&nbsp;X na wasomi ambao wa rika moja na kipindi ambacho kitabu kinachapishwa wanamuona Haley kama mwandishi nyuma ya pazia, wasomi wa siku hizi humuona Haley kama moja kati ya washirika bora kabisa katika uandishi. Wanasema kwa makusudi amezima mamlaka yake kama mwandishi ilimradi tu kutengeneza mahusiano bora kabisa na Malcolm&nbsp;X wakati wa uchakataji, jambo hili limefanya kitabu kionekane kama kinaongea moja kwa moja na wasomi wa kitabu. Vilevile Haley alitia baadhi ya matakwa ya Malcolm&nbsp;X ya kifasihi. Kwa mfano, Malcolm&nbsp;X aliondoka katika jumuia ya [[Nation of Islam]] wakati wa kipindi hiki kigumu alikuwa anaandaa kitabu na Haley. Badala ya kuandika mabaya juu ya kitendo walichofanya jumuia ya NOI, Malcolm X kakataa kabisa kuanika habari za NOI, Haley kakubaliana na hilio. Kwa mujibu wa "Manning Marable", "Haley alikuwa na wasiwasi kuhusu mtazamo wa Malcolm&nbsp;X juu ya [[chuki dhidi ya Wayahudi]] na kuamua kuandika upya baadhi ya matini yake na kuondoa yale yenye ukakasi wa kibaguzi wa Wayahudi.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/pdfs/Souls.Rediscovering_Malcolms_Life.pdf |first=Manning |last=Marable |title=Rediscovering Malcolm's Life: A Historian's Adventures in Living History |journal=Souls |volume=7 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/10999940590910023 |page=33 |year=2005 |accessdate=February 25, 2015 }}</ref> Kipindi ambacho ''Tawasifu'' hii imechapishwa, mchambuzi wa ''[[The New York Times]]'' alielezea kitabu kama kitabu kizuri na muhimu kilichoambatana na maumivu makali. Mwaka wa 1967, mwahistoria na profesa John William Ward aliandika ya kwamba kitabu kitakuja kuwa tawasifu bora kabisa ya Kimarekani. Mwaka wa 1998, jarida la ''[[Time]]'' walikitaja kitabu cha ''Tawasifu ya Malcolm&nbsp;X'' kama moja kati ya vitabu 10 vya kweli. [[James Baldwin]] na [[Arnold Perl]] walichukua kitabu hiki na kukitengenezea filamu; andiko lao la filamu lilimsaidia vilivyo mwongozaji [[Spike Lee]] kwa ajili ya kutengeneza filamu yake ya 1992 ya ''[[Malcolm X (1992)|Malcolm&nbsp;X]]''. ==Muhtasari wa kitabu== Kimechapishwa baada ya mwenyewe kufa, kwa jina la ''The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X'' kimetaja maisha ya [[Malcolm&nbsp;X]], aliyezaliwa kwa jina la Malcolm Little (1925–1965), ambaye akaja kuwa mwanaharakati wa haki za binadamu. Kwa kuanza na ujauzito wa mama yake, kitabu kinaelezea maisha ya utotoni ya Malcolm akiwa mjini [[Michigan]], kifo cha baba yake kilichotokea katika mazingira ya kutatanisha, na hali iliyopelekea mama yake kuwehuka na kuishia hospitali ya vichaa bila kutaka na kutiwa katika kitengo cha uchunguzi wa kisaikolojia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dyson|1996|pp=4–5}}.</ref> Maisha ya ujana wa Little yameelezewa pia akiwa huko Boston na New York City, halkadhalika kujihusisha kwake na jamii za kihalifu. Uhalifu huo ambao ulipelekea kutumikia kifungo cha miaka nane-hadi-kumi jela, kifungo ambacho alitumikia miaka sita na nusu (1946–1952) baada ya kupata msamaha.<ref>{{Harvnb|Carson|1995|p=99}}.</ref> Kitabu kinaelezea ukasisi wake na mkuu wa jumuia [[Nation of Islam]] ndugu [[Elijah Muhammad]] (1952–1963) na kuibuka kwake kuwa kama msemaji mkuu taifa wa jumuia hiyo. Kinaelezea kuachia kwake ngazi kwenye jumuia hiyo ya Nation of Islam mnamo Machi 1964, na safari yake ya kwenda [[hija]] [[Makka]], ambayo ilipelekea kubadili dhehebu na kuwa [[Sunni]], na safari zake za Afrika.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dyson|1996|pp=6–13}}.</ref> Malcolm&nbsp;X aliuawa mjini New York katika jengo la [[Audubon Ballroom]] mnamo mwezi wa Februari 1965, kabla kitabu hakijaisha. Mwandishi mwenzake , mwanahabari [[Alex Haley]], alimuhtasarisha siku za mwisho za maisha ya Malcolm&nbsp;X, na kuelezea kwa kina makubaliano yao, ikiwa pamoja na maoni binafsi ya Haley kuhusu muhusika, kwenye hitimisho la "tawasifu".<ref>Als, Hilton, "Philosopher or Dog?", in {{Harvnb|Wood|1992|p=91}}; [[John Edgar Wideman|Wideman, John Edgar]], "Malcolm&nbsp;X: The Art of Autobiography", in {{Harvnb|Wood|1992|pp=104–5}}.</ref> ==Aina== ==Utunzi wa kitabu== [[File:Malcolm-x.jpg|right|thumb|upright= .85 |Malcolm&nbsp;X akisubiria kuanza kwa mkutano na waandishi wa habari mnamo Machi 26, 1964]] Haley aliandika kitabu hiki kwa ushirkiano mkubwa kabisa na Malcolm&nbsp;X',<ref>{{Harvnb|Stone|1982|pp= 24, 233, 247, 262–264}}.</ref> ameandika, kapanga, na kukihariri.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gallen|1995|pp=243–244}}.</ref> Tawasifu inatoka na mahojiano mazito zaidi ya 50 yaliyofanywa kati ya Malcolm&nbsp;X baina ya 1963 hadi kifo chake mwaka 1965.<ref>Wideman, "Malcolm&nbsp;X", in {{Harvnb|Wood|1992|pp=103–110}}; Rampersad, "The Color of His Eyes", in {{Harvnb|Wood|1992|pp=119, 127–128}}.</ref> Wawili hawa walikutana kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka 1959, wakati huo Haley aliandika makal kuhusu Nation of Islam kwa ajili ya jarida la ''[[Reader's Digest]]'', na vilevile mara ya pili pale Haley alipomuhoji Malcolm&nbsp;X kwa ajili ya jarida la ''[[Playboy]]'' mnamo mwaka wa 1962.<ref>{{Harvnb|X|Haley|1965|p=391}}.</ref> Mwaka wa 1963 kampuni ya uchapishaji ya Doubleday inamwomba Haley kuandika kitabu kuhusu maisha ya Malcolm&nbsp;X. Mwandishi na mtaalamu wa masuala ya fasihi wa Kimarekani bwana [[Harold Bloom]] anaandika, "Wakati Haley anamfuata Malcolm na wazo la kumwandikia kitabu kuhusu maisha yake, Malcolm alimpa sura ya mshangao ..."<ref name="Bloom page 12"/> Haley anarejea kwa kusema, "Ilikuwa moja kati ya mara chache sana kumuona akiwa hana jibu la uhakika."<ref name="Bloom page 12">{{Harvnb|Bloom|2008|p=12}}</ref> Baada ya Malcolm&nbsp;X kuomba ruhusa kutoka kwa Elijah Muhammad, yeye na Haley wakaanza kazi ya kuandika ''Tawasifu'', mchakato ambao umeanza kwa mahojiano ya msaa-mawili-matatu katika studio ya Haley huko mjini Greenwich Village.<ref name="Bloom page 12"/> Bloom anaandika ya kwamba, "Malcolm alimtilia shaka sana Haley hasa kwa kufuatia uwezo wake wa kati na imani yake ya Kikristo na uhudumu wake katika jeshi la Marekani kwa zaidi ya miaka ishirini."<ref name="Bloom page 12"/> Wakati wanaanza kuandika Tawasifu hii mwanzoni mwa miaka wa 1963, Haley anavurugwa na tabia ya Malcolm&nbsp;X kuongelea kuhusu Elijah Muhammad na Nation of Islam tu. Haley anamkumbusha kitabu kinatakiwa kiwe kinamhusu Malcolm&nbsp;X, na si Muhammad au the Nation of Islam, oni ambalo lilimkwaza Malcolm&nbsp;X. Haley hatimaye anahamisha lengo na kuanza kumhoji kuhusu mama yake mzazi Malcolm&nbsp;X:<ref>{{Harvnb|X|Haley|1965|p=392}}.</ref> <blockquote> Nikasema, 'Bwana Malcolm, je, waweza niambia jambo lolote kuhusu mama yako?' Na kamwe sintokuja sahau jinsi alivyosimama na kuganda kama vile kikaragosi. Halafu akasema, 'Nakumbuka zile aina ya nguo alizokuwa anavaa. Zilikuwa chakavu na rangi ya kijivu iliyopauka.' Halafu akasonga kidogo. Halafu akasema, 'Nakumbuka namna ambavyo alivyokuwa akiinamia jiko, akaijaribu kutupikia kiasi kidogo tulichokuwanacho.' Na huo ndio ulikuwa mwanzo, usiku huo, wa safari yake. Alizunguka katika sakafu hadi kumekucha.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/about/pt_201.html |title=The Time Has Come (1964–1966) |work=[[Eyes on the Prize|Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Movement 1954–1985]], [[American Experience]] |publisher=[[PBS]] |accessdate=March 7, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423154235/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/about/pt_201.html |archivedate=April 23, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> </blockquote> Japokuwa Haley alikaa nyuma ya pazia katika uandishi wa kitabu hiki, wasomi wa kisasa humtazamia kama mshiriki kiini muhimu ambaye amecheza kama umbo lisiloonekana katika kazi za tungo.<ref>Leak, Jeffery B., "Malcolm&nbsp;X and black masculinity in process", in {{Harvnb|Terrill|2010|pp=52–55}}; Wideman, "Malcolm&nbsp;X", in {{Harvnb|Wood|1992|pp=104–110, 119}}.</ref> Amepunguza sauti yake mwenyewe, na kusaini mkataba ambao utakinza mamlka yake ya kiandishi na kutoa nakala za kitabu kama kilivyoandikwa vilevile bila kubadili maneno.<ref>Wideman, "Malcolm&nbsp;X", in {{Harvnb|Wood|1992|pp=103–116}}.</ref> Mchango wa Haley katika kazi hii unajulikana, na wasomi kadhaa wanajadili namna inavyotakiwa kuelezea.<ref>Terrill, Robert E., "Introduction" in, {{Harvnb|Terrill|2010|pp=3–4}}, Gillespie, "Autobiography and Identity", in {{Harvnb|Terrill|2010|pp= 26–36}}; Norman, Brian, "Bringing Malcolm&nbsp;X to Hollywood", in {{Harvnb|Terrill|2010| pp=43}}; Leak, "Malcolm X and black masculinity in process", in {{Harvnb|Terrill|2010|pp=52–55 }}</ref> Mara kadhaa Malcolm alimtilia shaka Haley. Usiku mmoja wa manane, Malcolm anampigia simu Haley, nakumini asilimia 75. Awali wakati wanaanza alimwambia anamwaini asilimia 25 tu. Hasa ukizingatia Haley alidumu jeshi la maji, miaka 20, msomi wa Mwafrika-Amerika ambao wengi aliwaona kama mamluki tu. Siku ambayo Haley anaambiwa ya kwamba anamwamini asilimia 75, asubuhi yake hakutaka tena kukumbushia jambo la jana usiku. Tangu hapa, Malcolm alikuwa huru sana kwa Haley. Aliongea mengi hadi yale binafsi ya ndani kabisa. Tena kuna kipindi Malcolm alithubutu hata kumpa Haley shajara binafsi aisome. Haley alijua namna ya kucheza na akili ya Malcolm, kwanza alikuwa hendi nae pupa. Mara kadhaa kaonekana akija ofisini kwa Haley na hasira, anachochora maneno mengi kwenye vikaratasi. Baadaye Haley anatazama, anaona maneno yaliyoweka kwa msimbo, kwa akuwa anamjua Malcolm staili yake, anayasimbua kwa urahisi. Hili lilikuwa la kawaida sana kwa Malcolm kufanya kuchorachora kwenye karatasi. Ikawa sasa akiingia tu ofisini, anamwekea peni na karatasi aanze kuchorachora huku wakijadiliana mambo mengine. Haley anasema, Malcolm alikuwa na uwezo wa kuongelea jambo jengine tofauti kabisa, huku akichora na kuelezea jambo jengine jengine mbali na lile analongelea. Hii michoro imempa mwanga mwingi sana Haley. Mazungumzo ya wawili hawa, yalikuwa ya kipekee. Haley kavumilia mengi. Mara nyingi humjia nyakati za jioni akiwa katika mizunguko yake akiwa hoi. Upole na hekima ya Haley, ulifanikisha kitabu kuundwa. Kitabu kinaanzia maisha ya utoto, ukubwa, kujihusisha na uhuni, hasira zake juu ya Wazungu na safari yake ya Makka iliyokuja kubadili maoni yake dhidi ya Wazungu na watu weupe kwa ujumla. Baada ya kwenda Makka alikuta Waarabu wasivyo-waba-guzi na kukutana baadhi ya watu rangi nyengine waliomthamini na kumpa mchango wa kifikra na kiroho kwa kiasi kikubwa. Tangu hapa, alibadili kabisa mawazo yake dhidi ya watu wa weupe na Waafrika wenzie ambao walikuwa Wakristo - hasa wale ambao walikuwa wanajipendekeza kwa Wazungu ili kudhulumu haki ya Waafrika Wamarekani wengine. Safari yake kwenda Afrika, huko [[Misri]], [[Ghana]], [[Tanzania]], [[Lebanon]], [[Kuwait]], [[Sudan]], Kenya, Ethiopia, Nigeria, [[Liberia]], [[Algers]], [[Guine]], kutaja chache. Huku alipata mawazo na mitazamo mipya kabisa.<ref>[https://www.africaresource.com/essays-a-reviews/essays-a-discussions/268-malcolm-x-travels-to-africa-and-gain-new-insights Malcolm X Travels to Africa and Gain New Insights] {{Wayback|url=https://www.africaresource.com/essays-a-reviews/essays-a-discussions/268-malcolm-x-travels-to-africa-and-gain-new-insights |date=20161215032907 }} AfricaResources, 05 May 2007.</ref> ===Kuchapishwa na mauzo=== [[File:The Autobiography of Malcolm X in the White House library.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|''Tawasifu ya Malcolm&nbsp;X'' kwenye shelfu ya vitabu ya Ikulu ya Marekani wakati wa urais wa [[George W. Bush]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/jacketcopy/2010/02/white-house-library-socialist-books.html |title=White House Library's 'Socialist' Books Were Jackie Kennedy's |last=Kellogg |first=Carolyn |date=February 19, 2010 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |accessdate=July 11, 2010 }}</ref>]] Kampuni ya uchapishaji ya nchini Marekani, Doubleday, iliingia mkataba wa kuchapisha kitabu cha ''The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X'' na kulipa malipo ya awali kiasi cha dola $30,000 kwa Malcolm&nbsp;X na Haley mnamo mwaka wa 1963.<ref name="MARABLE312"/> Mwezi wa Machi 1965, wiki tatu tangu kuuawa kwa Malcolm&nbsp;X, [[Nelson Doubleday, Jr.]], akafuta mkataba wake aliongia nao kwa kuhofia usalama wa wafanyakazi wake. Mwaka mmoja baadayae, [[Grove Press]], wakachapisha kitabu.<ref name="MARABLE312"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2011/04/25/110425crbo_books_remnick |last=Remnick |first=David |authorlink=David Remnick |title=This American Life: The Making and Remaking of Malcolm X |work=[[The New Yorker]] |date=April 25, 2011 |accessdate=April 27, 2011 }}</ref> Kwa vile ''The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X'' imeuza zaidi nakala zaidi ya mamilioni,<ref name="NYTAHOB">{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/11/books/alex-haley-70-author-of-roots-dies.html |title=Alex Haley, 70, Author of 'Roots,' Dies |last=Pace |first=Eric |date=February 2, 1992 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=June 2, 2010 }}</ref> Marable anaelezea uamuazi wa Doubleday kama janga kubwa lililowahi kufanywa katika historia nzima ya tasnia ya uchapishaji".<ref name="MMAG"/> ''The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X'' iliuza vyema tangu kuanza kuchapishwa mwaka 1965.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/newsday/access/77587304.html?dids=77587304:77587304&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT |title=What Took So Long? |last=Seymour |first=Gene |date=November 15, 1992 |work=[[Newsday]] |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |archivedate=2012-01-11 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111230720/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/newsday/access/77587304.html?dids=77587304:77587304&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT }} {{subscription}}</ref> Kwa mujibu wa ''[[The New York Times]]'', toleo la vitini limeuza nakala zaidi ya 400,000 mwaka wa 1967 na 800,000 zikauzwa mwaka uliofuatia.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F2091EFC385D137A93C4A81789D85F4D8685F9 |title=Black Is Marketable |last=Watkins |first=Mel |authorlink=Mel Watkins (author) |date=February 16, 1969 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=June 1, 2010 }} {{subscription}}</ref> Hadi kufikia 1970, tawasifu ilikuwa ishachapishwa mara 18.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rickford |first=Russell J. |authorlink=Russell J. Rickford |title=Betty Shabazz: A Remarkable Story of Survival and Faith Before and After Malcolm&nbsp;X |url=https://archive.org/details/bettyshabazzrema00rick |year=2003 |publisher=Sourcebooks |location=Naperville, Ill. |isbn=978-1-4022-0171-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bettyshabazzrema00rick/page/335 335] }}</ref> Mwaka wa 1977, ''The New York Times'' imeripoti ya kwamba nakala milioni sita za kitabu zimeuzwa.<ref name="NYTAHOB"/> Kitabu kimepitia ongezeko kubwa la wasomaji na kurudia tena kuwa kitabu kilichouza sana kwa miaka ya 1990, kimesaidia sana hasa kwa [[Spike Lee]] baada ya kutoa filamu yake 1992 ''[[Malcolm X (1992)|Malcolm&nbsp;X]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dyson|1996|p=144}}</ref> Between 1989 and 1992, sales of the book increased by 300%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/921123/archive_018698.htm |title=The Legacy of Malcolm&nbsp;X |last1=Lord |first1=Lewis |last2=Thornton |first2=Jeannye |last3=Bodipo-Memba |first3=Alejandro |date=November 15, 1992 |work=[[U.S. News & World Report]] |accessdate=June 2, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114124627/http://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/921123/archive_018698.htm |archivedate=January 14, 2012 |df= }}</ref> ===Maigizo=== Mwaka wa 1968, mtayarishaji wa filamu [[Marvin Worth]] anamkodisha mtunzi wa riwaya [[James Baldwin]] kaundika igizo linalotokana na ''The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X''; Baldwin aliungana na mwandishi muswaada andishi bwana [[Arnold Perl]], ambaye amefariki mwaka wa 1971 kabla hata hilo andiko halijaisha.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/11/15/movies/film-malcolm-x-the-facts-the-fictions-the-film.html |title=Malcolm&nbsp;X: The Facts, the Fictions, the Film |last=Rule |first=Sheila |date=November 15, 1992 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=May 31, 2010 }}</ref><ref name=Weintraub>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/11/23/movies/a-movie-producer-remembers-the-human-side-of-malcolm-x.html |title=A Movie Producer Remembers the Human Side of Malcolm&nbsp;X |last=Weintraub |first=Bernard |date=November 23, 1992 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=May 31, 2010 }}</ref> Baldwin ametengeneza kazi yake ya Tawasifu hii kwa kufuata mfano wa kitabu cha ''One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based kwa Alex Haley, kimechapishwa 1972.<ref>{{cite book |last=Field |first=Douglas |title=A Historical Guide to James Baldwin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=egvIN39twu8C&pg=PA52 |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-536653-2 |pages=52, 242|accessdate= October 16, 2010 }}</ref> Waandishi wengine waliojaribu kuandika rasimu ya muswaada huo ni pamoja na mwandishi wa tamthilia [[David Mamet]], mwandishi wa riwaya [[David Bradley (mwandishi wa riwaya)|David Bradley]], mwandishi [[Charles Fuller]], na mwandishi-muswaada [[Calder Willingham]].<ref name=Weintraub/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newsweek.com/1991/08/25/the-battle-for-malcolm-x.html |title=The Battle for Malcolm&nbsp;X |last=Ansen |first=David |date=August 26, 1991 |work=[[Newsweek]] |accessdate=May 31, 2010 }}</ref> Kwa kuongeza filamu, mwongozaji Spike Lee alipitia upya muswaada wa Baldwin-Perl kwa ajili ya filamu yake ya mwaka wa 1992 ''[[Malcolm X (1992)|Malcolm&nbsp;X]]''.<ref name=Weintraub/> ===Sura zilizotolewa=== Mwaka wa 1992, mwanasheria Gregory Reed alinunua muswada halisi wa ''Tawasifu ya Malcolm&nbsp;X'' kwa kiasi cha dola za Kimarekani zipatazo $100,000 katika mauzo ya Haley Estate.<ref name="MARABLE312"/> Muswada una sura tatu ambazo hazikuingizwa kwenye kitabu, zinaitwa "The Negro", "The End of Christianity", na "Twenty Million Black Muslims", sura hizo zote ziliondolewa kutoka katika matini halisi ya kitabu.<ref>{{Harvnb|Marable|Aidi|2009|p=315}}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://thegrio.com/2010/05/20/lost-malcolm-x-memoir-chapters-reveal-leaders-soft-side/ |title=Lost chapters from Malcolm&nbsp;X memoirs revealed |first=Jennifer H. |last=Cunningham |date=May 20, 2010 |publisher=[[The Grio]] |accessdate=March 28, 2016 }}</ref> Mwaka wa 1964, barua kwenda kwa mchapishaji wake, Haley ameelezea ya kwamba sura hizo kuwa zenye mgongano au hisia kali sana kutoka katika kitabu, baadhi yake zipo kama lava vile moto unawaka".<ref name="MARABLE312"/> Tofauti kabisa na mawazo ya mwanatawasifu Manning Marable, anaandika ya kwamba, kurasa zilizotolewa zilifanyiwa udikteta kutolewa kwake lakini zilitimia kwa kila hali hasa ukifuatia ziliandikwa kipindi cha miezi ya mwisho-mwisho kabisa ambayo Malcolm&nbsp;X anaondoka katika jumuia ya Nation of Islam.<ref name="MARABLE312"/>Kwa wao, Marable anasema, Malcolm&nbsp;X alipendekeza kuanzishwa kwa umoja na mshikamano wa Wamarekani Weusi na asasi za kisiasa. Marable anashangazwa na mpango huu huenda ikawa ndio sababu iliyopelekea Nation of Islam na [[FBI|Federal Bureau of Investigation]] kumnyamazisha Malcolm&nbsp;X.<ref>{{Harvnb|Marable|Aidi|2009|p=313}}.</ref> Mwezi wa Aprili 2010, gazeti la ''[[New York Post]]'' liliripoti ya kwamba kurasa zilizokosekana kwenye kitabu zitachapishwa mbele kabisa na binti wa Malcolm&nbsp;X, [[Ilyasah Shabazz]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/pagesix/restoring_lost_malcolm_5Z5l1GHO3m4BMrucBPMG2N |title=Malcolm&nbsp;X's Daughter to Add to Father's Autobiography |date=April 12, 2010 |work=[[New York Post]] |accessdate=May 31, 2010 |archivedate=2013-02-04 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204204604/http://www.nypost.com/p/pagesix/restoring_lost_malcolm_5Z5l1GHO3m4BMrucBPMG2N }}</ref> ===Matoleo=== Kitabu hiki kimechapishwa zaidi ya mara 45 tena katika matoleo ya lugha mbalimbali ikiwa ni pamojaKiabu, [[Kijerumani]], [[Kifaransa]], [[Kiindonesia]]. Important editions include:<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.goodreads.com/work/editions/47400?per_page=100|title= The Autobiography of Malcolm X: As Told to Alex Haley>editions|publisher= Goodreads|accessdate= March 7, 2010}}</ref> {{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book| last1 = X| first1 = Malcolm| last2 = Haley| first2 = Alex| title = The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X| url = https://archive.org/details/autobiographyofm00xmal| year= 1965| publisher=Grove Press| location = New York| edition = 1st hardcover| oclc= 219493184 | ref= }} * {{cite book| last1 = X| first1 = Malcolm| last2 = Haley| first2 = Alex| title = The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X| year= 1965| publisher=Random House| edition = 1st paperback| isbn= 978-0-394-17122-7| ref= }} * {{cite book| last1 = X| first1 = Malcolm| last2 = Haley| first2 = Alex| title = The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X| year= 1973| publisher=Penguin Books| edition = paperback| isbn= 978-0-14-002824-9| ref= }} * {{cite book| last1 = X| first1 = Malcolm| last2 = Haley| first2 = Alex| title = The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X| year= 1977| publisher=Ballantine Books| edition = mass market paperback| isbn= 978-0-345-27139-6| ref= }} * {{cite book| last1 = X| first1 = Malcolm| last2 = Haley| first2 = Alex| title = The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X| year= 1992| publisher=Simon & Schuster | edition = audio cassettes| isbn= 978-0-671-79366-1| ref= }} {{refend}} ==Marejeo== {{marejeo}} ==Vyanzo== {{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book| editor-last = Andrews| editor-first = William | title = African-American Autobiography: A Collection of Critical Essays| url = https://archive.org/details/africanamericana0000unse_c6z7| year= 1992| publisher=Prentice Hall| location = Englewood Cliffs, N.J.| edition = Paperback| isbn= 978-0-13-019845-7| ref= harv}} * {{cite book| last = Bloom| first = Harold| title = Bloom's Guides: Alex Haley's The Autobiography of Malcolm X| url = https://archive.org/details/alexhaleysautobi0000unse| year= 2008| publisher= Chelsea House Pub| location = New York| edition = Hardcover| isbn= 978-0-7910-9832-5| ref= harv}} * {{cite journal|last=Bradley|first=David|authorlink=David Bradley (novelist)|year=1992|title=Malcolm's Mythmaking|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_transition_1992_56/page/20|journal=Transition|issue=56|pages=20–46|jstor=2935038 |ref= harv}} * {{cite book| last = Carson| first = Clayborne| authorlink = Clayborne Carson| title = Malcolm X: The FBI File| url = https://archive.org/details/malcolmxfbifile0000cars_e6d3| year= 1995| publisher= Ballantine Books| location = New York| edition = Mass Market Paperback| isbn= 978-0-345-40009-3| ref= harv}} * {{cite book|last=Cone|first=James H.|authorlink=James Hal Cone|title=Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream or a Nightmare|url=https://archive.org/details/martinmalcolmame00jame|year=1991|publisher=Orbis Books|location=Maryknoll, N.Y.|isbn=978-0-88344-721-5|ref=harv}} * {{cite book| title=Book Review Digest| year=1966| publisher=H.W. Wilson| location=New York| edition=61st| editor=Davidson, D. |editor2=Samudio, J.| ref= {{harvid|Book Review Digest|1996}}}} * {{cite book| last = Dyson| first = Michael Eric| authorlink=Michael Eric Dyson| title = Making Malcolm: The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X| year= 1996| publisher=Oxford University Press USA| location = New York| edition = Paperback| isbn=978-0-19-510285-7| ref= harv}} * {{cite book| editor-last = Gallen| editor-first = David | title = Malcolm X: As They Knew Him| url = https://archive.org/details/malcolmxastheykn0000davi| year= 1995| publisher=Ballantine Books| location = New York| edition = Mass Market Paperback| isbn= 978-0-345-40052-9| ref= harv}} * {{cite book| editor-last = Greetham| editor-first = David | title = The Margins of the Text (Editorial Theory and Literary Criticism)| year= 1997| publisher= University of Michigan Press| location = Ann Arbor, Mich.| edition = Hardcover| isbn= 978-0-472-10667-7| ref= harv}} * {{cite book| editor-last1 = Marable| editor-first1 = Manning | authorlink1 = Manning Marable| editor-last2 = Aidi| editor-first2 = Hishaam (| title = Black Routes to Islam| year= 2009| publisher= Palgrave Macmillan| location = New York| edition = Hardcover| isbn= 978-1-4039-8400-5| ref= harv}} * {{cite book| last = Stone| first = Albert| title = Autobiographical Occasions and Original Acts: Versions of American Identity from Henry Adams to Nate Shaw| url = https://archive.org/details/autobiographical0000ston| year= 1982| publisher= University of Pennsylvania Press| location = Philadelphia| edition = Paperback| isbn= 978-0-8122-1127-6| ref= harv}} * {{cite book| editor-last = Terrill| editor-first = Robert E. | title = The Cambridge Companion to Malcolm X| year= 2010| publisher= Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge| edition = 1st Paperback| isbn= 978-0-521-51590-0| url= http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521515900| ref= harv}} * {{cite book| last = Wolfenstein| first = Eugene Victor| authorlink = Eugene Victor Wolfenstein| title = The Victims of Democracy: Malcolm X and the Black Revolution| url = https://archive.org/details/victimsofdemocra0000wolf| origyear= 1981| year= 1993| publisher= The Guilford Press| location = London| edition = Paperback| isbn= 978-0-89862-133-4| ref= harv}} * {{cite book| editor-last = Wood| editor-first = Joe | title = Malcolm X: In Our Own Image| url = https://archive.org/details/malcolmxinourown00wood| year= 1992| publisher=St Martins Press| location = New York| edition = 1st| isbn= 978-0-312-06609-3| ref= harv}} * {{cite book| last1 = X| first1 = Malcolm| last2 = Haley| first2 = Alex| title = The Autobiography of Malcolm X| year= 1965| publisher=Grove Press| location = New York| edition = 1st| oclc= 219493184| ref= harv}} ==Jisomee zaidi== <!-- This section is intended for books specifically about The Autobiography of Malcolm X and not about Malcolm X in general. Exceptions are made for books referred to in the text of the article. --> {{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite book |last=Baldwin |first=James |authorlink=James Baldwin |title=One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based on Alex Haley's "The Autobiography of Malcolm&nbsp;X" |year=1992 |publisher=Dell |location=New York |isbn=978-0-307-27594-3 }} * {{cite book |last1=Cleage |first1=Albert B. |authorlink1=Albert Cleage |last2=Breitman |first2=George |title=Myths About Malcolm&nbsp;X: Two Views |url=https://archive.org/details/mythsaboutmalcol0000unse |year=1968 |publisher=Merit |oclc=615819 }} * {{cite book |last=Goldman |first=Peter |title=The Death and Life of Malcolm X |url=https://archive.org/details/deathlifeofmalco0000gold |year=1979 |origyear=1973 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |location=Urbana, Ill. |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-252-00774-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Holte |first=James |title=The Conversion Experience in America: A Sourcebook on Religious Conversion Autobiography |url=https://archive.org/details/conversionexperi0000holt |year=1992 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn. | isbn= 978-0-313-26680-5 }} * {{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Spike |authorlink1=Spike Lee |last2=Wiley |first2=Ralph |title=By Any Means Necessary: The Trials and Tribulations of the Making of Malcolm&nbsp;X |url=https://archive.org/details/byanymeansnecess00lees |year=1992 |publisher=Hyperion |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8027-8494-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Lomax |first=Louis E. |authorlink=Louis Lomax |title=To Kill a Black Man: The Shocking Parallel in the Lives of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr |url=https://archive.org/details/tokillblackman0000loma |year=1987 |origyear=1968 |publisher=Holloway House |location=Los Angeles |isbn=978-0-87067-982-7 }} * {{cite book |last=Perry |first=Bruce |title=Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America |url=https://archive.org/details/malcolmlifeofman00perr |year=1991 |publisher=Station Hill |location=Barrytown, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-88268-103-0 }} * {{cite book |last=T'Shaka |first=Oba |title=The Political Legacy of Malcolm&nbsp;X |year=1983 |publisher=Pan African Publications |location=Richmond, Calif. |isbn=978-1-878557-01-8}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{sisterlinks|1=Malcolm X|wikt=no|b=no|q=Malcolm X|s=Author:Malcolm X|commons=Category:Malcolm X|n=no|v=no|voy=no}} * [http://www.malcolmx.com/ Official website of the Estate of Malcolm{{nbsp}}X] * [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/mxp/ The Malcolm{{nbsp}}X Project at Columbia University] * [http://www.brothermalcolm.net/ Malcolm], website on the life and legacy of Malcolm{{nbsp}}X * [https://vault.fbi.gov/malcolm-little-malcolm-x Malcolm Little (Malcolm X) file] at [[FBI|Federal Bureau of Investigation]] * http://playboysfw.kinja.com/malcolm-x-a-candid-conversation-with-the-civil-rights-1523266222 {{Wayback|url=http://playboysfw.kinja.com/malcolm-x-a-candid-conversation-with-the-civil-rights-1523266222 |date=20171228214649 }} *{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/aug/20/malcolm-x-book-that-changed-me-autobiography |title=Malcolm X's autobiography didn't change me, it saved me |first=Lemn |last=Sissay |authorlink=Lemn Sissay |date=August 20, 2015 |work=[[The Guardian]] }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Autobiography Of Malcolm X}} [[Category:Vitabu vya 1965]] [[Category:Fasihi ya Kiingereza]] s3ahlwyjyme37yqrrgd7k05m61ggh25 0 101261 1580248 1578144 2026-07-18T01:50:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 5 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580248 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Hexhamfromeddius.jpg|thumb|320px|Nakala ya ''Vita Sancti Wilfrithi'' ([[karne ya 11]]).]] '''Wilfrid wa Ripon''' au '''wa York''' ([[tahajia]] asili: '''Wilfrith'''<ref name=Fraser47>Fraser ''From Caledonia to Pictland'' p. 47</ref>; [[Northumbria]], [[633]] hivi – [[Oundle]], [[Northamptonshire]], [[709]] hivi) alikuwa [[mmonaki]] [[Mbenedikto]], halafu [[abati]] na hatimaye [[askofu]] wa [[York]], [[Uingereza]] kwa miaka 45 kuanzia mwaka [[664]], ingawa alilazimika mara kadhaa kuacha [[Dayosisi|jimbo]] lake hilo kwa wengine. Alishiriki [[Sinodi ya Whitby]] na kwa [[bidii]] yake alichangia sana uenezi wa [[umonaki]] wa [[Benedikto wa Nursia|Kibenedikto]] na [[mapokeo]] yote ya [[Kanisa la Kilatini]] kati ya waamini wa [[Ukristo wa Kiselti]]. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa na [[Wakatoliki]]<ref>"[http://middlesbrough-diocese.org.uk/about About the Diocese]" Roman Catholic Diocese of Middlesbrough</ref>, [[Waorthodoksi]]<ref name=EOC>Hutchinson-Hall ''Orthodox Saints'' p. 78</ref> na [[Waanglikana]] kama [[mtakatifu]]<ref>http://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/50680</ref>. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa [[tarehe]] [[24 Aprili]]<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref> au [[12 Oktoba]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] == Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo ya Kiswahili== * John Kabeya na wengine - Maisha ya Watakatifu – ed. T.M.P. Book Department – Tabora 1965, 1989, uk. 354-355 * Pd. Leandry Kimario, [[Wakapuchini|O.F.M.Cap.]] - Mfahamu Mtakatifu Somo Wako - Maisha ya Watakatifu wa Kila Siku pamoja na Watakatifu Wafransisko - Toleo la pili - Dar es Salaam 2021, uk. 312-313 == Marejeo ya lugha nyingine== {{refbegin|60em}} * {{cite journal |author=Abels, Richard |date=Autumn 1983 |title=The Council of Whitby: A Study in Early Anglo-Saxon Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-british-studies_1983_fall_23_1/page/n7 |journal=[[Journal of British Studies]] |volume=23 |issue= 1|pages=1–25 |doi=10.1086/385808 |jstor= 175617}} * {{cite web |url=http://middlesbrough-diocese.org.uk/about |publisher=Roman Catholic Diocese of Middlesbrough |title=About the Diocese |accessdate=15 January 2011 }} * {{cite book |author=Bede |authorlink=Bede |others=Sherley-Price, Leo (translator) |title=A History of the English Church and People |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofenglish00beda |publisher=Penguin Classics |location=New York |year=1988 |isbn=0-14-044042-9 }} * {{cite book |author=Blair, John P. |authorlink=John Blair (historian) |title=The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society |url=https://archive.org/details/churchinanglosax0000blai |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year= 2005 |isbn=0-19-921117-5 }} * {{cite book |author=Blair, Peter Hunter |authorlink= Peter Hunter Blair |title=An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England|edition=Third |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2003 |isbn=0-521-53777-0 }} * {{cite book |author=Blair, Peter Hunter|authorlink= Peter Hunter Blair |title=The World of Bede |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1990 |edition=Reprint of 1970 |isbn=0-521-39819-3 }} * {{cite journal |author=Brown, George Hardin |title=Royal and Ecclesiastical Rivalries in Bede's History |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_renascence_fall-1999_52_1/page/19 |journal= [[Renascence (journal)|Renascence]] |date=Fall 1999 |volume=52 |pages=19–33 |issue=1 |doi=10.5840/renascence19995213}} <!-- Note that DOI 10.1017/CHOL9780521300087.061 is NOT this article. If a bot adds that DOI, revert --> * {{cite book |author=Brown, Peter G. |authorlink=Peter Brown (historian) |title=The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, A. D. 200–1000 |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofwesternchr0002brow |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |location=Cambridge, MA |year=2003 |isbn=0-631-22138-7 }} * {{cite book |author=Campbell, James E. |title=The Anglo-Saxon State |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonstate0000camp |publisher=Hambledon & London |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=1-85285-176-7 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Campbell, James |title=Bede I |encyclopedia =Essays in Anglo-Saxon History |publisher=Hambledon Press |location=London |isbn=0-907628-32-X |pages=1–28}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Campbell, James |title=First Century of Christianity in England |encyclopedia =Essays in Anglo-Saxon History |publisher=Hambledon Press |location=London |isbn=0-907628-32-X |pages=49–68}} * {{cite encyclopedia | author=Chadwick, Henry | authorlink= Henry Chadwick (theologian) |title=Theodore, the English Church, and the Monothelete Controversy |encyclopedia = Archbishop Theodore |series = Cambridge Studies in Anglo-Saxon England No. 11 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1995 |isbn=0-521-48077-9 |pages=88–95 |editor = Lapidge, Michael |editor-link=Michael Lapidge }} * {{cite encyclopedia| author=Charles-Edwards, T. M. |author-link = Thomas Charles-Edwards |title='The Continuation of Bede', s.a. 750: High-Kings of Tara and 'Bretwaldas' |editor= Smyth, Alfred P. |encyclopedia=Seanchas: Studies in Early Medieval Irish Archaeology, History and Literature in Honour of Francis J. Byrne |location= Dublin & Portland |publisher=Four Courts Press |year=2000 |isbn= 1-85182-489-8 |pages= 137–145}} * {{cite journal |author=Coates, Simon |title=Ceolfrid: History, Hagiography and Memory in Seventh- and Eighth-century Wearmouth–Jarrow |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-medieval-history_1999-06_25_2/page/69 | journal=[[Journal of Medieval History]] |volume=25 |issue=2 |year=1999 |pages=69–86 |doi=10.1016/S0304-4181(98)00020-7}} * {{cite journal |author=Coates, Simon |title=The Construction of Episcopal Sanctity in early Anglo-Saxon England: the Impact of Venantius Fortunatus |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-research_1998-02_71_174/page/n4 |journal=Historical Research |volume=71 |issue=174 |date=February 1998 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1111/1468-2281.00050 }} * {{cite journal |author=Coates, Simon |title=The Role of Bishops in the Early Anglo-Saxon Church: A Reassessment |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-us_1996-04_81_262/page/177 |journal=History |volume=81 |issue=262 |pages=177–196 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229X.1996.tb02256.x |date=April 1996 }} * {{cite book |author=Coredon, Christopher |title= A Dictionary of Medieval Terms & Phrases |year= 2007 |edition= Reprint |publisher=D. S. Brewer |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=978-1-84384-138-8 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Craig, D. J. |title=Oswald (St Oswald) (603/4–642) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/20916 |accessdate=26 January 2009 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/20916 |format={{ODNBsub}} }} * {{cite journal |author=Cubitt, Catherine |date=August 2005 | title=The Clergy of Early Anglo-Saxon England |journal=Historical Research |volume=78 |issue=201 |pages=273–287 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2281.2005.00236.x}} * {{cite journal |author=Cubitt, Catherine |title=Wilfrid's "Usurping Bishops": Episcopal Elections in Anglo-Saxon England c. 600-c.800 |journal=Northern History |volume=25 |year=1989 |pages=18–38 |doi=10.1179/nhi.1989.25.1.18}} * {{cite book |author=Dodwell, C. R. |authorlink=Charles Reginald Dodwell |title=Anglo-Saxon Art: A New Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonartnew0000dodw_62 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |year=1985 |edition=Cornell University Press 1985 |isbn=0-8014-9300-5 }} * {{cite book |author= Ehwald, Rudolf (ed.) |title= Aldhelmi Opera |publisher= Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung |location=Berlin |year=1919 |oclc= 9631233}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Farmer, D. H. |title=Introduction |encyclopedia=The Age of Bede: Bede&nbsp;– Life of Cuthbert, Eddius Stephanus&nbsp;– Life of Wilfrid, Bede&nbsp;– Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, The Anonymous History of Abbot Ceolfrith with the Voyage of St Brendan |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London |year=1998| edition=Revised |isbn=978-0-14-044727-9 |translator=Webb, J. F. }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Farmer, D. H. |title=Saint Wilfrid |encyclopedia =Saint Wilfrid at Hexham |editor=Kirby, D. P. |publisher=Oriel Press |location=Newcastle upon Tyne, UK |year=1974 |isbn=0-85362-155-1|pages=35–60}} * {{cite book |author=Farmer, David Hugh |title=Oxford Dictionary of Saints |url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000farm_a6q1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |edition=Fifth |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-19-860949-0 }} * {{cite journal |title=Feast of St Wilfrid |journal=Folklore |volume=19 |date=December 1908 |pages=464–466 |issue=4 |jstor= 1254241}} * {{cite book |author=Fletcher, R. A. |authorlink=Richard A. Fletcher |title=The Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity |url=https://archive.org/details/barbarianconvers00flet |publisher=H. Holt and Company |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=0-8050-2763-7 }} * {{cite book |author=Foley, William Trent |title= Images of Sanctity in Eddius Stephanus' 'Life of Bishop Wilfrid', an Early English Saint's Life |publisher= Edwin Mellen Press |year=1992 |isbn= 0-7734-9513-4 }} * {{cite book |author=Forster, W.A.|title=Saint Wilfrid of Ripon|url=https://archive.org/details/riponcathedralit0000fors|publisher=Dean and Chapter of Ripon Cathedral|location=Ripon, UK |year=1997 |isbn=0-9531979-0-5}} * {{cite book |author=Fraser, James E. |authorlink= James E. Fraser (historian) |title=From Caledonia to Pictland: Scotland to 795 |url=https://archive.org/details/fromcaledoniatop0000fras |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7486-1232-1 |location=Edinburgh, UK }} * {{cite book |author1=Fryde, E. B. |author2=Greenway, D. E. |author3=Porter, S. |author4=Roy, I.|title=Handbook of British Chronology|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofbritis0000unse_f1u2 |edition=Third revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-521-56350-X }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Gem, Richard |title=The Significance of the 11th-century Rebuilding of Christ Church and St Augustine's, Canterbury, in the Development of Romanesque Architecture |encyclopedia=Medieval Art and Architecture at Canterbury Before 1220 |series = British Archaeological Association Conference Transactions |volume=V |publisher= Kent Archaeological Society |year=1982 |isbn=0-907307-05-1 |pages=1–19 }} * {{cite journal |author=Gibbs, Marion |title=The Decrees of Agatho and the Gregorian Plan for York |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |date=April 1973 |volume=XLVII |pages=213–246 |doi=10.2307/2852771 |issue=2 |jstor= 2852771 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Gilbert, Edward |title=Saint Wilfrid's Church at Hexham |encyclopedia =Saint Wilfrid at Hexham|editor=Kirby, D. P. |publisher=Oriel Press |location=Newcastle upon Tyne, UK |year=1974 |isbn=0-85362-155-1|pages=81–113}} * {{cite book |author=Goffart, Walter A. |authorlink=Walter Goffart |title=The Narrators of Barbarian History (A. D. 550–800): Jordanes, Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon |url=https://archive.org/details/narratorsofbarba0000goff |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |year=1988 |isbn=0-691-05514-9 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Hall, R. A. |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Lapidge |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor-link3= Simon Keynes |editor4= Scragg, Donald|encyclopedia= The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |title= York |year=2001 |publisher= Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn= 978-0-631-22492-1|pages=497–499 }} * {{cite book |author=Heffernan, Thomas J. |title=Sacred Biography: Saints and Their Biographers in the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/sacredbiographys0000heff |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1988 |isbn=0-19-507907-8 }} * {{cite book |author=Herrin, Judith |authorlink=Judith Herrin |title=The Formation of Christendom |url=https://archive.org/details/formationofchris0000herr_g2x5 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |year=1989 |isbn=0-691-00831-0 }} * {{cite book |author=Higham, N. J. |title=The Convert Kings: Power and Religious Affiliation in Early Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/convertkingspowe0000high |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |year=1997 |isbn=0-7190-4827-3 }} * {{cite book |author=Higham, N. J. |title=The Kingdom of Northumbria: AD 350–1100 |url=https://archive.org/details/kingdomofnorthum0000high |publisher=A. Sutton |location=Gloucester, UK |year=1993 |isbn=0-86299-730-5 }} * {{cite book |author=Higham, N. J. |title=(Re-)reading Bede: The Ecclesiastical History in Context |url=https://archive.org/details/rereadingbedeecc0000high |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=0-415-35368-8 }} * {{cite book |author= Hindley, Geoffrey |title= A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons: The Beginnings of the English Nation |url= https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofan0000hind_b4f5 |year= 2006 |publisher= Carroll & Graf Publishers |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-7867-1738-5 }} * {{cite web |title=History |publisher=Ripon Cathedral |url=http://riponcathedral.info/history-2/ |accessdate=3 October 2016 |archivedate=2016-10-21 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021185114/http://riponcathedral.info/history-2/ }} * {{cite book |author1=Holford-Strevens, Leofranc |author2=Blackburn, Bonnie J. |title=The Oxford Book of Days |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordbookofdays00blac |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=2000 |isbn=0-19-866260-2 }} * {{cite book |author=Hutchinson-Hall, John |title=Orthodox Saints of the British Isles: Volume II&nbsp;— April&nbsp;— June |year=2014 |publisher=St. Eadfrith Press |isbn=9780692022450 }} * {{cite book |author=John, Eric |title=Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/reassessinganglo0000john |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-7190-5053-7 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=John, Eric | title=The Social and Political Problems of the Early English Church |encyclopedia=Land, Church, and People: Essays Presented to Professor [[H. P. R. Finberg]] |editor=Thirsk, Joan | publisher=British Agricultural Historical Society |location=Reading, UK |year=1970 | oclc= 263554885}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Keynes, Simon |authorlink=Simon Keynes |title=Heptarchy |page=233 |encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Lapidge |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor-link3= Simon Keynes |editor4= Scragg, Donald |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1 }} * {{cite journal |author=Kirby, D. P. |date=January 1983 |title=Bede, Eddius Stephanus and the ''Life of Wilfrid'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_english-historical-review_1983-01_98_386/page/101 |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |volume=98 |issue=386 |pages=101–114 |doi=10.1093/ehr/XCVIII.CCCLXXXVI.101 |jstor=570165 }} * {{cite book |author=Kirby, D. P. |title=The Earliest English Kings |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=0-415-24211-8 }} * {{cite book |author=Kirby, D. P. |title= The Making of Early England |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofearlyeng0000dpki |year=1967 |publisher=Schocken Books |location=New York|edition=Reprint |oclc= 399516 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Lapidge, Michael |authorlink=Michael Lapidge |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Lapidge |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor-link3= Simon Keynes |editor4= Scragg, Donald |encyclopedia= The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |title= Ælfflæd |year=2001 |publisher= Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn= 978-0-631-22492-1|page=6 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Lapidge, Michael |authorlink=Michael Lapidge |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Lapidge |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor-link3= Simon Keynes |editor4= Scragg, Donald |encyclopedia= The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |title= Theodore |year=2001 |publisher= Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn= 978-0-631-22492-1|pages=444–446 }} * {{cite book |author=Lawrence, C. H. |title=Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalmonastic0000lawr_n3c1 |edition=Third |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=0-582-40427-4 }} * {{cite journal |author=Laynesmith, Mark D. |title=Stephen of Ripon and the Bible: Allegorical and Typological Interpretations of the ''Life of St Wilfrid''|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_early-medieval-europe_2000_9_2/page/163 |journal=Early Medieval Europe |volume=9 |issue=2 |date=July 2000 |pages=163–182 |doi=10.1111/1468-0254.00064}} * {{cite book |author=Levison, Wilhelm |authorlink= Wilhelm Levison |title=England and the Continent in the Eighth Century |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1973 |isbn=0-19-821232-1 |edition= Originally published 1946, Reprint}} * {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=The Governance of Anglo-Saxon England, 500–1087 |url=https://archive.org/details/governanceofangl0000loyn |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA |year=1984 |isbn=0-8047-1217-4 }} * {{cite book |author=Lyon, Bryce Dale |title=A Constitutional and Legal History of Medieval England|edition=Second |publisher=Norton |location=New York |year=1980 |isbn=0-393-95132-4 }} * {{cite book |author=Mayr-Harting, Henry| authorlink= Henry Mayr-Harting |title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/comingofchristia0000mayr_a5a2|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |location=University Park, PA |year=1991 |isbn=0-271-00769-9 }} * {{cite book|author=Mee, Frances |title= A History of Selsey |publisher=Philimore |location=Chichester, UK |year=1988 |isbn= 0-85033-672-4}} * {{cite journal |author=Mitchell, Barbara |title=Anglo-Saxon Double Monasteries |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-today_1995-10_45_10/page/33 |journal=[[History Today]] |date=October 1995 |volume=45 |pages=33–39 }} * {{cite book |author=Nilson, Ben |title=Cathedral Shrines of Medieval England|publisher=Boydell Press |year=1998 |location=Woodbridge, UK |isbn=0-85115-540-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia | author = Ortenberg, Veronica |encyclopedia= The English Church and the Papacy in the Middle Ages |title= The Anglo-Saxon Church and the Papacy | editor=Lawrence, C. H.| pages = 29–62 | place = Stroud, UK | publisher = Sutton Publishing|isbn=0-7509-1947-7 | year = 1965 |edition=Reprint edition 1999}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Philpott, Mark |title=Eadmer, his Archbishops and the English State| encyclopedia=The Medieval State: Essays Presented to James Campbell |editor1= Maddicott, J. R. |editor-link1= John Maddicott |editor2=Palliser, D. M. |publisher=Hambledon Press |location=London |year=2000 |pages=93–107|isbn=1-85285-195-3}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Rollason, David |authorlink= David Rollason |title=Hagiography and Politics in Early Northumbria |encyclopedia = Holy Men and Holy Women: Old English Prose Saints' Lives and their Contexts |editor= Szarmach, Paul E. |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany, NY |year=1996 |isbn=0-7914-2715-3 |pages=95–114}} * {{cite web |url=http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintw64.htm |title=Saint Wilfrid |work=Patron Saint Index |accessdate=12 September 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014043506/http://catholic-forum.com/saints/saintw64.htm |archivedate=14 October 2007 |df=dmy-all }} * {{cite book |author=Southern, R. W. |authorlink=Richard Southern |title=Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/westernsocietyc00sout |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |year=1970 |isbn=0-14-020503-9 }} * {{cite book |author=Stenton, F. M. |authorlink= Frank Stenton |title= Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonenglan0000sten |year= 1971|publisher= Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |edition=Third |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Stephen of Ripon|authorlink= Stephen of Ripon |title=Life of Wilfrid |encyclopedia=The Age of Bede: Bede&nbsp;– Life of Cuthbert, Eddius Stephanus&nbsp;– Life of Wilfrid, Bede&nbsp;– Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, The Anonymous History of Abbot Ceolfrith with the Voyage of St Brendan |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London |year=1998| edition=Revised |isbn=978-0-14-044727-9 |translator=Webb, J. F. }} * {{cite book |author=Swanton, Michael James (trans.) |authorlink=Michael Swanton |title=The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonchroni0000unse_c2u1 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=0-415-92129-5 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Swanton, Michael James |authorlink= Michael Swanton |title=Introduction |pages=i–xxxv |encyclopedia=The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=0-415-92129-5 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Thacker, Alan |title=Saint-making and Relic Collecting by Oswald and his Communities |editor1=Brooks, Nicholas |editor-link1= Nicholas Brooks |editor2=Cubitt, Catherine R. E. |encyclopedia=St Oswald of Worcester: Life and Influence |publisher=Leicester University Press |location=London |year=1996 |pages=244–268 |isbn=0-7185-0003-2 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Thacker, Alan |editor1=Lapidge, Michael |editor1-link=Michael Lapidge |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor-link3= Simon Keynes |editor4= Scragg, Donald |encyclopedia= The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |title= St Wilfrid |year=2001 |publisher= Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn= 978-0-631-22492-1 |pages=474–476 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Thacker, Alan |title=Wilfrid (St Wilfrid) (c.634–709/10) |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/29409 |accessdate=9 November 2007 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/29409 |format={{ODNBsub}} }} * {{cite book |author=Thomson, John A. F. |title= The Western Church in the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/westernchurchinm0000unse |publisher=Arnold |location=London |year=1998 |isbn=0-340-60118-3 }} * {{cite journal |author=Tyler, Damian |title=Reluctant Kings and Christian Conversion in Seventh-Century England |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-us_2007-04_92_306/page/144 |journal=[[History (The Journal of the Historical Association)|History]] |date=April 2007 |volume=92 |issue=306 |pages=144–161 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229X.2007.00389.x }} * {{cite book |author=Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. |authorlink= J. M. Wallace-Hadrill |title=The Long-haired Kings |publisher=University of Toronto Press in association with Medieval Academy of America |location=Toronto |year=1982 |isbn=0-8020-6500-7 }} * {{cite book |author=Walsh, Michael J. |title= A New Dictionary of Saints: East and West |url=https://archive.org/details/newdictionaryofs0000wals |year=2007 |publisher= Burns & Oats |location=London |isbn=0-86012-438-X }} * {{cite book |author=Whitelock, Dorothy (ed.) |authorlink=Dorothy Whitelock |title=English Historical Documents: Volume 1 c. 500–1042 |publisher= Eyre Methuen |location=London |edition=Second |oclc= 23967961}} * {{cite journal| author=Woolf, Alex |authorlink= Alex Woolf |title= Dún Nechtain, Fortriu and the Geography of the Picts | journal =The Scottish Historical Review |volume= 85 |issue= 2 |date=October 2006 |pages= 182–201| doi=10.1353/shr.2007.0029 |jstor= 25529917}} * {{cite encyclopedia|author=Woolf, Alex | authorlink= Alex Woolf |title=The Verturian Hegemony: A Mirror in the North |editor1 =Brown, Michelle P |editor2=Farr, Carol Ann |encyclopedia=Mercia: An Anglo-Saxon Kingdom in Europe |location=London |publisher=Leicester University Press |year=2001 |pages= 106–112 |isbn= 0-7185-0231-0}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Yorke, Barbara | authorlink= Barbara Yorke |title=The Adaptation of the Anglo-Saxon Royal Courts to Christianity |encyclopedia=The Cross Goes North: Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe AD 300–1300 |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge, UK |editor= Carver, Martin |year=2003 |isbn=1-84383-125-2 |pages=244–257 |editor-link= Martin Carver }} * {{cite book |author=Yorke, Barbara|authorlink= Barbara Yorke |title=The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800 |url=https://archive.org/details/conversionofbrit0000york|publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=0-582-77292-3 }} * {{cite book |author=Yorke, Barbara |authorlink= Barbara Yorke |title=Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/kingskingdomsofe0000york |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=0-415-16639-X }} {{refend}} == Marejeo mengine == {{refbegin|60em}} * {{cite journal |author=Foley, W. T. |title=Imitation Apostoli: St Wilfrid of York and the Andrew Script |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-benedictine-review_1989-03_40_1/page/13 |journal= American Benedictine Review |volume=40 |year=1989 |pages= 13–31}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Pelteret, David |title=Saint Wilfrid: Tribal Bishop, Civic Bishop or Germanic Lord? |encyclopedia=The Community, the Family and the Saint: Patterns of Power in Early Modern Europe |editor=Hill, Joyce |editor2=Swan, Mary |publisher=Brepols |year=1998 |isbn=2-503-50668-2 |pages=159–180}} * {{cite journal|author=Sims-Williams, Patrick |title=St Wilfrid and Two Charters Dated AD 676 and 680 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-ecclesiastical-history_1988-04_39_2/page/163 |journal=[[Journal of Ecclesiastical History]] |issue=2 |volume=39 |date=April 1988 |pages=163–183|doi=10.1017/S0022046900020649}} * {{cite book |author=Stancliffe, Clare |title=Bede, Wilfrid, and the Irish |year=2003| location=Jarrow, UK | publisher=St Paul's Church Jarrow |series =Jarrow Lecture 46 |isbn= 9780021678822}} * {{cite journal|author=Wood, I. N. |title= Northumbrians and Franks in the age of Wilfrid |journal=Northern History|volume= 31 |date=January 1995 |pages=10–21 |doi=10.1179/007817295790175327}} {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book5.html ''Ecclesiastical History'' Book V] {{Wayback|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book5.html |date=20140814160844 }}&nbsp;– Chapter XIX contains Wilfrid's epitaph. From the Medieval Sourcebook [[Category:Waliozaliwa 634]] [[Category:Waliofariki 709]] [[Category:Wamonaki]] [[Category:Wabenedikto]] [[Category:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Uingereza]] phsm7eckisemqyiltu3x8gy7lynw1ma 0 107810 1580097 1289865 2026-07-18T00:05:04Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580097 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:The Shepherd and his Flock.jpg|thumb|''Mchungaji na kundi lake'', [[mchoro]] wa [[mwaka]] [[1905]] hivi.]] [[File:V&A - Raphael, Christ's Charge to Peter (1515).jpg|thumb|''Kristo akimuagiza Petro'' kadiri ya [[Raphael]], [[1515]].]] [[File:MethodistPastorvestedwithpreachingbands.jpg|thumb|350px|Mchungaji [[Wamethodisti|wa Kimethodisti]] katika [[mavazi]] yake rasmi.]] '''Mchungaji''' ni [[mtu]] anayechunga [[mifugo]], kama vile [[kondoo]], lakini pia watu, hasa katika [[Ukristo]], ambapo ni [[cheo]] maalumu katika [[madhehebu]] ya [[Uprotestanti]]. [[Historia|Kihistoria]], uchungaji ulianza katika [[Mashariki ya Kati]] miaka 5,000 hivi iliyopita. Katika [[Biblia]] [[kazi]] hiyo ilitumika sana kufafanua [[jukumu|majukumu]] ya [[wafalme]] na [[viongozi]] wengine. [[Daudi]] alichukuliwa kama kielelezo. [[Manabii]] walitabiri ujio wa [[mwana wa Daudi]] atakayechunga vizuri [[taifa]] la [[Israeli]] kwa niaba ya [[Mungu]]. [[Yesu]] alijitambulisha kama [[mchungaji mwema]] aliye tayari kutoa [[uhai]] wake kwa ajili ya kondoo zake ([[Yoh]] 10:11). Mwenyewe alimkabidhi [[Mtume Petro]] uchungaji wa [[kundi]] lake ([[Yoh]] 21:16). Mfano huo unatumika pia kwa watu wengine ([[Mdo]] 20:17,28; [[1Kor]] 9:7; [[Ef]] 4:11; [[1Pet]] 5:12). Katika [[ibada]] [[Maaskofu]] wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]] na wengineo wanatumia [[bakora]] kujitambulisha kama wachungaji. ==Tazama pia== * [[Mchungaji (kitabu)]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book |author=Bercot, David W. |title=Will The Real Heretics Please Stand Up |isbn=0-924722-00-2 |publisher=Scroll Publishing |year=1999 }} * {{cite book | author=Dowly, Tim (ed.) |title=The History of Christianity | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchristi0000unse_f2g9 |isbn=0-7459-1625-2 |publisher=Lion Publishing |year=1977 }} ==Viungo vya nje== ===Maana ya kawaida=== {{Commons category|Shepherds}} * [http://www.sheep101.info/index.html A Beginner's Guide to Raising Sheep] * [http://www.ramshornstudio.com/songbook.htm A Shepherds Songbook] * [http://www.karakulsheep.com/ American Karakul Sheep Registry] * [http://www.albc-usa.org/ American Livestock Breeds Conservancy] * [http://www.rarebreeds.co.nz/ Rare Breeds Conservation Society of New Zealand] * [http://www.scottish-blackface.co.uk/ Scottish Blackface Sheep Breeders Association] ===Maana ya kidini=== {{Commons category|Pastors}} * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11537b.htm NewAdvent.org], The Catholic Encyclopedia's entry on the term ''pastor''. * [http://www.lifeway.com/menu/?id=200734 LifeWay.com] {{Wayback|url=http://www.lifeway.com/menu/?id=200734 |date=20110614104610 }}, Articles to help the pastor in the roles of preacher, missionary, leader, shepherd, and person. * [http://www.nacministers.com/priesthood-of-all-believers Nacministers.com] {{Wayback|url=http://www.nacministers.com/priesthood-of-all-believers |date=20181203225149 }}, Priesthood of All Believers: Explained and Supported in Scripture {{mbegu-utamaduni}} [[Jamii:Kazi]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] fl4yld5i1e1yh6531an280rcdiwch3n 0 110339 1580261 1574591 2026-07-18T01:59:55Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580261 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox ethnic group | image = Roj emblem.svg | group = Wakurdi<br />''Kurd'' کورد | pop = milioni 30–40 <ref name="CIAonline">{{cite book |title= World Factbook |edition= Online |date= 2015 |publisher= US [[Central Intelligence Agency]] |location= Langley, Virginia |issn= 1553-8133 |url= https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ |accessdate= 2 August 2015 |archive-date= 2009-09-12 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090912045414/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ |dead-url= yes }} A rough estimate in this edition gives populations of 14.3 million in Turkey, 8.2 million in Iran, about 5.6 to 7.4 million in Iraq, and less than 2 million in Syria, which adds up to approximately 28–30 million Kurds in Kurdistan or in adjacent regions. The CIA estimates are {{as of|lc= y|2015|08}} – Turkey: Kurdish 18%, of 81.6 million; Iran: Kurd 10%, of 81.82 million; Iraq: Kurdish 15–20%, of 37.01 million, Syria: Kurds, Armenians, and other 9.7%, of 17.01 million.</ref> <br>({{small|[[The World Factbook]], 2015 estimate}})<br>milioni 36.4–45.6 <ref name="KIOP2017">[http://www.institutkurde.org/en/info/the-kurdish-population-1232551004 The Kurdish Population] by the [[Kurdish Institute of Paris]], 2017 estimate. The Kurdish population is estimated at 15–20 million in Turkey, 10–12 million in Iran, 8–8.5 million in Iraq, 3–3.6 million in Syria, 1.2–1.5 million in the European diaspora, and 400k–500k in the former USSR - for a total of 36.4 million to 45. 6 million globally.</ref><br>({{small|[[Kurdish Institute of Paris]], 2017 estimate}}) | region1 = {{resize|115%|'''Maeneo ambako Wakurdi wako wakazi asilia'''}} | region2 = {{flagcountry|Uturuki}} | pop2 = est. 14.3–20 million | ref2 = <ref name="CIAonline" /><ref name = "KIOP2017" /> | region3 = {{flagcountry|Iran}} | pop3 = est. 8.2–12 million | ref3 = <ref name="CIAonline" /><ref name = "KIOP2017" /> | region4 = {{flagcountry|Iraq}} | pop4 = est. 5.6–8.5 million | ref4 = <ref name="CIAonline" /><ref name = "KIOP2017" /> | region5 = {{flagcountry|Syria}} | pop5 = est. 2–3.6 million | ref5 = <ref name="CIAonline" /><ref name = "KIOP2017" /> | region6 = '''[[Kurdish diaspora|Wakurdi nje ya maeneo ya asili]] (nje ya Kurdistan penyewe)''' | pop6 = 2 million | ref6 = | region7 = {{flagcountry|Germany}} | pop7 = 800,000 | ref7 = <ref>{{cite news |title= Camps built in Germany, Austria to win new members for PKK, reports reveal |newspaper= Zaman |url= http://www.todayszaman.com/news-289089-camps-built-in-germany-austria-to-win-new-members-for-pkk-reports-reveal.html |accessdate= 28 October 2012 |date= 9 August 2012 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20120809235709/http://www.todayszaman.com/news-289089-camps-built-in-germany-austria-to-win-new-members-for-pkk-reports-reveal.html |archivedate= 9 August 2012 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> | region9 = {{flagcountry|France}} | pop9 = 150,000 | ref9 = <ref>{{cite news|title= 3 Kurdish women political activists shot dead in Paris|url= http://edition.cnn.com/2013/01/10/world/europe/france-kurd-deaths/|accessdate= 9 June 2014|agency= CNN|date= 11 January 2013}}</ref> | region10 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}} | pop10 = 83,600 | ref10 = <ref>{{cite web |title= Sweden |url= http://www.ethnologue.com/country/SE |date= 2015 |work= [[Ethnologue]] |accessdate= 14 January 2015}}</ref> | region11 = {{flagcountry| Netherlands}} | pop11 = 70,000 | ref11 = <ref>[http://www.dailystar.co.uk/news/latest-news/405297/Dutch-biker-gang-prepare-take-on-Islamic-State Highway to Hell: Dutch biker gang prepare to take on Islamic State] {{Webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171010074759/http://www.dailystar.co.uk/news/latest-news/405297/Dutch-biker-gang-prepare-take-on-Islamic-State |date=2017-10-10 }} by Jerry Lawton, ''[[Daily Star (British newspaper)|Daily Star]]'', October 2014</ref> | region12 = {{flagcountry|Belgium}} | pop12 = 50,000 | ref12 = <ref name=IKP>{{cite web |title= The Kurdish Diaspora|url= http://www.institutkurde.org/en/kurdorama/ |website= Institut Kurde de Paris |accessdate= 9 June 2014}}</ref> | region13 = {{flagcountry|Russia}} | pop13 = 63,800 | ref13 = <ref>{{cite web|title= Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 г. Национальный состав населения Российской Федерации |url= http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_10.php |work= Demoscope.ru |accessdate= 4 July 2012 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://www.webcitation.org/683aGZggq?url=http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_10.php |archivedate= 30 May 2012 |df= }}</ref> | region14 = {{nowrap|{{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}}} | pop14 = 50,000 | ref14 = <ref>{{cite web |title= QS211EW – Ethnic group (detailed) |url= http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/CT0010/view/2092957703 |work= NOMISweb.co.uk |publisher= UK Office for National Statistics |accessdate= 3 August 2013}}</ref> | region15 = {{flagcountry| Kazakhstan}} | pop15 = 42,300 | ref15 = <ref name="KZ2014">[http://stat.gov.kz/getImg?id=ESTAT081783 Численность населения Республики Казахстан по отдельным этносам на начало 2014 года] {{Wayback|url=http://stat.gov.kz/getImg?id=ESTAT081783 |date=20150428181945 }} ЭТНОДЕМОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ ЕЖЕГОДНИК КАЗАХСТАНА 2014</ref> | region16 = {{flagcountry| Switzerland}} | pop16 = 35,000 | ref16 = <ref>{{cite web |title= Switzerland |url= http://www.ethnologue.com/country/CH |work= Ethnologue |accessdate= 14 January 2015}}</ref> | region17 = {{flagcountry| Denmark}} | pop17 = 30,000 | ref17 = <ref>{{cite news |title= Fakta: Kurdere i Danmark |url= http://jyllands-posten.dk/indland/ECE5105449/fakta-kurdere-i-danmark/ |accessdate= 24 December 2013 |newspaper= Jyllandsposten |date= 8 May 2006 |language= Danish}}</ref> | region18 = {{flagcountry| Jordan}} | pop18 = 30,000 | ref18 = <ref>{{cite web |title= Language and Cultural Shift Among the Kurds of Jordan |url= http://www.linguistics.fi/julkaisut/SKY2010/Al-Khatib_Al-Ali_netti.pdf |accessdate= 10 November 2012 |first1= Mahmoud A. |last1= Al-Khatib |first2= Mohammed N. |last2= Al-Ali |page= 12 |archive-date= 2018-10-01 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181001145806/http://www.linguistics.fi/julkaisut/SKY2010/Al-Khatib_Al-Ali_netti.pdf |url-status= dead }}</ref> | region19 = {{flagcountry| Austria}} | pop19 = 23,000 | ref19 = <ref>{{cite web|title=Austria |url= http://www.ethnologue.com/country/AT |work= Ethnologue |accessdate= 14 January 2015}}</ref> | region20 = {{flagcountry| Greece}} | pop20 = 22,000 | ref20 = <ref>{{cite web|title= Greece |url= http://www.ethnologue.com/country/GR/ |work= Ethnologue |accessdate= 14 January 2015}}</ref> | region21 = {{flagcountry| United States}} | pop21 = 15,400 | ref21 = | region22 = {{flagcountry| Georgia}} | pop22 = 13,861 | ref22 = <ref>{{cite web |last1= PDF |title= Population/Census |url= http://geostat.ge/cms/site_images/_files/english/population/Census_release_ENG_2016.pdf |website= geostat.ge |accessdate= 2019-03-24 |archivedate= 2017-10-10 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20171010074805/http://geostat.ge/cms/site_images/_files/english/population/Census_release_ENG_2016.pdf }}</ref> | region23 = {{flagcountry| Kyrgyzstan}} | pop23 = 13,200 | ref23 = <ref>{{cite web|title= Number of resident population by selected nationality |url= http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/2010_phc/Kyrgyzstan/A5-2PopulationAndHousingCensusOfTheKyrgyzRepublicOf2009.pdf |work= UNStats.UN.org |publisher= United Nations |accessdate= 9 July 2012 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20120710092216/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/2010_PHC/Kyrgyzstan/A5-2PopulationAndHousingCensusOfTheKyrgyzRepublicOf2009.pdf |archivedate= 10 July 2012 |df= }}</ref> | region24 = {{flagcountry| Canada}} | pop24 = 11,685 | ref24 = | region25 = {{flagcountry| Finland}} | pop25 = 10,700 | ref25 = <ref>{{cite web |title= Language according to age and sex by region 1990–2014 |url= http://pxweb2.stat.fi/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=030_vaerak_tau_102_en&path=../database/StatFin/vrm/vaerak/&lang=1&multilang=en |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130217113547/http://pxweb2.stat.fi/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=030_vaerak_tau_102_en&path=../database/StatFin/vrm/vaerak/&lang=1&multilang=en |dead-url= yes |archive-date= 17 February 2013 |work= Stat.fi |publisher= Statistics Finland |accessdate= 19 January 2013 |df= |archiveurl= https://archive.today/20130217113547/http://pxweb2.stat.fi/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=030_vaerak_tau_102_en&path=../database/StatFin/vrm/vaerak/&lang=1&multilang=en |archivedate= 2013-02-17 }}</ref> | region26 = {{flagcountry| Australia}} | pop26 = 7,000 | ref26 = <ref>{{cite book |title= The People of Australia: Statistics from the 2011 census |url= http://www.omi.wa.gov.au/resources/publications/LocalGovernment/The_People_of_Australia.pdf |publisher= Australian Department of Immigration and Border Protection |date= 2014 |isbn= 978-1-920996-23-9 |accessdate= 29 May 2014 |deadurl= yes |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140529194052/http://www.omi.wa.gov.au/resources/publications/LocalGovernment/The_People_of_Australia.pdf |archivedate= 29 May 2014 |df= dmy-all }}</ref> | region27 = {{flagcountry| Azerbaijan}} | pop27 = 6,100 | ref27 = <ref>{{cite book |title= Statistical Yearbook of Azerbaijan 2014 |year= 2015 |page= 80}}</ref> | region28 = {{flagcountry| Armenia}} | pop28 = 2,162 | ref28 = <ref>{{cite web|title= Information from the 2011 Armenian National Census|url= http://www.armstat.am/file/doc/99478353.pdf|language= Armenian|work= Statistics of Armenia|accessdate= 27 May 2014}}</ref> | languages = [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]] and [[Zaza–Gorani languages|Zaza–Gorani]] <br><small> ''Minor: [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (in Turkey), [[Persian language|Persian]] (in Iran), [[Arabic]] (in Syria and Iraq)<br />{{smaller|''In their different forms: [[Central Kurdish|Sorani]], [[Northern Kurdish|Kurmanji]], [[Southern Kurdish|Pehlewani]], [[Zaza language|Zaza]], [[Gorani language (Zaza-Gorani)|Gorani]]''}} | religions = Majority [[Islam]] <br/> {{small|([[Sunni Muslim]], [[Alevi Islam]], [[Shia Islam]])}} <br/> with minorities of [[Yazidism]], [[Yarsanism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Agnosticism]], [[History of the Jews in Kurdistan|Judaism]], [[Christianity]] | related = Makabila ya Kiirani | footnotes = }} '''Wakurdi''' (kwa [[Kikurdi]]: گەلی کورد, ''Gelî kurd'') ni [[watu]] wanaotumia [[lugha]] ya [[Kikurdi]], moja kati ya [[lugha za Kihindi-Kiajemi]]<ref>{{cite book |first=Mehrdad R. |last=Izady |title=The Kurds: A Concise Handbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I9mr6OgLjBoC |year=1992 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-0-8448-1727-9}}</ref> wanaoishi hasa [[Mashariki ya Kati]]. ==Kurdistan== Eneo lao linaitwa mara nyingi [[Kurdistan]] na limegawanyika kisiasa kati ya nchi za [[Uturuki]] [[mashariki]], [[Irani]] [[kaskazini]] [[magharibi]], [[Iraki]] kaskazini na [[Syria]] kaskazini.<ref>''Kurdish Awakening: Nation Building in a Fragmented Homeland'', (2014), by Ofra Bengio, University of Texas Press</ref> Hadi [[Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia]], Wakurdi wengi waliishi ndani ya maeneo ya [[Milki ya Osmani]], [[idadi]] ndogo zaidi walitawaliwa na [[Uajemi]]. [[Milki]] zote mbili zilikuwa milki za [[Kiislamu]] ambako hakukuwa na mkazo wa [[utaifa]] au [[utamaduni]] maalumu. Hawakuwa na [[historia]] ya kujitazama kama [[taifa]] la pamoja wakiishi katika utaratibu wa jamii za kikabila zilizojitegemea na kutunza kiwango cha [[uhuru]] kutoka [[serikali]] za milki walimoishi. Katika kongamano la kupatana amani baada ya Vita Kuu ya Kwanza suala la Wakurdi lilijadiliwa lakini bila kupata suluhisho. Waligawanywa tu. Baada ya ugawaji wa Milki ya Osmani [[mwaka]] [[1918]] walijikuta katika nchi ambako watu wengi walikuwa ama [[Waturuki]], [[Waarabu]] au [[Waajemi]] walioathiriwa na [[itikadi]] ya utaifa. Wakurdi waliambiwa kujitazama kama [[raia]] wa nchi hizo na hivyo kuwa Waturuki, Waarabu au Waajemi. Hasa ndani ya Uturuki chini ya [[rais]] wa kwanza [[Ataturk]] kuwepo kwa Wakurdi kulikanwa, wenyewe waliitwa "Waturuki wa milimani". pote walikataliwa kuwa na [[shule]] ambako [[watoto]] wao wangejifunza lugha ya Kikurdi. Katika [[historia]] hii uko msingi wa upinzani wa Wakurdi uliotokea katika nchi zote wanapoishi kiasili. ==Idadi== Idadi yao inakadiriwa kuwa [[milioni]] 30-45.<ref>Based on arithmetic from ''World Factbook'' and other sources cited herein: A Near Eastern population of 28–30 million, plus approximately a 2 million diaspora gives 30–32 million. If the highest (25%) estimate for the Kurdish population of Turkey, in Mackey (2002), proves correct, this would raise the total to around 37 million.</ref> Ndilo [[taifa]] kubwa kuliko lote [[duniani]] lisilo na [[nchi huru]] ya kwao. ==Lugha na dini== [[Lugha]] yao ni [[Kikurdi]], chenye [[lahaja]] mbalimbali<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Kurds.html |title= Kurds |date= 2014 |work= The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.|publisher= Encyclopedia.com |accessdate= 29 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first= Mehrdad R. |last =Izady |title= The Kurds: A Concise Handbook |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=I9mr6OgLjBoC&pg=PA198 |year= 1992 |publisher= Taylor & Francis |isbn= 978-0-8448-1727-9 |page= 198}}</ref>. Wengi wao hufuata [[dini]] ya [[Uislamu]] (hasa [[madhehebu]] ya [[Wasunni]]), lakini wako pia wafuasi wa [[dini ya jadi]] wanaoitwa [[Wayazidi]], wafuasi wa [[imani]] ya pekee ya [[Ahl-e Hak]], halafu [[Wakristo]], [[Wayahudi]] na [[Wazoroasta]] wachache. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Vyanzo== * {{cite book|last1=Aslanian|first1=Sebouh|title=From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa|date=2011|publisher=University of California Press|location=California|isbn=978-0520947573|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Blow|first1=David|title=Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend|date=2009|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-0857716767|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Bournoutian|first1=George|authorlink1=George Bournoutian|title=A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor|date=2002|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=978-1568591414|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00geor/page/208 208]|edition=2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Floor|first1=Willem|last2=Herzig|first2=Edmund|title=Iran and the World in the Safavid Age|url=https://archive.org/details/iranworldinsafav0000unse|date=2012|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=978-1850439301|ref=harv}} * Barth, F. 1953. ''Principles of Social Organization in Southern Kurdistan.'' Bulletin of the University Ethnographic Museum 7. Oslo. * Hansen, H.H. 1961. ''The Kurdish Woman's Life.'' Copenhagen. Ethnographic Museum Record 7:1–213. * Leach, E.R. 1938. ''Social and Economic Organization of the Rowanduz Kurds.'' London School of Economics Monographs on Social Anthropology 3:1–74. * Longrigg, S.H. 1953. ''Iraq, 1900–1950.'' London. * Masters, W.M. 1953. ''Rowanduz.'' Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan. * McKiernan, Kevin. 2006. ''The Kurds, a People in Search of Their Homeland''. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN|978-0-312-32546-6 * {{cite book|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|title=Historical Dictionary of Georgia|date=2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442241466|edition=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JNNQCgAAQBAJ|ref=harv}} * {{cite encyclopedia | article = ŠAYḴ-ʿALI KHAN ZANGANA | last = Matthee | first = Rudi | authorlink = | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/shaykh-ali-khan | editor-last = | editor-first = | editor-link = | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica | pages = | location = | publisher = | year = | isbn = |ref=harv}} ==Marejeo mengine== * [[Samir Amin]] (October 2016). ''[http://monthlyreview.org/2016/10/01/the-kurdish-question-then-and-now/ The Kurdish Question Then and Now],'' in [[Monthly Review]], Volume 68, Issue 05 * ''A People Without a State: The Kurds from the Rise of Islam to the Dawn of Nationalism,'' by Michael Eppel, 2016, University of Texas Press ===Historia=== * {{cite journal | last1 = Maxwell | first1 = Alexander | last2 = Smith | first2 = Tim | year = 2015 | title = Positing 'not-yet-nationalism': limits to the impact of nationalism theory on Kurdish historiography | url = | journal = Nationalities Papers | volume = 43 | issue = 5| pages = 771–787 | doi=10.1080/00905992.2015.1049135}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons category|Kurdish people}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071016225822/http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9275335 Kurds], Encyclopædia Britannica. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071018071427/http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9046466 Kurd], Encyclopædia Britannica. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312004743/http://www.britannica.com/worldsapart/3_timeline_print.html The Kurds: People without a country], Encyclopædia Britannica. * [http://www.institutkurde.org/ The Kurdish Institute of Paris] Kurdish language, history, books and latest news articles. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20010721001234/http://www.kurdistanica.com/ The Encyclopaedia of Kurdistan] * [http://www.enstituyakurdi.org/index.php?newlang=english Istanbul Kurdish Institute] {{Wayback|url=http://www.enstituyakurdi.org/index.php?newlang=english |date=20150924001027 }} * [http://www.pen-kurd.org/index-en.html The Kurdish Center of International Pen] {{Wayback|url=http://www.pen-kurd.org/index-en.html |date=20060717023951 }} * [http://www.kurdishlibrary.org/ Kurdish Library], supported by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] Government. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041024074007/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/actual/iraq/4.html Ethnic Cleansing and the Kurds] * [http://www.transoxiana.org/0109/aloian-kurds_ottoman_hungary.html The Kurds in the Ottoman Hungary] by Zurab Aloian * [http://theotheriraq.com/ "The Other Iraq" Kurdish Information Website] ; Suala la Wakurdi nchini Uturuki * [https://web.archive.org/web/20020527064459/http://www.db.idpproject.org/Sites/idpSurvey.nsf/wCountries/Turkey A report on the Kurdish IDP's – 2005] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050409063105/http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0%2C1564%2C1484632%2C00.html A German newspaper's take on the Kurdish issue – 2005] * [https://www.theguardian.com/The_Kurds/Story/0,,428351,00.html The Guardian – ''What's in a name? Too much in Turkey'' – 2001] [[Jamii:watu wa Uturuki]] [[Jamii:watu wa Irani]] [[Jamii:watu wa Iraq]] [[Jamii:watu wa Syria]] jd4ejs1hh6kx1q5ipiccn32lv6o17gl 0 113815 1580122 1506793 2026-07-18T00:21:00Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580122 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox television episode | Jina = The Puppy Episode | Mfululizo= [[Ellen (mfululizo wa TV)|Ellen]] | Picha = [[Image:Ellengay.jpg|250px]] | Maelezo = "Susan...I'm gay." Ellen Morgan [[Funguka|anafunguka]]. | Msimu = 4 | Sehemu = 22/23 | Tarehe ya kurushwa = {{Start date|1997|04|30}} | Mtayarisho = 421/422 | Mtunzi = [[Ellen DeGeneres]] | teleplay = [[Mark Driscoll (screenwriter)|Mark Driscoll]]<br/>[[Tracy Newman]]<br/>[[Dava Savel]]<br/> [[Jonathan Stark (actor)|Jonathan Stark]] | Mwongozaji = [[Gil Junger]] | music = | Mpiga picha = | Wageni = * [[Steven Eckholdt]]&nbsp;– Richard * [[Laura Dern]]&nbsp;– Susan * [[Oprah Winfrey]]&nbsp;– Therapist * [[Billy Bob Thornton]]&nbsp;– The Grocer * [[Jenny Shimizu]]&nbsp;– The Woman in the Aisle * [[Demi Moore]]&nbsp;– The Sample Lady * [[k.d. lang]] &nbsp;– The First Cashier / The Singer / Janine * [[Gina Gershon]]&nbsp;– The Second Cashier * [[Jorja Fox]]&nbsp;– The Attractive Woman * [[Dwight Yoakam]]&nbsp;– Bagboy * [[Betty DeGeneres]]&nbsp;– Woman at Airport * [[Melissa Etheridge]]&nbsp;– Herself | makala ya msimu = Ellen (msimu wa 4) | Orodha ya msimu = Orodha ya sehemu za Ellen | Iliyopita = The Clip Show Patient | Ijayo = Hello Muddah, Hello Faddah }} "'''The Puppy Episode'''" ni kisa chenye sehemu mbili ya [[ucheshi]] mfululizo wa televisheni ''[[Ellen (mfululizo wa TV)|Ellen]]''. Kisa hiki kimejikita zaidi katika kumwelezea muhusika mkuu Ellen Morgan katika kutambua kwake kama yeye ni mpenzi wa mahusiano ya jinsia moja na kufunguka kwake kwa hadhira. Ilikuwa kisa cha 22 na 23 katika mfululizo wa msimu wa nne. Kisa hiki kilitungwa na nyota wa mfululizo huu Bi. [[Ellen DeGeneres]] akiwa pamoja na [[Mark Driscoll (mwandishi muswaada)|Mark Driscoll]], [[Tracy Newman]], [[Dava Savel]] na [[Jonathan Stark (mwigizaji)|Jonathan Stark]] na kuongozwa na [[Gil Junger]]. Kisa kilirushwa kwa mara ya kwanza kupitia kituo cha TV cha [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] mnamo tarehe 30 Aprili, 1997. Jina la kisa lilitumika kama jina la siri kwa ajili kufunguka kwa Ellen na kuweka ule usiri mkubwa kabisa wa kisa kizima. DeGeneres alianza kujadiliana na ABC mnamo 1996 kumfanya Morgan ajitokeze kama ni mpenda mahusiano ya jinsia moja. Wakati majibu ya makubaliano yalivyotoka tu, DeGeneres alijikuta katika tafakuri nzito juu yake mwenyewe na hata uhusika wake wa kufunguka kama shoga. Pamoja na DeGeneres mwenyewe kuwa anagusiagusia juu ya uhusika wake katika kufunguka akiwa ndani ya TV na nje ya TV na ndani ya kipindi, duru zilithibitika pale kisa kilivyoenda kuzalishwa mnamo mwezi wa Machi 1997. Licha ya vitisho kutoka kwa wadhamini na makundi ya kidini, "The Puppy Episode" ilipata mafanikio makubwa sana ya kitahakiki, ilishinda tuzo chungunzima na ikawa moja kati ya kitu kikubwa cha kitamaduni. Hata hivyo, DeGeneres na kipindi chake wakapondwa sana kwa kuwa "kishoga mno"; mfululizo ukaghairishwa baada ya msimu mmoja na [[mwigizaji]] mwalikwa [[Laura Dern]] na Ellen wote wakaingia katika misukosuko mizito ya kazi ya uigizaji. ==Hadithi== Ellen anaenda mtoko na rafiki yake wa kitambo, Richard, [[Mwanahabari|mwandishi wa habari]] aliye mjini kwa ajili ya habari fulani. Matayarishaji wake, Susan, anaungana nao kwa ajili ya kifunga mlo. Susan na Ellen wanaelewana mno licha ya ugeni wao katika kujuana. Ellen anarudi katika chumba cha hoteli cha Richard. Richard anamtakia mambo ya kimapenzi Ellen, anajionea tabu, anaondoka. Anakumbana na Susan ukumbini na kurudi naye chumbani kwake. Wanaendelea kufurahia maisha hadi hapo Susan anapomwambia Ellen ya kwamba yeye ni mpenda mahusiano ya jinsia moja na anafikiri Ellen huenda akawa hivyo pia. Ellen anakana hilo na kusema ati Susan anajaribu kumwingiza kundini. Susan akatia kijembe cha utani ati atawapigia simu "[[makao makuu]] ya taifa" na kuwafahamisha ya kwamba Ellen kakimbia. Ellen mwenye huzuni anaondoka chumbani kwa Susan na kurudi chumbani kwa Richard, kwa azimio la kwenda kufanya naye mapenzi ili kujithibitishia ya kwamba yeye si mshabiki wa mapenzi ya jinsia moja. Siku iliyofuata, Ellen anawaeleza marafiki zake wa duka la vitabu ya kwamba alipata penzi kabambe na Richard. Anamwelezea ukweli mtaalamu wake wa matibabu, ya kwamba ameshindwa kufanya mapenzi na Richard. Ellen anasikitika ya kwamba anamtaka mtu ambaye anaendana naye. Mtabibu wake anamwuliza kama amewahi kukutana na mtu anayeendana naye Ellen anajibu, "Susan." Ujumbe kutoka kwa Richard ya kwamba anaondoka mjini pale kabla ya muda unamkurupua Ellen kukimbilia uwanja wa ndege kumwona Susan. Ellen anamwambia Susan kwamba alikuwa sahihi lakini anashindwa kulitamka hilo neno. Hatimaye, Ellen anaweza kusema, "Mimi ni shoga," bila kuwa makini anajikuta kutangaza kupitia mifumo ya utangazaji ya umma ya uwanja wa ndege. Ellen anadhani ya kwamba Susan ataondoka na Richard kumbe hali halisi Susan atabaki mjini kwa siku kadhaa zaidi. Ellen anaota akifanya manunuzi ya vitu vya nyumbani. Huko manunuzini, anapewa ofa maalumu katika matikitimaji, na kupewa ofa nyengine kemukemu. Anajadiliana na mtabibu wake na kutambua ya kwamba alikuwa akizibana hisia zake za kimapenzi kwa muda mrefu sana. Mtabibu wake anamtia hamasa ya kufunguka juu ya hali yake kwa marafiki zake lakini Ellen anaingia wasiwasi wa kutokubalika mbele ya jamii. Ellen anawaita marafiki zake kwa minajili ya kuwafungukia. Kabla hawajafika, anamfungukia jirani yake ambaye ni shoga Peter. Wakati kila mmoja amewasili, Ellen anasita kuwambia ukweli lakini Peter anamsaidia kuwaambia kama Ellen ni shoga. Ellen anathibitisha ya kwamba kuwa kweli yeye ni shoga na marafiki zake wote wanamwunga mkono, ijapokuwa rafiki yake mmoja aitwaye Paige anasita. Siku iliyofuata Ellen na Susan wapo katika duka la vitabu. Susan anamweleza Ellen ya kwamba anampenda lakini yupo katika mahusiano ya muda mrefu na mtu mwingine. Ellen anavunjika moyo na Susan anaondoka. Katika kumpoza, marafiki zake wanatoka naye hadi katika duka la kahawa. Wakiwa huko, Ellen anadhani muhudumu wa pale anamfanyia ubobishi yeye badala yake ukamhusu Paige badala ya yeye. Mwishoni mwa kisa, Susan anampeleka Ellen kwa [[Melissa Etheridge]], ambaye alimthibitishia Ellen kwamba yeye ni shoga, na baada ya kumaliza kusaini mikataba maalumu, Susan akatoa shereheko la nguvu. ==Utayarishaji== [[File:EllenDeGeneres1997Emmies.jpg|thumb|upright=.91|Ellen DeGeneres, mshindi wa Emmy , amefunguka, yeye pamoja na uhusika wake kama yeye ni shoga.]] ==Mapokezi== ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last1= Castañeda |first1= Laura |first2= Shannon B. |last2= Campbell |last-author-amp= yes |year= 2005 |title= News and Sexuality: Media Portraits of Diversity |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |publisher= SAGE |isbn= 1-4129-0999-6 |ref= harv}} * {{cite book |last= Capsuto |first= Steven |year= 2000 |title= Alternate Channels: The Uncensored Story of Gay and Lesbian Images on Radio and Television |url= https://archive.org/details/alternatechannel00stev |location= New York |publisher= Ballantine Books |isbn= 0-345-41243-5 |ref= harv}} * {{cite book |last= Ehrenstein |first= David |year= 1998 |title= Open Secret (Gay Hollywood 1928–1998) |url= https://archive.org/details/opensecretgayhol00ehre |location= New York |publisher= William Morrow |isbn= 0-688-15317-8 |ref= harv}} * {{cite book |last= Johnson |first= Victoria E. |year= 2008 |title= Heartland TV: Prime Time Television and the Struggle for U.S. Identity |url= https://archive.org/details/heartlandtvprime0000john |location= New York |publisher= NYU Press |isbn= 0-8147-4293-9 |ref= harv}} * {{cite book |last1= Marchessault |first1= Janine |first2= Kim |last2= Sawchuk |last-author-amp= yes |year= 2000 |title= Wild Science: Reading Feminism, Medicine, and the Media |url= https://archive.org/details/wildsciencereadi0000unse |location= London |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 0-415-20431-3 |ref= harv}} * {{cite book |last= Tracy |first= Kathleen |year= 2005 |title= Ellen: The Real Story of Ellen DeGeneres |url= https://archive.org/details/ellenrealstoryof0000trac |location= New York |publisher= Kensington |isbn= 0-7860-1750-3 |ref= harv}} * {{cite book |last= Tropiano |first= Stephen |year= 2002 |title= The Prime Time Closet: A History of Gays and Lesbians on TV |url= https://archive.org/details/primetimecloseta00trop |location= New York |publisher= Applause Theatre & Cinema Books |isbn= 1-55783-557-8 |ref= harv}} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya Nje== * {{IMDb episode|0570077|The Puppy Episode Part 1}} * {{IMDb episode|0570078|The Puppy Episode Part 2}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Puppy Episode, The}} [[Category:filamu za 1997]] [[Category:vipindi vya televisheni]] 9uq2y99gi01pta47186qkll75hppid6 0 114771 1579980 1296863 2026-07-17T18:24:34Z Zafer 21927 Photo changed 1579980 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Mason Greenwood Fenerbahçe 20260717 (1) (cropped).jpg|thumbnail|right|280px|Mason Greenwood]] '''Mason Je John Greenwood '''(alizaliwa [[1 Oktoba]] [[2001]]) ni [[mchezaji]] wa [[soka]] wa timu ya taifa ya [[Uingereza]] ambaye anacheza katika [[klabu]] ya [[Manchester United]] inayoshiriki [[Ligi Kuu Uingereza (EPL)|Ligi Kuu ya Uingereza]]. ==Kazi ya kimataifa== Greenwood amecheza vyema katika [[timu ya taifa]] ya [[Uingereza]] chini ya miaka 17 ambapo alicheza mechi sita mwaka 2017-18 na alikuwa sehemu ya kikosi ambacho kilicheza katika mashindano ya Algarve nchini [[Ureno]]. {{mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:waliozaliwa 2001]] [[Jamii:watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:wachezaji mpira wa Uingereza]] fq8nhkrmhzd5yoyydjgt8itt1smdk2j 0 117686 1580089 1432762 2026-07-17T23:58:49Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580089 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Truro_stmarysst.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Truro, Cornwall]] '''Cornwall''' (kwa [[Kikornishi]]: '''Kernow''', [[matamshi]]: ˈkɛrnɔʊ) ni [[kaunti]] ya [[Uingereza]] [[kusini]] [[magharibi]]. Eneo lake ni la [[Km²]] 3,562. Wakazi ni 563,600<ref>Office for National Statistics, Key Figures for 2011 Census: Key Statistics</ref><ref name="Town populations">{{cite web|title=Data from the 2011 Census (Office for National Statistics)|url=http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=31822|publisher=Cornwall Council|accessdate=15 November 2013 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203004618/http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=31822 |archivedate=3 December 2013}}</ref>. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Vyanzo== * {{cite book |last = Clegg |first = David |title = Cornwall & the Isles of Scilly: the complete guide |publisher = Matador |location = Leicester |year = 2005 |edition = 2nd |isbn = 1-904744-99-0}} * {{cite book |last = Halliday |first = Frank Ernest |authorlink = F. E. Halliday |title = A History of Cornwall |url = https://archive.org/details/historyofcornwal0000feha |publisher=Gerald Duckworth |location = London |year = 1959 |isbn = 0-7551-0817-5}} A second edition was published in 2001 by the House of Stratus, Thirsk: the original text new illustrations and an afterword by Halliday's son * {{cite book |last = Payton |first = Philip |authorlink = Philip Payton |title = Cornwall: A History |url = https://archive.org/details/cornwallhistory0000phil |edition = 2nd |year = 2004 |publisher = Cornwall Editions Ltd |location = Fowey |isbn = 1-904880-00-2}} ==Marejeo mengine== * Balchin, W. G. V. (1954) ''Cornwall: an illustrated essay on the history of the landscape''. (The Making of the English Landscape). London: Hodder and Stoughton *[[George Clement Boase|Boase, George Clement]]; [[William Prideaux Courtney|Courtney, W. P.]] (1874–1882) ''Bibliotheca Cornubiensis: a catalogue of the writings, both manuscript and printed, of Cornishmen, and of works relating to the county of Cornwall, with biographical memoranda and copious literary references''. 3 vols. London: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer * {{Cite book |last=du Maurier |first=Daphne |authorlink =Daphne du Maurier |title=Vanishing Cornwall |url=https://archive.org/details/vanishingcornwal00duma |publisher=Doubleday |year=1967 |location=London |isbn=}} (illustrated edition Published by Victor Gollancz, London, 1981, {{ISBN|0-575-02844-0}}, photographs by Christian Browning) * {{Cite book |last= Ellis |first=Peter Berresford |authorlink =Peter Berresford Ellis |title=The Cornish Language and its Literature |url= https://archive.org/details/cornishlanguagei0000elli |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul Books |year=1974 |location=London |isbn=0-7100-7928-1}} (Available online on [https://books.google.com/books?id=L709AAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover Google Books]). * {{Cite book |last=Graves |first=Alfred Perceval |authorlink =Alfred Perceval Graves |title=The Celtic Song Book: Being Representative Folk Songs of the Six Celtic Nations |publisher=Ernest Benn |year=1928 |location=London}} (Available online on [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?cc=genpub;view=toc;idno=ANC4559.0001.001 Digital Book Index]) * {{Cite book |last=Koch |first=John T. |title=Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia |url=https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis0001unse |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |location=London |isbn=1-85109-440-7}} (Available online on [https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Celtic+Culture+By+John+T.+Koch Google Books]). * {{Cite book |last=Payton |first=Philip |authorlink =Philip Payton |title=Cornwall |publisher=Alexander Associates |year=1996 |location=Fowey |isbn=1-899526-60-9}} * {{cite web |title=BBC – History – The Cornish: A Neglected Nation? |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/cornish_nation_01.shtml |accessdate=25 May 2009 |author=Stoyle, Mark |publisher=BBC |year=2001 |work=BBC History website }} * {{Cite book |last=Stoyle |first=Mark |title=West Britons: Cornish Identities and the Early Modern British State |publisher=University of Exeter Press |year=2002 |location=Exeter |isbn=0-85989-688-9}} *Williams, Michael (ed.) (1973) ''My Cornwall''. St Teath: Bossiney Books (eleven chapters by various hands, including three previously published essays) ==Viungo vya nje== {{Sister project links|Cornwall|voy=Cornwall}} <!-- Please bear in mind that Wikipedia is an encyclopaedia and not a directory. It may be that one or two links will add something to a page however they must only be placed on the relevant page and will always be subject to review by wikipedians.--> *[http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/ Cornwall Council] * [http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1386-1421/constituencies/cornwall The History of Parliament: the House of Commons – Cornwall, County, 1386 to 1831] {{Wayback|url=http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1386-1421/constituencies/cornwall |date=20190930204212 }} *{{dmoz|Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Cornwall}} {{mbegu-jio-Uingereza}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cornwall}} [[Category:Cornwall| ]] [[Category:Uingereza]] 2l59ajbyroob5ugfob85cog1kxkezqs 0 119160 1580259 1527879 2026-07-18T01:58:56Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580259 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Max Planck (1858-1947).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Max Planck]] anahesabika kuwa [[baba]] wa [[nadharia ya kwanta]].]] '''Umakanika kwanta''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''Quantum mechanics''; [[kifupi]]: '''QM''') ni sehemu ya [[fizikia]] inayoeleza jinsi [[kitu|vitu]] vinavyounda [[atomi]] na [[mawimbi]] ya [[sumakuumeme]] (kama vile [[nuru]]) vinavyofanya [[kazi]]. Hivyo umakanika kwanta huchunguza vitu tusivyoviona, kwa mfano kutokana na udogo wake, au vinavyosogea [[kasi]] mno, tofauti na vile vinavyochunguzwa na umakanika kawaida, sehemu ya kwanza ya [[umakanika]]. ''Kwanta'' katika [[fizikia]] ni kiwango cha chini kabisa cha [[kipimo]] chochote cha kiumbo kinachohusika katika maingiliano. [[Nadharia]] inayoelezea kwanta katika fizikia inaitwa ''[[nadharia ya kwanta]]'' na inazungumza kwamba vipimo vyovyote vya kiumbo vyawezavyo kupimwa hadi kiwango cha chini kabisa cha kwanta, kwa mfano: kiwango cha chini kabisa cha [[mwanga]] ni [[ukubwa]] wa [[fotoni]], na kiwango cha chini kabisa cha [[chaji]] ni chaji ya [[elektroni]]. == Uvutano kwanta == {{Kuu|Uvutano kwanta}} Kufahamu jinsi umakanika kwanta na nadharia ya uhusianifu zinavyoweza kuunganishwa kumejenga uwanja mpya wa utafiti wa uvutano kwanta. Uvutano kwanta unajaribu kutoa nadharia inayounganisha uvutano na sheria za umakanika kwanta ili kuelewa nguvu za uvutano katika kiwango cha chembe. Katika utafiti huu, watafiti wanajaribu kuelewa nadharia ya "loop quantum gravitiy" (LQG), ambayo inadai kwamba [[nafasiwakati]] haiko kama kiti cha kimiminika, bali kinaundwa na vidogo vya kwanta. Hii ni tofauti na dhana ya kimapokeo ya nafasiwakati kama kipengele cha nene na kisicho na mwisho. Aidha, kuna [[nadharia ya kamba]] (Kiingereza: "string theory") ambayo inadhani kuwa chembe ndogo za msingi haziko kama chembe za kawaida, bali ni kamba za nishati ambazo hupiga mawimbi.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/activities/3012_elegant_00.html|title=The Science of Superstrings|language=en|publisher=NOVA}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{marejeo}} === Maelezo rahisi kidogo: === * Chester, Marvin (1987) ''Primer of Quantum Mechanics''. John Wiley. {{isbn|0-486-42878-8}} * {{cite book | first1= Brian | last1= Cox |author-link1=Brian Cox (physicist)| first2= Jeff | last2= Forshaw |authorlink2=Jeff Forshaw| title= The Quantum Universe: Everything That Can Happen Does Happen | publisher = Allen Lane | year = 2011 | isbn= 978-1-84614-432-5 | title-link= The Quantum Universe }} * [[Richard Feynman]], 1985. ''[[QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter]]'', Princeton University Press. {{isbn|0-691-08388-6}}. Four elementary lectures on [[quantum electrodynamics]] and [[quantum field theory]], yet containing many insights for the expert. * [[Giancarlo Ghirardi|Ghirardi, GianCarlo]], 2004. ''Sneaking a Look at God's Cards'', Gerald Malsbary, trans. Princeton Univ. Press. The most technical of the works cited here. Passages using [[algebra]], [[trigonometry]], and [[bra–ket notation]] can be passed over on a first reading. * [[N. David Mermin]], 1990, "Spooky actions at a distance: mysteries of the QT" in his ''Boojums all the way through''. Cambridge University Press: 110–76. * [[Victor Stenger]], 2000. ''Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes''. Buffalo NY: Prometheus Books. Chpts. 5–8. Includes [[cosmological]] and [[philosophical]] considerations. '''Maelezo ya kitaalamu zaidi:''' * [[Bryce DeWitt]], R. Neill Graham, eds., 1973. ''The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics'', Princeton Series in Physics, Princeton University Press. {{isbn|0-691-08131-X}} * {{cite book |last=Dirac |first=P.A.M. |authorlink=P. A. M. Dirac |year=1930 |title= The Principles of Quantum Mechanics|isbn=978-0-19-852011-5|title-link=Principles of Quantum Mechanics }} The beginning chapters make up a very clear and comprehensible introduction. * {{cite journal | last1 = Everett | first1 = Hugh | authorlink = Hugh Everett | year = 1957 | title = Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics | url = | journal = Reviews of Modern Physics | volume = 29 | issue = 3| pages = 454–462 | doi=10.1103/revmodphys.29.454 | bibcode=1957RvMP...29..454E}} * {{cite book |last1=Feynman |first1=Richard P. |authorlink1=Richard Feynman |last2=Leighton |first2=Robert B. |authorlink2=Robert B. Leighton |last3=Sands |first3=Matthew |year=1965 |title=The Feynman Lectures on Physics |volume=1–3 |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=978-0-7382-0008-8|title-link=The Feynman Lectures on Physics }} * {{cite book | author=Griffiths, David J.| title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.) | publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-13-111892-8 | oclc=40251748}} A standard undergraduate text. * [[Max Jammer]], 1966. ''The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics''. McGraw Hill. * [[Hagen Kleinert]], 2004. ''Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets'', 3rd ed. Singapore: World Scientific. [http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/b5 Draft of 4th edition.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/b5 |date=20080615134934 }} * {{cite book |author=[[Lev Landau|L.D. Landau]], [[Evgeny Lifshitz|E.M. Lifshitz]] |year=1977 |title=Quantum Mechanics: Non-Relativistic Theory |edition=3rd |volume=Vol. 3 |publisher=[[Pergamon Press]] |isbn=978-0-08-020940-1 }} [https://archive.org/details/QuantumMechanics_104 Online copy] * Gunther Ludwig, 1968. ''Wave Mechanics''. London: Pergamon Press. {{isbn|0-08-203204-1}} * [[George Mackey]] (2004). ''The mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics''. Dover Publications. {{isbn|0-486-43517-2}}. * [[Albert Messiah]], 1966. ''Quantum Mechanics'' (Vol. I), English translation from French by G.M. Temmer. North Holland, John Wiley & Sons. Cf. chpt. IV, section III. [https://archive.org/details/QuantumMechanicsVolumeI online] * {{cite book | author=Omnès, Roland | title=Understanding Quantum Mechanics | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-691-00435-8 | oclc=39849482 | author-link=Roland Omnès | url=https://archive.org/details/understandingqua00omne }} * Scerri, Eric R., 2006. ''The [[Periodic Table]]: Its Story and Its Significance''. Oxford University Press. Considers the extent to which chemistry and the periodic system have been reduced to quantum mechanics. {{isbn|0-19-530573-6}} * {{cite book | author=Transnational College of Lex| title=What is Quantum Mechanics? A Physics Adventure | url=https://archive.org/details/whatisquantummec0000unse_x3q5| publisher=Language Research Foundation, Boston |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-9643504-1-0 | oclc=34661512| author-link=Transnational College of Lex }} * {{cite book |last=von Neumann |first=John |authorlink=John von Neumann |year=1955 |title=Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics |url=https://archive.org/details/mathematicalfoun0613vonn |url-access=registration |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02893-4}} * [[Hermann Weyl]], 1950. ''The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics'', Dover Publications. * D. Greenberger, K. Hentschel, F. Weinert, eds., 2009. ''Compendium of quantum physics, Concepts, experiments, history and philosophy'', Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. {{Refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== * {{cite book | author=Bernstein, Jeremy|title=Quantum Leaps| publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2009|isbn=978-0-674-03541-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j0Me3brYOL0C&printsec=frontcover}} * {{cite book | author=Bohm, David | title=Quantum Theory | url=https://archive.org/details/quantumtheory0000bohm | url-access=registration | publisher=Dover Publications| year=1989 | isbn=978-0-486-65969-5| author-link=David Bohm }} * {{cite book |author1=Eisberg, Robert |author2-link=Robert Resnick |author2=Resnick, Robert |title=Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.) |publisher=Wiley |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-471-87373-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/quantumphysicsof00eisb }} * {{cite book | author=Liboff, Richard L. | title=Introductory Quantum Mechanics | url=https://archive.org/details/introductoryquan0004libo | publisher=Addison-Wesley | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-8053-8714-8| author-link=Liboff, Richard L }} * {{cite book | author=Merzbacher, Eugen | title=Quantum Mechanics | url=https://archive.org/details/quantummechanics0000merz | publisher=Wiley, John & Sons, Inc | year=1998 | isbn=978-0-471-88702-7}} * {{cite book | author=Sakurai, J.J. | title=Modern Quantum Mechanics| publisher=Addison Wesley | year=1994 | isbn=978-0-201-53929-5| author-link=J. J. Sakurai}} * {{cite book | author=Shankar, R. | title=Principles of Quantum Mechanics | url=https://archive.org/details/principlesofquan0000shan_x3c9 | publisher=Springer | year=1994| isbn=978-0-306-44790-7}} * {{cite book | author=Stone, A. Douglas |title=Einstein and the Quantum | url=https://archive.org/details/einsteinquantumq0000ston | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=2013 | isbn=978-0-691-13968-5}} * [[Martinus J. G. Veltman|Veltman, Martinus J.G.]] (2003), ''Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics''. * Zucav, Gary (1979, 2001). [[The Dancing Wu Li Masters]]: An overview of the new physics (Perennial Classics Edition) HarperCollins. '''On Wikibooks''' * [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/This_Quantum_World This Quantum World] ==Viungo vya nje== {{Sister project links|s=Quantum mechanics}} * [http://www.toutestquantique.fr/ 3D animations, applications and research for basic quantum effects] (animations also available in [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Jubobroff commons.wikimedia.org] (Université paris Sud)) * [http://oyc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/notes_quantum_cookbook.pdf Quantum Cook Book] {{Wayback|url=http://oyc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/notes_quantum_cookbook.pdf |date=20231010142610 }} by R. Shankar, Open Yale PHYS 201 material (4pp) * [http://www.lightandmatter.com/lm/ The Modern Revolution in Physics] – an online textbook. * J. O'Connor and E.F. Robertson: [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/The_Quantum_age_begins.html A history of quantum mechanics.] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080913201312/http://www.quantiki.org/wiki/index.php/Introduction_to_Quantum_Theory Introduction to Quantum Theory at Quantiki.] * [http://bethe.cornell.edu/ Quantum Physics Made Relatively Simple]: three video lectures by [[Hans Bethe]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20071002191047/http://www.nonlocal.com/hbar/ H is for h-bar.] * [http://www.freebookcentre.net/Physics/Quantum-Mechanics-Books.html Quantum Mechanics Books Collection]: Collection of free books ;Vitini * [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/LearnIt/Quantum_Mechanics A collection of lectures on Quantum Mechanics] {{Wayback|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/LearnIt/Quantum_Mechanics |date=20190920103014 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150926135051/http://qpdb.eu/ Quantum Physics Database – Fundamentals and Historical Background of Quantum Theory.] * [https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0605180 Doron Cohen: Lecture notes in Quantum Mechanics (comprehensive, with advanced topics).] * [[MIT OpenCourseWare]]: [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Chemistry/index.htm Chemistry] {{Wayback|url=http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Chemistry/index.htm |date=20100505005511 }}. * MIT OpenCourseWare: [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/index.htm Physics] {{Wayback|url=http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/index.htm |date=20100505172535 }}. See [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-04Spring-2006/CourseHome/index.htm 8.04] {{Wayback|url=http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-04Spring-2006/CourseHome/index.htm |date=20100528173052 }} * [http://www.physics.csbsju.edu/QM/ 5½ Examples in Quantum Mechanics] * [http://www.imperial.ac.uk/quantuminformation/qi/tutorials Imperial College Quantum Mechanics Course.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.imperial.ac.uk/quantuminformation/qi/tutorials |date=20110810075114 }} * [http://www.sparknotes.com/testprep/books/sat2/physics/chapter19section3.rhtml Spark Notes – Quantum Physics.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.sparknotes.com/testprep/books/sat2/physics/chapter19section3.rhtml |date=20190605194351 }} * [http://www.quantum-physics.polytechnique.fr/ Quantum Physics Online : interactive introduction to quantum mechanics (RS applets).] * [http://www.didaktik.physik.uni-erlangen.de/quantumlab/english/index.html Experiments to the foundations of quantum physics with single photons.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.didaktik.physik.uni-erlangen.de/quantumlab/english/index.html |date=20121025073450 }} * [http://www.nanohub.org/topics/AQME AQME] : Advancing Quantum Mechanics for Engineers&nbsp;– by T. Barzso, D. Vasileska and G. Klimeck online learning resource with simulation tools on [[nanohub]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091229101144/http://www.lsr.ph.ic.ac.uk/~plenio/lecture.pdf Quantum Mechanics] by [[Martin Bodo Plenio|Martin Plenio]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110124130101/http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/389.pdf Quantum Mechanics] by Richard Fitzpatrick * [http://nanohub.org/resources/2039 Online course on ''Quantum Transport''] {{Wayback|url=http://nanohub.org/resources/2039 |date=20100607065203 }} ;FAQs * [http://www.hedweb.com/manworld.htm Many-worlds or relative-state interpretation.] * [http://www.mtnmath.com/faq/meas-qm.html Measurement in Quantum mechanics.] {{Wayback|url=http://www.mtnmath.com/faq/meas-qm.html |date=20110717113602 }} ;Media * [http://oyc.yale.edu/physics/phys-201#sessions PHYS 201: Fundamentals of Physics II] by Ramamurti Shankar, Open Yale Course * [https://www.youtube.com/view_play_list?p=84C10A9CB1D13841 Lectures on Quantum Mechanics] by [[Leonard Susskind]] * [https://www.newscientist.com/channel/fundamentals/quantum-world Everything you wanted to know about the quantum world]&nbsp;– archive of articles from ''[[New Scientist]]''. * [https://www.sciencedaily.com/news/matter_energy/quantum_physics/ Quantum Physics Research] from ''[[Science Daily]]'' * {{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/27/science/27eins.html?scp=1&sq=quantum%20trickery&st=cse|title=Quantum Trickery: Testing Einstein's Strangest Theory|date=December 27, 2005|work=The New York Times | first=Dennis | last=Overbye | accessdate=April 12, 2010}} * [http://www.astronomycast.com/physics/ep-138-quantum-mechanics/ Audio: Astronomy Cast] Quantum Mechanics&nbsp;– June 2009. [[Fraser Cain]] interviews [[Pamela L. Gay]]. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548dl "The Physics of Reality"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Roger Penrose, Fay Dowker & Tony Sudbery (''In Our Time'', May 2, 2002). {{mbegu-fizikia}} [[Jamii:Fizikia]] 3n0kzt36izpc9mj2lj5rlg4q9zphsrf 0 119550 1580219 1438198 2026-07-18T01:26:48Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 4 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580219 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Grande Ludovisi Altemps Inv8574 (cropped).jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Askari]] wa Kigoti akipambana na [[wapandafarasi]] wa [[Roma]], [[Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus]] (karne ya 3).]] [[Faili:Visigoth migrations.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.35|Uhamaji wa Wavisigoti.]] '''Wavisigoti''' (yaani [[Wagoti]] wa [[Magharibi]]) walikuwa [[kabila]] la [[Kijerumaniki]], ambalo pamoja na [[Waostrogoti]], walichangia sana anguko la [[Dola la Roma]] na mwanzo wa [[Karne za Kati]] [[Ulaya]]. ==Historia== Wakitokea labda [[Uswidi]], wanatajwa na [[waandishi]] wa [[Roma ya Kale]] kama wakazi wa [[beseni]] la [[Vistula]] (leo [[Polandi]] [[Kaskazini]]) katika [[karne ya 1]]. Baadaye walienea kwenye [[Bahari Nyeusi]], walipowazidi [[Wasarmatia]] kama watawala wa [[Mbuga za Ponto]] wakaanza kushambulia maeneo ya Dola la Roma hadi [[Cyprus]]. Wakati huo waligawanyika kati ya [[Wathervingi]] na [[Wagreuthungi]]. [[Miaka ya 300]], [[Ermanariki]], [[mfalme]] wa Wagreuthungi, alitawala kutoka [[Bahari ya Baltiki]] hadi Bahari Nyeusi, na [[Milima ya Urali]]. Wakati huo wengi wao waliingia [[Ukristo]] wa [[madhehebu]] ya [[Uario]] kwa [[umisionari]] wa [[Ulfilas]], aliyebuni [[alfabeti ya Kigoti]] kuandika [[Biblia ya Kigoti]]. [[Miaka ya 370]] maeneo ya Wagoti yalivamiwa na [[Wahunni]]. Wagreuthungi wakakaa chini yao wakaja kuitwa [[Waostrogoti]], kumbe Wathervingi, waliojulikana baadaye kama Wavisigoti, walivuka [[mto]] [[Danube]] na kuvamia Dola la Roma. Baada ya kunyanyaswa sana, waliasi na kushinda Warumi katika [[Mapigano ya Adrianopoli]] [[mwaka]] [[378]]. Chini ya [[Alariki I]], waliteka [[Roma]] yenyewe mwaka [[410]], na hatimaye wakalowea [[Galia]] na [[Hispania]], walipounda [[Ufalme wa Wavisigoti]]. Wakiungana na [[Dola la Roma Magharibi]] dhidi ya Wahunni wa [[Attila]] na Waostrogoti walipata ushindi kwenye [[Mapigano ya Mabonde ya Katalunya]] mwaka [[451]]. Hapo Waostrogoti walijinasua katika utawala wa Wahunni wakavamia [[Italia]] mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 5]] chini ya mfalme [[Theodoriki Mkuu]], wakaanzisha [[Ufalme wa Waostrogoti]] hadi mwaka [[535]] waliposhindwa na [[Kaisari]] [[Justinian I]]. Ufalme wa Wavisigoti ulidumu hadi mwaka [[711]], ulipoangamizwa na [[Waislamu]] wa [[ukhalifa]] wa [[Umayyad]]. Kaskazini mwa Hispania, mabaki ya Wavisigoti chini ya [[Pelagius wa Asturias]] walianzisha [[Ufalme wa Asturias]] na kujiandaa kutwaa tena [[rasi]] yote ([[Reconquista]]). [[Wazalendo]] wa [[Hispania]] walidai kuwa wazao wa Wagoti. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book| last=Arce |first=Javier| chapter=The City of Merida (Emerita) in the Vitas Patrum Emeritensium (Vith Century) | title=East and West, Modes of Communication: Proceedings of the First Plenary Conference at Merida | editor1=Evangelos Chrysos | editor2=Ian Wood| volume=Vol. 5 [Transformation of the Roman World] | year = 1999| location = Leiden | publisher = Brill | isbn=978-9-00410-929-2|ref = harv}} *{{cite book | last=Burns | first=Thomas | year=2003 | title= Rome and the Barbarians, 100 B.C.–A.D. 400 | url=https://archive.org/details/romebarbarians100000burn | place= Baltimore, MD | publisher= Johns Hopkins University Press | isbn= 978-0-80187-306-5 | ref = harv}} *{{cite book | last=Bury | first=J. B. | year=2000 | title=The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians | place=New York | publisher=W.W. Norton & Company | isbn=978-0-39300-388-8 | ref=harv | url=https://archive.org/details/invasionofeurope00jbjo }} * {{cite book | last = Carr | first = Karen | chapter = Visigoths | title = Ancient Europe, 8000 B.C.–A.D. 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World | editor1 = Peter Bogucki | editor2=Pam J. Crabtree| year = 2004 | location = New York | publisher = Thomson Gale |volume=Vol. 2 [Bronze Age to Early Middle Ages] | isbn = 0-684-31421-5|ref = harv}} *{{cite book | last = Claude | first = Dietrich | chapter=Remarks to the Relationship between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans in the 7th Century| title = Strategies of Distinction: Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300–800 (The Transformation of the Roman World, vol. 2) | editor1 = Walter Pohl | editor2 =Helmut Reimitz| year = 1998 | location = Leiden | publisher = Brill Academic Publishers | isbn = 978-9-00410-846-2 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Collins | first = Roger | year=1992 | title=Law, Culture, and Regionalism in Early Medieval Spain | place=Great Yarmouth | publisher=Variorum | isbn=0-86078-308-1| ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Collins | first = Roger | year=1995 | title=The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797 | url=https://archive.org/details/arabconquestofsp0000roge | place=Cambridge, MA | publisher=Blackwell Publishers | isbn=978-0-63119-405-7| ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Collins | first = Roger | year=1999 | title=Early Medieval Europe, 300–1000 | url=https://archive.org/details/earlymedievaleur0000coll_a7n9 | place=New York | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan | isbn=978-0-33365-808-6 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Collins | first = Roger | chapter = Visigothic Spain, 409–711 | title = Spain: A History | url=https://archive.org/details/spainhistory00carr | url-access=registration | editor = Raymond Carr | year = 2000 | location = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19280-236-1| ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Collins | first = Roger | year=2004 | title=Visigothic Spain, 409–711 | place=Oxford | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | isbn=0-631-18185-7| ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Coolidge | first = Grace | year=2011 | title=Guardianship, Gender, and the Nobility in Early Modern Spain | place=Surrey and Burlington, VT| publisher=Ashgate| isbn=978-1-40940-053-0| ref = harv}} *{{cite book | last=Durant | first=Will | year=1950 | title= The Age of Faith | volume=IV | series= The Story of Civilization | location= New York | publisher= Simon and Schuster | asin=B000HFCEIO | ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last=Fletcher|first=Richard| year=2006 | title=Moorish Spain| place=Berkeley, CA | publisher=University of California Press| isbn=978-0-52024-840-3| ref = harv}} * {{cite book|last=Frassetto|first=Michael| year=2003 | title=Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9791576072638| place=Santa Barbara, CA | publisher=ABC-CLIO | isbn=978-1-57607-263-9 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Fuller | first = J.F.C.| year=1998 | title=Armaments & History | url=https://archive.org/details/armamenthistoryi0000full | place=New York | publisher=Da Capo Press | isbn=978-0-30680-859-3 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Georgescu | first=Vlad | year=1991 | title=The Romanians. A History | url=https://archive.org/details/romanianshistory0000geor | place=Columbus | publisher=Ohio State University Press | isbn=0814205119 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Gerber | first=Jane | year=1992 | title=The Jews of Spain: A History of the Sephardic Experience | place=New York | publisher=Free Press | isbn=978-0-02911-573-2 | ref=harv | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780029115732 }} *{{cite book | last=Gonzalez-Salinero | first=Raul | chapter=Catholic Anti-Judaism in Visigothic Spain | title=The Visigoths: Studies in Culture and Society | url=https://archive.org/details/visigothsstudies0000unse | editor=Alberto Ferreiro | year = 1999 | location=Leiden | publisher=Brill | isbn=978-9-00411-206-3|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Graetz| first = Heinrich | year=1894 | title=History of the Jews | url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43337/43337-0.txt | volume= Vol. III [From the Revolt Against the Zendik (511 CE) to the Capture of St. Jean D'acre By the Mahometans (1291 C. E.)] | place=Philadelphia | publisher=The Jewish Publication Society of America | asin=B000JRBM60| ref = harv}} * {{cite book| last=Halsall | first=Guy | year=2007 | title= Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 | url=https://archive.org/details/barbarianmigrati0000hals | place= Cambridge and New York | publisher= Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-52143-543-7|ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Heather | first=Peter | year=1998 | title=The Goths | url=https://archive.org/details/goths0000heat_c0r7 | place= Oxford, UK | publisher=Blackwell Publishers | asin=B00RWST3HE|ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Heather | first=Peter | year=2005 | title=The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians | url=https://archive.org/details/fallofromanempir0000heat | place=Oxford and New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19515-954-7 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Heather | first=Peter | year=2013 | title=The Restoration of Rome: Barbarian Popes and Imperial Pretenders | url=https://archive.org/details/restorationofrom0000heat_l0f9 | place=Oxford and New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19936-851-8 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Hillgarth | first=J. N.| year=2010 | title= The Visigoths in History and Legend | place= Turnhout | publisher=Brepols Publishers| isbn= 978-0-88844-166-9|ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=James| first=Edward | year=2009 | title=Europe's Barbarians AD 200–600 | url=https://archive.org/details/europesbarbarian0000jame| place=New York | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-0-58277-296-0|ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Katz| first=Solomon| year=1955 | title= The Decline of Rome and the Rise of Mediaeval Europe| url=https://archive.org/details/declineofromeris0000solo| place=Ithaca, NY | publisher=Cornell University Press| asin=B002S62FYI|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last = Lim | first = Richard | year = 1999 | chapter = Christian Triumph and Controversy | title = Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World | editor1 = G.W. Bowersock | editor2 = Peter Brown | editor3 = Oleg Grabar | location = Cambridge, MA | publisher = The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | isbn = 978-0-67451-173-6 | ref = harv | chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/lateantiquitygui00bowe | url = https://archive.org/details/lateantiquitygui00bowe }} * {{cite book|last1=Mathisen | first1=Ralph W.| last2=Sivan | first2=Hagith S.| year=1999 | editor=Alberto Ferreiro | chapter=Forging a New Identity: The Kingdom of Toulouse and the Frontiers of Aquitania, 418–507 | title=The Visigoths: Studies in Culture and Society |url=https://archive.org/details/visigothsstudies0000unse | place=Leiden, Boston, Köln | publisher=Brill | isbn=978-9-00411-206-3 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | author1-last=Nadeau | first=Jean-Benoit | author2-last=Barlow | first2=Julie | title=The Story of Spanish | url=https://archive.org/details/storyofspanish0000nade | url-access=registration | year=2013 | location=New York |publisher=St. Martin's Press | isbn=978-0-31265-602-7 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Odobescu | first=Alexandru | year=1889 | title=Le Trésor de Pétrossa. Étude sur l'orfèvrerie antique | place=Paris | publisher=Éditions J. Rothschchild |ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Ostler | first=Nicholas | year=2006 | title=Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World | url=https://archive.org/details/empiresofwordlan0000ostl | place=New York | publisher=Harper Perennial | isbn=978-0-06093-572-6|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last= Roberts | first= J. M. | year= 1997 | title= A History of Europe | place= New York | publisher= Allen Lane | isbn= 978-0-96584-319-5 | ref= harv | url= https://archive.org/details/historyofeurope00robe_0 }} * {{cite book| last=Roth | first=Norman | year=1994 | title=Jews, Visigoths, and Muslims in Medieval Spain: Cooperation and Conflict| place=Leiden, New York, Köln | publisher= Brill | isbn=978-9-00409-971-5 | ref=harv}} *{{cite book | last = Sarris| first = Peter | year = 2002 | chapter =The Eastern Roman Empire from Constantine to Heraclius, 306–641 | title = The Oxford History of Byzantium | editor=Cyril Mango | location = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19814-098-6 | ref = harv}} * {{cite journal | last = Sivan | first = Hagith | title = On ''Foederati'', ''Hospitalitas'', and the Settlement of the Goths in A.D. 418 | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-philology_winter-1987_108_4/page/759 | journal = American Journal of Philology | date = 1987 | volume = 108 | issue = 4 | pages = 759–772 |ref = harv| doi = 10.2307/294799 | jstor = 294799 }} * {{cite journal | last = Stevenson | first = W. H. | title = The Beginnings of Wessex | journal = The English Historical Review | date = 1899 | volume = 14 | issue = 53 | pages = 32–46 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford, UK | jstor = 548095 | ref = harv| url = https://zenodo.org/record/2217573/files/article.pdf }} * {{cite book| last=Todd | first=Malcolm | year=2000 | title= The Early Germans | url=https://archive.org/details/earlygermanspeop0000malc | place= Oxford, UK | publisher= Blackwell | isbn= 978-0-63119-904-5 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | author1-last=Waldman | first=Carl | author2-last=Mason | first2 = Catherine | title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples | url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofeu0002wald | year=2006 | location=New York |publisher=Facts on File | isbn=978-0816049646 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Williams | first=Mark | year=2004 | title=The Story of Spain | url=https://archive.org/details/storyofspaindram0000will | location=San Mateo, CA | publisher=Golden Era Books |isbn=978-0-97069-692-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Wolf | first=Kenneth Baxter | year=2014 | title=Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | location=Cambridge and New York |isbn=978-1-10763-481-7 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Wolfram | first=Herwig | year=1988 | title= History of the Goths| url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgoths0000wolf | place= Berkeley| publisher= University of California Press | isbn= 978-0-52005-259-8 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book| last=Wolfram | first=Herwig | year=1997 | title=The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples | url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireitsge0000wolf | place=Berkeley and Los Angeles| publisher=University of California Press | isbn= 0-520-08511-6| ref = harv}} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== *[http://libro.uca.edu/vcode/visigoths.htm ''Lex Visigothorum''] *[https://visigothicsymposia.org Visigothic Symposia] {{Commons category|Visigoths}} {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Makabila ya Wagermanik|V]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Ulaya]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Italia]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Hispania]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Ufaransa]] qxo4z0y0jcbqx2wnz6sxip0927fvbwl 0 119552 1580160 1529234 2026-07-18T00:42:41Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580160 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Grande Ludovisi Altemps Inv8574 (cropped).jpg|right|upright|thumb|[[Askari]] wa Kigoti akipambana na [[wapandafarasi]] wa [[Roma]], [[Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus]] (karne ya 3).]] [[Faili:Europe at the death of Theoderic the Great in 526.jpg|thumb|Ufalme wa Waostrogoti (njano) alipofariki Theodoriki Mkuu ([[526]]).]] '''Waostrogoti''' (yaani [[Wagoti]] wa [[Mashariki]]) walikuwa [[kabila]] la [[Kijerumaniki]] ambalo, pamoja na [[Wavisigoti]], walichangia sana anguko la [[Dola la Roma]] na mwanzo wa [[Karne za Kati]] [[Ulaya]]. ==Historia== Wakitokea labda [[Uswidi]], wanatajwa na [[waandishi]] wa [[Roma ya Kale]] kama wakazi wa [[beseni]] la [[Vistula]] (leo [[Polandi]] [[Kaskazini]]) katika [[karne ya 1]]. Baadaye walienea kwenye [[Bahari Nyeusi]], walipowazidi [[Wasarmatia]] kama watawala wa [[Mbuga za Ponto]] wakaanza kushambulia maeneo ya Dola la Roma hadi [[Cyprus]]. Wakati huo waligawanyika kati ya [[Wathervingi]] na [[Wagreuthungi]]. [[Miaka ya 300]], [[Ermanariki]], [[mfalme]] wa Wagreuthungi, alitawala kutoka [[Bahari ya Baltiki]] hadi Bahari Nyeusi, na [[Milima ya Urali]]. Wakati huo wengi wao waliingia [[Ukristo]] wa [[madhehebu]] ya [[Uario]] kwa [[umisionari]] wa [[Ulfilas]], aliyebuni [[alfabeti ya Kigoti]] kuandika [[Biblia ya Kigoti]]. [[Miaka ya 370]] maeneo ya Wagoti yalivamiwa na [[Wahunni]]. Wagreuthungi wakakaa chini yao wakaja kuitwa Waostrogoti, kumbe Wathervingi, waliojulikana baadaye kama [[Wavisigoti]], walivuka [[mto]] [[Danube]] na kuvamia Dola la Roma. Baada ya kunyanyaswa sana, waliasi na kushinda Warumi katika [[Mapigano ya Adrianopoli]] [[mwaka]] [[378]]. Chini ya [[Alariki I]], waliteka [[Roma]] yenyewe mwaka [[410]], na hatimaye wakalowea [[Galia]] na [[Hispania]], walipounda [[Ufalme wa Wavisigoti]]. Wakiungana na [[Dola la Roma Magharibi]] dhidi ya Wahunni wa [[Attila]] na Waostrogoti walipata ushindi kwenye [[Mapigano ya Uwanja wa Katalauni]] mwaka [[451]]. Hapo Waostrogoti walijinasua katika utawala wa Wahunni wakavamia [[Italia]] mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 5]] chini ya mfalme [[Theodoriki Mkuu]], wakaanzisha [[Ufalme wa Waostrogoti]]. Kidogo tu baada ya [[kifo]] cha Theodoriki ([[526]]), Italia ilitekwa tena ([[535]]–[[554]]) na [[kaisari]] wa [[Dola la Roma Mashariki|Roma Mashariki]] [[Justinian I]], lakini baada ya miaka michache [[Walombardi]], wakitokea [[Skandinavia]], waliteka Italia na kumeza Waostrogoti waliokuwa wamebaki. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Vyanzo== {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * [[Patrick Amory|Amory, Patrick]]. ''People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489–554''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-52635-3. * {{cite book | last=Backman| first=Clifford R | year=2008 | title= The Worlds of Medieval Europe | url=https://archive.org/details/worldsofmedieval0000back| place= Oxford and New York | publisher= Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-533527-9| ref = harv}} * {{cite book| last=Bauer | first=Susan Wise | year=2010 | title=The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmedieva0000baue | place=New York | publisher= W. W. Norton & Company | isbn= 978-0-39305-975-5| ref= harv}} * {{cite book | last=Burns | first=Thomas | year=1984 | title=A History of the Ostrogoths | place=Bloomington and Indianapolis | publisher=Indiana University Press | isbn=0-253-32831-4 | ref=harv | url=https://archive.org/details/historyoftheostr00burn }} * {{cite book | last=Bury | first=J. B. | year=2000 | title=The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians | place=New York | publisher=W.W. Norton & Company | isbn=978-0-39300-388-8 | ref=harv | url=https://archive.org/details/invasionofeurope00jbjo }} * {{cite book |last=Cantor |first=Norman F. | year=1994 | title =The Civilization of the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/civilizationofmi0000norm |location= New York | publisher=Harper Perennial | isbn=0-06-092553-1 | ref=harv }} * {{cite book | last=Chisholm | first=Hugh | year=1910 | title= The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information | url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediabr10chisgoog | place= (Volumes 11-12). New York | publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica Inc | ref= harv}} * {{cite book | last= Collins | first = Roger | year=1999 | title=Early Medieval Europe, 300–1000 | url= https://archive.org/details/earlymedievaleur0000coll_a7n9 | place=New York | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan | isbn=978-0-33365-808-6 | ref= harv}} * {{cite book | last=Dalby | first=Andrew | year=1999 | title=Dictionary of Languages | place=New York | publisher=Columbia University Press | isbn=978-0-23111-568-1 | ref=harv | url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflang00dalb }} * {{cite book | last=De Puy | first=William Harrison | year=1899 | title= The World-wide Encyclopedia and Gazetteer (vol 4)| place=New York | publisher=Werner Co. | ref = harv}} * ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', "Ostrogoth", stable URL: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/434454/Ostrogoth * {{cite book | last=Frassetto | first=Michael | year=2003 | title=Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9791576072638 | place=Santa Barbara, CA | publisher=ABC-CLIO | isbn=978-1-57607-263-9 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book| last=Halsall | first=Guy | year=2007 | title= Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 | url=https://archive.org/details/barbarianmigrati0000hals | place= Cambridge and New York | publisher= Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-52143-543-7 | ref=harv}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Heather |first=Peter | title=The Goths |url=https://archive.org/details/goths0000heat |year=1996 |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishers | isbn=0-631-16536-3 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Larned | first= J. N., ed. | year=1895 | title= History for Ready Reference | url=https://archive.org/details/alberta_01306 | place= Cambridge, MA| publisher= C.A. Nichols | ref= harv }} * [[Charles Christopher Mierow|Mierow, Charles Christopher]] (translator). [https://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html ''The Gothic History of Jordanes''. In English Version with an Introduction and a Commentary.] 1915. Reprinted by Evolution Publishing, 2006. ISBN 1-889758-77-9. * {{cite book| last=Oman | first=Charles W.C | year=1902 | title= The Byzantine Empire | place=New York | publisher= G.P. Putnam’s Sons | ref= harv}} * {{cite book| last=Todd | first=Malcolm | year=1999 | title= The Early Germans | place= Oxford | publisher= Blackwell | isbn= 0-631-16397-2 | ref= harv}} * {{cite book | last1=Waldman | first1=Carl | last2=Mason | first2 = Allan R. | title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples | url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofeu0002wald | year=2006 | location=New York | publisher=Facts on File | isbn=978-0-81604-964-6 | ref = harv}} * {{cite book | last=Wallace-Hadrill | first=J. M. | title=The Barbarian West, 400–1000 | year=2004 | place=Malden, MA | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | isbn=978-0-63120-292-9 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Wolfram | first=Herwig | year=1988 | title=History of the Goths | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgoths0000wolf | place=Berkeley and Los Angeles| publisher=University of California Press | isbn= 978-0-52006-983-1 | ref= harv}} * {{cite book | last=Wolfram | first=Herwig | year=1997 | title=The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples | url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireitsge0000wolf | place=Berkeley and Los Angeles| publisher=University of California Press | isbn= 0-520-08511-6 | ref= harv }} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category-inline|Ostrogoths}} {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Makabila ya Wagermanik|O]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Ulaya]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Italia]] p112yykb30kkmgmlblw2xj8g1y190zf 0 119669 1580056 1254441 2026-07-17T23:32:46Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580056 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Atacama map.svg|250px|thumb|Jangwa la Atacama ni eneo lenye rangi ya njano. Baada ya vita, liko lote ndani ya Chile.]] '''Vita vya shura''' (pia: '''Vita vya Pasifiki''') vilitokea kati ya miaka [[1879]] - [[1884]] baina ya [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]] na [[Chile]]. Nchi hizo tatu zilipigania [[jangwa la Atacama]] baada ya [[shura]] ([[chumvi]] ya [[nitrati]] mbalimbali) kupatikana na kuanza kuchimbwa kwenye [[jangwa]] hilo katika [[karne ya 19]]. [[Utajiri]] huo ulisababisha vita vilivyoshindwa na Chile. == Marejeo == {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book | last = Barros Arana | first = Diego | authorlink = Diego Barros Arana | title = Historia de la guerra del Pacífico (1879–1880) (History of the War of the Pacific (1879–1880)) | place = Santiago, Chile | publisher = Librería Central de Servat i C^a <!-- "Esquina de Huérfanos i Ahumada" is an address, meaning "Corner of Huerfanos and Ahumada (streets)" --> | year = 1881a | volume = 1 | url = https://archive.org/details/historiadelague00arangoog | ref = harv | language = Spanish }} * {{cite book | last = Barros Arana | first = Diego | authorlink = Diego Barros Arana | title = Historia de la guerra del Pacífico (1879–1880) | place = Santiago, Chile | publisher = Librería Central de Servat i C^a | year = 1881b | volume = 2 | url = https://archive.org/details/historiadelague01arangoog | ref = harv | language = Spanish }} * {{cite book | last = Basadre | first = Jorge | authorlink = Jorge Basadre | title = Historia de la Republica del Peru, La guerra con Chile | location = Lima, Peru | publisher = Peruamerica S.A. | year = 1964 | url = http://www.unjbg.edu.pe/basadre/ | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071211081817/http://www.unjbg.edu.pe/basadre/ | archivedate=December 11, 2007| isbn = | ref = harv | language = Spanish }} * Boyd. Robert N. ''Chili: Sketches of Chili and the Chilians During the War 1879-1880''. (1881) * {{cite book | last = Bulnes | first = Gonzalo | title = Chile and Peru: the causes of the war of 1879 | place = Santiago, Chile | publisher = Imprenta Universitaria | year = 1920 | url = https://archive.org/details/chileperucauseso00bulnuoft | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Villalobos | first = Sergio | authorlink = Sergio Villalobos | title = Chile y Perú, la historia que nos une y nos separa, 1535–1883 | place = Chile | publisher = Editorial Universitaria | year = 2004 | edition = 2nd | isbn = 9789561116016 | ref = harv | language = Spanish }} * {{cite book | first = Adrian J. | last = English | title = Armed forces of Latin America: their histories, development, present strength, and military potential | url = https://archive.org/details/armedforcesoflat0000engl | year = 1985 | publisher = Jane's Information Group, Incorporated | isbn = 978-0-7106-0321-0 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Farcau | first = Bruce W. | title = The Ten Cents War, Chile, Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific, 1879–1884 | place = Westport, Connecticut, London | publisher = Praeger Publishers | year = 2000 | accessdate = January 17, 2010 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=BsxISMTwsSUC | isbn = 978-0-275-96925-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite journal | last = Jefferson Dennis | first = William | title = Documentary history of the Tacna-Arica dispute from University of Iowa studies in the social sciences | place = Iowa | publisher = University Iowa City | year = 1927 | volume = 8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kL0JAAAAIAAJ }} * {{cite book | last = Paz Soldan | first = Mariano Felipe | authorlink = Mariano Felipe Paz Soldán | title = Narracion Historica de la Guerra de Chile contra Peru y Bolivia (Historical narration of the Chile's War against Peru and Bolivia) | place = Buenos Aires, Argentina | publisher = Imprenta y Libreria de Mayo, calle Peru 115 | year = 1884 | url = https://archive.org/details/narracionhistri00soldgoog | language = Spanish }} * {{cite book | last = Sater | first = William F. | title = Andean Tragedy: Fighting the War of the Pacific, 1879–1884 | place = Lincoln and London | publisher = University of Nebraska Press | year = 2007 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=etT0iVZW73MC | isbn = 978-0-8032-4334-7 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | last = Sater | first = William F. | title = Chile and the War of the Pacific | url = https://archive.org/details/chilewarofpacifi0000sate | place = Lincoln and London | publisher = University of Nebraska Press | year = 1986 | isbn = 978-0-8032-4155-8 | ref = harv }} * {{cite book | first = Robert L. | last = Scheina | title = Latin America's Wars: The age of the caudillo, 1791–1899 | url = https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=o-OVsN5SwPIC | year = 2003 | publisher = Potomac Books, Inc. | ref = harv | isbn = 978-1-57488-450-0 }} * {{cite journal | last = O'Brien | first = Thomas F. | title = The Antofagasta Company: A Case Study of Peripheral Capitalism | place = Duke University Press | publisher = Hispanic American Historical Review | year = 1980 }} * {{cite book | last = Querejazu Calvo | first = Roberto | title = Guano, Salitre y Sangre | year = 1979 | publisher = Editorial los amigos del Libro | location = La Paz-Cochabamba, Bolivia | ref = harv | language = Spanish }} * {{cite book | last = Querejazu Calvo | first = Roberto | title = Aclaraciones históricas sobre la Guerra del Pacífico | year = 1995 | publisher = Editorial los amigos del Libro | location = La Paz, Bolivia | ref = harv | language = Spanish }} * {{cite journal | last = Kiernan | first = Victor | authorlink = Victor Kiernan | title = Foreign Interests in the War of the Pacific | place = Duke University Press | publisher = [[Hispanic American Historical Review]] | year = 1955 | volume = XXXV | edition = pages 14–36 }} * {{cite journal | last = Yrigoyen | first = Pedro | title = La alianza perú-boliviano-argentina y la declaratoria de guerra de Chile | place = Lima | publisher = San Marti & Cía. Impresores | year = 1921 | url = https://archive.org/details/laalianzaperbo00yrig | ref = harv | language = Spanish }} {{refend}} {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Chile]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Bolivia]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Peru]] [[Jamii:vita]] i7ed5gqo75hsn5yqvnbtpkamk8699aw 0 121439 1580015 1574281 2026-07-17T23:02:35Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580015 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Eusebius Ethiopian icon.jpg|thumb|[[Mchoro mdogo]] wa Mt. Eusebi kutoka [[Ethiopia]]<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=https://marginalia.lareviewofbooks.org/discoveries-ethiopian-desert/ |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2020-02-19 |archivedate=2020-02-20 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220104726/http://marginalia.lareviewofbooks.org/discoveries-ethiopian-desert/ }}</ref><ref>McKenzie, Judith S, & Watson, Francis. ''The Garima Gospels: Early Illuminated Gospel Books from Ethiopia.'' Manar al-Athar, 2016, pp. 146 & 154</ref>]] '''Eusebi wa Kaisarea''' (kwa [[Kigiriki]]: Εὐσέβιος τῆς Καισαρείας, ''Eusébios tés Kaisareías''; 260/265 hivi – 339/340) alikuwa [[askofu]] wa [[mji]] huo wa [[Israeli]] tangu [[mwaka]] [[314]] na [[mwanahistoria]] maarufu kwa ujuzi wake mpana sana<ref name=":0">{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQW0ACdLn6kC|title=The Story of Christianity: Volume 1: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation|last=Gonzalez|first=Justo L.|date=2010-08-10|publisher=Zondervan|year=2010|isbn=978-0-06-185588-7|location=|pages=149-150|language=en}}</ref>. Alikuwa mshauri wa [[kaisari]] [[Konstantino Mkuu]] akaandika habari za [[maisha]] yake. Aliandika pia kuhusu [[Biblia]] na [[ufafanuzi]] wake<ref>Little is known about the life of Eusebius. His successor at the [[Episcopal see|See]] of Caesarea, [[Acacius of Caesarea|Acacius]], wrote a ''Life of Eusebius'', a work that has since been lost. Eusebius' own surviving works probably only represent a small portion of his total output. Beyond notices in his extant writings, the major sources are the 5th-century ecclesiastical historians [[Socrates of Constantinople|Socrates]], [[Sozomen]], and [[Theodoret]], and the 4th-century Christian author [[Jerome]]. There are assorted notices of his activities in the writings of his contemporaries [[Athanasius]], [[Arius]], [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]], and [[Pope Alexander I of Alexandria|Alexander of Alexandria]]. Eusebius' pupil, [[Eusebius of Emesa]], provides some incidental information.</ref>. Anaheshimiwa na [[Waorthodoksi wa Mashariki]] wa [[Misri]]<ref>"For these reasons I am satisfied that our present passages in Luke Chapter 2 from the Coptic ''Cantena''do belong to Eusebius of Caesarea, despite his designation in Fr. Copt. 12 as 'the holy' or 'Saint' Eusebius, because the discussion of Mary bringing forth her 'first-born son' and the language used in this context seems so clearly to reflect the creedal formula of Caesarea, as mentioned above, and do not seem appropriate material for St. Eusebius of Vercelli or for Eusebius' student, Eusebius of Emesa; in addition, the name Eusebius appeared for a long time in the calendar of Saints, even though it was sometimes doubtful whether it was always Eusebius of Caesarea being referred to." Ayad, Mariam. ''Studies in Coptic Culture: Transmission and Interaction''. New York:The American University in Cairo Press, 2016, p. 26.</ref> na [[Ethiopia]]<ref>Ayad, Mariam. ''Studies in Coptic Culture: Transmission and Interaction''. New York:The American University in Cairo Press, 2016, p. 31, footnote 37.</ref><ref>McKenzie, Judith S, & Watson, Francis. ''The Garima Gospels: Early Illuminated Gospel Books from Ethiopia.'' Manar al-Athar, 2016, pp. 145-163 </ref> kama [[mtakatifu]]. == Maandishi== {{refbegin|40em}} * Eusebius of Caesarea. ** ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' (''Church History'') first seven books ''ca''. 300, eighth and ninth book ''ca''. 313, tenth book ''ca''. 315, epilogue ''ca''. 325. :** Migne, J.P., ed. ''Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta'' (in Greek). ''Patrologia Graeca'' 19–24. Paris, 1857. Online at [http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/pgm/PG_Migne/Eusebius%20Caesariensis_PG%2019-24/ Khazar Skeptik] and [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/04z/z_0265-0339__Eusebius_Caesariensis__Historia_Ecclesiastica__GR.pdf.html Documenta Catholica Omnia]. Accessed 4 November 2009. :** McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. ''Church History''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2501.htm New Advent] and [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.toc.html CCEL]. Accessed 28 September 2009. :** Williamson, G.A., trans. ''Church History''. London: Penguin, 1989. ** ''Contra Hieroclem'' (''Against Hierocles''). ** ''Onomasticon'' (''On the Place-Names in Holy Scripture''). :** Klostermann, E., ed. ''Eusebius' Werke'' 3.1 (''Die griechischen christlichen Schrifsteller der ersten (drei) Jahrhunderte'' 11.1. Leipzig and Berlin, 1904). Online at the [https://archive.org/details/werke00eusegoog Internet Archive]. Accessed 29 January 2010. :** Wolf, Umhau, trans. ''The Onomasticon of Eusebius Pamphili: Compared with the version of Jerome and annotated''. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1971. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_onomasticon_01_intro.htm Tertullian]. Accessed 29 January 2010. :** Taylor, Joan E., ed. ''Palestine in the Fourth Century. The Onomasticon by Eusebius of Caesarea,'' translated by Greville Freeman-Grenville, and indexed by Rupert Chapman III (Jerusalem: Carta, 2003). ** ''De Martyribus Palestinae'' (''On the Martyrs of Palestine''). :** McGiffert, Arthur Cushman, trans. ''Martyrs of Palestine''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2505.htm New Advent] and [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.xiv.html CCEL]. Accessed June 9, 2009. :** Cureton, William, trans. ''History of the Martyrs in Palestine by Eusebius of Caesarea, Discovered in a Very Antient Syriac Manuscript''. London: Williams & Norgate, 1861. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_martyrs.htm Tertullian]. Accessed September 28, 2009. ** ''Praeparatio Evangelica'' (''Preparation for the Gospel''). ** ''Demonstratio Evangelica'' (''Demonstration of the Gospel''). ** ''Theophania'' (''Theophany''). ** ''Laudes Constantini'' (''In Praise of Constantine'') 335. :** Migne, J.P., ed. ''Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta'' (in Greek). ''Patrologia Graeca'' 19–24. Paris, 1857. Online at [http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/pgm/PG_Migne/Eusebius%20Caesariensis_PG%2019-24/ Khazar Skeptik]. Accessed 4 November 2009. :** Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. ''Oration in Praise of Constantine''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2504.htm New Advent]. Accessed 19 October 2009. ** ''Vita Constantini'' (''The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine'') ''ca''. 336–39. :** Migne, J.P., ed. ''Eusebiou tou Pamphilou, episkopou tes en Palaistine Kaisareias ta euriskomena panta'' (in Greek). ''Patrologia Graeca'' 19–24. Paris, 1857. Online at [http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/pgm/PG_Migne/Eusebius%20Caesariensis_PG%2019-24/ Khazar Skeptik]. Accessed 4 November 2009. :** Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. ''Life of Constantine''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 1. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2502.htm New Advent]. Accessed 9 June 2009. :** Cameron, Averil and Stuart Hall, trans. ''Life of Constantine''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. *Gregory Thaumaturgus. ''Oratio Panegyrica''. **Salmond, S.D.F., trans. From ''Ante-Nicene Fathers'', Vol. 6. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0604.htm New Advent]. Accessed 31 January 2010. * Jerome. ** ''Chronicon'' (''Chronicle'') ''ca''. 380. :** [[John Knight Fotheringham|Fotheringham, John Knight]], ed. ''The [[Bodleian Library|Bodleian]] Manuscript of Jerome's Version of the Chronicle of Eusebius''. Oxford: Clarendon, 1905. Online at the [https://archive.org/details/bodleianmanuscr00jerogoog Internet Archive]. Accessed 8 October 2009. :** Pearse, Roger, ''et al''., trans. ''The Chronicle of St. Jerome'', in ''Early Church Fathers: Additional Texts''. Tertullian, 2005. Online at [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_00_eintro.htm Tertullian]. Accessed 14 August 2009. ** ''de Viris Illustribus'' (''On Illustrious Men'') 392. :** Herding, W., ed. ''De Viris Illustribus'' (in Latin). Leipzig: Teubner, 1879. Online at [https://archive.org/details/heironymideviri00jerogoog Internet Archive]. Accessed 6 October 2009. :** ''Liber de viris inlustribus'' (in Latin). ''Texte und Untersuchungen'' 14. Leipzig, 1896. :** Richardson, Ernest Cushing, trans. ''De Viris Illustribus (On Illustrious Men)''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2708.htm New Advent]. Accessed 15 August 2009. ** ''Epistulae'' (''Letters''). :** Fremantle, W.H., G. Lewis and W.G. Martley, trans. ''Letters''. From ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Second Series, Vol. 6. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1893. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001.htm New Advent] and [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf05.iv.iv.html CCEL]. Accessed 19 October 2009. * Origen. :''De Principiis'' (''On First Principles''). {{refend}} ==Tazama pia== *[[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] *[[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] == Tanbihi == {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|40em}} *{{cite book |last=Barnes|first=Timothy D. |title=Constantine and Eusebius |url=https://archive.org/details/constantineeuseb00barn|year=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, MA |isbn=978-0-674-16530-4 }} *{{cite book|last=Eusebius|title=Life of Constantine|year=1999|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-814924-8|others=Averil Cameron and Stuart G. Hall, trans}} *{{cite book|last=Drake|first=H. A.|title=Constantine and the bishops the policy of intolerance|year=2002|publisher=Johns Hopkins Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=978-0-8018-7104-7}} *{{cite book|last=Kofsky|first=Aryeh|title=Eusebius of Caesarea against paganism|year=2000|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-11642-9}} *{{cite book|last=Lawlor|first=Hugh Jackson|title=Eusebiana: essays on the Ecclesiastical history of Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea |url=https://archive.org/details/eusebianaessays00lawluoft|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|year=1912}} *{{cite book|last=Levine|first=Lee I.|title=Caesarea under Roman rule|url=https://archive.org/details/caesareaunderrom0000levi|year=1975|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-04013-7}} *{{cite book|last=Louth|first=Andrew|chapter=Eusebius and the Birth of Church History|title=The Cambridge history of early Christian literature|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00youn|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-46083-5|editor1-first=Frances|editor1-last=Young|editor2-first=Lewis|editor2-last=Ayres|editor3-first=Andrew|editor3-last=Louth|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistory00youn/page/266 266]–274}} *{{cite book|last=Momigliano|first=Arnaldo|title=On pagans, Jews, and Christians|url=https://archive.org/details/onpagansjewschri0000momi|year=1989|publisher=Wesleyan University Press|location=Middletown, CT|isbn=978-0-8195-6218-0}} *{{cite book|last=Newman|first=John Henry|title=The Arians of the Fourth Century|url=https://archive.org/details/ariansfourthcen02newmgoog|edition=7th|location=London|publisher=Longmans, Green and Co|year=1890}} * Sabrina Inowlocki & Claudio Zamagni (eds), ''Reconsidering Eusebius: Collected papers on literary, historical, and theological issues'' (Leiden, Brill, 2011) (Vigiliae Christianae, Supplements, 107). *{{cite book|last=Wallace-Hadrill|first=D. S.|title=Eusebius of Caesarea|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W9-CZU-642|location=London|publisher=A. R. Mowbray|year=1960}} {{refend}} == Marejeo mengine == *{{cite book|editor1-last=Attridge|editor1-first=Harold W.|editor2-last=Hata|editor2-first=Gohei |title=Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism|url=https://archive.org/details/eusebiuschristia0000unse|year=1992|publisher=Wayne State Univ. Press|location=Detroit|isbn=978-0-8143-2361-8}} *{{cite book|last=Chesnut|first=Glenn F.|title=The first Christian histories : Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret, and Evagrius|url=https://archive.org/details/firstchristianhi0000ches|year=1986|publisher=Mercer University Press|location=Macon, GA|isbn=978-0-86554-164-1|edition=2nd}} *{{cite book|last=Drake|first=H. A.|title=In praise of Constantine : a historical study and new translation of Eusebius' Tricennial orations|url=https://archive.org/details/inpraiseofconsta0000drak|year=1976|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0-520-09535-9}} *{{cite book|last=Eusebius|title=The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchurchf0000euse_n2x5|year=1984|publisher=Dorset Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-88029-022-7|others=G.A. Williamson, trans}} *{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Robert M.|title=Eusebius as Church Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/eusebiusaschurch0000gran|year=1980|publisher=Clarendon Pr.|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-826441-5}} *{{cite book|last=Valois|first=Henri de|title=The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus|year=1833|publisher=Davis|location=Philadelphia|chapter=Annotations on the Life and Writings of Eusebius Pamphilus|others=S. E. Parker, trans}} ==Viungo vya nje== ;Vyanzo vikuu *[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.toc.html Church History (Eusebius); The Life of Constantine (Eusebius)], online at ccel.org. *[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_martyrs.htm History of the Martyrs in Palestine (Eusebius)], English translation (1861) William Cureton. Website tertullian.org. *[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_canon_tables_01.htm Eusebius of Caesarea, The Gospel Canon Tables] * [https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2019/05/11/eusebius-of-caesarea-six-extracts-from-the-commentary-on-the-psalms-in-english/ Eusebius, Six extracts from the Commentary on the Psalms]. * [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/20_30_0265-0339-_Eusebius_Caesariensis,_Sanctus.html ''Opera Omnia'' by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes] complete Greek text of Eusebius' works ;Vyanzo vingine *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05617b.htm "Eusebius"] in ''New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1917) *[http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/eusebius/ Eusebius of Caesarea] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] *[http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/eusebius.php Extensive bibliography at EarlyChurch.org] *[http://www.fourthcentury.com/index.php/eusebius-chart Chronological list of Eusebius's writings] {{mbegu-Mkristo}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Eusebi wa Kaisarea}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 260]] [[Category:Waliofariki 339]] [[Category:Maaskofu]] [[Category:Waandishi wa Kigiriki]] [[Category:Wanahistoria wa Israeli]] [[Jamii:Wanateolojia wa Israeli]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Israeli]] [[Jamii:historia ya Kanisa]] 49r5htydhtfwg3tbfv08majjbd6611e 0 121840 1580048 1534547 2026-07-17T23:27:12Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580048 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Ste genevieve st etienne.jpg|thumb|[[Sanamu]] yake.]] '''Genoveva wa Nanterre''' (kwa [[Kifaransa]]: ''Geneviève''; [[Nanterre]], [[411]]/[[416]] - [[Paris]], [[3 Januari]] [[512]]) alikuwa [[mtawa]] wa [[Ufaransa]] wa leo. Alipokuwa na [[umri]] wa miaka 15, kwa shauri la [[Jermano wa Auxerre|Jermano]] [[askofu]] wa [[Auxerre]], alijiweka [[wakfu]] kwa [[Mungu]]. Baadaye alifariji wakazi wa [[mji]] huo waliohofu [[uvamizi]] wa [[Wahunni]], akawasaidia wakati wa [[njaa]]<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa kama [[mtakatifu]] [[bikira]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa [[tarehe]] [[3 Januari]]<ref>''Martyrologium Romanum: ex Decreto Sacrosancti oecumenici Concilii Vaticani II instauratum auctoritate Ioannis Pauli P.P. II promulgatum'', Romae 2001, ISBN 8820972107</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo ya Kiswahili== * John Kabeya na wengine - Maisha ya Watakatifu – ed. T.M.P. Book Department – Tabora 1965, 1989, uk 6-7 * Pd. Leandry Kimario, [[Wakapuchini|O.F.M.Cap.]] - Mfahamu Mtakatifu Somo Wako - Maisha ya Watakatifu wa Kila Siku pamoja na Watakatifu Wafransisko - Toleo la pili - Dar es Salaam 2021, uk. 5-6 ==Marejeo ya lugha nyingine== * {{cite book|last1=Attwater|first1=Donald|last2=John|first2=Catherine Rachel|title=The Penguin Dictionary of Saints|url=https://archive.org/details/penguindictionar03edattw|edition=3|year=1993|publisher=Penguin|location=New York|isbn=0-14-051312-4}} * {{cite book|last1=McNamara|first1=Jo Ann|last2=Halberg|first2=John E.|last3=Whatley|first3=E. Gordon|title=Sainted Women of the Dark Ages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a6acuOZt5bkC|year=1992|publisher=Duke UP|location=Durham|isbn=978-0-8223-1216-1}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Sainte Geneviève}} * [http://www.saintpatrickdc.org/ss/0103.shtml#gene Saint of the Day, January 3: ''Geneviève of Paris''] {{Wayback|url=http://www.saintpatrickdc.org/ss/0103.shtml#gene |date=20101128054722 }} at ''SaintPatrickDC.org'' * [http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/GENEVIEV.htm "St.Genevieve, Chief Patroness of the City of Paris", Butler, Alban. ''"The Lives or the Fathers, Martyrs and Other Principal Saints'', Vol.I] {{Wayback|url=http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/GENEVIEV.htm |date=20190113091844 }} {{mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 415]] [[Category:Waliofariki 512]] [[Category:Mabikira]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Ufaransa]] 8grh5rs4pthnaomykz56pzc5bw5wi0q 0 123885 1580208 1578164 2026-07-18T01:19:35Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580208 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Hiv budding.jpg | haki | thumb |Namba virusi vya UKIMWI vinavyotoka katika [[seli]].]] '''Virusi vya UKIMWI'''; [[kifupi]]: '''VVU'''; kwa [[Kiingereza]] ''HIV'', yaani "Human Immunodeficiency Virus") ni [[virusi]] vinavyoshambulia [[mwili]] wa [[binadamu]] kwa kuondoa nguvu zake za kupambana na [[maambukizi nyemelezi]] yanayosababisha [[maradhi]]. [[UKIMWI]] ni [[ugonjwa]] wa [[mfumo wa kingamwili]] wa binadamu <ref name="pmid11396444">{{Rejea jarida|author=Sepkowitz KA|title=AIDS—the first 20 years|journal=N. Engl. J. Med.|volume=344|issue=23| pages=1764–72|year=2001|month=June|pmid=11396444|doi=10.1056/NEJM200106073442306}}</ref> ambao ni hatari sana katika [[maisha]] ya [[binadamu]] kwa kuwa husababisha [[kifo|vifo]]. Kwa mujibu wa [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]], kufikia mwaka [[2014]] ugonjwa huu umeua watu [[milioni]] 39, hasa kati ya wanaoishi [[Bara|barani]] [[Afrika]] [[kusini kwa Sahara]]. Kwa [[mwaka]] [[2015]] pekee wamefariki watu milioni 1.2 na kati yao [[watoto]] wengi. UKIMWI umekuwa na madhara makubwa katika [[jamii]], kama ugonjwa wa mwili na kama chanzo cha [[Ubaguzi wa watu wanaoishi na UKIMWI|ubaguzi]]. Kuna sintofahamu kuhusu UKIMWI kama vile kwamba eti, unaweza kusambazwa kwa kugusana tu bila [[ngono]]. Ugonjwa huo pia unasababisha [[madhara ya kiuchumi]] ambayo ni makubwa, hasa kwa nchi maskini. UKIMWI hadi hivi sasa haina [[chanjo]] wala [[tiba]], lakini tunaweza kuuepuka ugonjwa huu kwa kuachana na ngono ambayo huweza kusababisha ugonjwa huo, pia tunaweza kujikinga nao kwa kuepuka kuchangia vifaa au vitu vyenye [[ncha]] kali. Kimsingi zaidi ni kwamba ugonjwa huo umetokana na kuenezwa hasa na [[maadili]] mabovu. Dhidi yake watu wanahitaji kuelewa tangu [[Utoto|utotoni]] na [[Ujana|ujanani]] maana ya [[jinsia]] na [[maisha]] kwa jumla, kwamba vinadai [[upendo]], [[nidhamu]] na [[uwajibikaji]], si kufuata [[tamaa]] tofautitofauti daima<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/thirty-years-after-aids-discovery-appreciation-growing-for-catholic-approach/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+catholicnewsagency%2Fdailynews+%28CNA+Daily+News%29|title=Thirty years after AIDS discovery, appreciation growing for Catholic approach|publisher=Catholicnewsagency.com|date=June 5, 2011|accessdate=November 1, 2011|archive-date=2011-09-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912204558/http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/thirty-years-after-aids-discovery-appreciation-growing-for-catholic-approach/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+catholicnewsagency%2Fdailynews+%28CNA+Daily+News%29|url-status=dead}}</ref>. Tarehe [[1 Desemba]] kila [[mwaka]] ni [[Siku ya Ukimwi duniani|siku ya UKIMWI duniani]]. ==Mfumo wa kingamwili na VVU== Kila mtu huwa na [[Mfumo wa kingamaradhi|mfumo wa kingamwili]] ndani yake. [[Seli]] za ulinzi zinazunguka mwilini na kutafuta [[vidubini]] vya nje vinavyoweza kuleta mvurugo na zinaviharibu. Kati ya seli hizi za [[ulinzi]] ni [[seli nyeupe za damu]] (lukosaiti) ambazo ni muhimu sana. Ukimwi unasababishwa na VVU. Kama virusi vyote, VVU vinaingia katika mwili kwa kusudi la kuzaa. Virusi haviwezi kuzaa peke yake: vinahitaji seli vinamoweza kuingia ndani yake na kutumia mfumo wa seli kwa kunakili [[DNA]] yake. Kwa kawaida virusi vinashambuliwa na mfumo wa kingamwili na kuharibika. Lakini VVU vina tabia mbili za pekee ambazo zinavifanya vvya hatari hasa: * vinafaulu mara nyingi kuepukana na seli za ulinzi mwilini * vinaingia hasahasa katika seli nyeupe za damu za aina "seli za T". VVU vikianza kuongezeka katika seli nyeupe ya damu vinadhoofisha na hatimaye kuharibu seli hii. Maana yake VVU vinashambulia moja kwa moja seli ambazo ni sehemu ya kingamwili na zinazohusika kukinga mwili. Kuenea kwa VVU mwilini kunapunguza idadi ya seli za ulinzi na hivyo kupunguza kiwango cha kingamwili. Baada ya kupungua kwa kingamwili vidubini vingine vinaendelea kufika mwilini lakini sasa vinaenea zaidi kwa sababu seli za ulinzi zimekuwa chache. Kila [[ambukizo]] linaendelea kwa muda mrefu zaidi na hivyo mwili kwa jumla unateswa kwa muda mrefu zaidi. Kadiri Ukimwi unavyoendelea vipindi vya magonjwa vinakuwa virefu zaidi na nguvu za mwili zinapunguapungua. Katika ngazi za mwisho [[idadi]] ya maambukizo inazidi uwezo wa mwili wa kupambana nayo na hapo mtu unakaribia kifo. ==Virusi vyenyewe== [[File:HI-virion-structure en.svg|thumb|alt= Muundo wa duara ulio na miundo ya rangi ya waridi inayochipuka kutoka kwake, na michoro kadhaa ndani ya duara hii ikionyesha vipengele tofauti vya virusi |Mchoro unaoonyesha muundo wa virusi vya VVU]] VVU ndivyo kisababishi cha mkusanyiko wa magonjwa yanayojulikana kijumla kama VVU/UKIMWI. VVU ni [[retrovirusi]] ambavyo hasa huambukiza vipengele vya [[mfumo wa kingamwili]] ya binadamu kama vile seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP>T, [[makrofaji]] na [[seli za dendraiti]]. Virusi hivi huharibu seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP> T moja kwa moja au vinginevyo.<ref name=Alimonti>{{Rejea jarida |author=Alimonti JB, Ball TB, Fowke KR | title=Mechanisms of CD4+ T lymphocyte cell death in human immunodeficiency virus infection and AIDS | journal=J. Gen. Virol. | year=2003 | pages=1649–1661 | volume=84 | issue=7 | pmid=12810858 |doi=10.1099/vir.0.19110-0}}</ref> VVU ni mshirika wa [[jenasi]] ya ''[[Lentivirus]]'',<ref name=ICTV61.0.6>{{cite web | author=[[International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]] | publisher=[[National Institutes of Health]] | year=2002 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61060000.htm | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060418135608/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61060000.htm | title=61.0.6. Lentivirus | accessdate=2012-06-25 | archivedate=2006-04-18 }}</ref> sehemu ya [[Familia (biolojia)|familia]] ya [[Retroviridae]].<ref name=ICTV61.>{{cite web |author=International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses |publisher=National Institutes of Health |year=2002 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61000000.htm |title=61. Retroviridae |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629180810/http://ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61000000.htm |accessdate=2012-06-25 |archivedate=2006-06-29 }}</ref> Virusi vyote vya lenti huwa na sifa sawa za [[mofolojia (bayolojia)|kimofolojia]] na [[biolojia]]. Spishi nyingi za [[mamalia]] huambukizwa na virusi vya lenti, ambavyo haswa huwa ndivyo visababishi vya maradhi ya muda mrefu yaliyo na [[kipindi cha kupevuka]] kirefu.<ref name=Levy>{{cite journal | author=Lévy, J. A. | title=HIV pathogenesis and long-term survival | journal=AIDS | year=1993 | pages=1401–10| volume=7 | issue=11 | pmid=8280406 | doi=10.1097/00002030-199311000-00001}}</ref>Virusi vya lenti husambazwa kama [[virusi vya RNA]] chanya za uzi mmoja [[hisia]] zilizo ndani ya kigamba. Inapoingia ndani ya seli iliyolengwa, [[jenomu]] ya [[RNA]] ya virusi hugeuzwa (hubadilishwa kinakala) na kuwa [[DNA]] ya nyuzi mbili ambayo husafirishwa pamoja na jenomu ya virusi katika chembe ya virusi vile. DNA ya virusi inayoundika huingia katika kiini cha seli ambapo huchangamana na seli ya DNA kwa kutumia [[integresi]] iliyofasiliwa kama virusi, na pia vipengele husika vya kiini kikuu.<ref name="JASmith">{{cite journal | author= Smith, Johanna A.; Daniel, René (Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for Human Virology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia)|title= Following the path of the virus: the exploitation of host DNA repair mechanisms by retroviruses |journal=ACS Chem Biol|volume=1|issue=4 |pages= 217–26 |year= 2006 |pmid= 17163676 |doi=10.1021/cb600131q |url= }}</ref> Vinapochangamana na DNA ya seli, virusi hivi vinaweza kuingia katika [[kipindi cha kupevuka|awamu fiche]], hivyo kuwezesha virusi hivi pamoja na seli inayovipokea kuepuka kutambuliwa na mfumo wa kingamwili.<ref>{{cite book|last=Martínez|first=edited by Miguel Angel|title=RNA interference and viruses : current innovations and future trends|year=2010|publisher=Caister Academic Press|location=Norfolk|isbn=9781904455561|pages=73|url=</ref> Aina mbili [[Aina ndogo za VVU|za VVU]] zimetambulika: VVU-1 na VVU-2. VVU-1 ni virusi vilivyotambulika kwanza (na ambavyo mwanzoni vilijulikana pia kama LAV au HTLV-III). Virusi hivi vina [[sumu kali]], vyenye [[uambukizaji|kuambukiza]],<ref>{{cite journal | title=Comparison of HIV-1 and HIV-2 infectivity from a prospective cohort study in Senegal | last=Gilbert | first=PB |journal=Statistics in Medicine | date=28 February 2003| volume=22 |issue=4 | pages=573–593 | pmid=12590415 |doi=10.1002/sim.1342 | last2=McKeague | first2=IW | last3=Eisen | first3=G |last4=Mullins | first4=C | last5=Guéye-Ndiaye| first5=A | last6=Mboup | first6=S | last7=Kanki | first7=PJ |display-authors=1}}</ref> na ndivyo visababishi vikuu vya visa vingi vya maambukizi ya VVU kote ulimwenguni. Kiwango cha chini zaidi cha uambukizaji wa VVU-2 ikilinganishwa na VVU-1 huonyesha kuwa watu wachache zaidi walio katika hatari ya VVU-2 wataambukizwa kila wanapokumbana na virusi hivi. VVU-2 hupatikana zaidi [[Afrika Magharibi]] kwa sababu ya uwezo wake wa chini wa kuambukiza.<ref name="Reeves">{{cite journal | author=Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W | title=Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 | journal=J. Gen. Virol. |year=2002 | pages=1253–65 | volume=83 | issue=Pt 6 | pmid=12029140 | doi=10.1099/vir.0.18253-0}}</ref> [[File:HIV-budding-Color.jpg|thumb|alt= Kifaa kikubwa cha duara cha rangi ya buluu, na kifaa chekundu kilichounganishwa nacho. Vifaa vyote viwili vina madoa ya kijani yaliyotapakaa juu yake.|[[Darubini ya elektroni ya ukaguzi|Mikrografu ya elektroni ya ukaguzi]] wa VVU-1, vya rangi ya kijani, vinavyochipuka kutoka kwa [[limfositi]] iliyokaguliwa.]] Baada ya virusi kuingia mwilini, kuna kipindi cha [[kugawanyika kwa virusi]], hali inayopelekea wingi wa virusi katika damu ya pembeni. Katika kipindi cha kwanza cha maambukizi, kiwango cha VVU kinaweza kufika milioni kadhaa za chembe za virusi kwa kila [[mililita]] ya damu.<ref name=Piatak>{{cite journal | author=Piatak, M., Jr, Saag, M. S., Yang, L. C., Clark, S. J., Kappes, J. C., Luk, K. C., Hahn, B. H., Shaw, G. M. and Lifson, J.D. | title=High levels of HIV-1 in plasma during all stages of infection determined by competitive PCR |journal=Science | year=1993 |pages=1749–1754 |volume=259 |issue=5102 | pmid=8096089 | doi=10.1126/science.8096089|bibcode = 1993Sci...259.1749P }}</ref> Mwitikio huu huandamana na kiwango kikubwa cha kushuka kwa idadi ya seli za CD4⁺ T zinazozunguka. [[Viremia]] kali mara nyingi huhusishwa na kuwezeshwa kwa [[seli za T angamizi|CD8⁺ seli za T]], ambazo huangamiza seli zilizoambukizwa VVU na kisha kuhusishwa na kuzalishwa kwa zindiko, au [[kuzalishwa kwa zindiko mpya]]. Mwitikio wa seli za CD8⁺ T huchukuliwa kuwa muhimu katika kudhibiti viwango vya virusi, ambavyo hupanda na kushuka, huku viwango vya seli za CD4⁺ T vikirejea. Mwitikio bora wa seli za CD8⁺ T umehusishwa na kupungua kwa mwendo wa ugonjwa na pia prognosi bora zaidi, ingawa mwitikio huu hauondoi virusi.<ref name=Pantaleo1998>{{cite journal| author=Pantaleo G, Demarest JF, Schacker T, Vaccarezza M, Cohen OJ, Daucher M, Graziosi C, Schnittman SS, Quinn TC, Shaw GM, Perrin L, Tambussi G, Lazzarin A, Sekaly RP, Soudeyns H, Corey L, Fauci AS. | title=The qualitative nature of the primary immune response to HIV infection is a prognosticator of disease progression independent of the initial level of plasma viremia | journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. | year=1997 |pages=254–258 | volume=94 | issue=1 | pmid=8990195 | doi=10.1073/pnas.94.1.254|pmc=19306|bibcode = 1997PNAS...94..254P }}</ref> Pathofisiolojia ya UKIMWI ni tata.<ref name="pmid8040596">{{Rejea jarida| author=Guss DA| title=The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 1| journal=J Emerg Med| volume=12| issue=3|pages=375–84| year=1994| pmid=8040596| doi=10.1016/0736-4679(94)90281-X}}</ref> Mwishowe, VVU husababisha UKIMWI kwa kuharibu [[seli T saidizi|CD4⁺seli za T]]. Hali hii hudhoofisha mfumo wa kingamwili hivyo kuwezesha [[mambukizi vamizi]]. Seli za T ni muhimu kwa mwitikio wa kingamwili, hivyo bila ya seli hizi, mwili hauwezi kukabiliana na maambukizi wala kuharibu seli za saratani. Utendakazi wa kuharibiwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T hutofautiana katika awamu kali na za muda mrefu.<ref name="pmid16679064">{{Rejea jarida|author=Hel Z, McGhee JR, Mestecky J |title=HIV infection: first battle decides the war |journal=Trends Immunol. |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=274–81 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=16679064|doi=10.1016/j.it.2006.04.007 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_trends-in-immunology_2006-06_27_6/page/274}}</ref> Katika awamu kali, lisisi ya seli inayosababishwa na VVU, na pia kuangamizwa kwa [[seli za T angamizi]] huchangia katika kuharibiwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T, ingawa [[apoptosi]] pia inaweza kuchangia hali hii. Katika awamu ya muda mrefu, matokeo ya uwezeshaji wa kijumla wa kingamwili ukiandamana na udhaifu wa pole pole wa uwezo wa mfumo wa kingamwili kuzalisha seli mpya za T hukisiwa kuchangia kupungua kwa pole pole kwa idadi ya seli za CD4⁺ T. <ref>{{cite book|author=Arie J. Zuckerman et al. (eds)|title=Principles and practice of clinical virology|year=2007|publisher=Wiley|location=Hoboken, N.J.|isbn=978-0-470-51799-4|page=905|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=4il2mF7JG1sC&pg=PA905|edition=6th}}</ref> Ingawa dalili za udhaifu wa kingamwili kama ulivyo katika UKIMWI hazitokei kwa miaka mingi baada ya kuambukizwa, kiwango kikubwa cha kuharibika kwa seli za CD4⁺ T hutokea katika wiki za kwanza baada ya kuambukizwa, hasa katika ute wa utumbo, ambao huwa na kiwango kikubwa cha limfosaiti zote za mwili.<ref name="pmid15365095">{{Rejea jarida|author=Mehandru S, Poles MA, Tenner-Racz K, Horowitz A, Hurley A, Hogan C, Boden D, Racz P, Markowitz M|title=Primary HIV-1 infection is associated with preferential depletion of CD4⁺ T cells from effector sites in the gastrointestinal tract |journal=J. Exp. Med. |volume=200 |issue=6 |pages=761–70 |year=2004 |month=September|pmid=15365095 |doi=10.1084/jem.20041196 |url= |pmc=2211967}}</ref> Sababu ya kiwango hiki kikubwa cha kuharibiwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T ni kuwa kiwango kikubwa cha seli za ute za CD4⁺ T huzalisha protini ya [[CCR5]] inayotumika na VVU kama [[kipokezi kishiriki]] ili kuweza kufikia seli hizo, ilhali kipande kidogo tu cha seli za CD4⁺ T katika mkondo wa damu hufanya hivyo.<ref name="pmid15365096">{{Rejea jarida|author=Brenchley JM, Schacker TW, Ruff LE, Price DA, Taylor JH, Beilman GJ, Nguyen PL, Khoruts A, Larson M, Haase AT, Douek DC |title=CD4⁺ T cell depletion during all stages of HIV disease occurs predominantly in the gastrointestinal tract |journal=J. Exp. Med. |volume=200 |issue=6|pages=749–59 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15365096 |doi=10.1084/jem.20040874 |url= |pmc=2211962}}</ref> VVU hutafuta na kuharibu CCR5 inayotolesha seli za CD4⁺ T katika awamu kali ya maambukizi. <ref name=Julio2011>{{cite book|last=editor|first=Julio Aliberti,|title=Control of Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses During Infectious Diseases.|publisher=Springer Verlag|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-4614-0483-5|page=145|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=TKMpo5aINVIC&pg=PA145|year=2011}}</ref> Mwitikio mkubwa wa kingamwili hatimaye huyadhibiti maambukizi hayo kisha kuanzisha awamu fiche ya kiutambuzi. Seli za CD4⁺ T katika tishu za ute husalia zikiwa zimeathiriwa sana. <ref name=Julio2011/> Ugawanyikaji endelevu wa VVU husababisha hali ya uwezeshaji wa kijumla wa kingamwili, ambao hudumu katika awamu yote ya muda mrefu.<ref name="pmid18161758">{{Rejea jarida|author=Appay V, Sauce D |title=Immune activation and inflammation in HIV-1 infection: causes and consequences|journal=J. Pathol. |volume=214 |issue=2 |pages=231–41 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18161758 |doi=10.1002/path.2276|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-pathology_2008-01_214_2/page/231}}</ref> Uwezeshaji wa kingamwili, ambao hutambulika kwa ongezeko la uwezeshaji wa hali ya seli za kingamwili na kutoleshwa kwa [[saitokini]] inayosababisha inflemesheni, husababishwa na utendakazi wa [[zao la jeni]] na mwitikio wa kingamwili dhidi ya ugawanyikaji wa VVU unaoendelea. Uwezeshaji wa kingamwili pia huhusishwa na kuharibika kwa mfumo wa uchunguzi wa kingamwili wa kizuizi cha ute wa tumbo na utumbo, hali inayosababishwa na kuangamizwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T za ute katika awamu kali ya ugonjwa huu.<ref name="pmid17115046">{{Rejea jarida|author=Brenchley JM, Price DA, Schacker TW, Asher TE, Silvestri G, Rao S, Kazzaz Z, Bornstein E, Lambotte O, Altmann D, Blazar BR, Rodriguez B, Teixeira-Johnson L, Landay A, Martin JN, Hecht FM, Picker LJ, Lederman MM, Deeks SG, Douek DC |title=Microbial translocation is a cause of systemic immune activation in chronic HIV infection |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=1365–71 |year=2006 |month=December |pmid=17115046|doi=10.1038/nm1511 |url=}}</ref> Hivyo si kila mtu aliye na VVU ana UKIMWI. Wakati watu wanapata VVU, wanaweza kuwa na [[afya]] kwa miaka mpaka akakutwa na aina maalumu ya magonjwa na vipimo vya [[damu]] vikionyesha kuwa ina idadi ndogo sana ya [[seli nyeupe za damu]] ambazo ndizo zinazopambana na maambukizi. Kuna maradhi ambayo kwa kawaida ni ishara kwamba mtu ana UKIMWI kwa kuwa watu wenye afya njema hawapati magonjwa haya, kwa sababu mfumo wa kinga mwilini una nguvu ya kutosha ya kupigana na magonjwa hayo. Hivyo kupata ugonjwa wa aina hiyo ni ishara kwamba mfumo wa kinga umeharibika. Baadhi ya magonjwa hayo ni: * [[Sarkoma ya Kaposi]] - aina ya [[kansa]] ambayo kwa kawaida huathiri [[ngozi]] (mara nyingi husababisha vi[[donda]] vyekundu au [[zambarau]], au ma[[jeraha]] juu ya ngozi). Wakati mwingine huathiri tu ngozi, bali pia mifumo mingine katika mwili. * [[Retinitis]] - [[virusi]] zinashambulia nyuma ya [[jicho]]. * [[Pneumocystis carinii]] ([[kifupi]] PCP) - aina ya [[pneumonia]], [[magonjwa ya kuambukiza]] ya [[mapafu]]. PCP ni maambukizi ya kawaida kwa wagonjwa wa UKIMWI. * [[Toxoplasmosis]] - ugonjwa unaosababishwa na [[vimelea]], ambao unaweza kusababisha matatizo katika mifumo ya [[ubongo]] na mingine katika mwili. * [[Kansa ya kizazi]] - ambayo huwa inaenea.irusi vyenyewe=== [[File:HI-virion-structure en.svg|thumb|alt= Muundo wa duara ulio na miundo ya rangi ya waridi inayochipuka kutoka kwake, na michoro kadhaa ndani ya duara hii ikionyesha vipengele tofauti vya virusi |Mchoro unaoonyesha muundo wa virusi vya VVU]] VVU ndivyo kisababishi cha mkusanyiko wa magonjwa yanayojulikana kijumla kama VVU/UKIMWI. VVU ni [[retrovirusi]] ambavyo hasa huambukiza vipengele vya [[mfumo wa kingamwili]] ya binadamu kama vile seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP>T, [[makrofaji]] na [[seli za dendraiti]]. Virusi hivi huharibu seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP> T moja kwa moja au vinginevyo.<ref name=Alimonti/> VVU ni mshirika wa [[jenasi]] ya ''[[Lentivirus]]'',<ref name=ICTV61.0.6/> sehemu ya [[Familia (biolojia)|familia]] ya [[Retroviridae]].<ref name=ICTV61./> Virusi vyote vya lenti huwa na sifa sawa za [[mofolojia (bayolojia)|kimofolojia]] na [[biolojia]]. Spishi nyingi za [[mamalia]] huambukizwa na virusi vya lenti, ambavyo haswa huwa ndivyo visababishi vya maradhi ya muda mrefu yaliyo na [[kipindi cha kupevuka]] kirefu.<ref name=Levy/>Virusi vya lenti husambazwa kama [[virusi vya RNA]] chanya za uzi mmoja [[hisia]] zilizo ndani ya kigamba. Inapoingia ndani ya seli iliyolengwa, [[jenomu]] ya [[RNA]] ya virusi hugeuzwa (hubadilishwa kinakala) na kuwa [[DNA]] ya nyuzi mbili ambayo husafirishwa pamoja na jenomu ya virusi katika chembe ya virusi vile. DNA ya virusi inayoundika huingia katika kiini cha seli ambapo huchangamana na seli ya DNA kwa kutumia [[integresi]] iliyofasiliwa kama virusi, na pia vipengele husika vya kiini kikuu.<ref name="JASmith"/> Vinapochangamana na DNA ya seli, virusi hivi vinaweza kuingia katika [[kipindi cha kupevuka|awamu fiche]], hivyo kuwezesha virusi hivi pamoja na seli inayovipokea kuepuka kutambuliwa na mfumo wa kingamwili.<ref>{{cite book|last=Martínez|first=edited by Miguel Angel|title=RNA interference and viruses : current innovations and future trends|year=2010|publisher=Caister Academic Press|location=Norfolk|isbn=9781904455561|pages=73|url=</ref> Aina mbili [[Aina ndogo za VVU|za VVU]] zimetambulika: VVU-1 na VVU-2. VVU-1 ni virusi vilivyotambulika kwanza (na ambavyo mwanzoni vilijulikana pia kama LAV au HTLV-III). Virusi hivi vina [[sumu kali]], vyenye [[uambukizaji|kuambukiza]],<ref>{{cite journal | title=Comparison of HIV-1 and HIV-2 infectivity from a prospective cohort study in Senegal | last=Gilbert | first=PB |journal=Statistics in Medicine | date=28 February 2003| volume=22 |issue=4 | pages=573–593 | pmid=12590415 |doi=10.1002/sim.1342 | last2=McKeague | first2=IW | last3=Eisen | first3=G |last4=Mullins | first4=C | last5=Guéye-Ndiaye| first5=A | last6=Mboup | first6=S | last7=Kanki | first7=PJ |display-authors=1}}</ref> na ndivyo visababishi vikuu vya visa vingi vya maambukizi ya VVU kote ulimwenguni. Kiwango cha chini zaidi cha uambukizaji wa VVU-2 ikilinganishwa na VVU-1 huonyesha kuwa watu wachache zaidi walio katika hatari ya VVU-2 wataambukizwa kila wanapokumbana na virusi hivi. VVU-2 hupatikana zaidi [[Afrika Magharibi]] kwa sababu ya uwezo wake wa chini wa kuambukiza.<ref name="Reeves"/> [[File:HIV-budding-Color.jpg|thumb|alt= Kifaa kikubwa cha duara cha rangi ya buluu, na kifaa chekundu kilichounganishwa nacho. Vifaa vyote viwili vina madoa ya kijani yaliyotapakaa juu yake.|[[Darubini ya elektroni ya ukaguzi|Mikrografu ya elektroni ya ukaguzi]] wa VVU-1, vya rangi ya kijani, vinavyochipuka kutoka kwa [[limfositi]] iliyokaguliwa.]] Baada ya virusi kuingia mwilini, kuna kipindi cha [[kugawanyika kwa virusi]], hali inayopelekea wingi wa virusi katika damu ya pembeni. Katika kipindi cha kwanza cha maambukizi, kiwango cha VVU kinaweza kufika milioni kadhaa za chembe za virusi kwa kila [[mililita]] ya damu.<ref name=Piatak/> Mwitikio huu huandamana na kiwango kikubwa cha kushuka kwa idadi ya seli za CD4⁺ T zinazozunguka. [[Viremia]] kali mara nyingi huhusishwa na kuwezeshwa kwa [[seli za T angamizi|CD8⁺ seli za T]], ambazo huangamiza seli zilizoambukizwa VVU na kisha kuhusishwa na kuzalishwa kwa zindiko, au [[kuzalishwa kwa zindiko mpya]]. Mwitikio wa seli za CD8⁺ T huchukuliwa kuwa muhimu katika kudhibiti viwango vya virusi, ambavyo hupanda na kushuka, huku viwango vya seli za CD4⁺ T vikirejea. Mwitikio bora wa seli za CD8⁺ T umehusishwa na kupungua kwa mwendo wa ugonjwa na pia prognosi bora zaidi, ingawa mwitikio huu hauondoi virusi.<ref name=Pantaleo1998/> Pathofisiolojia ya UKIMWI ni tata.<ref name="pmid8040596"/> Mwishowe, VVU husababisha UKIMWI kwa kuharibu [[seli T saidizi|CD4⁺seli za T]]. Hali hii hudhoofisha mfumo wa kingamwili hivyo kuwezesha [[mambukizi vamizi]]. Seli za T ni muhimu kwa mwitikio wa kingamwili, hivyo bila ya seli hizi, mwili hauwezi kukabiliana na maambukizi wala kuharibu seli za saratani. Utendakazi wa kuharibiwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T hutofautiana katika awamu kali na za muda mrefu.<ref name="pmid16679064"/> Katika awamu kali, lisisi ya seli inayosababishwa na VVU, na pia kuangamizwa kwa [[seli za T angamizi]] huchangia katika kuharibiwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T, ingawa [[apoptosi]] pia inaweza kuchangia hali hii. Katika awamu ya muda mrefu, matokeo ya uwezeshaji wa kijumla wa kingamwili ukiandamana na udhaifu wa pole pole wa uwezo wa mfumo wa kingamwili kuzalisha seli mpya za T hukisiwa kuchangia kupungua kwa pole pole kwa idadi ya seli za CD4⁺ T. <ref>{{cite book|author=Arie J. Zuckerman et al. (eds)|title=Principles and practice of clinical virology|year=2007|publisher=Wiley|location=Hoboken, N.J.|isbn=978-0-470-51799-4|page=905|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=4il2mF7JG1sC&pg=PA905|edition=6th}}</ref> Ingawa dalili za udhaifu wa kingamwili kama ulivyo katika UKIMWI hazitokei kwa miaka mingi baada ya kuambukizwa, kiwango kikubwa cha kuharibika kwa seli za CD4⁺ T hutokea katika wiki za kwanza baada ya kuambukizwa, hasa katika ute wa utumbo, ambao huwa na kiwango kikubwa cha limfosaiti zote za mwili.<ref name="pmid15365095"/> Sababu ya kiwango hiki kikubwa cha kuharibiwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T ni kuwa kiwango kikubwa cha seli za ute za CD4⁺ T huzalisha protini ya [[CCR5]] inayotumika na VVU kama [[kipokezi kishiriki]] ili kuweza kufikia seli hizo, ilhali kipande kidogo tu cha seli za CD4⁺ T katika mkondo wa damu hufanya hivyo.<ref name="pmid15365096"/> VVU hutafuta na kuharibu CCR5 inayotolesha seli za CD4⁺ T katika awamu kali ya maambukizi. <ref name=Julio2011/> Mwitikio mkubwa wa kingamwili hatimaye huyadhibiti maambukizi hayo kisha kuanzisha awamu fiche ya kiutambuzi. Seli za CD4⁺ T katika tishu za ute husalia zikiwa zimeathiriwa sana. <ref name=Julio2011/> Ugawanyikaji endelevu wa VVU husababisha hali ya uwezeshaji wa kijumla wa kingamwili, ambao hudumu katika awamu yote ya muda mrefu.<ref name="pmid18161758"/> Uwezeshaji wa kingamwili, ambao hutambulika kwa ongezeko la uwezeshaji wa hali ya seli za kingamwili na kutoleshwa kwa [[saitokini]] inayosababisha inflemesheni, husababishwa na utendakazi wa [[zao la jeni]] na mwitikio wa kingamwili dhidi ya ugawanyikaji wa VVU unaoendelea. Uwezeshaji wa kingamwili pia huhusishwa na kuharibika kwa mfumo wa uchunguzi wa kingamwili wa kizuizi cha ute wa tumbo na utumbo, hali inayosababishwa na kuangamizwa kwa seli za CD4⁺ T za ute katika awamu kali ya ugonjwa huu.<ref name="pmid17115046"/> Hivyo si kila mtu aliye na VVU ana UKIMWI. Wakati watu wanapata VVU, wanaweza kuwa na [[afya]] kwa miaka mpaka akakutwa na aina maalumu ya magonjwa na vipimo vya [[damu]] vikionyesha kuwa ina idadi ndogo sana ya [[seli nyeupe za damu]] ambazo ndizo zinazopambana na maambukizi. Kuna maradhi ambayo kwa kawaida ni ishara kwamba mtu ana UKIMWI kwa kuwa watu wenye afya njema hawapati magonjwa haya, kwa sababu mfumo wa kinga mwilini una nguvu ya kutosha ya kupigana na magonjwa hayo. Hivyo kupata ugonjwa wa aina hiyo ni ishara kwamba mfumo wa kinga umeharibika. Baadhi ya magonjwa hayo ni: * [[Sarkoma ya Kaposi]] - aina ya [[kansa]] ambayo kwa kawaida huathiri [[ngozi]] (mara nyingi husababisha vi[[donda]] vyekundu au [[zambarau]], au ma[[jeraha]] juu ya ngozi). Wakati mwingine huathiri tu ngozi, bali pia mifumo mingine katika mwili. * [[Retinitis]] - [[virusi]] zinashambulia nyuma ya [[jicho]]. * [[Pneumocystis carinii]] ([[kifupi]] PCP) - aina ya [[pneumonia]], [[magonjwa ya kuambukiza]] ya [[mapafu]]. PCP ni maambukizi ya kawaida kwa wagonjwa wa UKIMWI. * [[Toxoplasmosis]] - ugonjwa unaosababishwa na [[vimelea]], ambao unaweza kusababisha matatizo katika mifumo ya [[ubongo]] na mingine katika mwili. * [[Kansa ya kizazi]] - ambayo huwa inaenea. == Lini na wapi VVU vilianza == UKIMWI huchukuliwa kama [[janga]] — yaani [[mlipuko wa ugonjwa]] katika eneo kubwa, na ambao ungali unaenea.<ref name=Kallings/> UKIMWI ulitambuliwa mara ya kwanza na Vituo vya Kuzuia na Kudhibiti Magonjwa huko Marekani mwaka [[1981]]<ref name=M169/>, ilhali kisababishi chake - VVU - kilitambuliwa mwanzoni mwa [[muongo]] huo nchini huko. <ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Gallo RC|title=A reflection on HIV/AIDS research after 25 years|journal= Retrovirology|volume=3|page=72|year=2006|pmid=17054781|doi=10.1186/1742-4690-3-72|url=http://www.retrovirology.com/content/3//72|pmc=1629027}}</ref> Matukio ya kwanza yalikuwa katika kikundi kidogo cha [[Uraibu|waraibu]] wa dawa za kudungia na [[wanaume]] [[shoga]] wasiokuwa na visababishi bayana vya udhaifu wa kingamwili na walioonyesha dalili za [[numonia]] ya ''[[Pneumocystis carinii]]'', maambukizi nyemelezi yanayotokea kwa nadra na maarufu katika watu wenye kingamwili dhaifu sana.<ref name=MMWR2>{{Rejea jarida| author=Gottlieb MS| title=Pneumocystis pneumonia—Los Angeles. 1981| journal=Am J Public Health| volume=96| issue=6| pages=980–1; discussion 982–3| year=2006| pmid=16714472| url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/june_5.htm| accessdate=March 31, 2009| pmc=1470612| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422042240/http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/june_5.htm| archivedate=2009-04-22| deadurl=no}}</ref> Punde baadaye, idadi isiyotarajiwa ya mashoga wakapata [[Sakoma ya Kaposi]] (SK), [[saratani ya ngozi]] iliyokuwa nadra sana hapo awali.<ref name="pmid7287964">{{cite journal|author=Friedman-Kien AE|title=Disseminated Kaposi's sarcoma syndrome in young homosexual men|journal=J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.|volume=5|issue=4|pages=468–71|year=1981|month=October|pmid=7287964|doi=10.1016/S0190-9622(81)80010-2|url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6116083">{{cite journal|author=Hymes KB|title=Kaposi's sarcoma in homosexual men-a report of eight cases|journal=Lancet|volume=2|issue=8247|pages=598–600|year=1981|month=September|pmid=6116083|doi=|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_1981-09-19_2_8247/page/598|author-separator=,|author2=Cheung T|author3=Greene JB|display-authors=3|last4=Prose|first4=NS|last5=Marcus|first5=A|last6=Ballard|first6=H|last7=William|first7=DC|last8=Laubenstein|first8=LJ}}</ref>Visa vingine vingi vya NPC na SK vilitokea huku vikitahadharisha Vituo vya Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa nchini Marekani, hivyo kikosi cha kiutendaji kikaundwa ili kuudhibiti mzuko huu.<ref name="Basavapathruni_2007">{{cite journal | title=Reverse transcription of the HIV-1 pandemic | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_faseb-journal_2007-12_21_14/page/3795 | last1=Basavapathruni |first1=A | last2=Anderson | first2=KS | journal=The FASEB Journal |year=2007 | month=December | volume=21 | issue=14 |pages=3795–3808 | doi=10.1096/fj.07-8697rev | pmid=17639073}}</ref> Katika siku za kwanza, kituo hicho hakikuwa na jina rasmi la ugonjwa huu, mara nyingi wakitumia majina ya magonjwa mengine yaliyohusishwa nao, kwa mfano, [[limfadenopathi]], jina ambalo baadaye wavumbuzi wa VVU waliviita virusi hivi.<ref name=MMWR1982a>{{Rejea jarida | author=Centers for Disease Control (CDC) |title=Persistent, generalized lymphadenopathy among homosexual males|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00001096.htm | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. | year=1982 |pages=249–251 | volume=31| issue=19 | pmid=6808340 | accessdate =August 31, 2011}}</ref><ref name=Barre>{{Rejea jarida|author=Barré-Sinoussi F | title=Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1983-05-20_220_4599/page/n103 | journal=Science | year=1983 | pages=868–871 | volume=220 | issue=4599 | pmid=6189183 |doi=10.1126/science.6189183 | bibcode=1983Sci...220..868B| author-separator=,| author2=Chermann JC| author3=Rey F|display-authors=3| last4=Nugeyre| first4=M.| last5=Chamaret| first5=S| last6=Gruest| first6=J| last7=Dauguet| first7=C|last8=Axler-Blin| first8=C| last9=Vezinet-Brun| first9=F }}</ref> Wavumbuzi pia walitumia “Sakoma ya Kaposi na Maambukizi nyemelezi”, jina lililokuwa la kikosi cha kiutendaji kilichoanzishwa mwaka wa 1981.<ref name=MMWR1982b>{{Rejea jarida | author=Centers for Disease Control (CDC) | title=Opportunistic infections and Kaposi's sarcoma among Haitians in the United States |url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00001123.htm | journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. | year=1982 |pages=353–354; 360–361 | volume=31 | issue=26 | pmid=6811853 | accessdate =August 31, 2011}}</ref> Wakati mmoja, Kituo cha Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa kiliunda msemo "ugonjwa wa 4H", kwani [[sindromu]] hii ilionekana kuwaathiri watu wa [[Haiti]], mashoga (homosexuals), wenye [[hemofilia]] na watumiaji wa [[heroini]].<ref name=SciRep470b>{{cite web| publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]| date=July 28, 2006| url=http://www.scienceonline.org/cgi/reprint/313/5786/470b.pdf| title=Making Headway Under Hellacious Circumstances| accessdate=June 23, 2008| format=PDF| archivedate=2008-06-24| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624235131/http://www.scienceonline.org/cgi/reprint/313/5786/470b.pdf| =https://web.archive.org/web/20080624235131/http://www.scienceonline.org/cgi/reprint/313/5786/470b.pdf}}</ref> Katika vyombo vikuu vya habari liliundwa neno "[[GRID]]" (lililosimamia "gay-related immune deficiency", yaani "ukosefu wa kinga uliohusishwa na mashoga".<ref name=Altman>{{Rejea habari |author=Altman LK |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/11/science/new-homosexual-disorder-worries-health-officials.html?scp=1&sq=New%20homosexual%20disorder%20worries%20officials&st=cse | title=New homosexual disorder worries health officials | work=The New York Times | date=May 11, 1982 | accessdate =August 31, 2011}}</ref> Hata hivyo, baada ya kutambua kuwa VVU havikuwaathiri jamii ya mashoga pekee,<ref name=MMWR1982b/> ilibainika kuwa neno GRID lilikuwa likipotosha, hivyo neno UKIMWI likaanzishwa kwenye mkutano mnamo Julai 1982.<ref name=Kher>{{Rejea habari| author=Kher U| title=A Name for the Plague| work=Time| date=July 27, 1982| url=http://www.time.com/time/80days/820727.html| accessdate=March 10, 2008| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307015307/http://www.time.com/time/80days/820727.html| archivedate=2008-03-07| deadurl=no}}</ref> Kufikia Septemba 1982, Kituo cha Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa kilianza kuuita UKIMWI.<ref name=MMWR1982c>{{Rejea jarida | author=Centers for Disease Control (CDC) | title=Update on acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)—United States| journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. | year=1982 | pages=507–508; 513–514 | volume=31 | issue=37 | pmid=6815471}}</ref> [[File:Robert Gallo.jpg|thumb|Alt=Mwanaume aliyevalia shati nyeupe na tai, huku akizingizirwa na wanawake watatu na vifaa vya maabara|Robert Gallo, mzinduzi mwenza wa VVU katika miaka ya kwanza ya 1980, akiwa pamoja na (kushoto kwenda kulia) Sandra Eva, Sandra Colombini, na Ersell Richardson.]] Mnamo 1983, vikundi viwili tofauti vya watafiti vilivyoongozwa na [[Robert Gallo]] na [[Luc Montagnier]] bila kutegemeana vilitangaza kuwa [[retrovirusi]] mpya ilikuwa ikiwaambukiza wagonjwa wa UKIMWI, hivyo wakachapisha matokeo yao katika [[jarida]] la ''[[Science (jarida)|Science]]''.<ref name=Gallo>{{cite journal | author=RC Gallo, PS Sarin, EP Gelmann, M Robert-Guroff, E Richardson, VS Kalyanaraman, D Mann, GD Sidhu, RE Stahl, S Zolla-Pazner, J Leibowitch, and M Popovic |journal=Science |title=Isolation of human T-cell leukemia virus in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1983-05-20_220_4599/page/865 |year=1983 | pages=865–867 | volume=220 | doi=10.1126/science.6601823 | pmid=6601823 | issue=4599|bibcode = 1983Sci...220..865G }}</ref><ref name=Montagnier >{{cite doi|10.1126/science.6189183}}</ref> Gallo alidai kuwa virusi vilivyokuwa vimetambuliwa kwa mara ya kwanza na kikundi chake kilikuwa sawa katika [[muundo wa virusi|umbo]] na [[virusi vya binadamu vya limfotrophia-T]]. Kikundi cha Gallo kiliviita virusi hivi HTLV-III. Wakati huohuo, kikundi cha Montagnier kilitambua virusi kutoka kwa mgonjwa aliyekuwa na [[uvimbe]] wa [[tezi za limfu]] kwenye [[shingo]] na [[asthenia|udhaifu wa mwili]] ambazo ni dalili mbili bainifu za UKIMWI. Huku wakikanusha ripoti ya kikundi cha Gallo, Montagnier na wenzake walionyesha kuwa viini vya [[protini]] vya virusi hivyo vilikuwa tofauti na HTLV-I kiukingamwili. Kikundi cha Montagnier kiliviita virusi walivyovitambua virusi vinavyohusishwa na limfadenopathi.<ref name="Basavapathruni_2007"/> Virusi hivi vilibainika kuwa sawa mwaka wa 1986 na kubadilishwa na kuitwa VVU.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aldrich|first=ed. by Robert|title=Who's who in gay and lesbian history.|year=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=9780415229746|pages=154|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=9KA7_1s6w-QC&pg=PA154|coauthors=Wotherspoon, Garry}}</ref> Leo [[wanasayansi]] wengi wanaamini VVU-1 na VVU-2 vimetokana na [[jamii ya sokwe]] huko [[Afrika Magharibi]] na [[Afrika ya Kati|ya Kati]] mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 19]] au mwanzoni mwa [[karne ya 20]], wakati virusi vya [[SIV]] kutoka kwa [[nyani]] au [[sokwe]] vilikwenda kwa binadamu.<ref name=Orgin2011>{{cite journal|last=Sharp|first=PM|coauthors=Hahn, BH|title=Origins of HIV and the AIDS Pandemic|journal=Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine|date=2011 Sep|volume=1|issue=1|pages=a006841|pmid=22229120|doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a006841|pmc=3234451}}</ref> VVU-1 vinaaminika kutoka kusini mwa [[Cameroon]] kupitia kugeuka kwa VSVU(cpz), (virusi vya sokwe vinavyosababisha ukosefu wa kinga mwilini) vinavyoambukiza sokwe wa mwituni (VVU-1 hutokana na mzuko wa magonjwa ya VSVUcpz katika [[nususpishi]] ya sokwe iitwayo ''[[Pan]] troglodytes troglodytes'').<ref name="pmid9989410">{{cite journal |author=Gao F |title=Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes |journal=Nature |volume=397 |issue=6718|pages=436–41 |year=1999 |month=February |pmid=9989410|doi=10.1038/17130 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_1999-02-04_397_6718/page/436|bibcode = 1999Natur.397..436G |author-separator=, |author2=Bailes E |author3=Robertson DL|display-authors=3 |last4=Chen|first4=Yalu |last5=Rodenburg |first5=Cynthia M. |last6=Michael |first6=Scott F.|last7=Cummins |first7=Larry B. |last8=Arthur |first8=Larry O. |last9=Peeters |first9=Martine }}</ref><ref name=Keele>{{cite journal | author=Keele, B. F., van Heuverswyn, F., Li, Y. Y., Bailes, E., Takehisa, J., Santiago, M. L., Bibollet-Ruche, F., Chen, Y., Wain, L. V., Liegois, F., Loul, S., Mpoudi Ngole, E., Bienvenue, Y., Delaporte, E., Brookfield, J. F. Y., Sharp, P. M., Shaw, G. M., Peeters, M., and Hahn, B. H. | title=Chimpanzee Reservoirs of Pandemic andNonpandemic HIV-1 | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-07-28_313_5786/page/523 | journal=Science | date=28 July 2006| volume=313 | issue=5786 | pages=523–6 | doi = 10.1126/science.1126531 | pmc=2442710 | pmid=16728595|bibcode = 2006Sci...313..523K }}</ref> Virusi vinavyohusiana kwa karibu na VVU-2 ni VSVU(smm) ambavyo ni virusi vya [[mangabi mwenye masizi]] (''Cercocebus atys atys''), [[tumbili]] wa kale anayeishi Afrika Magharibi (kutoka [[kusini]] mwa [[Senegali]] hadi [[magharibi]] mwa [[Côte d'Ivoire]]).<ref name="Reeves" /> [[Tumbili wa kisasa]] kama vile [[tumbili wa Usiku|tumbili bundi]] wana ukinzani wa maambukizi ya [[VVU-1]] kwa sababu ya [[uunganishaji jeni|uunganishaji]] wa [[jeni]] [[mbili]] zinazokinzana na virusi.<ref name=Goodier>{{cite journal | author=Goodier, J., and Kazazian, H. | title=Retrotransposons Revisited: The Restraint and Rehabilitation of Parasites | url=https://archive.org/details/cell_2008-10-03_135_1/page/23 | journal=Cell |year=2008 | pages=23–35 | volume=135 | issue=1 | doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2008.09.022 | pmid=18854152}}(subscription required)</ref> VVU-2 inadhaniwa kuruka kizuizi cha spishi katika angalau matukio matatu tofauti, hivyo kupelekea vikundi vitatu vya virusi hivi ambavyo ni M, N na O. <ref name=Kalish2005>{{cite journal |author=Kalish ML |title=Central African hunters exposed to simian immunodeficiency virus |journal=Emerg Infect Dis |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=1928–30 |year=2005 |pmid=16485481|doi=10.3201/eid1112.050394 |author-separator=, |author2=Wolfe ND |author3=Ndongmo CD |author4=McNicholl J|author5=Robbins KE |display-authors=5 |last6=Aidoo |first6=Michael |last7=Fonjungo |first7=Peter N. |last8=Alemnji|first8=George |last9=Zeh |first9=Clement |pmc=3367631}}</ref> Kuna ushahidi kuwa wanadamu wanaoshughulikia [[nyama za mwituni]] kwa kuwinda au kuziuza, kwa kawaida hupata VSVU.<ref name=Kalish2005/>Hata hivyo, virusi hivyo ni dhaifu na hukandamizwa na mfumo wa kingamwili baada ya wiki kadhaa za kuambukizwa. Inadhaniwa kuwa maambukizi kadhaa ya virusi hivyo kutoka kwa mtu hadi mwingine katika mfululizo wa haraka huhitajika ili vipate wakati unaotosha kubadilika na kuwa VVU.<ref name=Marx2001>{{cite journal |author=Marx PA, Alcabes PG, Drucker E |title=Serial human passage of simian immunodeficiency virus by unsterile injections and the emergence of epidemic human immunodeficiency virus in Africa |volume=356 |issue=1410 |pages=911–20 |year=2001 |pmid=11405938 |journal=Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci |pmc=1088484 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2001.0867 |url=http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/356/1410/911.full.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-09 |access-date=2020-03-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309105853/http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/356/1410/911.full.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Zaidi ya hayo, kwa sababu ya kiwango chake kidogo cha kuambukiza kutoka kwa mtu hadi mwingine, virusi hivyo vinaweza tu kuenea katika wingi wa watu iwapo kuna njia moja au mbili za hatari ya kuambukizana ya kiwango cha juu. Njia hizi zinadhaniwa kutokuwepo barani Afrika kabla ya karne ya 20. Njia maalumu za hatari kubwa ya maambukizi zinazoruhusu virusi hivi kubadilika ili kuweza kuishi katika wanadamu na kuenea katika jamii yote hutegemea wakati uliopendekezwa wa kuvuka kutoka kwa mnyama hadi mwanadamu. Tafiti za kijeni za virusi hivi zinadokeza kuwa chanzo cha hivi karibuni zaidi cha VVU-1 ya kikundi M kilitokea mnamo 1910. <ref name=Worobey2008>{{cite journal|last1=Worobey |first1=Michael |last2=Gemmel |first2=Marlea |last3=Teuwen |first3=Dirk E. |last4=Haselkorn|first4=Tamara |last5=Kunstman |first5=Kevin |last6=Bunce |first6=Michael |last7=Muyembe |first7=Jean-Jacques|last8=Kabongo |first8=Jean-Marie M. |last9=Kalengayi |first9=Raphaël M. |title=Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960 |journal=Nature |volume=455 |issue=7213 |pages=661–4 |year=2008 |pmid=18833279| doi=10.1038/nature07390|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v455/n7213/pdf/nature07390.pdf |bibcode = 2008Natur.455..661W }} (subscription required)</ref> Wanaotaja kipindi hicho maalumu huhusisha mzuko wa janga la VVU na kuibuka kwa [[ukoloni]] na ukuaji wa [[miji]] mikubwa ya kikoloni ya Afrika, huku ukisababisha mabadiliko ya jamii pamoja na kiwango kikubwa cha [[uasherati]], uenezi wa [[ukahaba]] na matukio mengi ya [[vidonda vya viungo vya uzazi]] (kama vile [[kaswende]]) katika miji iliyochipuka.<ref name=Sousa2010>{{cite journal |last1=Sousa |first1=João Dinis de|last2=Müller |first2=Viktor |last3=Lemey |first3=Philippe |last4=Vandamme |first4=Anne-Mieke |last5=Vandamme|first5=Anne-Mieke |title=High GUD Incidence in the Early 20th Century Created a Particularly Permissive Time Window for the Origin and Initial Spread of Epidemic HIV Strains |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=e9936 |year=2010|pmid=20376191 |pmc=2848574|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0009936|url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0009936|editor1-last=Martin |editor1-first=Darren P.}}</ref> Ingawa viwango vya uambukizaji wakati wa ngono ya kupitia [[uke]] viko chini katika hali ya kawaida, kuna ongezeko kubwa iwapo mmoja wa wapenzi hao ana [[ugonjwa wa zinaa]] unaosababisha vidonda vya [[viungo vya uzazi]]. Miji ya kikoloni ya [[Miaka ya 1900|miaka ya kwanza ya 1900]] ilijulikana kwa maambukizi ya viwango vya juu kutokana na ukahaba na [[vidonda vya viungo vya uzazi]], hivi kwamba, kufikia mwaka [[1928]], 45% ya [[wanawake]] wakazi wa mashariki mwa [[Kinshasa]] walidhaniwa kuwa makahaba. Kufikia mwaka [[1933]], takriban 15% ya wakazi wote wa mji huo walikuwa wameambukizwa aina mojawapo ya kaswende.<ref name=Sousa2010 /> Maoni mengine yanadokeza kuwa hatua zisizo salama za [[uuguzi]] barani Afrika katika miaka ya baada ya [[Vita vya pili vya dunia]], kama vile kutumia tena na tena [[sindano]] zisizosafishwa kuchanja [[umati]], [[antibayotiki]] na kampeni dhidi ya [[malaria]] ndizo njia za kwanza zilizoruhusu virusi hivyo kujibadilisha vikiwa ndani ya wanadamu kisha kuenea.<ref name=Marx2001 /><ref name=Chitnis2000>{{cite journal |last1=Chitnis |first1=Amit |last2=Rawls |first2=Diana |last3=Moore |first3=Jim|title=Origin of HIV Type 1 in Colonial French Equatorial Africa? |journal=AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses|volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=5–8 |year=2000 |pmid=10628811 |doi=10.1089/088922200309548}}(subscription required)</ref><ref name=McNeil>{{cite news |author=[[Donald G. McNeil, Jr.]] |coauthors= |title=Precursor to H.I.V. Was in Monkeys for Millennia |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/17/health/17aids.html?_r=1&src=me&ref=general|quote=Dr. Marx believes that the crucial event was the introduction into Africa of millions of inexpensive, mass-produced syringes in the 1950s.&nbsp;... suspect that the growth of colonial cities is to blame. Before 1910, no Central African town had more than 10,000 people. But urban migration rose, increasing sexual contacts and leading to red-light districts.|work=[[New York Times]] |date=September 16, 2010 |accessdate=2010-09-17 }}</ref> Visa vilivyonakiliwa vyema vya VVU katika mwanadamu ni vya mwaka [[1959]] katika eneo la nchi ya [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo|Kongo]].<ref name=Zhu>{{cite journal|author=Zhu, T., Korber, B. T., Nahmias, A. J., Hooper, E., Sharp, P. M. and Ho, D. D.|title=An African HIV-1 Sequence from 1959 and Implications for the Origin of the epidemic|journal=Nature|year=1998|pages=594–7|volume=391|issue=6667|pmid=9468138|doi=10.1038/35400|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v391/n6667/full/391594a0.html|bibcode = 1998Natur.391..594Z }}</ref> Kuna uwezekano kuwa virusi hivyo vilikuwemo huko Marekani mwaka [[1966]],<ref>{{cite news | last = Kolata | first = Gina |title = Boy's 1969 Death Suggests AIDS Invaded U.S. Several Times | publisher = The New York Times | date = 28 October 1987 | url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFD6173AF93BA15753C1A961948260&sec=health&pagewanted=all | accessdate = 11 February 2009}}</ref>lakini maambukizi mengi yanayotokea nje ya [[Kusini kwa Sahara]] yanaweza kufuatiliwa hadi kwa mtu mmoja aliyeambukizwa na VVU katika nchi ya [[Haiti]] na kisha kuyapeleka maambukizi hayo nchini Marekani takriban mwaka [[1969]].<ref name="Thomas_Gilbert">{{cite journal |last1=Gilbert |first1=M. Thomas P. |last2=Rambaut |first2=Andrew |last3=Wlasiuk |first3=Gabriela |last4=Spira |first4=Thomas J. |last5=Pitchenik |first5=Arthur E. |last6=Worobey |first6=Michael |title=The emergence of HIV/AIDS in the Americas and beyond |journal=PNAS |date=November 20, 2007 |volume=104 |issue=47 |pages=18566–18570 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18566.full.pdf |format=PDF |doi=10.1073/pnas.0705329104 |pmid=17978186 |pmc=2141817 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10418566G |access-date=2020-03-28 |archive-date=2015-09-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924144548/http://www.pnas.org/content/104/47/18566.full.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Janga hili kisha lilienea kwa haraka katika vikundi vilivyo katika hatari kubwa ya kuambukizwa (mwanzoni ilikuwa ni wanaume waliofanya ngono na wanaume). Kufikia mwaka [[1978]], maambukizi ya VVU-1 katika mashoga wenyeji wa [[New York]] na [[San Francisco]] yalikadiriwa kuwa 5%, kuonyesha kuwa maelfu ya watu nchini Marekani tayari walikuwa wameambukizwa.<ref name="Thomas_Gilbert" /> ==Uambukizaji== VVU husambaa hasa kupitia njia tatu kuu: [[ngono]] (ikiwa ni pamoja na [[ulawiti]] na hata [[ngono ya mdomoni]]), kuingiliana na viowevu vya mwili vilivyoambukizwa (hasa [[kuongezewa damu]] au kudungwa [[sindano]]) na [[usambazaji wima|kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto]] wakati wa [[ujauzito]], kuzaa au kunyonyesha<ref name=TransmissionM2007>{{cite book|last=Markowitz|first=edited by William N. Rom ; associate editor, Steven B.|title=Environmental and occupational medicine|year=2007|publisher=Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-6299-1|page=745|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=H4Sv9XY296oC&pg=PA745|edition=4th}}</ref>Baadhi ya [[viowevu vya mwili]], kama vile [[mate]] na [[machozi]], havisambazi VVU.<ref name=CDCtransmission>{{cite web|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]|year=2003|url=http://www.cdc.gov/HIV/pubs/facts/transmission.htm|title=HIV and Its Transmission|accessdate=May 23, 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050204141148/http://www.cdc.gov/HIV/pubs/facts/transmission.htm|archivedate=2005-02-04}}</ref> === Kupitia ngono === Kufanya [[ngono zembe]] kumepelekea visa vingi zaidi vya maambukizi ya VVU kote ulimwenguni, huku mwingiliano baina ya watu wa [[jinsia]] tofauti ukichangia visa zaidi ya mwingiliano wa mashoga kote ulimwenguni (kwa sababu mashoga ni wachache zaidi).<ref name=TransmissionM2007/> Hata hivyo, mtindo wa usambazaji hutofautiana pakubwa baina ya mataifa mbalimbali. Nchini Marekani, visa vingi zaidi vya usambazaji wa kingono vilitokea katika [[wanaume]] wanaofanya ngono na wanaume (kwa sababu huko ushoga umeenea zaidi)<ref name=TransmissionM2007/>huku idadi hii ikichangia 64% ya visa vyote vipya.<ref name=TransmissionCDC2012>{{cite web|title=HIV in the United States: An Overview|url=http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/factsheets/us_overview.htm|work=Center for Disease Control and Prevention|date=March 2012}}</ref> Kuhusu ngono zembe baina ya watu wa jinsia tofauti, makadirio ya hatari ya kusambazwa kwa VVU kwa kila kitendo cha ngono yanaonekana kuwa zaidi kwa mara 10 katika mataifa yasiyostawi kuliko mataifa yaliyostawi.<ref name=Boily2009/>Katika mataifa yasiyostawi, hatari ya usambazaji wa mwanamke hadi mwanamume imekadiriwa kuwa 0.38% kwa kila kitendo, huku usambazaji wa mwanamume hadi mwanamke ukiwa 0.30%; makadirio mbadala katika mataifa yaliyostawi ni 0.04% kwa kila kitendo katika usambazaji wa mwanamke hadi mwanamume, na 0.08% kwa kila kitendo katika maambukizi ya mwanamume hadi mwanamke.<ref name=Boily2009/> Hatari ya kuambukizwa kutokana na ngono ya kinyeo (ulawiti) iko juu sana, ikikadiriwa kuwa 1.4{{ndash}}1.7% kwa kila kitendo (katika ngono ya watu wa jinsia moja na tofauti pia).<ref name=Boily2009/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Beyrer|first=C|coauthors=Baral, SD; van Griensven, F; Goodreau, SM; Chariyalertsak, S; Wirtz, AL; Brookmeyer, R|title=Global epidemiology of HIV infection in men who have sex with men.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_july-28-august-3-2012_380_9839/page/367|journal=Lancet|date=2012 Jul 28|volume=380|issue=9839|pages=367-77|pmid=22819660}}</ref> Ingawa hatari ya kuambukizwa kupitia [[ngono ya mdomoni]] iko chini, bado ipo. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Yu|first=M|coauthors=Vajdy, M|title=Mucosal HIV transmission and vaccination strategies through oral compared with vaginal and rectal routes|journal=Expert opinion on biological therapy|date=2010 Aug|volume=10|issue=8|pages=1181–95|pmid=20624114|doi=10.1517/14712598.2010.496776|pmc=2904634}}</ref>Hatari ya kila kitendo imekadiriwa kuwa 0{{ndash}}0.04% kwa ngono pokezi ya mdomoni.<ref name=Dosekun2010>{{cite journal|last=Dosekun|first=O|coauthors=Fox, J|title=An overview of the relative risks of different sexual behaviours on HIV transmission|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|date=2010 Jul|volume=5|issue=4|pages=291–7|pmid=20543603|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32833a88a3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Stürchler|first=Dieter A.|title=Exposure a guide to sources of infections|year=2006|publisher=ASM Press|location=Washington, DC|isbn=9781555813765|pages=544|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=MWa5or3Xa9EC&pg=PA544}}</ref> kwa kuwa visa vichache vimeripotiwa.<ref>{{cite book|last=al.]|first=edited by Richard Pattman ... [et|title=Oxford handbook of genitourinary medicine, HIV, and sexual health|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780199571666|pages=95|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=Jm1H4EeULmYC&pg=PA95|edition=2nd ed.}}</ref> Katika miktadha inayohusisha [[ukahaba]] kote ulimwenguni, hatari ya maambukizi ya mwanamke hadi mwanamume imekadiriwa kuwa 2.4% kwa kila kitendo, huku maambukizi ya mwanamume kwa mwanamke yakiwa 0.08% kwa kila kitendo.<ref name=Boily2009>{{cite journal|author=Boily MC, Baggaley RF, Wang L, Masse B, White RG, Hayes RJ, Alary M |title=Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies|journal=The Lancet Infectious Diseases|volume=9|issue=2|pages=118–129|year=2009|month=February|pmid=19179227|doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70021-0}}</ref> Hatari ya kuambukizwa huongezeka katika wingi wa [[magonjwa ya zinaa]]<ref name=CochraneSTI2012>{{cite journal|last=Ng|first=BE|coauthors=Butler, LM; Horvath, T; Rutherford, GW|title=Population-based biomedical sexually transmitted infection control interventions for reducing HIV infection|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2011-03-16|issue=3|pages=CD001220|pmid=21412869|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001220.pub3|editor1-last=Butler|editor1-first=Lisa M}}</ref> na [[vidonda vya uzazi]].<ref name=Boily2009/>Vidonda vya sehemu za uzazi vimekisiwa kuongeza hatari hadi mara tano. <ref name=Boily2009/> Maambukizi mengine ya zinaa, kama vile [[kisonono]], [[klamidia]], [[trikomoniasi]], [[vaginosi ya kibakteria]], huhusishwa na aghalabu ongezeko dogo la hatari ya kuambukizwa.<ref name=Dosekun2010/> [[Wingi wa virusi]] kwa mtu aliyeambukizwa ni suala kuu la hatari katika usambazaji wa kingono na pia wa kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Anderson|first=J|title=Women and HIV: motherhood and more|journal=Current opinion in infectious diseases|date=2012 Feb|volume=25|issue=1|pages=58–65|pmid=22156896|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e32834ef514}}</ref> Katika miezi 2.5 ya kwanza baada ya kuambukizwa VVU, uwezo wa mtu kuambukiza ni mara 12 zaidi kwa sababu ya wingi wa virusi. <ref name=Dosekun2010/> Iwapo mtu yuko katika awamu za mwisho za VVU, viwango vya kuambukizana ni takriban mara 8 zaidi.<ref name=Boily2009/> [[Usadomasoki|Ngono shari]] inaweza kuwa suala linalochangia ongezeko la hatari ya kuambukizwa. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Klimas|first=N|coauthors=Koneru, AO; Fletcher, MA|title=Overview of HIV|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_psychosomatic-medicine_2008-06_70_5/page/523|journal=Psychosomatic Medicine|date=2008 Jun|volume=70|issue=5|pages=523–30|pmid=18541903|doi=10.1097/PSY.0b013e31817ae69f}}</ref> [[Ubakaji]] pia unaaminika kuongezeka hatari ya kusambaza VVU kwa sababu ni nadra [[kondomu]] kutumika, huwa na uwezekano wa kujeruhiwa ukeni au kinyeo, na pia kuna uwezekano wa magonjwa ya zinaa yanayoambatana na VVU. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Draughon|first=JE|coauthors=Sheridan, DJ|title=Nonoccupational post exposure prophylaxis following sexual assault in industrialized low-HIV-prevalence countries: a review|journal=Psychology, health & medicine|year=2012|volume=17|issue=2|pages=235–54|pmid=22372741|doi=10.1080/13548506.2011.579984}}</ref> ===Viowevu vya mwili === [[File:AIDS Poster If You're Dabbling in Drugs 1989.jpg|thumb|alt=Bango la rangi nyeusi na jipya la kijana wa Kiafrika akiwa na taulo kwenye mkono wa kushoto iliyo na maneno "Kucheza na madawa ni kucheza na maisha" juu yake|Bango la mwaka 1989 likisisitiza tishio la UKIMWI unaohusiana na kutumia madawa ya kulevya.]] Njia ya pili maarufu zaidi ya usambazaji wa VVU ni kupitia kwa [[damu]] na mazao yake.<ref name=TransmissionM2007/> Usambazaji wa kupitia damu unaweza kuwa kupitia sindano inayotumiwa na watu wengi wanapoongezwa viowevu mwilini, majeraha ya sindano, kuongezwa damu chafu au mazao ya damu, au kudungwa kwa vifaa visivyotakaswa. Hatari inayotokana na kutumia sindano baina ya watu wengi wakati wa [[kudungwa dawa]] ni kati ya 0.63-2.4% kwa kila kitendo, wastani wake ukiwa 0.8%<ref name=Risk2006>{{cite journal|last=Baggaley|first=RF|coauthors=Boily, MC; White, RG; Alary, M|title=Risk of HIV-1 transmission for parenteral exposure and blood transfusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=AIDS (London, England)|date=2006-04-04|volume=20|issue=6|pages=805–12|pmid=16549963|doi=10.1097/01.aids.0000218543.46963.6d}}</ref> Hatari ya kuambukizwa VVU kwa sindano iliyotumiwa na mtu aliyeambukizwa VVU hukadiriwa kuwa 0.3% (takriban mara 1 kwa 133) kwa kila kitendo, ilhali hatari inayofuatia [[tando za ute]] kuingiliana na damu iliyoambukizwa ni 0.09% (takriban 1 kwa 1000) kwa kila kitendo.<ref name=AFP2007>{{cite journal|last=Kripke|first=C|title=Antiretroviral prophylaxis for occupational exposure to HIV|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2007-08-01_76_3/page/375|journal=American family physician|date=2007-08-01|volume=76|issue=3|pages=375–6|pmid=17708137}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, watu wanaodungwa dawa ndani ya [[misuli]] walichangia 12% ya visa vyote vipya vya VVU mwaka wa 2009, <ref name=TransmissionCDC2012/> huku 80% ya watu katika sehemu fulani wanaodungwa dawa wakiwa wameambukizwa VVU. <ref name=TransmissionM2007/> [[Kuongezewa damu]] iliyoambukizwa huchangia maambukizi kwa takriban 93% ya visa vyote.<ref name=Risk2006/>Katika mataifa yaliyostawi, hatari ya kuambukizwa VVU kutokana na kuongezewa damu iko chini sana (chini ya 1 kwa 500,000) ambapo viwango vya juu vya kuchagua mtu atakayetoa damu na pia upimaji VVU hufanywa.<ref name=TransmissionM2007/> Kule Uingereza, hatari iliyoripotiwa ni 1 kwa milioni 5.<ref>{{cite web|title=Will I need a blood transfusion?|work=NHS patient information|year=2011|url=http://hospital.blood.co.uk/library/pdf/2011_Will_I_Need_English_v3.pdf|publisher=National Health Services|accessdate=August 29, 2012}}</ref> Hata hivyo, katika mataifa yenye mapato ya chini, [[nusu]] tu ya damu inayoongezwa huwa imepimwa vyema (kufikia mwaka wa 2008). <ref name=UN2011Seventy>UNAIDS 2011 pg. 60–70</ref>Inakadiriwa kuwa hadi 15% ya maambukizi ya VVU katika maeneo hayo hutokana na kuongeza damu au mazao ya damu yaliyoambukizwa, hii ikiwa ni asilimia 5 - 10 ya maambukizi ya ulimwengu mzima. <ref name=TransmissionM2007/><ref name=WHO070401>{{cite web |publisher=[[World Health Organization|WHO]] |year=2001 |url=http://www.who.int/inf-pr-2000/en/pr2000-25.html |title=Blood safety&nbsp;... for too few |accessdate=January 17, 2006 |archivedate=2005-01-17 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050117092135/http://www.who.int/inf-pr-2000/en/pr2000-25.html }}</ref> Sindano za tiba zisizo salama huchangia pakubwa katika kueneza UKIMWI katika eneo la Kusini kwa Sahara. Mnamo 2007, kati ya 12% na 17% ya maambukizi katika eneo hilo yalichangiwa na matumizi ya sindano hizo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reid|first=SR|title=Injection drug use, unsafe medical injections, and HIV in Africa: a systematic review|journal=Harm reduction journal|date=2009-08-28|volume=6|page=24|pmid=19715601|doi=10.1186/1477-7517-6-24|pmc=2741434}}</ref> [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]] linakadiria hatari ya kuambukizwa kupitia sindano hizo barani Afrika kuwa 1.2%. Hatari kuu huhusishwa na taratibu vamizi, kusaidiwa kuzaa na utunzaji wa [[meno]] katika sehemu hii ya dunia. Watu wanaochanja au kuchanjwa [[chale]], [[chale za mwili]] na [[kutia kovu]] hudhaniwa kuwa katika hatari ya kuambukizwa, ingawa hakuna visa vilivyothibitishwa ambavyo vimenakiliwa.<ref name=CDCBasics2012>{{cite web|title=Basic Information about HIV and AIDS|url=http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/basic/|work=Center for Disease Control and Prevention|date=April 2012}}</ref> Haiwezekani [[mbu]] au wadudu wengine kusambaza VVU. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/%7Einsects/aids.htm|title=Why Mosquitoes Cannot Transmit AIDS [HIV virus&#93;|publisher=Rci.rutgers.edu|date=|accessdate=2010-07-28|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329183346/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/aids.htm|archivedate=2014-03-29|=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329183346/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~insects/aids.htm}}</ref> Mtu anaweza pia kupata VVU kwa kuchanga [[sindano]] na wenzake. Hii ina maana ya kutumia sindano ambayo haijawahi kusafishwa baada ya mtu mwingine kuitumia. Baadhi ya watu ambao, kinyume cha [[sheria]], huchukua madawa ya kulevya kama [[heroin]] na [[cocaine]] huchukua dawa hizo kwa sindano. Baadhi yao wanachanga sindano moja. Kama mmojawao ana virusi ya UKIMWI na anashirikisha sindano yake, anaweza kuambukiza HIV kwa watu wengine. === Mama hadi mtoto === VVU vinaweza kusambazwa kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto wakati wa ujauzito, kuzaa au kunyonyesha.<ref name=Mother2010/><ref name="fluids of transmission">{{cite web|url=http://www.aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/prevention/reduce-your-risk/fluids-of-transmission/|title=Fluids of transmission|date=1 November 2011|work=AIDS.gov|publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services|accessdate=14 September 2012|archivedate=2013-04-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403053447/http://aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/prevention/reduce-your-risk/fluids-of-transmission/}}</ref> Njia hii ni ya tatu kwa umaarufu wa kusambaza VVU kote duniani.<ref name=TransmissionM2007/> Bila matibabu, hatari ya kusambazwa wakati wa au baada ya kuzaliwa ni takriban 20%, na 35% kwa watoto wanaonyonya.<ref name=Mother2010/>Kufikia mwaka wa 2008, usambazaji wima ulichangia takriban 90% ya visa vya VVU katika watoto.<ref name=Mother2010/> Hatari ya kusambazwa kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto inaweza kupunguzwa hadi 1% kwa kutumia matibabu mwafaka.<ref name=Mother2010/> Matibabu ya kukinga hujumuisha mama kutumia dawa za kudhibiti virusi wakati wa ujauzito na kuzaa, kuchagua [[kuzaa kwa kupasuliwa]], kutonyonyesha na kumpa mtoto dawa za kudhibiti VVU.<ref name=MTC2007>{{cite journal|last=Thorne|first=C|coauthors=Newell, ML|title=HIV|journal=Seminars in fetal & neonatal medicine|date=2007 Jun|volume=12|issue=3|pages=174–81|pmid=17321814|doi=10.1016/j.siny.2007.01.009}}</ref>Hata hivyo, idadi kubwa ya mbinu hizi hazipatikani katika mataifa yanayostawi.<ref name=MTC2007/> Iwapo damu itachafua [[chakula]] wakati wa mtoto kutafuna, itaongeza hatari ya kuambukiza.<ref name=CDCBasics2012/> ==Dalili== Mwanzoni, baada ya kuambukizwa, mtu anaweza kukumbwa na kipindi kifupi cha [[maradhi]] ya aina ya [[mafua]]. Kwa kawaida, hali hii hufuatwa na kipindi kirefu kisicho na [[dalili]]. Ugonjwa huu huendelea kutatiza [[kingamwili]] jinsi unavyozidi, hivyo kumfanya mtu kuwa katika hatari zaidi ya kupata [[maambukizi]], ikiwa ni pamoja na [[maambukizi nyemelezi]], na [[kansa]] ambayo kwa kawaida hayawaathiri watu walio na kingamwili njema. Kuna awamu tatu kuu za maambukizi ya VVU: maambukizi makali, awamu fiche na UKIMWI.<ref name=M121>Mandell, Bennett, and Dolan (2010). Chapter 121.</ref><ref name=AIDS2010GOV>{{cite web|title=Stages of HIV|url=http://aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/diagnosed-with-hiv-aids/hiv-in-your-body/stages-of-hiv/|work=U.S. Department of Health & Human Services|accessdate=13 June 2012|date=Dec 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513062533/http://www.aids.gov/hiv-aids-basics/diagnosed-with-hiv-aids/hiv-in-your-body/stages-of-hiv/|archivedate=2012-05-13}}</ref> === Maambukizi makali === [[File:Symptoms of acute HIV infection.svg|thumb|alt=Mchoro wa kiwiliwili cha binadamu kinachoonyesha dalili zinazotokea mara nyingi za maambukizi makali ya VVU|275px|Dalili kuu za maambukizi makali ya VVU]] Kipindi cha kwanza kufuatia maambukizi ya VVU huitwa VVU vikali, VVU vya kimsingi au dalili kali za kudhibiti virusi. <ref name=M121/><ref name=WHOCase2007/> Watu wengi hupata [[maradhi ya mfano wa mafua]] au [[mononyukleosi ambukizi|maambukizi ya mfano wa mononukleosi]] wiki 2 - 4 baada ya kuambukizwa ilhali wengine hawana dalili zozote kuu.<ref>{{cite book|title=Diseases and disorders.|year=2008|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|location=Tarrytown, NY|isbn=978-0-7614-7771-6|page=25|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=-HRJOElZch8C&pg=PA25}}</ref><ref name=M118/>Dalili hutokea katika asilimia 40-90 ya visa vyote na mara nyingi hujumuisha [[homa]], [[limfadenopathia|tezi kubwa na chungu za limfu]], [[faringitisi|inflamesheni ya koo]], [[upele]], maumivu ya kichwa, na/au vidonda vya kinywa na sehemu za uzazi.<ref name=WHOCase2007/><ref name=M118/>Upele huu, unaotokea katika asilimia 20 - 50 ya visa, hutokea katika kiwiliwili, na kwa kawaida huwa wa [[makiulopapula]].<ref name=Deut2010/> Baadhi ya watu pia hupata [[maambukizi nyemelezi]] katika awamu hii.<ref name=WHOCase2007/>Dalili za tumboni na utumboni kama vile kichefuchefu, kutapika au [[kuharisha]] zinaweza kutokea, sawa na dalili za kinuroni za [[niuropathia ya pembeni]] au [[sindromu ya Guillain-Barre]].<ref name=M118/> Muda ya dalili hutofautiana, ingawa kwa kawaida huwa wiki 1 - 2.<ref name=M118/> Kufuatia sifa zake za kutokuwa dalili maalum, hizi mara nyingi haziwezi kutambulika kama dalili za maambukizi ya VVU. Hata visa vinavyotambuliwa na [[daktari]] wa [[familia]] au katika [[hospitali]] mara nyingi hutambulika vibaya kama baadhi ya visababishi vingi vya [[magonjwa ambukizi]] yaliyo na dalili zinazoingiliana. Kwa hivyo, inapendekezwa kuchunguza VVU katika watu wanaoonyesha homa isiyoelezeka ambao wanaweza kuwa na vipengele hatari vya kuambukizwa.<ref name=M118>Mandell, Bennett, and Dolan (2010). Chapter 118.</ref> === Awamu fiche === Dalili za kwanza hufuatwa na awamu fiche (VVU visivyo na dalili au VVU vya muda mrefu).<ref name=AIDS2010GOV/>Bila ya matibabu, awamu hii ya pili ya historia asilia ya maambukizi ya VVU inaweza kudumu kutoka miaka 3 <ref>{{cite book|last=Evian|first=Clive|title=Primary HIV/AIDS care: a practical guide for primary health care personnel in a clinical and supportive setting|year=2006|publisher=Jacana|location=Houghton [South Africa]|isbn=978-1-77009-198-6|page=29|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=WauaC7M0yGcC&pg=PA29|edition=Updated 4th}}</ref> hadi zaidi ya miaka 20;<ref>{{cite book|first=J. W. A. J. Reeders; P. C. Goodman (ed.). With contributions by J. Bedford|title=Radiology of AIDS|year=2001|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin [u.a.]|isbn=978-3-540-66510-6|page=19|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=xmFBtyPGOQIC&pg=PA19}}</ref> (wastani wa miaka 8).<ref>{{cite book|last=Elliott|first=Tom|title=Lecture Notes: Medical Microbiology and Infection|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-37226-5|page=273|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=M4q3AyDQIUYC&pg=PA273}}</ref>Ingawa kwa kawaida mwanzoni kuna dalili chache, au hata zisiwemo, karibu mwishoni mwa awamu hii, watu wengi hupatwa na homa, kukonda, matatizo ya tumbo na utumbo, na maumivu ya misuli. <ref name=AIDS2010GOV/>Kati ya asilimia 50 na 70 ya wagonjwa pia hupata [[limfadenopathia]] ya mwili wote inayorejea, ambayo hudhihirika kwa uvimbe usio na kisababishi na usio chungu wa zaidi ya kikundi kimoja cha tezi za [[limfu]] (ila katika sehemu za uzazi) kwa zaidi ya miezi 3 hadi 6.<ref name=M121/> Ingawa watu wengi walioambukizwa [[VVU-1]] wana kiwango cha virusi kinachoweza kutambulika, na ambacho bila matibabu kitaendelea na kuwa UKIMWI, idadi ndogo (5%) huwa na kiwango kikubwa cha seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP>([[seli saidizi za T]]) bila [[Udhibiti wa VVU/UKIMWI|matibabu ya kudhibiti virusi]] kwa zaidi ya miaka 5. <ref name=M118/><ref name=LT2010/>Watu hao huainishwa kama wadhibiti wa VVU au watu wasioendeleza kwa muda mrefu, ilhali wale ambao pia hudumisha kiwango cha chini au kisichotambulika cha virusi bila matibabu hujulikana kama "wadhibiti hodari" au "wagandamizaji hodari" <ref name=LT2010>{{cite journal|last=Blankson|first=JN|title=Control of HIV-1 replication in elite suppressors|journal=Discovery medicine|date=2010 Mar|volume=9|issue=46|pages=261–6|pmid=20350494}}</ref>. === Ukosefu wa Kinga Mwilini=== [[File:Symptoms of AIDS.svg|thumb|275px|alt=Mchoro wa kiwiliwili cha binadamu kinachoonyesha dalili zinazotokea mara nyingi za maambukizi makali ya UKIMWI|Dalili kuu za maambukizi makali ya UKIMWI.]] Ukosefu wa Kinga Mwilini (UKIMWI) hufasiliwa kwa msingi wa kiwango cha seli za CD4 <SUP>+</SUP> cha chini ya seli 200 kwa kila µL au kutokea kwa magonjwa maalumu yanayohusiana na maambukizi ya VVU. <ref name=M118/> Bila matibabu maalum, takriban nusu ya watu walioambukizwa VVU hupata UKIMWI katika muda wa miaka 10.<ref name=M118/>Hali zinazotokea mara nyingi zaidi kudhihirisha uwepo wa UKIMWI ni [[numonia ya numosistisi]] (40%), [[kakeksi]] kwa muundo wa dalili dhoofishi za VVU (20%) na [[kandidiasi ya umio]].<ref name=M118/>Dalili nyingine ni pamoja na maambukizi ya [[njia ya pumzi]]<ref name=M118/>. [[Maambukizi nyemelezi]] yanaweza kusababishwa na [[bakteria]], [[virusi]], [[kuvu]] na [[vimelea]] ambavyo kwa kawaida hudhibitiwa na mfumo wa kingamwili.<ref name=Holmes>{{Rejea jarida|author=Holmes CB, Losina E, Walensky RP, Yazdanpanah Y, Freedberg KA|title= Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_clinical-infectious-diseases_2003-03-01_36_5/page/656|journal=Clin. Infect. Dis.|year=2003|pages=656–662|volume=36|issue=5|pmid=12594648|doi=10.1086/367655}}</ref>Maambukizi yanayotokea hutegemea, kwa upande mmoja, aina ya [[viumbehai]] vinavyopatikana kwa wingi katika [[mazingira]] ya mtu.<ref name=M118/>Maambukizi hayo yanaweza kudhuru karibu kila [[mfumo wa kibayolojia|mfumo wa viungo]].<ref name=Complications2011>{{cite journal|last=Chu|first=C|coauthors=Selwyn, PA|title=Complications of HIV infection: a systems-based approach|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-family-physician_2011-02-15_83_4/page/395|journal=American family physician|date=2011-02-15|volume=83|issue=4|pages=395–406|pmid=21322514}}</ref> Watu walio na UKIMWI wako katika hatari kuu zaidi ya kupata saratani nyingi zinazosababishwa na virusi, kama vile: [[Sakoma ya Kaposi]], [[limfoma ya Burkitt]], [[limfoma ya mfumo mkuu wa neva]] na [[saratani ya seviksi]].<ref name=Deut2010/>Sakoma ya Kaposi ndiyo saratani inayotokea mara nyingi, yaani katika asilimia 10 hadi 20 ya watu wenye VVU.<ref name=M169>Mandell, Bennett, and Dolan (2010). Chapter 118.</ref>Saratani inayoifuata ni limfoma, ambayo imesababisha vifo vya karibu 16% ya watu wanaoishi na UKIMWI, na ndiyo dalili ya kwanza ya UKIMWI katika asilimia 3 - 4 ya watu.<ref name=M169/>Saratani hizi mbili huhusishwa na [[virusi vya hepesi]] ya binadamu aina ya 8.<ref name=M169/>Saratani ya seviksi hutokea mara nyingi zaidi katika watu walio na UKIMWI kwa sababu ya jinsi inavyohusiana na [[virusi vya papiloma ya binadamu]].<ref name=M169/> Isitoshe, watu hao mara nyingi huwa na dalili za kimfumo, kama vile homa ya muda mrefu, [[jasho la usiku|jasho]] (hasa usiku), tezi za limfu zilizofura, ubaridi, udhaifu na [[kupoteza uzito]].<ref>{{cite web|title=AIDS|url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000594.htm|work=MedlinePlus|publisher=A.D.A.M.|accessdate=14 June 2012}}</ref>Kuharisha ni dalili nyingine inayotokea katika takriban 90% ya watu wenye UKIMWI.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sestak K |title=Chronic diarrhea and AIDS: insights into studies with non-human primates |journal=Curr. HIV Res. |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=199–205 |year=2005 |month=July |pmid=16022653 |doi= 10.2174/1570162054368084|url=}}</ref> ==Utambuzi== [[File:Hiv-timecourse.png|thumb|alt=Grafu iliyo na mistari miwili. Mstari wa buluu unapanda kuelekea kulia kisha kushuka kuelekea kushoto huku ukipanda kidogo katikati. Mstari wa pili mwekundu unapanda kutoka sufuri hadi juu sana, kisha kushuka hadi chini halafu kupanda pole pole hadi juu tena |300px| Grafu ya ujumla ya uhusiano wa nakala za VVU (wingi wa virusi) na viwango vya seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP> T katika wastani wa kipindi cha maambukizi yasiyotibiwa ya VVU.{{legend-line|blue solid 2px|CD4⁺ T Lymphocyte count (cells/mm³)}} {{legend-line|red solid 2px|HIV RNA copies per mL of plasma}}]] VVU hutambuliwa kupitia uchunguzi wa kimaabara kisha kuainishwa kiawamu kwa msingi wa uwepo wa dalili au ishara fulani.<ref name=WHOCase2007/> Watu walio katika hatari kubwa ya kuambukizwa hupendekezwa kupimwa VVU, ikiwa ni pamoja na mtu yeyote aliye na ugonjwa wa zinaa<ref name=Deut2010/> Katika maeneo mengi ya ulimwengu, 1/3 ya watu wenye VVU hutambua kuwa wameambukizwa katika awamu za mwishoni mwa ugonjwa huu wakati UKIMWI au ukosefu mkuu wa kingamwili umekuwa wazi.<ref name=Deut2010/> === Uchunguzi wa VVU === Watu wengi walioambukizwa VVU huzalisha [[zindiko]] maalum (yaani [[uzalishaji zindiko mpya|kuzalisha zindiko mpya]]) katika wiki 3 hadi 12 tangu maambukizi ya kwanza. <ref name=M118/> Utambuzi wa VVU vya kimsingi hufanywa kabla ya kuzalishwa kwa zindiko mpya kwa kupima [[RNA]] ya VVU au [[antijeni ya P24 #vipimo vya antijeni|antijeni ya p24]].<ref name=M118/> Matokeo chanya yanayopatikana kwa kupima [[msururu wa athari za polima|MAP]] au zindiko huthibitishwa kwa zindiko au MAP tofauti.<ref name=WHOCase2007/> Vipimo vya zindiko kwa watoto wa umri wa chini ya miezi 18&nbsp; kwa kawaida huwa kasoro kwa sababu ya uwepo endelevu wa [[Kingamwili Kimya ya Mama#Kingamwili kimya iliyopokezwa kiasilia|zindiko za mama]].<ref name=ChildDiag2010>{{cite journal|last=Kellerman|first=S|coauthors=Essajee, S|title=HIV testing for children in resource-limited settings: what are we waiting for?|journal=PLoS medicine|date=2010 Jul 20|volume=7|issue=7|pages=e1000285|pmid=20652012|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1000285|pmc=2907270}}</ref> Kwa hivyo, maambukizi yanaweza kutambulika tu kwa vipimo vya MAP vya VVU, RNA au DNA, au kupitia kupima uwepo wa antijeni ya p24.<ref name=WHOCase2007/>Sehemu kubwa ya ulimwengu haina uwezo wa kupata vipimo bora vya MAP huku watu wa sehemu nyingi wakisubiri hadi dalili za watoto wao kuendelea au watoto hao kukua hadi kuwa na uwezo wa kupimwa kikamilifu.<ref name=ChildDiag2010/> Kufikia mwaka wa 2007-2009 katika eneo la Kusini mwa Jangwa la Sahara, kati ya asilimia 30-70 ya watu walikuwa wakifahamu hali yao ya VVU.<ref name=UN2011Eighty>UNAIDS 2011 pg. 70–80</ref> Mnamo mwaka wa 2009, kati ya asilimia 4-42 ya watu hawa walipimwa. <ref name=UN2011Eighty/> Takwimu hizi zinaonyesha ongezeko kubwa kutoka miaka ya awali.<ref name=UN2011Eighty/> ===Uainishaji wa maambukizi ya VVU=== Mifumo miwili mikuu ya uainishaji hutumika kuainisha VVU na magonjwa husika kwa ajili ya [[uchunguzi wa magonjwa|uchunguzi]]: mfumo wa uainishaji wa magonjwa wa [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]],<ref name=WHOCase2007/> na [[mfumo wa VKM]] wa uainishaji wa maambukizi ya VVU.<ref name=CDCCase2008/> The [[Vituo vya Kukinga na Kudhibiti Magonjwa|VKM]] hutumika zaidi katika mataifa yaliyostawi. Kwa vile mfumo wa uainishaji wa SAD hauhitaji vipimo vya mahabara, mfumo huu ni mwafaka kwa mataifa yanayostawi ambayo kwa kawaida yana upungufu wa vifaa, ambapo unaweza pia kutumika kuongoza udhibiti wa kimatibabu. Ingawa mifumo hii miwili ni tofauti, yote huwezesha ulinganishaji kwa ajili ya malengo ya kitakwimu.<ref name=M121/><ref name=WHOCase2007/><ref name=CDCCase2008/> Shirika la Afya Duniani lilipendekeza ufasili wa UKIMWI mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1986.<ref name=WHOCase2007/> Tangu hapo, ufasili wa Shirika hili umedurusiwa na kurefushwa mara kadhaa, toleo la hivi karibuni likiwa la mwaka wa 2007. <ref name=WHOCase2007>{{cite book|title=WHO case definitions of HIV for surveillance and revised clinical staging and immunological classification of HIV-related disease in adults and children.|pages=6–16|url=http://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/HIVstaging150307.pdf|format=PDF|year=2007|publisher=World Health Organization|location=Geneva|isbn=978-92-4-159562-9}}</ref> Mfumo wa SAD hutumia vikundi vifuatavyo: * Maambukizi ya kimsingi ya VVU: Yanaweza kuwa bila dalili au yakihusishwa na sindromu kali ya retrovirusi. <ref name=WHOCase2007/> * Awamu ya I: Maambikizi ya VVU huwa [[bila dalili]] yakiwa na kiwango cha seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP> T (ambacho pia huitwa kiwango cha CD4) cha zaidi ya 500/uL.<ref name=WHOCase2007/> Maambukizi haya yanaweza kujumuisha kuvimba kwa tezi za mwili wote.<ref name=WHOCase2007/> * Awamu ya II: Dalili ndogo zinaweza kuhusisha kiwango cha chini cha kudhihirika kwa [[tando za ute|za tando za ute]] na maambukizi yanayorejea ya [[sehemu ya juu ya njia ya pumzi]]. Kiwango cha seli za CD4 cha chini ya 500/uL..<ref name=WHOCase2007/> *Awamu ya III: Dalili kuu zinazoweza kujumuisha hali ya [[kuharisha]][[ya muda mrefu (kimatibabu)|ya muda mrefu]] isiyo na kisababishi maalum kwa zaidi ya mwezi mmoja, maambukizi makali ya bakteria ikiwa ni pamoja na tiibii ya mapafu na pia kiwango cha seli za CD4 cha chini ya 350/uL. <ref name=WHOCase2007/> *Awamu ya IV ya UKIMWI: dalili kali zinazojumuisha [[toksoplasmosi]] ya ubongo, [[ukungu]] wa [[umio]], [[Vetebra ya trakea|trakea]], [[bronkasi| bronkasi]] au [[mapafu]] na [[sakoma ya Kaposi]]. Kiwango cha seli za CD4 cha chini ya 500/uL..<ref name=WHOCase2007/> Kituo cha Kukinga na Kudhibiti Magonjwa cha Marekani pia kilianzisha mfumo wa uainishaji wa VVU, kilichoudurusu mwaka wa 2008.<ref name=CDCCase2008>{{cite journal|last=Schneider|first=E|coauthors=Whitmore, S; Glynn, KM; Dominguez, K; Mitsch, A; McKenna, MT; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (CDC)|title=Revised surveillance case definitions for HIV infection among adults, adolescents, and children aged <18 months and for HIV infection and AIDS among children aged 18 months to <13 years--United States, 2008|journal=MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports / Centers for Disease Control|date=2008-12-05|volume=57|issue=RR–10|pages=1–12|pmid=19052530}}</ref> Katika mfumo huu, maambukizi ya VVU yameainishwa kulingana na kiwango cha CD4 na dalili za kiutambuzi, <ref name=CDCCase2008/> nayo hueleza maambukizi kwa awamu tatu: *Awamu ya 1: Kiwango cha CD4 cha seli ≥ 500&nbsp;/uL na hakuna hali zinazoashiria UKIMWI *Awamu ya 2: Kiwango cha seli za CD4 200 hadi 500&nbsp;/uL na hakuna hali zinazoashiria UKIMWI *Awamu ya 3: Kiwango cha seli za CD4≤ 200&nbsp;cells/uL au hali zinazoashiria UKIMWI. *Tashwishi: iwapo habari iliyopo haitoshi kufanya uainishaji uliopo juu Kwa sababu za kiuchunguzi, utambuzi wa UKIMWI hubakia iwapo baada ya matibabu kiwango cha seli za CD4<SUP>+</SUP> T kitapanda zaidi ya 200 kwa kila µL ya damu au iwapo maradhi mengine yanayoashiria UKIMWI yataponywa.<ref name="M121"/> == Matibabu == Hakuna tiba au [[chanjo dhidi ya VVU|chanjo]]; hata hivyo, matibabu ya kudhibiti [[virusi]] yanaweza kupunguza mwendo wa ugonjwa huu na huenda yakapelekea [[urefu]] wa [[maisha]] kuwa karibu na kawaida. Ingawa [[matibabu]] ya kupunguza makali hupunguza hatari ya kifo na matatizo yanayotokana na ugonjwa huu, matibabu haya ni ya bei ghali, hivyo yanaweza kuhusishwa na madhara mbadala. Kuna dawa za kusaidia watu wenye UKIMWI. Hizi zinaitwa ''dawa za kurefusha maisha''. Dawa za kurefusha maisha haziwezi kutibu UKIMWI. Hii ina maana kwamba haziwezi kufanya virusi vyote kuondoka mwili wa mtu. Lakini zinaweza kuwasaidia watu kupambana na virusi vya UKIMWI kwa mifumo yao ya kinga kufanya kazi vizuri zaidi. Hivyo dawa za kurefusha maisha si tiba kabili kwa virusi ya UKIMWI. Watu wenye VVU/UKIMWI ambao huchukua dawa za kurefusha maisha wanaweza kuishi muda mrefu, bila kupata maradhi yanayothibitisha UKIMWI. Lakini baada ya muda mrefu, virusi za HIV zisizouawa na dawa hizo hujifunza jinsi ya kupambana nazo na hivyo zinakuwa ''sugu'' kwa dawa hizo. Wakati mwingine VVU ni sugu kwa dawa moja, lakini dawa nyingine inaweza kutumika. Ili kupunguza uwezekano wa upinzani kutokea, watu wenye UKIMWI huchukua dawa zaidi ya moja kwa wakati mmoja. Wanaweza kuchukua madawa 2-4 kwa mara moja. Hii wakati mwingine inaitwa ''cocktail'' ya UKIMWI. Lakini baada ya muda mrefu, VVU kujifunza kuwa sugu kwa dawa nyingi. Hapo hakuna zaidi ya kuwatibu. Hivyo [[wanasayansi]] kuendelea kujaribu kupata dawa mpya ya kupambana na VVU. Dawa [[tano]] muhimu za wenye VVU ni: * D4T (stavudine) * 3TC (Lamivudine) * NVP (nevirapine) * AZT (zidovudine) * EFZ (efavirenz) Bila dawa hizo, kwa kawaida mtu mwenye VVU anaweza akaishi miaka 9-11. Utafiti wa kuboresha matibabu ya kisasa unajumuisha kupunguza madhara ya ziada ya dawa zilizopo, kurahisisha kanuni za kutumia dawa na kuboresha ubora na kuamua utaratibu bora wa kanuni ili kudhibiti ukinzani wa dawa. Hata hivyo, chanjo pekee ndiyo inayodhaniwa kuweza kusitisha janga hili. Hii ni kwa sababu chanjo ni ya bei nafuu, hivyo [[Taifa linalostawi|mataifa yanayostawi]] yanaweza kuimudu, na haitahitaji matibabu ya kila siku.<ref name=Ferrantelli>{{cite journal|author=Ferrantelli F, Cafaro A, Ensoli B |title=Nonstructural HIV proteins as targets for prophylactic or therapeutic vaccine|journal=Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=543–56|year=2004|month=December|pmid=15560981 |doi=10.1016/j.copbio.2004.10.008}}</ref> Hata hivyo, baada ya miaka 20 ya utafiti, imekuwa vigumu kupata chanjo dhidi ya VVU-1,<ref name=Ferrantelli/><ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Karlsson Hedestam GB, Fouchier RA, Phogat S, Burton DR, Sodroski J, Wyatt RT |title=The challenges of eliciting neutralizing antibodies to HIV-1 and to influenza virus |journal=Nat. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=143–55 |year=2008|month=February |pmid=18197170 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro1819}}</ref> hivyo tiba bado haijapatikana. === Upandikizaji seli kuu=== Mwaka wa 2007, Timothy Ray Brown,<ref name=ghivberlin>{{cite news|title=German HIV patient cured after stem cell transplant|url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/german-hiv-patient-cured-after-stem-cell-transplant-15030473.html|accessdate=December 15, 2010|newspaper=[[Belfast Telegraph]]|date=December 15, 2010}}</ref> mwanaume wa umri wa miaka 40 aliyekuwa na VVU, pia anayejulikana kama "the Berlin Patient" alipewa huduma ya [[upandikizaji seli kuu za damu|pandikizo la seli kuu]] kama mojawapo ya matibabu ya [[lukemia sugu ya mieloidi]] (LSM).<ref name = Blood>{{cite journal|last=Allers|first=K|coauthors=Hütter, G; Hofmann, J; Loddenkemper, C; Rieger, K; Thiel, E; Schneider, T|title=Evidence for the cure of HIV infection by CCR5Δ32/Δ32 stem cell transplantation|journal=Blood|date=2011-03-10|volume=117|issue=10|pages=2791–9|pmid=21148083|doi=10.1182/blood-2010-09-309591}}</ref>Pandikizo la pili lilifanyika mwaka uliofuata baada ya kuugua tena. Mfadhili alichanguliwa sio tu kwa kuwa ana [[antijeni ya leukositi ya binadamu|upatanifu wa kijeni]] lakini pia kwa kuwa alikuwa na [[utangamano]] wa kubadilika kwa [[CCR5-Δ32]] ambayo huwezesha ukinzani dhidi ya maambukizi ya VVU.<ref name="Wall Street Journal 2008">{{cite news | author=Mark Schoofs | title=A Doctor, a Mutation and a Potential Cure for AIDS | url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122602394113507555.html | accessdate=2008-11-09|publisher=The Wall Street Journal| date=November 7, 2008}}</ref><ref name=Huetter2009>{{cite journal |author=Hütter G, Nowak D, Mossner M, Ganepola S, Ganepola A, Allers K, Schneider T, Hofmann J, Kücherer C, Blau O, Blau IW, Hofmann WK, Thiel E |title=Long-Term Control of HIV by CCR5 Delta32/Delta32 Stem-Cell Transplantation |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=360 |issue=7 |pages=692–698 |year=2009 |pmid=19213682 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa0802905 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/360/7/692 |accessdate=2009-03-31 |archive-date=2009-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213112056/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/360/7/692 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Baada ya miezi 20 bila matibabu ya dawa za kudhibiti VVU, iliripotiwa kuwa viwango vya VVU kwenye damu ya Brown [[uboho]] na matumbo vilikuwa chini ya kiwango cha kutambulika.<ref name=Huetter2009/>Virusi hivi vilibakia katika kiwango hicho kwa miaka mitatu baada ya upandikizo wa kwanza.<ref name=Blood/>Ingawa watafiti na baadhi ya wachambuzi wanasema kuwa matokeo haya ni tiba, wengine wao wanadokeza kuwa virusi hivi vinaweza kuwa vimejificha ndani ya tishu<ref name=NEJMLevy/>kama vile ubongo (unaotumika kama [[ufiche wa virusi|hifadhi]]).<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nath|first=A|coauthors=Clements, JE|title=Eradication of HIV from the brain: reasons for pause|journal=AIDS (London, England)|date=2011-03-13|volume=25|issue=5|pages=577–80|pmid=21160414|doi=10.1097/QAD.0b013e3283437d2f}}(subscription required)</ref> Matibabu ya seli kuu yamebakia chini ya [[utafiti wa kiafya |kuchunguzwa]] kwa sababu ya asili yake ya [[ushahidi wa kinadharia|kinadharia]], ugonjwa wenywe na hatari ya kufa inayohusishwa na upandikizaji wa seli kuu na ugumu wa kupata wafadhili mwafaka.<ref name=NEJMLevy>{{cite journal |author=Levy JA |title=Not an HIV Cure, but Encouraging New Directions |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=360 |issue=7 |pages=724–725 |year=2009 |doi=10.1056/NEJMe0810248 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/360/7/724 |accessdate=2009-03-31 |pmid=19213687 |archive-date=2009-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215235206/http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/360/7/724 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite pmid|21331536}}(subscription required)</ref> === Matibabu ya kuboresha kingamwili === Matibabu saidizi za kudhibiti uigaji wa virusi, [[matibabu ya kingamwili,|matibabu ya kingamwili]] zinazoweza kusaidia kuboresha mfumo wa kingamwili zilizochunguzwa awali, na juhudi zinazoendelea ni pamoja na [[Interleukin-2|IL-2]] na [[Interleukin-7|IL-7]].<ref name="Tincati-2009">{{cite journal|last=Tincati|first=C|coauthors=d'Arminio Monforte, A; Marchetti, G|title=Immunological mechanisms of interleukin-2 (IL-2) treatment in HIV/AIDS disease|journal=Current molecular pharmacology|date=2009 Jan|volume=2|issue=1|pages=40–5|pmid=20021444|doi=10.2174/1874467210902010040}}</ref> Kutofaulu kwa chanjo kadhaa kukinga dhidi ya maambukizi ya VVU na kuendelea kwa UKIMWI kumepelekea mwelekeo mpya wa kuzingatia taratibu za kibayolojia zinazosababisha ufiche wa VVU. Kipindi kifupi cha matibabu ya kuunganisha dawa za kudhibiti VVU na dawa zinazolenga hifadhi fiche siku moja kinaweza kutokomeza maambukizi ya VVU.<ref name =Bowman>{{cite journal | author=Bowman MC, Archin NM, Margolis DM. | title=Pharmaceutical approaches to eradication of persistent HIV infection | journal=Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine |year=2009| volume=11 | issue=e6 | pmid=19208267 |doi=10.1017/S1462399409000970 | pages=e6 }}</ref>Watafiti wamegundua [[abusaimu]] inayoweza kuharibu eneo la kufungia protini ya [[gp120]] CD4. Protini hii hupatikana katika aina zote za VVU kwa sababu ndiyo ncha ambapo [[seli za B|limfosaiti za B]] hujishikisha kisha kuafikiana kwa mfumo wa kingamwili.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Planque S, Nishiyama Y, Taguchi H, Salas M, Hanson C, Paul S |title=Catalytic antibodies to HIV: Physiological role and potential clinical utility |journal=Autoimmun Rev |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=473–9 |year=2008 |month=June|pmid=18558365|doi=10.1016/j.autrev.2008.04.002 |url= |pmc=2527403}}</ref> == Njia za kujikinga na UKIMWI == [[Picha: Red Ribbon.svg|thumb|haki|Utepe mwekundu, ishara ya mapambano dhidi ya UKIMWI.]] [[File:AIDS Clinic, McLeod Ganj, 2010.jpg|thumb|alt=Onyesho la jumba la ghorofa mbili lililo na mabango kadhaa yanayohusiana na kuzuia UKIMWI |Matibabu ya UKIMWI, [[McLeod Ganj]], Himachel Pradesh, India, 2010]] Kuna njia nyingi za watu kupambana na [[janga]] hilo. Kuzuia maambukizi ya VVU, hasa kupitia [[kondomu]] na miradi ya kubadilishabadilisha sindano, ni mikakati mikuu inayotumika kudhibiti kuenea kwa ugonjwa huu. Lakini wengine wanahoji kwamba bila kubadili tabia, [[teknolojia]] peke yake haitaweza kushinda ugonjwa huo<ref>https://c-fam.org/friday_fax/global-south-revolts-against-western-sexual-agenda-at-world-health-assembly/?inf_contact_key=48abd2d5d654a153dbafe6d92d8d5d08842e902fbefb79ab9abae13bfcb46658</ref>. === Chanjo === Njia bora ya kuzuia VVU ni wazo la kuwa na [[chanjo]]. Wanasayansi wengi wanatafuta [[chanjo ya VVU]] ili kuokoa [[uhai]] wa mamilioni ya watu, lakini kufikia mwaka [[2012]], hakuna chanjo mwafaka dhidi ya VVU/UKIMWI.<ref>{{cite news|title=The quest for an HIV vaccine|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2012/may/20120518vaccinesday/|date=May 18, 2012|author=UNAIDS|accessdate=2020-03-28|archivedate=2012-05-24|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524051113/http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2012/may/20120518vaccinesday/}}</ref>Jaribio moja la chanjo ya [[RV 144]] iliyotolewa mwaka 2009 lilipelekea kupunguza hatari ya kuambukiza kwa takriban 30%, hivyo kuchochea matarajio ya jamii ya utafiti ya kutengeneza chanjo mwafaka zaidi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Reynell|first=L|coauthors=Trkola, A|title=HIV vaccines: an attainable goal?|journal=Swiss medical weekly|date=2012-03-02|volume=142|pages=w13535|pmid=22389197|doi=10.4414/smw.2012.13535}}</ref> Majaribio zaidi ya chanjo ya RV 144 yanaendelea.<ref>{{cite web| author = U.S. Army Office of the Surgeon General| title = HIV Vaccine Trial in Thai Adults| publisher = ClinicalTrials.gov| date = March 21, 2011| accessdate = June 28, 2011| url =http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00223080}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author = U.S. Army Office of the Surgeon General|title = Follow up of Thai Adult Volunteers With Breakthrough HIV Infection After Participation in a Preventive HIV Vaccine Trial| publisher = ClinicalTrials.gov| date = June 2, 2010| url =http://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00337181}}</ref> ===Kondomu=== Vitendo vya kijinsia ni njia kuu ya kupata VVU. Kama watu wanatumia [[kondomu]] wanapofanya mapenzi, kuna nafasi ndogo zaidi ya kuambukizana VVU, lakini [[ukweli]] kamili ni kwamba hakuna [[ngono salama]] kwa hakika. Matumizi ya [[kondomu]] ya kila mara hupunguza hatari ya kuambukizana UKIMWI kwa takriban 80% katika muda mrefu wa usoni.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Crosby|first=R|coauthors=Bounse, S|title=Condom effectiveness: where are we now?|journal=Sexual health|date=2012 Mar|volume=9|issue=1|pages=10–7|pmid=22348628|doi=10.1071/SH11036}}</ref> Iwapo mwenzi mmoja ameambukizwa, kutumia kondomu kila mara hupelekea viwango vya chini ya 1% kwa mwaka vya huyo mwingine kuambukizwa.<ref name=WHOCondoms>{{cite web| publisher=[[World Health Organization|WHO]]| month=August |year=2003|url=http://www.wpro.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs_200308_Condoms/en/index.html | title=Condom Facts and Figures|accessdate=January 17, 2006 }}</ref> Kuna ushahidi mdogo unaoonyesha kuwa [[kondomu za wanawake]] una kiwango sawa cha kinga.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gallo|first=MF|coauthors=Kilbourne-Brook, M; Coffey, PS|title=A review of the effectiveness and acceptability of the female condom for dual protection|journal=Sexual health|date=2012 Mar|volume=9|issue=1|pages=18–26|pmid=22348629|doi=10.1071/SH11037}}</ref> ===Dawa za ukeni=== Kutumia mafuta ya ukeni yanaliyo na [[tenofovir]] muda mfupi kabla ya ngono hukisiwa kupunguza viwango vya maambukizi kwa takriban 40% miongoni mwa wanawake wa Kiafrika.<ref name=VagGel2012>{{cite journal|last=Celum|first=C|coauthors=Baeten, JM|title=Tenofovir-based pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: evolving evidence|journal=Current opinion in infectious diseases|date=2012 Feb|volume=25|issue=1|pages=51–7|pmid=22156901|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e32834ef5ef|pmc=3266126}}</ref> Kinyume na hili, matumizi ya [[spemisidi]] [[nonoxynol-9]] yanaweza kuongeza hatari ya kuambukizwa kwa sababu ya uwezo wake wa kuleta mwasho wa uke na [[rektamu]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baptista|first=M|coauthors=Ramalho-Santos, J|title=Spermicides, microbicides and antiviral agents: recent advances in the development of novel multi-functional compounds|journal=Mini reviews in medicinal chemistry|date=2009-11-01|volume=9|issue=13|pages=1556–67|pmid=20205637|doi=10.2174/138955709790361548}}</ref> ===Tohara=== [[Tohara]] katika eneo la [[Kusini kwa Sahara]] "hupunguza uambukizaji wa VVU katika wanaume wanaohusiana na wanawake kimapenzi kwa kati ya 38% na 66% kwa muda wa miezi 24". <ref>{{cite journal|last=Siegfried|first=N|coauthors=Muller, M; Deeks, JJ; Volmink, J|title=Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2009-04-15|issue=2|pages=CD003362|pmid=19370585|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003362.pub2|editor1-last=Siegfried|editor1-first=Nandi}}</ref> Kwa msingi wa tafiti hizi, mashirika ya SAD na UNAIDS yalipendekeza tohara kama mbinu ya kuzuia uambukizaji VVU kutoka kwa mwanamke hadi mwanamume mwaka 2007.<ref>{{cite web |title=WHO and UNAIDS announce recommendations from expert consultation on male circumcision for HIV prevention |publisher=World Health Organization |date=Mar 28, 2007 |url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2007/pr10/en/index.html |accessdate=2020-03-28 |archivedate=2011-07-03 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110703140439/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2007/pr10/en/index.html }}</ref> Haijabainika wazi iwapo njia hii huzuia uambukizaji kutoka kwa mwanamume hadi mwanamke<ref>{{cite journal|last=Larke|first=N|title=Male circumcision, HIV and sexually transmitted infections: a review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-nursing_2010-05-27_19_10/page/n11|journal=British journal of nursing (Mark Allen Publishing)|date=2010 May 27 – Jun 9|volume=19|issue=10|pages=629–34|pmid=20622758}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Eaton|first=L|coauthors=Kalichman, SC|title=Behavioral aspects of male circumcision for the prevention of HIV infection|journal=Current HIV/AIDS reports|date=2009 Nov|volume=6|issue=4|pages=187–93|pmid=19849961|doi=10.1007/s11904-009-0025-9}}(subscription required)</ref> na iwapo mbinu hii ina manufaa katika [[mataifa yaliyostawi]] na haijabainika miongoni mwa mashoga.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kim|first=HH|coauthors=Li, PS, Goldstein, M|title=Male circumcision: Africa and beyond?|journal=Current opinion in urology|date=2010 Nov|volume=20|issue=6|pages=515–9|pmid=20844437|doi=10.1097/MOU.0b013e32833f1b21}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Templeton|first=DJ|coauthors=Millett, GA, Grulich, AE|title=Male circumcision to reduce the risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men|journal=Current opinion in infectious diseases|date=2010 Feb|volume=23|issue=1|pages=45–52|pmid=19935420|doi=10.1097/QCO.0b013e328334e54d}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida | last1 = Wiysonge | first1 = CS. | last2 = Kongnyuy | first2 = EJ. | last3 = Shey | first3 = M. | last4 = Muula | first4 = AS.|last5 = Navti | first5 = OB. | last6 = Akl | first6 = EA. | last7 = Lo | first7 = YR. | title = Male circumcision for prevention of homosexual acquisition of HIV in men | journal = Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume = | issue = 6 | pages = CD007496 | month = | year = 2011 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD007496.pub2 | pmid = 21678366 | editor1-last = Wiysonge |editor1-first = Charles Shey }}</ref> Baadhi ya wataalamu wanahofia kuwa dhana ya kiwango cha chini cha hatari miongoni mwa wanaume waliotahiriwa inaweza kupelekea mienendo hatari zaidi, hivyo wanapinga faida ya mbinu hii katika kukinga.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Eaton LA, Kalichman S |title=Risk compensation in HIV prevention: implications for vaccines, microbicides, and other biomedical HIV prevention technologies |journal=Curr HIV/AIDS Rep |volume=4 |issue=4|pages=165–72 |year=2007|month=December|pmid=18366947|pmc=2937204 |doi=10.1007/s11904-007-0024-7}}</ref> Wanawake waliofanyiwa [[ukeketaji]] wana hatari zaidi ya kuambukizwa.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Utz-Billing I, Kentenich H|title=Female genital mutilation: an injury, physical and mental harm |journal=J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol|volume=29|issue=4 |pages=225–9|year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19065392 |doi=10.1080/01674820802547087 |url=}}</ref> ===Mawaidha na elimu=== Njia muhimu ya kuzuia VVU/UKIMWI ni [[elimu]] kwa kuwa hiyo inawezesha kuelewa maana ya [[jinsia]] na kukwepa sababu za maambukizi yake. Ni kwamba watu wanaweza kupata VVU kutokana na [[ngono]] na kutokana na [[damu]]. Watoto wanaweza pia kupata VVU kutoka kwa [[mama]] zao (wakati wa kukua ndani ya akina mama wajawazito na wakati wa kunyonya [[maziwa]] ya mama.) Kuna baadhi ya watu ambao hawataki watu wajue kuhusu kondomu na sindano safi, au hawataki wawe na kondomu au sindano safi. Hao wanaamini kuwa watu wakijua kuhusu kondomu na kuwa na kondomu watafanya ngono zaidi na hivyo kuzidisha maambukizi badala ya kuyapunguza kwa sababu kinga hiyo si madhubuti. Vilevile wanaamini kuwa watu wakiwa na sindano safi watatumia dawa za kulevya zaidi. Wengi wa wanaodhani hivyo ni pia kwa sababu ya [[dini]] zao kukataza [[uzinifu]] na [[ulevi]] kama tabia zinazoharibu binadamu binafsi na jamii kwa jumla. Hao huhimiza [[upendo]] na [[uaminifu]] katika [[ndoa]], [[usafi wa moyo]] na utunzaji wa afya. Miradi inayohimiza [[kujinyima ngono]] haijatambulika inaathiri vipi hatari ya kupata VVU.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Underhill K, Operario D, Montgomery P |title= Abstinence-only programs for HIV infection prevention in high-income countries |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=4 |pages= CD005421|year=2008|pmid= 17943855|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005421.pub2|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/o/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD005421/frame.html|editor1-last= Operario|editor1-first= Don}}</ref> Ushahidi wa manufaa ya [[elimu ya rika]] pia hautoshi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tolli|first=MV|title=Effectiveness of peer education interventions for HIV prevention, adolescent pregnancy prevention and sexual health promotion for young people: a systematic review of European studies|journal=Health education research|date=2012-05-28|pmid=22641791|doi=10.1093/her/cys055}}</ref> [[Elimu ya ngono]] inayotolewa [[Shule|shuleni]] inaweza kupunguza mitindo hatari,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ljubojević|first=S|coauthors=Lipozenčić, J|title=Sexually transmitted infections and adolescence|journal=Acta dermatovenerologica Croatica : ADC|year=2010|volume=18|issue=4|pages=305–10|pmid=21251451}}</ref> lakini inaweza pia kuchochea wanafunzi wakajaribu wenyewe ngono. [[Vijana]] wengi wanajihusisha katika vitendo hatari licha ya kufahamu kuhusu VVU/UKIMWI, huku wakipuuza hatari ya kuambukizwa.<ref name="Patel2008">{{Rejea jarida| author=Patel VL, Yoskowitz NA, Kaufman DR, Shortliffe EH | title=Discerning patterns of human immunodeficiency virus risk in healthy young adults | journal=Am J Med | year=2008 | pages=758–764 |volume=121|issue=4 | pmid=18724961 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2008.04.022 | pmc=2597652 }}</ref> ===Dawa kabla ya hatari=== Asilimia 96 ya watu walikingwa dhidi ya maambukizi iwapo wenzi wao walioambukizwa walipata mapema dawa za kudhibiti VVU<ref>National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/news/newsreleases/2011/Pages/HPTN052.aspx "Treating HIV-infected People with Antiretrovirals Protects Partners from Infection"], NIH News, 2011 May</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Anglemyer|first=A|coauthors=Rutherford, GW; Baggaley, RC; Egger, M; Siegfried, N|title=Antiretroviral therapy for prevention of HIV transmission in HIV-discordant couples|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2011-08-10|issue=8|pages=CD009153|pmid=21833973|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009153.pub2|editor1-last=Rutherford|editor1-first=George W}}</ref> Proflaksisi ya kabla ya hatari pamoja na kipimo cha kila siku cha dawa ya [[tenofovir]] (ikiwa na au bila [[emtricitabine]]) ni mwafaka kwa vikundi fulani, ikijumuisha: mashoga, wachumba wa wenye VVU na vijana wa Afrika wanaovutiwa na watu wa jinsia tofauti. <ref name=VagGel2012/> Hadhari za jumla katika mandhari ya utunzaji wa afya zinaaminika kufaulu kupunguza hatari ya VVU.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|title=Recommendations for prevention of HIV transmission in health-care settings|journal=MMWR|volume=36 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=1S–18S |year=1987|month=August|pmid=3112554|url=http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/PREVIEW/MMWRHTML/00023587.htm |author1= Centers for Disease Control (CDC)}}</ref> Matumizi ya dawa zinazodungwa mishipani ni kipengele muhimu cha hatari, hivyo mikakati ya [[kupunguza madhara]] kama vile [[miradi ya kubadilisha sindano]] na [[matibabu ya kubadilisha opioidi]] yanaonekana kufaulu kupunguza hatari.<ref name=Kurth2011>{{cite journal|last=Kurth|first=AE|coauthors=Celum, C; Baeten, JM; Vermund, SH; Wasserheit, JN|title=Combination HIV prevention: significance, challenges, and opportunities|journal=Current HIV/AIDS reports|date=2011 Mar|volume=8|issue=1|pages=62–72|pmid=20941553|doi=10.1007/s11904-010-0063-3|pmc=3036787}}</ref> ===Dawa baada ya hatari=== Vipimo vya dawa za kudhibiti VVU zinazotolewa kati ya saa 48 hadi 72 baada ya hatari kwa damu yenye VVU au viowevu vya uzazi hujulikana kama proflaksisi ya baada ya hatari.<ref name=Prevention2012/> Matumizi ya dawa moja ya [[zidovudine]] hupunguza mara tano hatari ya kupata VVU kutokana na jeraha la sindano.<ref name=Prevention2012>{{cite journal |author= |title=HIV exposure through contact with body fluids |journal=Prescrire Int|volume=21 |issue=126 |pages=100–1, 103–5 |year=2012 |month=April |pmid=22515138 |doi= |url= |author1= [No authors listed]}}</ref> Matibabu hupendekezwa baada ya [[ubakaji]] iwapo mshukiwa anatambulika kuwa na VVU lakini yanakumbwa na utata iwapo hali yake haijulikani.<ref name=NEJM2011Sex>{{cite journal|last=Linden|first=JA|title=Clinical practice. Care of the adult patient after sexual assault|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_new-england-journal-of-medicine_2011-09-01_365_9/page/834|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=2011-09-01|volume=365|issue=9|pages=834–41|pmid=21879901|doi=10.1056/NEJMcp1102869}}</ref> Taratibu za matibabu ya sasa hutumia [[lopinavir/ritonavir]] na [[lamivudine/zidovudine]] au [[emtricitabine/tenofovir]] na yanaweza kupunguza hatari zaidi.<ref name=Prevention2012/> Kwa kawaida, muda wa matibabu huwa wiki nne <ref name=CochranePEP2007>{{cite journal|last=Young|first=TN|coauthors=Arens, FJ; Kennedy, GE; Laurie, JW; Rutherford, G|title=Antiretroviral post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for occupational HIV exposure|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2007-01-24|issue=1|pages=CD002835|pmid=17253483|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002835.pub3|editor1-last=Young|editor1-first=Taryn}}</ref>na mara nyingi huhusishwa na athari kali (zidovudine ikiwa na takriban 70% ya visa, ikijumuisha 24% kichefuchefu, 22% uchovu, 13% mafadhaiko na 9% maumivu ya kichwa.<ref name=AFP2007/> === Kuzuia maambukizi ya mama kwa mtoto === Hatua za kuzuia kusambaza VVU kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto zinaweza kupunguza kiwango cha maambukizi kwa asilimia 92-99.<ref name=Mother2010>{{cite journal|last=Coutsoudis|first=A|coauthors=Kwaan, L; Thomson, M|title=Prevention of vertical transmission of HIV-1 in resource-limited settings|journal=Expert review of anti-infective therapy|date=2010 Oct|volume=8|issue=10|pages=1163–75|pmid=20954881|doi=10.1586/eri.10.94}}</ref><ref name=Kurth2011/> Kimsingi, hatua hizi hujumuisha kutumia mwungano wa dawa za kudhibiti VVU katika ujauzito na baada ya kuzaa, na pia [[kunywesha kwa chupa]] badala ya [[kunyonyesha]].<ref name=Mother2010/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Siegfried|first=N|coauthors=van der Merwe, L; Brocklehurst, P; Sint, TT|title=Antiretrovirals for reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2011-07-06|issue=7|pages=CD003510|pmid=21735394|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003510.pub3|editor1-last=Siegfried|editor1-first=Nandi}}</ref>Ikiwa itakubaliwa kulisha, inafaidi, inawezekana kumudu gharama yake, na ni salama, kina mama hawapaswi kuwanyonyesha watoto wao. Hata hivyo, iwapo haiwezekani, kina mama hushauriwa kunyonyesha tu katika miezi ya kwanza.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/Infantfeedingconsensusstatement.pf.pdf |format=PDF |year=2006 |accessdate=March 12, 2008 |title=WHO HIV and Infant Feeding Technical Consultation Held on behalf of the Inter-agency Task Team (IATT) on Prevention of HIV – Infections in Pregnant Women, Mothers and their Infants –Consensus statement |date=October 25–27, 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409065845/http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/Infantfeedingconsensusstatement.pf.pdf |archivedate=2008-04-09 |deadurl=no }}</ref> Ikiwa kunyonyesha pekee kutatekelezwa, kumpa mtoto proflaksisi ya kudhibiti VVU kwa muda mrefu zaidi hupunguza hatari ya kuambukizwa.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Horvath|first=T|coauthors=Madi, BC; Iuppa, IM; Kennedy, GE; Rutherford, G; Read, JS|title=Interventions for preventing late postnatal mother-to-child transmission of HIV|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2009-01-21|issue=1|pages=CD006734|pmid=19160297|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD006734.pub2|editor1-last=Horvath|editor1-first=Tara}}</ref> ===Dawa za kudhibiti virusi === [[File:Abacavir (Ziagen) 300mg.jpg|thumb|alt=Tembe mbili za manjano za umbo la mstatili ambapo mojawapo ya alama za GX623 inaonekana|''[[Abacavir]]'' – kifanani cha nukliosidi kinachozuia kugeuzwa kwa nakala (KNKN)]] Kwa sasa hakuna tiba au [[chanjo ya VVU]] mwafaka. Matibabu hujumuisha dawa tendi za kudhibiti VVU za kiwango cha juu zinazopunguza mwendo wa ugonjwa huu.<ref name=LE2011>{{cite journal|last=May|first=MT|coauthors=Ingle, SM|title=Life expectancy of HIV-positive adults: a review|journal=Sexual health|date=2011 Dec|volume=8|issue=4|pages=526–33|pmid=22127039|doi=10.1071/SH11046}}</ref> Kufikia mwaka 2010, zaidi ya watu milioni 6.6&nbsp; wa nchi za mapato ya chini na ya kati walikuwa wakitumia dawa hizo.<ref name=UN2011Ten/> Matibabu pia huhusisha hatua za kuzuia na kutibu maambukizi nyemelezi. Chaguo za kisasa za KNKN ni michanganyiko ya angalau dawa tatu za angalau aina au "vikundi" viwili vya ajenti za [[dawa za kudhibiti VVU]].<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Mwanzoni, matibabu kwa kawaida huhusisha kizuizi kisicho cha nukliosidi kinachozuia kugeuzwa kwa nakala (KKNKN) pamoja na vidonge viwili vya kifanani cha nukliosidi kinachozuia kugeuzwa kwa nakala (KNKN).<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> KNKN kwa kawaida hujumuisha: [[zidovudine]] (AZT) au [[tenofovir]] (TDF) na [[lamivudine]] (3TC) au [[emtricitabine]] (FTC).<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Mwungano wa ajenti zinazojumuisha kizuizi cha protisi (KP) hutumika utaratibu huu ukipoteza utendakazi.<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Wakati wa kuanzisha matumizi ya dawa za kudhibiti VVU ni mada ambayo ingali inajadiliwa.<ref name=Deut2010/><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sax|first=PE|coauthors=Baden, LR|title=When to start antiretroviral therapy—ready when you are?|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|date=2009-04-30|volume=360|issue=18|pages=1897–9|pmid=19339713|doi=10.1056/NEJMe0902713}}</ref> Shirika la Afya Duniani, miongozo ya [[Ulaya]] na pia Marekani hupendekeza dawa za kudhibiti VVU kwa vijana waliobalehe, watu wazima na kina mama wajawazito walio na kiwango cha CD4 cha chini ya 350/uL au walio na dalili, bila kuzingatia kiwango chao cha CD4.<ref name=Deut2010/><ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19>{{cite book|title=Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in adults and adolescents: recommendations for a public health approach|year=2010|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=978-92-4-159976-4|pages=19–20|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599764_eng.pdf|access-date=2020-03-28|archive-date=2012-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709184257/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599764_eng.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>Hali hii huwezeshwa na ukweli kwamba kuanzisha matibabu wakati huu hupunguza hatari ya kifo.<ref name=CochraneART2010>{{cite journal|last=Siegfried|first=N|coauthors=Uthman, OA; Rutherford, GW|title=Optimal time for initiation of antiretroviral therapy in asymptomatic, HIV-infected, treatment-naive adults|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2010-03-17|issue=3|pages=CD008272|pmid=20238364|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD008272.pub2|editor1-last=Siegfried|editor1-first=Nandi}}</ref> Isitoshe, Marekani imependekeza matibabu hayo kwa watu wote wenye VVU bila kuzingatia kiwango cha CD4 au dalili, ingawa inatoa pendekezo hili ikiwahofia watu wenye kiwango cha juu cha CD4.<ref name=Guidelines2009>{{cite book|last=Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents|first=|title=Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents|url=http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf|date=2009-12-01|publisher=United States Department of Health and Human Services|page=i|access-date=2020-03-28|archive-date=2009-01-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113181125/http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Shirika la Afya Duniani pia linapendekeza matibabu kwa watu wenye maambukizi nyongeza ya kifua kikuu na [[hepatitisi B]] tendi ya muda mrefu.<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Matibabu yanapoanzishwa, inapendekezwa yaendelezwe bila "kupumzika".<ref name=Deut2010/> Watu wengi hutambuliwa punde tu baada ya wakati ambao matibabu yalipaswa kuanzishwa.<ref name=Deut2010/> Katika matibabu, matokeo yanayotarajiwa ni kiwango cha HIV-RNA ya plasma ya muda mrefu cha chini ya nakala 50/mL.<ref name=Deut2010>{{cite journal|last=Vogel|first=M|coauthors=Schwarze-Zander, C; Wasmuth, JC; Spengler, U; Sauerbruch, T; Rockstroh, JK|title=The treatment of patients with HIV|journal=Deutsches Ärzteblatt international|date=2010 Jul|volume=107|issue=28–29|pages=507–15; quiz 516|pmid=20703338|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2010.0507|pmc=2915483}}</ref>Viwango vya kuthibitisha ikiwa matibabu ni mwafaka hupendekezwa kwanza baada ya wiki nne na punde viwango hivi vinaposhuka chini ya nakala 50/mL. Vipimo vya kila baada ya miezi 3-6 kwa kawaida huwa mwafaka.<ref name=Deut2010/> Udhibiti usio mwafaka huchukuliwa kuwa zaidi ya nakala 400/mL.<ref name=Deut2010/> Kulingana na kigezo hiki, matibabu huwa mwafaka kwa zaidi ya 95% ya watu katika mwaka wa kwanza.<ref name=Deut2010/> Manufaa ya matibabu hujumuisha upungufu wa hatari ya kuendelezwa kwa VVU na kupunguka kwa hatari ya kifo.<ref>{{cite journal|last=When To Start|first=Consortium|coauthors=Sterne, JA; May, M; Costagliola, D; de Wolf, F; Phillips, AN; Harris, R; Funk, MJ; Geskus, RB; Gill, J; Dabis, F; Miró, JM; Justice, AC; Ledergerber, B; Fätkenheuer, G; Hogg, RS; Monforte, AD; Saag, M; Smith, C; Staszewski, S; Egger, M; Cole, SR|title=Timing of initiation of antiretroviral therapy in AIDS-free HIV-1-infected patients: a collaborative analysis of 18 HIV cohort studies|journal=Lancet|date=2009-04-18|volume=373|issue=9672|pages=1352–63|pmid=19361855|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60612-7|pmc=2670965}}</ref>Katika mataifa yaliyostawi matibabu pia huboresha afya ya mwili na ya akili.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beard|first=J|coauthors=Feeley, F; Rosen, S|title=Economic and quality of life outcomes of antiretroviral therapy for HIV/AIDS in developing countries: a systematic literature review|journal=AIDS care|date=2009 Nov|volume=21|issue=11|pages=1343–56|pmid=20024710|doi=10.1080/09540120902889926}}</ref> Matibabu hupelekea kupunguza kwa 70% hatari ya kupata kifua kikuu.<ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Manufaa ya nyongeza hujumuisha upungufu wa hatari ya kusambazwa kwa ugonjwa huu hadi kwa wenzi kingono, na upungufu wa kusambazwa kwa maambukizi kutoka kwa mama hadi mtoto. <ref name=WHOTx2010Pg19/> Ubora wa matibabu hutegemea pakubwa maafikiano.<ref name=Deut2010/> Sababu za kutoafikiana hujumuisha: ufikiaji duni wa huduma za kimatibabu,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Orrell|first=C|title=Antiretroviral adherence in a resource-poor setting|journal=Current HIV/AIDS reports|date=2005 Nov|volume=2|issue=4|pages=171–6|pmid=16343374|doi=10.1007/s11904-005-0012-8}}</ref>huduma duni za kijamii, [[ugonjwa wa akili]] na [[uraibu wa madawa]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Malta|first=M|coauthors=Strathdee, SA; Magnanini, MM; Bastos, FI|title=Adherence to antiretroviral therapy for human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome among drug users: a systematic review|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-journal-of-addiction_2008-08_103_8/page/1242|journal=Addiction (Abingdon, England)|date=2008 Aug|volume=103|issue=8|pages=1242–57|pmid=18855813|doi=10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02269.x}}</ref> Isitoshe, utata wa utaratibu wa matibabu (kufuatia idadi ya tembe na idadi ya marudio ya kumeza tembe) na [[athari kali]] zinaweza kusababisha kutoafikiana kwa kimakusudi.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nachega|first=JB|coauthors=Marconi, VC; van Zyl, GU; Gardner, EM; Preiser, W; Hong, SY; Mills, EJ; Gross, R|title=HIV treatment adherence, drug resistance, virologic failure: evolving concepts|journal=Infectious disorders drug targets|date=2011 Apr|volume=11|issue=2|pages=167–74|pmid=21406048}}</ref>Hata hivyo, viwango vya uafikiano ni sawa katika nchi zinazostawi na zilizostawi<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nachega|first=JB|coauthors=Mills, EJ; Schechter, M|title=Antiretroviral therapy adherence and retention in care in middle-income and low-income countries: current status of knowledge and research priorities|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|date=2010 Jan|volume=5|issue=1|pages=70–7|pmid=20046150|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e328333ad61}}</ref> Matukio makuu huhusishwa na ajenti inayotumika.<ref name=Montessori2004/> Baadhi ya visa vinavyotokea mara nyingi hujumuisha: [[lipodistrofi inayohusishwa na VVU|sindromu ya lipodistofi]], [[dislipidemia]] na [[kisukari tamu]] hasa pamoja na vizuizi vya protisi.<ref name=M121/> Dalili zingine zinazotokea mara nyingi hujumuisha: [[kuhara]],<ref name=Montessori2004>{{cite journal| author=Montessori, V., Press, N., Harris, M., Akagi, L., Montaner, J. S. |title=Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection | journal=CMAJ |year=2004 | pages=229–238 |volume=170 | issue=2 |pmid=14734438 | pmc=315530}}</ref><ref name="Burgoyne2008">{{Rejea jarida|author=Burgoyne RW, Tan DH|title=Prolongation and quality of life for HIV-infected adults treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART): a balancing act|journal=J. Antimicrob. Chemother. |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=469–73|year=2008 |month=March|pmid=18174196|doi=10.1093/jac/dkm499</ref> na ongezeko la hatari ya [[ugonjwa wa moyo na mishipa]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barbaro|first=G|coauthors=Barbarini, G|title=Human immunodeficiency virus & cardiovascular risk|journal=The Indian journal of medical research|date=2011 Dec|volume=134|issue=6|pages=898–903|pmid=22310821|doi=10.4103/0971-5916.92634|pmc=3284097}}</ref> Hata hivyo, athari kali huwa katika matibabu mapya yaliyopendekezwa.<ref name=Deut2010/> Gharama huenda ikawa tatizo kwani baadhi ya dawa huwa ghali<ref>{{cite journal|last=Orsi|first=F|coauthors=d'almeida, C|title=Soaring antiretroviral prices, TRIPS and TRIPS flexibilities: a burning issue for antiretroviral treatment scale-up in developing countries|journal=Current opinion in HIV and AIDS|date=2010 May|volume=5|issue=3|pages=237–41|pmid=20539080|doi=10.1097/COH.0b013e32833860ba}}</ref>. Hata hivyo, hadi mwaka wa 2010, 47% ya watu waliohitaji dawa hizo walikuwa wakizitumia katika nchi zinazostawi na za mapato ya wastani<ref name=UN2011Ten/> Dawa fulani zinaweza kuhusishwa na [[ulemavu wa kuzaliwa]] hivyo hazifai kutumiwa na wanawake wanaopanga kupata watoto.<ref name=Deut2010/> Matibabu yanayopendekezewa watoto hutofautiana kidogo na ya watu wazima. Katika nchi zinazoendelea, kufikia mwaka wa 2010, 23% ya watoto waliohitaji dawa hizi walikuwa wakizitumia.<ref name=UN2011ONESIXTY>UNAIDS 2011 uk. 150-160</ref> Shirika la Afya Duniani na Marekani inapendekeza matibabu kwa watoto wote wa umri wa chini ya miezi 12.<ref name=USKID2011/><ref name=WHOKID2010>{{cite book|title=Antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection in infants and children|year=2010|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=978-92-4-159980-1|page=2|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599801_eng.pdf|access-date=2020-03-28|archive-date=2014-02-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224081130/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241599801_eng.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref>Marekani hupendekeza matibabu kwa watoto wa umri wa mwaka 1-5 walio na kiwango cha VVU-RNA cha zaidi ya nakala 100,000&nbsp;/mL na kwa walio zaidi ya miaka mitano watibiwe iwapo kiwango cha CD4 ni chini ya 500/ul.<ref name=USKID2011>{{cite web|title=Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection|url=http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/pediatricguidelines.pdf|work=The Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children|format=PDF|date=Aug 11,2011|accessdate=2020-03-28|archivedate=2013-02-16|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216214548/http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/pediatricguidelines.pdf}}</ref> ===Kuzuia maambukizi nyemelezi=== Mikakati ya kuzuia maambukizi nyemelezi hufaa watu wengi wenye VVU/UKIMWI. Matibabu ya dawa za kudhibiti virusi huboresha na kupunguza hatari ya kupata maambukizi nyemelezi kwa wakati huo na baadaye.<ref name=Montessori2004/>[[Chanjo]] dhidi ya [[hepatitisi]] A na B hupendekezwa kwa watu walio katika hatari ya VVU kabla ya maambukizi, ingawa yanaweza kutolewa baada ya kuambukizwa.<ref name=Laurence>{{Rejea jarida | author=Laurence J | title=Hepatitis A and B virus immunization in HIV-infected persons | journal=AIDS Reader | year=2006 | pages=15–17 | volume=16 | issue=1|pmid=16433468}}</ref> Kinga ya [[Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole]] kati ya wiki 4-6 na kukoma kunyonyesha watoto waliozaliwa na mama mwenye VVU hupendekezwa katika sehemu zenye upungufu wa raslimali.<ref name=UN2011ONESIXTY/> Pia inapendekezwa kuzuia PCP kiwango cha CD4 kikiwa chini ya 200&nbsp;/uL na kwa wenye PCP au waliokuwa nayo awali.<ref name=PCP2011>{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=L|coauthors=Cattamanchi, A; Davis, JL; den Boon, S; Kovacs, J; Meshnick, S; Miller, RF; Walzer, PD; Worodria, W; Masur, H; International HIV-associated Opportunistic Pneumonias (IHOP), Study; Lung HIV, Study|title=HIV-associated Pneumocystis pneumonia|journal=Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society|date=2011 Jun|volume=8|issue=3|pages=294–300|pmid=21653531|doi=10.1513/pats.201009-062WR|pmc=3132788}}</ref> Watu wenye ugandamizaji wa kingamwili pia hushauriwa kupata kinga ya [[toksoplasmosisi]] na [[Kriptokokasi|Meninjitisi ya kriptokokasi]].<ref name=PEPpocketguide>{{cite web | publisher=[[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]] | date=February 2, 2007 | url=http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?ss=14&doc_id=6223&string=infected+AND+patients | title=Treating opportunistic infections among HIV-infected adults and adolescents. Recommendations from CDC, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association/Infectious Diseases Society of America. | accessdate=2020-03-28 | archiveurl=https://archive.today/20121212000558/http://www.guideline.gov/browse/archive.aspx | archivedate=2012-12-12 | =https://archive.today/20121212000558/http://www.guideline.gov/browse/archive.aspx }}</ref> Mikakati mwafaka ya kinga imepunguza kiwango cha maambukizi kwa 50% katika miaka 1992-1997.<ref name=InfectionBook2008/> ===Matibabu mbadala=== Takriban 60% ya watu wenye VVU nchini Marekani hutumia mbinu mbalimbali za [[matibabu mbadala]].<ref name="pmid18608078">{{Rejea jarida|author=Littlewood RA, Vanable PA |title=Complementary and alternative medicine use among HIV-positive people: research synthesis and implications for HIV care |journal=AIDS Care |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=1002–18 |year=2008 |month=September |pmid=18608078 |pmc=2570227|doi=10.1080/09540120701767216 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_aids-care_2008-09_20_8/page/1002}}</ref> Ubora wa matibabu hayo hata hivyo haujathibitishwa.<ref name="pmid15969772">{{Rejea jarida|author=Mills E, Wu P, Ernst E |title=Complementary therapies for the treatment of HIV: in search of the evidence |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=16 |issue=6 |pages=395–403 |year=2005|month=June |pmid=15969772 |doi=10.1258/0956462054093962 |url=}}</ref> Kwa kuzingatia [[Lishe na VVU/UKIMWI|ushauri wa kilishe na UKIMWI]], kuna ushahidi unaoonyesha manufaa ya nyongeza za [[virutubishi vidogo]].<ref name="Irlam"/> Ushahidi wa manufaa ya nyongeza za [[seleniamu]] unaonyesha kuwa manufaa yake si mengi sana.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stone|first=CA|coauthors=Kawai, K; Kupka, R; Fawzi, WW|title=Role of selenium in HIV infection|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nutrition-reviews_2010-11_68_11/page/671|journal=Nutrition Reviews|date=2010 Nov|volume=68|issue=11|pages=671–81|pmid=20961297|doi=10.1111/j.1753-4887.2010.00337.x|pmc=3066516}}</ref> Kuna ushahidi mdogo kuwa nyongeza ya [[vitamini A]] kwa watoto hupunguza vifo na kuboresha ukuaji.<ref name=Irlam/> Nyongeza ya [[vitamini]] nyingi kwa kina mama wajawazito wenye [[lishe duni]] na wanaonyonyesha imeboresha [[afya]] ya kina mama na watoto barani Afrika<ref name=Irlam>{{cite journal|last=Irlam|first=JH|coauthors=Visser, MM; Rollins, NN; Siegfried, N|title=Micronutrient supplementation in children and adults with HIV infection|journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)|date=2010-12-08|issue=12|pages=CD003650|pmid=21154354|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003650.pub3|editor1-last=Irlam|editor1-first=James H}}</ref> Kutumia virutubishi vidogo ndani ya lishe katika viwango vya [[Kiwango cha Matumizi ya kila Siku|KMS]] kwa watu wazima wenye VVU kumependekezwa na [[Shirika la Afya Duniani]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Forrester|first=JE|coauthors=Sztam, KA|title=Micronutrients in HIV/AIDS: is there evidence to change the WHO 2003 recommendations?|journal=The American journal of clinical nutrition|date=2011 Dec|volume=94|issue=6|pages=1683S–1689S|pmid=22089440|doi=10.3945/ajcn.111.011999|pmc=3226021}}</ref><ref name='WHO_nutrients'>{{Rejea kitabu | last = [[World Health Organization]] | title = Nutrient requirements for people living with HIV/AIDS: Report of a technical consultation | date = 2003-05 | location = Geneva | url = http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/Content_nutrient_requirements.pdf | id = | isbn = | accessdate = March 31, 2009 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090325030154/http://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/Content_nutrient_requirements.pdf | archivedate = 2009-03-25 | deadurl = no }}</ref> SAD linasema kuwa [[takwimu]] kadhaa zimeonyesha nyongeza ya vitamini A, zinki na ayoni inaweza kuwaathiri pakubwa watu wazima walio na VVU.<ref name='WHO_nutrients' /> Hakuna ushahidi wa kutosha kuonyesha manufaa ya [[miti shamba]].<ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Liu JP, Manheimer E, Yang M|title=Herbal medicines for treating HIV infection and AIDS |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev|issue=3 |pages=CD003937|year=2005 |pmid=16034917 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003937.pub2|url=|editor1-last=Liu|editor1-first=Jian Ping}}</ref> ==Matarajio ya kuishi== [[File:HIV-AIDS world map-Deaths per million persons-WHO2012.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|Idadi ya vifo kutokana na UKIMWI kati ya watu milioni 1 mwaka 2012 {{refbegin|3}}{{legend|#ffff20|0}}{{legend|#ffe820|1–4}}{{legend|#ffd820|5–12}}{{legend|#ffc020|13–34}}{{legend|#ffa020|35–61}}{{legend|#ff9a20|62–134}}{{legend|#f08015|135–215}}{{legend|#e06815|216–458}}{{legend|#d85010|459-1,402}}{{legend|#d02010|1,403–5,828}}{{refend}}]] [[File:HIV-AIDS world map - DALY - WHO2004.svg|thumb|Alt=Ramani ya ulimwengu ambapo sehemu yake kubwa ni ya rangi ya manjano au ya chungwa isipokuwa Kusini kwa Sahara ambapo kuna rangi nyekundu au nyekundu nzito|[[Miaka ya kulemaza]] ya VVU kwa kila wakaazi 100,000&nbsp; kufikia 2004. {{Multicol}} {{legend|#b3b3b3|<small>no data</small>}} {{legend|#ffff65|<small>≤&nbsp;10</small>}} {{legend|#fff200|<small>10–25</small>}} {{legend|#ffdc00|<small>25–50</small>}} {{legend|#ffc600|<small>50–100</small>}} {{legend|#ffb000|<small>100–500</small>}} {{legend|#ff9a00|<small>500–1000</small>}} {{Multicol-break}} {{legend|#ff8400|<small>1000–2500</small>}} {{legend|#ff6e00|<small>2500–5000</small>}} {{legend|#ff5800|<small>5000–7500</small>}} {{legend|#ff4200|<small>7500-10000</small>}} {{legend|#ff2c00|<small>10000-50000</small>}} {{legend|#cb0000|<small>≥&nbsp;50000</small>}} {{Multicol-end}}]] Katika sehemu nyingi ulimwenguni UKIMWI umekuwa [[ugonjwa wa muda mrefu]], si ugonjwa mkali tu.<ref name=Knoll2007/> [[Prognosi]] ni tofauti katika watu mbalimbali, na kiwango cha CD4 pamoja na wingi wa virusi huwa muhimu katika kutabiri matokeo.<ref name=M118/> Wastani wa muda wa kuishi baada ya kuambukizwa unakadiriwa kuwa kati ya miaka 9-1&nbsp; bila matibabu, ikitegemea aina ya VVU.<ref name=UNAIDS2007>{{cite web| author = [[Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS|UNAIDS]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]]| month = December| year = 2007| title = 2007 AIDS epidemic update| url = http://data.unaids.org/pub/EPISlides/2007/2007_epiupdate_en.pdf| accessdate = 2008-03-12| format = PDF| archivedate = 2008-05-27| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080527201701/http://data.unaids.org/pub/EPISlides/2007/2007_epiupdate_en.pdf}}</ref> Baada ya utambuzi wa UKIMWI, iwapo matibabu hayapo, uwezo wa kuishi huwa kati ya miezi 6-19.<ref name=Morgan2>{{Rejea jarida | author=Morgan D, Mahe C, Mayanja B, Okongo JM, Lubega R, Whitworth JA| title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries? | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597–632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | pmid=11873003 |doi=10.1097/00002030-200203080-00011}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida|title=Progression and mortality of untreated HIV-positive individuals living in resource-limited settings: update of literature review and evidence synthesis|author=Zwahlen M, Egger M|url=http://data.unaids.org/pub/Periodical/2006/zwahlen_unaids_hq_05_422204_2007_en.pdf|format=PDF|year=2006|accessdate=March 19, 2008|version=UNAIDS Obligation HQ/05/422204|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409065844/http://data.unaids.org/pub/Periodical/2006/zwahlen_unaids_hq_05_422204_2007_en.pdf|archivedate=2008-04-09|deadurl=no|journal=}}</ref> [[KKNKN]] na uzuiaji mwafaka wa Maambukizi nyemelezi hupunguza kima cha vifo kwa 80% na kuongeza matarajio ya urefu wa maisha hadi miaka 20-50 kwa mtu mzima wa kimo aliyetambuliwa na maambukizi karibuni.<ref name=Knoll2007>{{cite journal |journal= Int J Dermatol |year=2007 |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1219–28 |title= Current status of HIV infection: a review for non-HIV-treating physicians |author= Knoll B, Lassmann B, Temesgen Z|pmid=18173512|doi=10.1111/j.1365-4632.2007.03520.x}}</ref><ref name=LifeExpecr2008>{{cite journal |journal= Lancet|year=2008 |volume=372|issue=9635 |pages=293–9 |title=Life expectancy of individuals on combination antiretroviral therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies | author= Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration |pmid=18657708 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61113-7 |pmc= 3130543 }}</ref><ref name=Schack2006>{{cite journal | author=Schackman BR, Gebo KA, Walensky RP, Losina E, Muccio T, Sax PE, Weinstein MC, Seage GR 3rd, Moore RD, Freedberg KA. |title=The lifetime cost of current HIV care in the United States | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_medical-care_2006-11_44_11/page/990 | journal=Med Care | year=2006 |pages=990–997 | volume=44 | issue=11 | pmid=17063130 |doi=10.1097/01.mlr.0000228021.89490.2a}}</ref> Hii ni kati ya 2/3<ref name=LifeExpecr2008/> na karibu na kiwango cha umma.<ref name=Deut2010/><ref>{{cite journal|last=van Sighem|first=AI|coauthors=Gras, LA; Reiss, P; Brinkman, K; de Wolf, F; ATHENA national observational cohort, study|title=Life expectancy of recently diagnosed asymptomatic HIV-infected patients approaches that of uninfected individuals|journal=AIDS (London, England)|date=2010-06-19|volume=24|issue=10|pages=1527–35|pmid=20467289|doi=10.1097/QAD.0b013e32833a3946}}</ref> Matibabu huwa hayafaulu yanapoanzishwa yakiwa yamechelewa katika prognosi,<ref name=Deut2010/> kwa mfano, matibabu yakianzishwa kufuatia utambuzi katika kiwango cha UKIMWI, matarajio ya urefu wa maisha huwa miaka~10–40.<ref name=Deut2010/><ref name=Knoll2007/> Wasipotibiwa, nusu ya watoto wachanga wanaozaliwa na VVU hufa kabla ya miaka miwili.<ref name=UN2011ONESIXTY/> Sababu kuu ya vifo vinavyotokana na VVU/UKIMWI ni [[Maambukizi nyemelezi]] na [[saratani]] ambayo mara nyingi hutokana na matatizo endelevu ya mfumo wa kingamwili.<ref name=InfectionBook2008>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=[edited by] Blaine T.|title=Concepts in immunology and immunotherapeutics|year=2008|publisher=American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|location=Bethesda, Md.|isbn=978-1-58528-127-5|page=143|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=G46DrdlxNJAC&pg=PA143|edition=4th}}</ref><ref name=Cancer2005>{{cite journal|last=Cheung|first=MC|coauthors=Pantanowitz, L; Dezube, BJ|title=AIDS-related malignancies: emerging challenges in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy|journal=The oncologist|date=2005 Jun–Jul|volume=10|issue=6|pages=412–26|pmid=15967835|doi=10.1634/theoncologist.10-6-412}}</ref> Hatari ya saratani huonekana kuongezeka ikiwa kiwango cha CD4 kitashuka chini ya 500/uL.<ref name=Deut2010/> Kiwango cha kuendelea kwa ugonjwa wa kiutambuzi hutofautiana pakubwa katika watu mbalimbali na kimedhihirika kuathiriwa na vipengele kadhaa, kama vile uhatarisho na utendaji wa kingamwili;<ref name=Tang>{{Rejea jarida | author=Tang J, Kaslow RA | title=The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy | journal=AIDS | year=2003 |pages=S51–S60 | volume=17 | issue=Suppl 4 | pmid=15080180 | doi=10.1097/00002030-200317004-00006}}</ref> uwezo wa kufikia [[huduma ya afya]] na uwepo wa [[maambukizi pacha]];<ref name=Morgan2/><ref name=Lawn>{{cite journal | author=Lawn SD |title=AIDS in Africa: the impact of co-infections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection | journal=J. Infect. Dis. |year=2004 | pages=1–12 |volume=48 | issue=1| pmid=14667787</ref> pamoja na aina ya (au za) virusi husika.<ref name=Campbell>{{cite journal | author=Campbell GR |title=The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis | journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2004 |pages=48197–48204 | volume=279 | issue=46 | pmid=15331610 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M406195200 | author-separator=, |author2=Pasquier E | author3=Watkins J | display-authors=3 | last4=Bourgarel-Rey | first4=V | last5=Peyrot | first5=V |last6=Esquieu | first6=D | last7=Barbier | first7=P | last8=De Mareuil | first8=J | last9=Braguer |first9=D}}</ref><ref name=Campbell2>{{cite journal | author=Campbell GR, Watkins JD, Esquieu D, Pasquier E, Loret EP, Spector SA | title=The C terminus of HIV-1 Tat modulates the extent of CD178-mediated apoptosis of T cells | journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2005 | pages=38376–39382 | volume=280 | issue=46 |pmid=16155003 | doi=10.1074/jbc.M506630200}}</ref> Maambukizi pacha ya [[kifua kikuu]] ni mojawapo ya visababishi vikuu vya vifo vya watu wenye VVU/UKIMWI, huku yakipatikana katika 1/3 ya watu walioambukizwa VVU na husababisha 25% ya vifo vinavyohusiana na VVU.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tuberculosis|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/|work=Fact sheet 104|publisher=World Health Organization|date=March 2012|accessdate=August 29, 2012}}</ref> VVU pia ni kipengele kikuu zaidi cha hatari ya kifua kikuu.<ref name=WHO2011>{{cite web|title=Global tuberculosis control 2011|author=World Health Organization|url=http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2011/gtbr11_executive_summary.pdf|year=2011|ISBN=978 92 4 156438 0|accessdate=August 29, 2012}}</ref> [[Hepatitisi C]] ni maambukizi mengine pacha yanayotokea mara nyingi, ambapo kila ugonjwa huongeza uendeleaji wa ugonjwa mwingine<ref>{{cite book|last=Pennsylvania|first=Editors, Raphael Rubin, M.D., Professor of Pathology, David S. Strayer, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Pathology, Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Jefferson Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ; Founder and Consulting Editor, Emanuel Rubin, M.D., Gonzalo Aponte Distinguished Professor of Pathology, Chairman Emeritus of the Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Jefferson Medical College of Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia,|title=Rubin's pathology : clinicopathologic foundations of medicine|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-60547-968-2|page=154|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=wb2TzY9AgJ0C&pg=PA154|edition=Sixth|year=2011}}</ref> Saratani zinazotokea mara nyingi zaidi ambazo huhusishwa na VVU ni [[sakoma ya Kaposi]] na [[limfoma isiyo ya Hodgkin]].<ref name=Cancer2005/> Hata wakitibiwa kwa dawa za kudhibiti VVU, watu walio na VVU huenda wakakumbwa na [[matatizo ya kiniuroni ya ufahamu]],<ref name="Woods2009">{{cite pmid|19462243 }}</ref> [[osteoporosi]],<ref name="Brown2006">{{cite pmid|17086056}}</ref> [[nuropathia ya pembeni|nuropathia]],<ref name="Nicholas2007">{{Rejea jarida|author=Nicholas PK|title=Symptom management and self-care for peripheral neuropathy in HIV/AIDS |journal=AIDS Care | volume=19|issue=2|pages=179–89 |year=2007 |month=February |pmid=17364396|doi=10.1080/09540120600971083|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_aids-care_2007-02_19_2/page/179|author-separator=,|author2=Kemppainen JK|author3=Canaval GE|display-authors=3|last4=Corless|first4=I. B.|last5=Sefcik|first5=E. F.|last6=Nokes|first6=K. M.|last7=Bain|first7=C. A.|last8=Kirksey|first8=K. M.|last9=Sanzero Eller|first9=L.}}</ref> saratani,<ref name="Boshoff2002">{{Rejea jarida| author=Boshoff C, Weiss R |title=AIDS-related malignancies | journal=Nat. Rev. Cancer | year=2002 | pages=373–382 | volume=2 | issue=5 |pmid=12044013 | doi=10.1038/nrc797 }}</ref><ref name="Yarchoan2005">{{Rejea jarida| author=Yarchoan R, Tosato G, Little RF | title=Therapy insight: AIDS-related malignancies – the influence of antiviral therapy on pathogenesis and management | journal=Nat. Clin. Pract. Oncol. |year=2005 | pages=406–415 | volume=2 |issue=8 | pmid=16130937 | doi=10.1038/ncponc0253 }}</ref><!-- Boshoff2002 and Yarchoan2005 cover cancer --> [[nefropathi]],<ref name="Post2009">{{cite pmid|19106702}}</ref> na [[ugonjwa wa moyo na mishipa]] baada ya muda mrefu.<ref name="Burgoyne2008" /> Haijulikani ikiwa hali hizi hutokana na kuambukizwa kwa VVU kwenyewe au ni athari kali za matibabu yake. == Watu wangapi wana UKIMWI? == [[Picha: AIDS cases worldwide 1979-1995.png|haki|thumb|Idadi ya watu duniani wenye VVU miaka 1979-1995.]] [[File:AIDS and HIV prevalence 2008.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt= A map of the world where most of the land is colored green or yellow except for sub Saharan Africa which is colored red|[[Asilimia]] ya watu wenye umri wa miaka 15–49 walioambukizwa nchi kwa nchi ([[2011]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=AIDSinfo|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis/datatools/aidsinfo/|work=UNAIDS|accessdate=4 March 2013}}</ref>{{Col-begin}} {{Col-break}} {{legend|#787878|<small>No data</small>}} {{legend|#94bf8b|<small><0.10</small>}} {{legend|#f4e2ba|<small>0.10–0.5</small>}} {{legend|#eaca83|<small>0.5–1</small>}} {{Col-break}} {{legend|#f07568|<small>1–5</small>}} {{legend|#ff4800|<small>5–15</small>}} {{legend|#b00000|<small>15–50</small>}} {{col-end}}]] VVU/UKIMWI ni [[janga]] la kimataifa.<ref name=Cohen2008>{{cite journal|last=Cohen|first=MS|coauthors=Hellmann, N; Levy, JA; DeCock, K; Lange, J|title=The spread, treatment, and prevention of HIV-1: evolution of a global pandemic|journal=The Journal of clinical investigation|date=2008 Apr|volume=118|issue=4|pages=1244-54|pmid=18382737|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2276790/|accessdate=17 September 2012}}</ref> Kufikia mwaka [[2018]] walau watu wapatao 37,900,000 walikuwa wakiishi na VVU<ref>"Global HIV & AIDS statistics — 2019 fact sheet". www.unaids.org. UNAIDS. Archived from the original on December 4, 2019. Retrieved December 21, 2019.</ref> na kila mwaka watu milioni 2 wengine wanambukizwa<ref name=UNAIDS2015>{{cite web|title=Fact sheet 2015|url=http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/20150901_FactSheet_2015_en.pdf|website=UNAIDS|accessdate=1 February 2016}}</ref><ref name=UN2013>{{cite web|title=UNAIDS reports a 52% reduction in new HIV infections among children and a combined 33% reduction among adults and children since 2001|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/pressreleaseandstatementarchive/2013/september/20130923prunga/|work=UNAIDS|accessdate=October 7, 2013|archivedate=2013-10-01|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001090619/http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/pressreleaseandstatementarchive/2013/september/20130923prunga/}}</ref>. Zaidi ya nusu ni wanawake na milioni 2.6 ni watoto chini ya miaka 15.<ref name=UN2011Ten/> Hata hivyo watu wengi wenye VVU hawajui kuwa navyo<ref>{{cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|first=(CDC)|title=HIV surveillance—United States, 1981–2008|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report|date=June 3, 2011|volume=60|issue=21|pages=689–93|pmid=21637182}}</ref>. Kwa sababu hiyo, idadi halisi ya watu wanaoishi na VVU haijulikani. Hali hii ilisababisha karibu vifo milioni 1.8 mwaka 2010 ikilinganishwa na milioni 3.1 katika mwaka 2001.<ref name=UN2011Ten/> Kwa jumla watu 32,000,000 wameshakufa kwa ugonjwa huo<ref>"Global HIV & AIDS statistics — 2019 fact sheet". www.unaids.org. UNAIDS. Archived from the original on December 4, 2019. Retrieved December 21, 2019.</ref>. Wengi kati ya watu wenye VVU huishi Afrika kusini kwa Sahara (20,600,000). Wengi kati ya watoto ambao hufariki dunia kutokana na UKIMWI pia wanaishi barani Afrika. Katika mwaka wa 2010, kadirio la 68% (milioni 22.9&nbsp;) la visa vyote vya VVU na 66% ya vifo (milioni 1.2&nbsp;) vilitokea katika eneo hili.<ref name=UN2011Thirty>UNAIDS 2011 pg. 20–30</ref> Hii inamaanisha kuwa karibu 5% ya watu wazima wana virusi hivi<ref name=UN2011Fifty>UNAIDS 2011 pg. 40–50</ref> na vinaaminika kuwa kisababishi cha 10% ya vifo vyote vya watoto.<ref name=M117>Mandell, Bennett, and Dolan (2010). Sura ya 117.</ref> Wanawake wa eneo hili huchangia karibu 60% ya visa vyote tofauti na maeneo mengine.<ref name=UN2011Thirty/> [[Afrika Kusini]] ina idadi kubwa zaidi ya watu wenye VVU ulimwenguni kote, ikiwa ni watu milioni 5.9&nbsp;.<ref name=UN2011Thirty /> Kiwango cha [[matarajio ya urefu wa maisha]] kimepungua katika nchi zilizoathirika zaidi kutokana na VVU; kwa mfano, mwaka wa 2006, ilikadiriwa kuwa kiwango hiki kilipungua kutoka miaka 65 hadi 35 nchini [[Botswana]].<ref name=Kallings>{{Rejea jarida|journal= J Intern Med |year=2008|volume=263|issue=3|pages=218–43 |title= The first postmodern pandemic: Miaka 25 ya VVU |author= Kallings LO|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01910.x|pmid=18205765|url=http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01910.x}}(subscription required)</ref> [[Asia Kusini]] na [[Asia Kusini Mashariki|Kusini Mashariki]] ni eneo la pili lililoathirika zaidi; mwaka wa 2010, eneo hili lilikuwa na kadirio la visa milioni 4&nbsp; au 12% ya watu wote wanaoishi na VVU, hivyo kupelekea vifo vya takriban watu 250,000.<ref name=UN2011Fifty/> Takriban milioni 2.4&nbsp; ya visa hivi viko India<ref name=UN2011Thirty/> Ukithiri wa VVU uko chini katika maeneo ya Uropa Magharibi na Kati ikifikia 0.2% na [[Mashariki mwa Asia]] ikiwa na 0.1%.<ref name=UN2011Fifty/> Mwaka wa 2008 nchini Marekani, takriban watu milioni 1.2 walikuwa wakiishi na VVU, hivyo kupelekea takriban vifo 17,500. Kituo cha Kudhibiti na Kuzuia Magonjwa kilikadiria kuwa, mwaka wa 2008, 20% ya Wamarekani waliokuwa na VVU hawakujua hali yao. <ref name=USAEPI2011>{{cite journal|last=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|first=(CDC)|title=HIV surveillance—United States, 1981–2008|journal=MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report|date=2011-06-03|volume=60|issue=21|pages=689–93|pmid=21637182}}</ref> Nchini Uingereza, kufikia 2009 kulikuwa na takriban visa 86,500 vilivyopelekea vifo 516.<ref>{{cite book|title=HIV in the United Kingdom: Ripoti ya 2010|year=2010|url=http://www.hpa.org.uk/webc/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1287145367237|author=Health Protection Agency|access-date=2020-03-28|archive-date=2011-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119155546/http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1287145367237|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Nchini Kanada, kufikia 2008 kulikuwa na visa 65,000 vilivyopelekea vifo 53.<ref>{{cite book|last=Surveillance|title=HIV and AIDS in Canada : surveillance report to December 31, 2009|year=2010|publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada, Centre for Communicable Diseases and Infection Control, Surveillance and Risk Assessment Division|location=Ottawa|isbn=978-1-100-52141-1|url=http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/aids-sida/publication/survreport/2009/dec/pdf/2009-Report-Rapport.pdf|coauthors=riques, Risk Assessment Division = Le VIH et le sida au Canada : rapport de surveillance en date du 31 décembre 2009 / Division de la surveillance et de l'évaluation des|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119164919/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/aids-sida/publication/survreport/2009/dec/pdf/2009-Report-Rapport.pdf|archivedate=2012-01-19|access-date=2020-03-28|dead-url=yes|=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119164919/http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/aids-sida/publication/survreport/2009/dec/pdf/2009-Report-Rapport.pdf}}</ref> ==Jamii na utamaduni== === Unyanyapaa === [[File:Ryan White.jpg|thumb|alt=Mvulana baleghe akitabasamu akipigwa picha huku mkono wa mwingine ukiwa uemeegemeshwa begani mwake|[[Ryan White]] alipelekea kuwa [[mtoto wa uhamasisho]] wa VVU baada ya kufukuzwa shuleni kwa sababu alikuwa ameambukizwa.]] [[Unyanyapaa]] dhidi ya watu walio na UKIMWI zipo kote ulimwenguni kwa namna mbalimbali, zikiwemo kutengwa, kukataliwa na jamii, ubaguzi na kuepuka watu walioambukizwa VVU, kulazimishwa kupimwa VVU bila [[idhini]] au ulinzi wa [[usiri]], vurugu dhidi ya watu walioambukizwa au waliodhaniwa kuambukizwa VVU; na [[karantini]] ya watu waliombukizwa VVU.<ref name=UNAIDS2006Ch4>{{Rejea kitabu|publisher =[[Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS|UNAIDS]]| year = 2006| title = 2006 Report on the global AIDS epidemic| chapter = The impact of AIDS on people and societies| chapterurl =http://data.unaids.org/pub/GlobalReport/2006/2006_GR_CH04_en.pdf| accessdate =June 14, 2006| format= PDF| isbn =92-9173-479-9}}</ref> Vurugu zinazohusiana na unyanyapaa au hofu ya vurugu huzuia watu wengi kupima VVU, kurudia matokeo ya vipimo na kutotafuta matibabu. Hali hizi hugeuza ugonjwa wa muda mrefu unaoweza kudhibitiwa kuwa hukumu ya kifo na kuendeleza ueneaji wa VVU.<ref name=Ogden>{{cite web | author = Ogden J, Nyblade L | publisher = [[International Center for Research on Women]] | year = 2005 | title = Common at its core: HIV-related stigma across contexts | url = http://www.icrw.org/docs/2005_report_stigma_synthesis.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = February 15, 2007 | archiveurl = https://www.webcitation.org/6FEwkK8ZU?url=http://www.icrw.org/publications/common-its-core-hiv-related-stigma-across-contexts | archivedate = 2013-03-19 | = https://www.webcitation.org/6FEwkK8ZU?url=http://www.icrw.org/publications/common-its-core-hiv-related-stigma-across-contexts }}</ref> Unyanyapaa dhidi ya watu wanaoishi na UKIMWI, umegawanywa zaidi katika vikundi vitatu kama ifuatavyo: * ''Unyanyapaa Mkuu wa UKIMWI ''-mawazo ya woga na wasiwasi unaoweza kuhusishwa na ugonjwa wowote aunaoua au kuambukiza.<ref name=Herek1999>{{Rejea jarida| author=Herek GM, Capitanio JP| journal=American Behavioral Scientist| year=1999| url=http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/abs99_sp.pdf| format=PDF| title=AIDS Stigma and sexual prejudice| accessdate=March 27, 2006| volume=42| issue=7| pages=1130–1147| doi=10.1177/0002764299042007006| archive-date=2006-04-09| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060409034211/http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/abs99_sp.pdf| dead-url=yes| =https://web.archive.org/web/20060409034211/http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/abs99_sp.pdf}}</ref> * '' Unyanyapaa wa kiishara wa UKIMWI ''-kutumia VVU/UKIMWI kuonyesha mitazamo fulani dhidi ya vikundi vya jamii au mitindo ya maisha inayohusishwa na ugonjwa huu.<ref name=Herek1999 /> * Unyanyapaa wa kihisani wa UKIMWI''- Unyanyapaa dhidi ya watu wanaohusishwa na suala la VVU/UKIMWI au watu walio na VVU.<ref name=Snyder>{{Rejea jarida|author=Snyder M, Omoto AM, Crain AL |title=Punished for their good deeds: stigmatization for AIDS volunteers |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-behavioral-scientist_1999-04_42_7/page/1175 |journal=American Behavioral Scientist | year=1999 | pages=1175–1192 | volume=42 | issue=7|doi=10.1177/0002764299042007009}}</ref> Mara nyingi, unyanyapaa wa UKIMWI huonyeshwa pamoja na unyanyapaa wa aina moja au nyingine, hasa unyanyapaa unaohusiana na ushoga, [[uasherati]], ukahaba na kutumia dawa za kulevya.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sharma|first=A.K.|title=Population and society|publisher=Concept Pub. Co.|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788180698187|pages=242|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=sE-VDhEuxmsC&pg=PA242}}</ref> Katika nchi nyingi zilizostawi, kuna uhusiano kati ya UKIMWI na ushoga.<ref name=Herek2002>{{cite journal|last=Herek|first=GM|coauthors=Capitanio, JP; Widaman, KF|title=HIV-related stigma and knowledge in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1991–1999|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-public-health_2002-03_92_3/page/371|journal=American journal of public health|date=2002 Mar|volume=92|issue=3|pages=371–7|pmid=11867313|pmc=1447082|doi=10.2105/AJPH.92.3.371}}</ref><ref name=Herek1999/>Hata hivyo, njia kuu ya kuenea kwa UKIMWI ulimwenguni kote inabakia kuwa maambukizi kati ya wanaume na wanawake, kwa kuwa ndio ngono ya kawaida. <ref>{{cite journal|last=De Cock|first=KM|coauthors=Jaffe, HW; Curran, JW|title=The evolving epidemiology of HIV/AIDS.|journal=AIDS (London, England)|date=2012 Jun 19|volume=26|issue=10|pages=1205-13|pmid=22706007}}</ref> === Athari za kiuchumi === [[File:Life expectancy in some Southern African countries 1958 to 2003.png|thumb|alt=Grafu inayoonyesha mistari kadhaa inayopanda ikifuatiwa na kushuka kwa ghafla kwa mistari hii kuanzia miaka ya katikati mwa 1980 hadi miaka ya 1990|Mabadiliko katika matarajio ya urefu wa maisha katika baadhi ya nchi za Afrika zilizoathiriwa zaidi. {{legend-line|red solid 2px|Botswana}}{{legend-line|darkgreen solid 2px|Zimbabwe}}{{legend-line|blue solid 2px|Kenya}}{{legend-line|black solid 2px|South Africa}}{{legend-line|grey solid 2px|Uganda}}]] VVU/UKIMWI huathiri [[uchumi]] wa watu na nchi.<ref name=M117/> [[Pato la ndani la uzalishaji]] la nchi zilizoathiriwa zaidi limepungua kufuatia ukosefu wa [[rasilimali ya kibinadamu]].<ref name=M117/><ref name="Bell-et-al-2003">{{Rejea jarida|author=Bell C, Devarajan S, Gersbach H|year=2003|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=478060&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000160016_20031110113834|title=The long-run economic costs of AIDS: theory and an application to South Africa|accessdate=April 28, 2008|version=World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3152|format=PDF|journal=|archive-date=2013-06-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605151302/http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=478060&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000160016_20031110113834|dead-url=yes}}</ref>Bila [[lishe bora]], huduma za afya na dawa, watu wengi hufariki kutokana na matatizo yanayohusiana na UKIMWI. Kando ya kutoweza kufanya kazi, watu hao pia huhitaji kiwango kikubwa cha huduma za afya. UKIMWI hupunguza idadi ya watu wanaoweza kulipa [[ushuru]] Kwa kuwaathiri hasa vijana, hivyo kupunguza [[raslimali]] zilizopo za [[matumizi ya serikali|matumizi ya umma]] kama vile [[huduma za elimu]] na afya ambazo hazihusiki na UKIMWI. Hali hii husababisha upungufu wa [[pesa]] za nchi na wa ukuaji wa uchumi. Hali hii kisha hupelekea upungufu wa ukuaji wa msingi wa ushuru, athari ambayo huongezeka iwapo kuna matumizi zaidi katika matibabu, mafunzo (ili kuchukua nafasi ya [[wafanyakazi]] wanaougua), kuwalipa wafanyakazi wagonjwa na kuwatunza mayatima wa UKIMWI. Hali hii hutokea hasa iwapo ongezeko kubwa la vifo vya watu wazima litapelekea kubadilika kwa [[wajibu]] wa kuwatunza mayatima hawa kutoka kwa [[familia]] hadi kwa [[serikali]].<ref name=Greener /> Katika kiwango cha familia, UKIMWI husababisha upungufu wa mapato na pia ongezeko la matumizi katika huduma za afya. Utafiti katika nchi ya [[Côte d'Ivoire]] ulionyesha kuwa familia zilizo na mgonjwa aliye na VVU/UKIMWI zilitumia pesa mara mbili zaidi ya familia nyingine. Matumizi hayo ya ziada pia hupelekea kiwango kidogo zaidi cha mapato ya kutumia katika elimu au [[uwekezaji]] wa kibinafsi au wa kifamilia.<ref name="WBank">{{Rejea jarida| author=Over M| title=The macroeconomic impact of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa, Population and Human Resources Department| publisher=The World Bank| year=1992| url=http://www.worldbank.org/aidsecon/macro.pdf| format=PDF| accessdate=May 3, 2008| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527201655/http://www.worldbank.org/aidsecon/macro.pdf| archivedate=2008-05-27| deadurl=no| journal=}}</ref> === Mayatima === [[Picha: Africa HIV-AIDS 2002.png | haki | frame |Asilimia ya watu waliokuwa wanaishi na VVU katika Afrika miaka 1999-2001]] [[Picha:Ukimwi Afrika 2011.png|350px|thumb|Asilimia ya watu waliokuwa wanaishi na VVU Afrika mnamo mwaka 2011]] Watu wengi ambao wanakufa kutokana na UKIMWI, hasa katika [[Afrika]], huacha watoto ambao bado ni hai, na ambao wanaweza wanahitaji msaada na huduma. Inakadiriwa kuwa kufikia mwaka wa 2007, diadi ya watoto [[yatima kutokana na UKIMWI]] &nbsp;milioni 12.<ref name=M117/> Wengi wao hutunzwa na [[Bibi|nyanya]] na [[babu]] [[wazee]]. <ref name=Greener>{{Rejea kitabu| author = Greener R| year = 2002| title = State of The Art: UKIMWI na Uchumi| chapter = AIDS and macroeconomic impact| editor = S, Forsyth (ed.)| pages = 49–55| publisher = IAEN| url = http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACP969.pdf| access-date = 2020-03-28| archive-date = 2012-10-12| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121012090520/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACP969.pdf| dead-url = yes}}</ref> === Dini na UKIMWI === Mada kuhusu dini na UKIMWI imekuwa ikikumbwa na utata mwingi katika miaka thelathini iliyopita, hasa kwa sababu baadhi ya viongozi wa dini wametangaza hadharani kwamba wanapinga utumiaji kondomu.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news-medical.net/health/AIDS-Stigma.aspx |title=AIDS Stigma |publisher=News-medical.net|accessdate=November 1, 2011}}</ref> Mashirika mengine ya dini yamedai kuwa maombi yanatosha kutibu VVU/UKIMWI. Mwaka 2011, BBC iliripoti kuwa baadhi ya makanisa huko [[London]] yalikuwa yakidai kuwa maombi yanatibu UKIMWI. Kituo cha Utafiti wa Afya ya Kiuzazi na VVU cha [[Manispaa ya Hackney, London|Hackney]] kiliripoti kuwa watu wengi waliachma kutumia matibabu, wakati mwingine kwa kushauriwa na [[wachungaji]] wao. Jambo hili lilipelekea vifo vya watu wengi.<ref name=BBC18102011>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-14406818|title=Church HIV prayer cure claims 'cause three deaths'|date=October 18, 2011|accessdate=October 18, 2011|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> [[Synagogue Church Of All Nations]] ilitangaza ''maji ya upako'' ili kuwezesha [[uponyaji]] kutoka kwa [[Mungu]], ingawa ilikana kuwa iliwashauri watu kukoma kutumia matibabu.<ref name=BBC18102011 /> ===Katika vyombo vya habari=== Kimojawapo kati ya visa maarufu zaidi vya UKIMWI kilikuwa cha Mmarekani [[Rock Hudson]], [[muigizaji]] shoga aliyekuwa ameoa kisha kutalaki hapo awali. Hudson alifariki tarehe [[2 Oktoba]] [[1985]] baada ya kutangaza ana VVU tarehe [[25 Julai]] mwaka huohuo. Yeye alikuwa ametambuliwa kuwa na ugonjwa huo mwaka 1984.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/rock-hudson-announces-he-has-aids |title=Rock Hudson announces he has AIDS – History.com This Day in History – 7/25/1985 |publisher=History.com |accessdate=November 1, 2011}}</ref> Mgonjwa mashuhuri kutoka Uingereza mwaka huo alikuwa [[Nicholas Eden]] [[mwanasiasa]] shoga na [[mwana]] wa [[Waziri Mkuu]], [[marehemu]] [[Anthony Eden]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Coleman |first=Brian|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/brian-coleman/2007/06/lady-thatcher-gay-tory |title=Thatcher the gay icon|work=New Statesman |date=June 25, 2007 |accessdate=November 1, 2011}}</ref> Tarehe [[24 Novemba]] [[1991]], virusi hivi vilipelekea kifo cha mwanamuziki wa aina ya [[muziki wa rock]], Mwingereza [[Freddie Mercury]]. Mercury, aliyeongoza [[bendi]] iliyojulikana kama [[Queen (bendi)|Queen]] alifariki kutokana na magonjwa yanayohusiana na UKIMWI baada ya kujulikana kuwa na ugonjwa huo siku iliyopita tu.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/24/newsid_2546000/2546945.stm |title=November 24, 1991: Giant of rock dies |work=BBC On This Day |publisher=BBC News |date= |accessdate=November 1, 2011}}</ref> Hata hivyo, Mercury alikuwa ametambuliwa kuwa na ugonjwa huo mwaka 1987.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/521/000044389/|title=Freddie Mercury |publisher=Nndb.com |accessdate=November 1, 2011}}</ref> Kimojawapo kati ya visa maarufu zaidi vilivyotokana na ngono kati ya watu wa jinsia tofauti ni kile cha [[Arthur Ashe]], [[mchezaji]] [[tenisi]] Mmarekani. Ashe alitambuliwa kuwa na VVU tarehe [[31 Agosti]] [[1988]]; baada ya kuambukizwa alipokuwa akiongezewa damu akifanyiwa [[upasuaji wa moyo]] awali [[miaka ya 1980]]. Vipimo zaidi katika saa 24 baada ya utambuzi wa kwanza vilionyesha kuwa Ashe alikuwa na UKIMWI, lakini hakuwambia watu kuhusu utambuzi huu hadi Aprili [[1992]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Bliss |first=Dominic |url=http://www.itennisstore.com/Tennis-Latest-News/FROZEN-IN-TIME--ARTHUR-ASHE-by-Dominic-Bliss.aspx |title=Frozen In Time: Arthur Ashe |work=iTENNISstore.com |accessdate=June 25, 2012 |archive-date=2013-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730170201/http://www.itennisstore.com/Tennis-Latest-News/FROZEN-IN-TIME--ARTHUR-ASHE-by-Dominic-Bliss.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ashe alifariki kutokana na UKIMWI akiwa na umri wa miaka 49 tarehe [[6 Februari]] [[1993]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/tributes-to-arthur-ashe-1471622.html | title=Tributes to Arthur Ashe | location=London | work=The Independent | date=February 8, 1993 | accessdate=July 24, 2012 | archivedate=2013-03-19 | archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6FEwqou9b?url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/tributes-to-arthur-ashe-1471622.html }}</ref> Picha ya [[Therese Frare]] ikionyesha [[mwanaharakati]] wa ushoga [[David Kirby]] akifariki kutokana na UKIMWI huku akizungukwa na familia yake, ilipigwa Aprili mwaka wa 1990. ''[[LIFE magazine]]'' ilisema kuwa picha hiyo ilikuja kufahamika kama picha ''maarufu zaidi kuwahi kuhusishwa na janga la UKIMWI/VVU.'' Picha hiyo iliyochapishwa na [[gazeti]] hilo ilishinda [[tuzo]] la [[World Press Photo]], kisha kupata umaarufu ulimwenguni kote baada ya kutumiwa na [[Benetton Group|United Colors of Benetton]] katika kampeni ya utangazaji ya mwaka 1992.<ref>{{cite web|last=Cosgrove|first=Ben|title=Behind the Picture: Picha Iliyobadilisha Sura ya Ukimwi|url=http://life.time.com/history/behind-the-picture-the-photo-that-changed-the-face-of-aids/#1|work=LIFE magazine|accessdate=16 August 2012|archivedate=2013-03-19|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6FEws9aLJ?url=http://life.time.com/history/behind-the-picture-the-photo-that-changed-the-face-of-aids/#1|https://www.webcitation.org/6FEws9aLJ?url=http://life.time.com/history/behind-the-picture-the-photo-that-changed-the-face-of-aids/#1|=https://www.webcitation.org/6FEws9aLJ?url=http://life.time.com/history/behind-the-picture-the-photo-that-changed-the-face-of-aids/#1}}</ref> === Ukanushaji, njama na hila === Kikundi kidogo cha watu kingali kinakana uhusiano wa VVU na UKIMWI, <ref name=Duesberg>{{cite journal|author=Duesberg, P. H.| title=HIV is not the cause of AIDS|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1988-07-29_241_4865/page/n9| journal=Science | year=1988 | pages=514, 517 | volume=241 |issue=4865| pmid=3399880 | doi=10.1126/science.3399880|bibcode = 1988Sci...241..514D }}{{cite journal| author=Cohen, J.| title=The Controversy over HIV and AIDS| journal=Science | year=1994 | pages=1642–1649 | volume=266 | issue=5191|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1642a.pdf| format = PDF| doi=10.1126/science.7992043|pmid=7992043| accessdate=2009-03-31 | bibcode=1994Sci...266.1642C}}</ref> uwepo wa VVU au ubora wa vipimo vya VVU na njia za matibabu.<ref name=Kalichman>{{cite book|author=Kalichman, Seth|authorlink=Seth Kalichman|title=Denying AIDS: Njama Nadhira, Itikadi na Msiba wa Mwanadamu|publisher=Copernicus Books ([[Springer Science+Business Media]])|location=New York|year=2009|pages=|isbn=978-0-387-79475-4| url =http://books.google.com/?id=_mtDBCDwxugC&printsec=frontcover&q=}}</ref><ref name=SmithNovella>{{cite journal|author=Smith TC, Novella SP|title=HIV Denial in the Internet Era|journal=PLoS Med.|volume=4|issue=8|pages=e256|year=2007|month=August|pmid=17713982|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040256|url=http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0040256&ct=1&SESSID=3d4baa1a64e57d8ff33e9d41eb2335a1|accessdate=2009-11-07|pmc=1949841|archive-date=2008-05-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506012410/http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0040256&ct=1&SESSID=3d4baa1a64e57d8ff33e9d41eb2335a1|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Madai hayo, yanayojulikana kama [[ukanaji UKIMWI]], yamechunguzwa na kukataliwa na jamii ya kisayansi.<ref name=consensus>{{cite web| author=Various| publisher=[[National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases]]|date=Last updated January 14, 2010|url=http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/HIVAIDS/Understanding/howHIVCausesAIDS/Pages/HIVcausesAIDS.aspx| title= Resources and Links, HIV-AIDS Connection| accessdate = 2009-02-22}}</ref>Hata hivyo, madai hayo yana athari kuu kisiasa, hasa nchini [[Afrika Kusini]]. Hatua ya serikali ya nchi hiyo kukubali kirasmi ukanaji wa UKIMWI ilipelekea mwitikio usiofaa wa janga hili, na imelaumiwa kupelekea visa vingi vya maambukizi ya VVU na mamia ya maelfu ya vifo ambavyo vingeepukwa.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Watson J |title=Scientists, activists sue South Africa's AIDS 'denialists' |journal=Nat. Med. |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=6 |year=2006 |pmid=16397537|doi=10.1038/nm0106-6a}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Baleta A |title=S Africa's AIDS activists accuse government of murder |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2003-03-29_361_9363/page/1104 |journal=Lancet |volume=361 |issue=9363 |page=1105 |year=2003 |pmid=12672319|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12909-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Cohen J |title=South Africa's new enemy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2000-06-23_288_5474/page/2168 |journal=Science |volume=288 |issue=5474 |pages=2168–70 |year=2000 |pmid=10896606|doi=10.1126/science.288.5474.2168}}</ref> [[Urusi]] ulianzisha [[Operesheni INFEKTION]], uhamasisho wa ulimwengu mzima kueneza habari kuwa VVU/UKIMWI ulitengenezwa na Marekani. Takwimu zinaonyesha kuwa idadi kubwa ya watu wanaamini na wanaendelea kuamini madai hayo. Kuna aina nyingi za [[dhana potovu kuhusu VVU na UKIMWI]]. Dhana tatu kuu ni kwamba UKIMWI unaweza kusambazwa kwa kumgusa mtu, kuwa ngono na [[bikira]] itatibu UKIMWI na kuwa VVU vinaweza tu kuambukiza mashoga na watumiaji wa madawa. Dhana nyingine potovu ni kuwa tendo lolote la ngono ya kinyeo kati ya mashoga wasioambukizwa linaweza kupelekea maambukizi.<ref>{{Rejea kitabu| author=Blechner MJ| title=Hope and mortality: psychodynamic approaches to AIDS and HIV| url=https://archive.org/details/hopemortalitypsy0000unse|publisher=Analytic Press| location=Hillsdale, NJ| year=1997| isbn=0-88163-223-6| unused_data=ISBN status=May be invalid– please double check}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida|author=Kirby DB, Laris BA, Rolleri LA |title=Sex and HIV education programs: their impact on sexual behaviors of young people throughout the world |journal=J Adolesc Health |volume=40|issue=3 |pages=206–17 |year=2007|month=March |pmid=17321420 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.11.143 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-adolescent-health_2007-03_40_3/page/206}}</ref> == Tanbihi == {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book | editor1-last = Mandell | editor1-first = Gerald L. | editor2-last = Bennett | editor2-first =John E.| editor3-last = Dolin | editor3-first = Raphael |title=Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases | year=2010 | publisher = Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier | location = Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0-443-06839-3 | edition = 7th }} * {{cite book|author=[[Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS]] (UNAIDS) |title=Global HIV/AIDS Response, Epidemic update and health sector progress towards universal access|year=2011|publisher=Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/20111130_UA_Report_en.pdf}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|AIDS}} * {{Dmoz|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Immune_Disorders/Immune_Deficiency/AIDS/|HIV/AIDS}} * [http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/ AIDSinfo] {{Wayback|url=http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/ |date=20110225133251 }} – HIV/AIDS Treatment Information, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services * [Http://www.who.int/3by5/en/ Shirika la Afya Duniani Mashirika 3 na 5 Initiative] * [Http://www.accessmed-msf.org/index.asp Médecins Sans Frontières: Kampeni ya upatikanaji wa madawa muhimu] {{Wayback|url=http://www.accessmed-msf.org/index.asp |date=20050812004522 }} * [Http://www.who.int/hiv/en/ WHO Mpango wa VVU / UKIMWI] * [Http://www.aegis.org/en/ Elimu UKIMWI Mfumo wa Taarifa za Global] * [Http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ Kutoka Taasisi ya Taifa ya Marekani ya Afya] {{Wayback|url=http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ |date=20210322035857 }} * [Http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/8/749 New England Journal of Medicine Ibara "Ruhusu dhidi ya Wagonjwa? Kurefusha maisha Tiba katika India"] {{Wayback|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/8/749 |date=20090501234727 }} * [Http://www.aidsportal.org AIDSPortal maarifa mtandao] * [http://www.unaids.org/en/ Tovuti ya Shirika la Umoja wa Mataifa la Masuala ya Ukimwi, UNAIDS] {{Wayback|url=http://www.unaids.org/en/ |date=20130210215850 }} * [http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu HIV InSite] {{Wayback|url=http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/ |date=20191213225029 }} * [http://www.sida.fr/ sida.fr • un centre pour les malades du SIDA • infos • tèmoignages • actualités] [[Jamii:Virusi]] [[Jamii:Ukimwi]] nn9a7d8t5qiydu56jvtzlmuynx1t3lh 0 124855 1580283 1529807 2026-07-18T04:51:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580283 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Ytterby_terbiumvagen_gruvvagen.jpg|thumb| Terbiumvägen ''(terbium Road)'' na Gruvvägen ''(Mine Road)'' karibu na mgodi Ytterby ( {{Coord|59.42836|18.35384|type:landmark_region:SE-AB|name=Terbiumvägen / Gruvvägen}} ) ]] '''Ytterby''' ni [[kijiji]] kwenye [[kisiwa]] cha [[Resarö]], katika [[Manispaa]] ya [[Vaxholm]] kwenye [[funguvisiwa]] la [[Stockholm]] nchini [[Uswidi]]. [[Jina]] la kijiji linamaanisha "kijiji cha nje". <ref name="Emsley">{{Rejea kitabu|title=Nature's Building Blocks|last=Emsley|first=John|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=0-19-850341-5|page=496}}</ref> Ytterby ni maarufu kwa sababu katika [[Mgodi|migodi]] yake [[elementi]] [[nane]] zilitambuliwa mara ya kwanza. Elementi nne za [[Ytri]] (Y), Yterbi (Yb), [[Erbi]] (Er) na [[Terbi]] (Tb) zote zimepewa jina la Ytterby. == Ugunduzi wa elementi == Tangu [[miaka ya 1500]] hivi [[felspar]] ilichimbwa hapa kwa ajili ya [[kiwanda]] cha [[kauri]]. Mnamo [[1787]] [[luteni]] [[Carl Axel Arrhenius]] aliyechungulia eneo kwa kupata mahali pa kujenga [[ngome]] alikuta [[jiwe]] jeusi na zito ambalo halikujalikana. <ref name="fort">{{Rejea tovuti|author=Knutson Udd, Lena|title=Ytterby gruva|url=http://fortv.se/Documents/Ytterby%20gruva%20dokumentation%202012%20exkl%20bilaga%20webbversion.pdf|publisher=Fortifikationsverket|accessdate=6 January 2018|language=Swedish|format=pdf|date=2012|archivedate=2018-01-07|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107061900/http://fortv.se/Documents/Ytterby%20gruva%20dokumentation%202012%20exkl%20bilaga%20webbversion.pdf}}</ref> [[Mwaka]] [[1794]] jiwe hilo lilifanyiwa [[utafiti]] na [[mtaalamu]] [[Johan Gadolin]] aliyetambua kwamba sehemu kubwa ilikuwa elementi mpya. [[Mwanakemia]] wa Uswidi [[Anders Gustaf Ekeberg]] alithibitisha ugunduzi huo mwaka uliofuata na akaiita kwa jina la ''Yttria'', na yale madini aliitwa ''Gadoliniti''. <ref>{{Rejea kitabu|title=Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths|last=Krishnamurthy|first=Nagaiyar|date=2015|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781466576384|edition=2nd|pages=2, 839}}</ref> Ndani ya madini ya gadoliniti jumla ya elementi saba ilipatikana. Mbali na [[Ytri]] (Y), [[Yterbi]] (Yb), [[Erbi]] (Er) na [[Terbi]] (Tb), elementi za [[Skandi|Scandi]] ([[Skandinavia]]), [[Holmi]] (Ho, jina la [[Stockholm]]), Thuli (Tm, jina la Thule, kisiwa cha [[kaskazini]] katika [[mitholojia ya Kigiriki]]) ya [[Skandinavia|Scandinavia]]), na [[Gadolini]] (Gd, jina la mvumbuzi Johan Gadolin) zilitambuliwa katika madini ya Ytterbi. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|author=Kean|first=Sam|title=Ytterby: The Tiny Swedish Island That Gave the Periodic Table Four Different Elements|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/elements/features/2010/blogging_the_periodic_table/ytterby_the_tiny_swedish_island_that_gave_the_periodic_table_four_different_elements.html|work=Slate|accessdate=14 November 2016|date=16 July 2010}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www.travelblog.org/Europe/Sweden/Stockholm-County/Vaxholm/Ytterby/blog-793338.html Kuingia kwa blogi kwenye Ytterby] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9QmVM536Ks Ziara ya YouTube ya tovuti ya mgodi] * [https://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&q=59.425956,18.352875 Mahali kwenye Ramani za Google] * [https://www.google.com/maps/@59.4291167,18.3356748,635m/data=!3m1!1e3?hl=en Mtazamo wa Google Earth ya Ytterby] * [http://wordpress.mrreid.org/2012/05/15/what-do-these-elements-have-in-common/ Wavuti ya wavuti &nbsp; - Je! Vitu hivi vinafananaje?]{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} {{mbegu-jio-Uswidi}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Uswidi]] 97gmfzercwj4ju1ux49yi6eo6onsz9c 0 126101 1580126 1421141 2026-07-18T00:22:50Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580126 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:The_Theater_of_Miletus.jpg|thumb|Maghofu ya [[thieta]] ya Mileto.]] '''Mileto''' (kwa [[Kigiriki]] Μῑ́λητος, Mīlētos) kuanzia [[mwaka]] [[1000 KK]] hivi ulikuwa [[mji]] wa [[Wayunani]] huko [[Karia]] kwenye [[mto]] [[Meandro]] unapoishia katika [[Bahari ya Kati]], kwenye [[pwani]] ya [[Uturuki]] wa leo, karibu na [[kijiji]] cha [[Balat]]. Kabla ya [[uvamizi]] wa [[Wapersia]] katikati ya [[karne ya 6 KK]] ulitajwa kuwa mkubwa na [[tajiri]] kuliko miji yote ya [[Wagiriki]]. [[Maghofu]] yake ni kati ya mahali muhimu pa [[akiolojia]]<ref>Olivier Rayet and Thomas, Milet Et Le Golfe Latmique, Fouilles Et Explorations Archeologiques Publ, 1877 (reprint Nabu Press 2010 ISBN 1-141-62992-5</ref><ref>Theodor Wiegand and Julius Hülsen [Das Nymphaeum von Milet, Museen zu Berlin 1919] and Kurt Krausem, Die Milesische Landschaft, Milet II, vol. 2, Schoetz, 1929</ref><ref>Theodor Wiegand et al., Der Latmos, Milet III, vol. 1, G. Reimer, 1913</ref><ref>Carl Weickert, Grabungen in Milet 1938, Bericht über den VI internationalen Kongress für Archäologie, pp. 325-332, 1940</ref><ref>Carl Weickert, Die Ausgrabung beim Athena-Tempel in Milet 1955, Istanbuler Mitteilungen, Deutsche Archaeologische Institut, vol. 7, pp.102-132, 1957</ref><ref>Carl Weickert, Neue Ausgrabungen in Milet, Neue deutsche Ausgrabungen im Mittelmeergebiet und im Vorderen Orient, pp. 181-96, 1959</ref>. [[Mtume Paulo]] alifika huko mwaka [[58]] akakutana na [[viongozi]] wa [[Kanisa]] la mji jirani, [[Efeso]] ([[Mdo]] 20:15–38), ambapo alikaa miaka mitatu na kutoka huko alieneza Ukristo katika [[mkoa wa Asia|mkoa mzima wa Asia]] (Mdo 19:10, 20; [[1Kor]] 16:9). Inawezekana alirudi tena huko miaka [[65]]-[[66]] kwa kuwa aliandika kwamba aliacha huko [[Trofimo]] ([[2Tim]] 4:20), na si katika safari ile ya kwanza (Mdo 21:29). ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== *{{cite book|first=Dora P.|last=Crouch|title=Geology and Settlement: Greco-Roman Patterns|url=https://archive.org/details/geologysettlemen0000crou|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=2004|isbn=9780195083248}} *{{cite book|last=Greaves|first=Alan M.|title=Miletos: A History|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=9780415238465}}''' ''' *{{cite book|last=Gorman|first=Vanessa B. |title=Miletos, the Ornament of Ionia: A History of the City to 400 BCE. |url=https://archive.org/details/miletosornamento0000gorm|year=2001|publisher=Michigan University Press|location=Ann Arbor, MI|isbn=9780472111992}}''' ''' ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131020162924/http://www.muze.gov.tr/miletus-en Official website] *[http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/milet/ Ausgrabungen in Milet] official site of the excavations in Miletus by Ruhr-Universität Bochum *[http://rjohara.net/coins/ Ancient Coins of Miletus] {{Wayback|url=http://rjohara.net/coins/ |date=20200705032932 }} *[https://www.livius.org/articles/place/miletus/? Livius picture archive: Miletus] *[https://pbase.com/dosseman/miletus Some 250 pictures of site and museum] *[http://www.attalus.org/docs/search.html#Miletos Greek Inscriptions of Miletus] in English translation *[http://www.whitman.edu/theatre/theatretour/miletus/miletus.htm The Theatre at Miletus, The Ancient Theatre Archive, Theatre specifications and virtual reality tour of theatre] *{{CathEncy|wstitle=Miletus}} *[http://www.ime.gr/choros/miletus/360vr/en/ Virtual Tour at Ancient Miletus] *[http://turkishtravelblog.com/sacred-path-miletus-turkey-ancient/ Walking the sacred pagan path from Ancient Miletus to Didim] {{Safari za Mtume Paulo}} {{mbegu-jio-Uturuki}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Biblia]] [[Jamii:Miji ya Uturuki]] [[Jamii:Mtume Paulo]] 19i8gop4a36wbyui4xfnuts1ndvj7uo 0 127115 1580253 1527701 2026-07-18T01:53:21Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580253 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Ybc7289-bw.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Mfano wa uchambuzi namba katika [[kigae]] cha [[Babuloni]] [[YBC 7289]] cha miaka 1800–1600 [[KK]] pamoja na ufafanuzi wa kitarakimu.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html |title=Photograph, illustration, and description of the ''root(2)'' tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection |accessdate=2020-06-22 |archivedate=2012-08-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120813054036/http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html }}</ref>]] '''Uchambuzi namba''' ni [[tawi]] la [[hisabati]] linalohusika na ukadiriaji bora wa maeneo ya [[Umbo|maumbo]] katika [[uchambuzi wa kihisabati]]. Ujuzi huo unatumika katika [[sayansi]] zote pamoja na [[uhandisi]], hasa baada ya uenezi wa [[tarakilishi]]. == Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} == Vyanzo == <!-- This template can be used for additional references. * {{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |title= |year= |publisher= |location= |id= }} --> {{refbegin}} *{{cite book |author1 = [[Gene H. Golub|Golub, Gene H.]] |author2 = [[Charles F. Van Loan]] |title=Matrix Computations |edition=3rd |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |ISBN=0-8018-5413-X |year = 1986 }} *{{cite book |first=Nicholas J. |last=Higham |author-link=Nicholas Higham |title = Accuracy and Stability of Numerical Algorithms |url=https://archive.org/details/accuracystabilit0000high |url-access=registration |publisher=Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics |ISBN=0-89871-355-2 |year=1996 }} * {{cite book |last=Hildebrand |first=F. B. |author-link=Francis B. Hildebrand | title=Introduction to Numerical Analysis |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontonu0000hild |edition=2nd |year=1974 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location= |isbn= 0-07-028761-9 }} * {{cite book |last=Leader |first=Jeffery J. |author-link=Jeffery J. Leader |title=Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computation |url=https://archive.org/details/numericalanalysi0000lead |year=2004 |publisher=Addison Wesley |location= |isbn= 0-201-73499-0 }} * {{cite book|last= Wilkinson |first =J.H. |author-link=James H. Wilkinson |title=The Algebraic Eigenvalue Problem |url= https://archive.org/details/algebraiceigenva0000wilk |url-access= registration |publisher = Clarendon Press |year=1965 }} * {{cite conference |last = Kahan |first = W. |author-link= William Kahan |title = A survey of error-analysis |journal = Info. Processing 71 |conference = Proc. IFIP Congress 71 in Ljubljana |volume = vol. 2 |pages = 1214–39 |publisher = North-Holland Publishing |location = Amsterdam |year = 1972 }} (examples of the importance of accurate arithmetic). * [[Lloyd N. Trefethen|Trefethen, Lloyd N.]] (2006). [http://people.maths.ox.ac.uk/trefethen/NAessay.pdf "Numerical analysis"], 20 pages. In: Timothy Gowers and June Barrow-Green (editors), ''Princeton Companion of Mathematics'', Princeton University Press. {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Sister project links| wikt=no|c=Category:Numerical analysis | b=Numerical Methods | n=no | q=Numerical analysis | s=no | v=no | voy=no | species=no | d=no}} ===Majarida=== *[http://www-gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/cgi-bin/digbib.cgi?PPN362160546 gdz.sub.uni-goettingen], ''Numerische Mathematik'', volumes 1-66, Springer, 1959-1994 (searchable; pages are images). {{in lang|en|de}} *''[[Numerische Mathematik]]'', volumes 1-112, Springer, 1959–2009 *''[[Journal on Numerical Analysis]]'', volumes 1-47, SIAM, 1964–2009 ===Vitabu mtandaoni=== *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150905141405/http://www.nr.com/oldverswitcher.html ''Numerical Recipes''], William H. Press (free, downloadable previous editions) *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225082123/http://kr.cs.ait.ac.th/~radok/math/mat7/stepsa.htm ''First Steps in Numerical Analysis''] ([[Internet Archive|archived]]), R.J.Hosking, S.Joe, D.C.Joyce, and J.C.Turner *[http://www.phy.ornl.gov/csep/CSEP/TEXTOC.html ''CSEP'' (Computational Science Education Project)] {{Wayback|url=http://www.phy.ornl.gov/csep/CSEP/TEXTOC.html |date=20170801213333 }}, [[U.S. Department of Energy]] ===Vitini mtandaoni=== *[http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/fdl/people/sd103/lectures/nummeth98/index.htm#L_1_Title_Page Numerical Methods], Stuart Dalziel [[University of Cambridge]] *[http://www.math.upenn.edu/~wilf/DeturckWilf.pdf Lectures on Numerical Analysis], Dennis Deturck and Herbert S. Wilf [[University of Pennsylvania]] *[http://johndfenton.com/Lectures/Numerical-Methods/Numerical-Methods.pdf Numerical methods], John D. Fenton [[University of Karlsruhe]] *[http://www-teaching.physics.ox.ac.uk/computing/NumericalMethods/NMfP.pdf Numerical Methods for Physicists], Anthony O’Hare [[Oxford University]] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225082123/http://kr.cs.ait.ac.th/~radok/math/mat7/stepsa.htm Lectures in Numerical Analysis] ([[Internet Archive|archived]]), R. Radok [[Mahidol University]] *[http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mechanical-engineering/2-993j-introduction-to-numerical-analysis-for-engineering-13-002j-spring-2005/ Introduction to Numerical Analysis for Engineering], Henrik Schmidt [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] *[http://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~dwharder/NumericalAnalysis/ ''Numerical Analysis for Engineering''], D. W. Harder [[University of Waterloo]] {{mbegu-sayansi}} [[Jamii:Hisabati]] 6uwa7zgcuj7eqdk6z9oh4gy4wc3ap5t 0 127727 1579966 1520375 2026-07-17T16:22:09Z ~2026-40206-04 91002 1579966 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox organization | name = Meridian Bet Tanzania | bgcolor = <!-- header background color --> | fgcolor = <!-- header text color --> | image = | size = <!-- default 200px --> | alt = | caption = | abbreviation = | motto = | formation = 2017 | type = [[Kamari]] | status = <!-- ad hoc, treaty, foundation, etc --> | purpose = <!-- focus as e.g. humanitarian, peacekeeping, etc --> | headquarters = [[Tanzania]] | coords = <!-- Coordinates of location using a coordinates template --> | region_served = | membership = | language = <!-- official languages --> | leader_title2 = | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | leader_title5 = | leader_name5 = | patron = | main_organ = <!-- gral. assembly, board of directors, etc --> | parent_organisation = ''Bit Tech Limited'' | budget = | num_staff = | num_volunteers= | website = http://www.meridianbet.co.tz | remarks = | former name = }} '''Meridian Bet Tanzania''' ni waendeshaji wa michezo ya kubahatisha nchini [[Tanzania]]. Kampuni hiyo ina leseni ya kuendesha michezo ya bahati nasibu katika sekta zote za ubashiri, ikiwa ni pamoja na maduka ya kubashiri<ref>[https://help.meridianbet.co.tz/en/category/674/page/3588 madukani]</ref> na ubashiri wa mtandaoni<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=https://meridianbet.co.tz/ |title=mtandaoni |accessdate=2020-07-24 |archivedate=2020-11-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101150908/https://meridianbet.co.tz/ }}</ref><ref name="gbt_sportsbetting">{{Rejea tovuti |url=https://www.gamingboard.go.tz/pages/sports-betting|title=Sports Betting — Licensed Operators|publisher=Gaming Board of Tanzania (GBT)|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref>. Mpaka sasa, Meridian Bet inaendesha shughuli zake katika mikoa yote Tanzania.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bonasi ya 5% Unapojiunga na Meridian Bet Tanzania|url=https://globalpublishers.co.tz/meridianbet-inawajibika-kwa-jamii-afya-na-burudani-vinaenda-bega-kwa-bega/|accessdate=21 July 2020|publisher=globalpublishers.co.tz|date=}}</ref> ==Historia== Meridian Bet Tanzania ilianzishwa mwezi Juni mwaka 2017. Taasisi hii inamilikiwa na kampuni ya Bit Tech Limited, kampuni yenye leseni ya kufanya kazi katika Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania kwa usajili wa namba 135726 kutoka kwa Mamlaka ya Michezo ya Bahati Nasibu Tanzania.<ref name="gbt_sportsbetting" /> Kwa sasa kampuni ya Meridian Bet Tanzania inaendesha biashara zake katika miji takribani yote nchini Tanzania. == Muundo wa Kampuni na Umiliki == Meridian Bet Tanzania inafanya kazi chini ya chapa ya kimataifa ya Meridianbet Group, kampuni ya kubashiri michezo na kasino ya mtandaoni iliyoanzishwa mwaka 2001, ambayo kufikia mwaka 2026 ilikuwa ikifanya kazi katika zaidi ya majimbo/nchi 15 duniani ikiwa na maduka takribani 740 na wafanyakazi wapatao 1,200 kote ulimwenguni.<ref name="stocktitan_10k">{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.stocktitan.net/sec-filings/GMGI/10-k-golden-matrix-group-inc-files-annual-report-75008f4ebb5a.html|title=Meridian Holdings (MRDN) 10-K: reverse split, MeridianBet integration and global betting footprint|publisher=StockTitan|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref> Kampuni mama ya Meridianbet Group ni Meridian Holdings Inc. (zamani ikijulikana kama Golden Matrix Group, Inc.), kampuni inayouzwa hadharani katika soko la hisa la Nasdaq chini ya alama ya hisa "MRDN" tangu tarehe 3 Machi 2026, baada ya kubadili jina na kufanya mgawanyo wa hisa wa aina ya moja-kwa-kumi-na-mbili.<ref name="maltatoday_rebrand2">{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/business/tech/139985/golden_matrix_group_rebrands_to_meridian_holdings_inc|title=Golden Matrix group rebrands to Meridian Holdings Inc.|publisher=MaltaToday|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref> == Mfumo wa biashara == Biashara kubwa ya Meridianbet Tanzania ni ya kuendesha biashara ya Kubashiri Michezo, lakini pia Kasino ya Mtandaoni na Sloti. Imepewa leseni kwa ajili ya Kubashiri kwa Njia ya Ujumbe Mfupi USSD kutoka kwa Mamlaka ya Mawasiliano Tanzania (TCRA).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kubeti Kwa Simu, Mpunga Kiganjani!|url=https://888starz.co.ke/en|work=Meridian Sport|date=2021-09-11|accessdate=2026-07-17|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20210911143439/https://meridianbetsport.co.tz/kubeti-kwa-simu-mpunga-kiganjani-2/|archivedate=2021-09-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Muongozo wa Kubashiri Afrika|url=https://africanbettingguide.com/meridianbet-tanzania/|accessdate=21 July 2020|publisher=africanbettingguide.com|date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723003926/https://africanbettingguide.com/meridianbet-tanzania/|archivedate=2020-07-23}}</ref> == Washirika == Meridian Bet Tanzania ina washirika wengi wa kimataifa, ikiwa ni pamoja na Meridian Gaming ambao hufanya usambazaji wa programu za kubashiri michezo na kasino za mtandaoni kwenye maduka yake na vilevile kwenye mitandao.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Meridianbet Tanzania Review 2021: Is Meridian Bet TZ reliable?|url=http://www.tccia.co.tz/meridianbet/|work=How to Bet on Football: Predictions & Betting Tips - Tccia.co.tz|date=2020-02-03|accessdate=2021-09-11|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="maltatoday_rebrand">{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/business/tech/139985/golden_matrix_group_rebrands_to_meridian_holdings_inc|title=Golden Matrix group rebrands to Meridian Holdings Inc.|publisher=MaltaToday|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref> ==Bidhaa na Huduma== Meridian Bet Tanzania inafanya kazi katika maduka 100 ya kubetisha na vile vile katika tovuti yake ya mtandaoni. Lengo kuu la kampuni hii ni kujikita katika Kubashiri Michezo (kabla ya mechi kuanza na pale zinapokuwa zimeanza) na vile vile kutoa huduma zingine kama vile kasino na odds za mechi kadha wa kadha.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bonasi Kubwa ya TShs milioni 300 kutoka Meridian Bet Tanzania|url=https://soccerbet.co.tz/300-million-mega-jackpot|accessdate=21 July 2020|publisher=soccerbet.co.tz|date=|archivedate=2020-07-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723013002/https://soccerbet.co.tz/300-million-mega-jackpot/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chegere |first=Martin J. |last2=Falco |first2=Paolo |last3=Nieddu |first3=Marco G. |last4=Pandolfi |first4=Lorenzo |last5=Stein |first5=Mattea |date=2025 |title=The Magic of the Game: Experimental Evidence on Sports Betting Behavior |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167268125004184 |journal=Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization |language=en |volume=240 |pages=107301 |doi=10.1016/j.jebo.2025.107301}}</ref> ===Ubashiri wa Mtandaoni=== Licha ya kuendesha michezo ya kubashiri kwa mtandao, Meridian Bet Tanzania pia inaendesha michezo ya kasino ya mtandaoni na aina zingine za michezo ya kubashiri ===Huduma Katika Maeneo Maalumu=== Meridianbet ina mfumo kamilifu wa suluhisho la ubashiri katika maeneo maalumu ya maduka. Hii inafanya kazi kama eneo lililoandaliwa maalumu kwa ajili ya ubashiri salama katika maduka, huku kukiwa na mfumo salama wa uendeshaji, uongozi, ripoti na masuala ya kodi. == Programu ya Apple Watch == Meridian Bet ni waendeshaji wa michezo ya kubashiri wa kwanza kuwapa wateja wake huduma ya programu ya Apple Watch. Programu hii inawasaidia watumiaji kufahamu matokeo moja kwa moja, na kupata taarifa na kufurahia ubashiri moja kwa moja. Apple Watch imeunganishwa moja kwa moja na mfumo wa kampuni wa iOS.<ref name="appstore_meridianbet">{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://apps.apple.com/tz/app/meridianbet-tanzania/id1202653537|title=Meridianbet Tanzania on the App Store|publisher=Apple App Store|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref> == Sera za Ubashiri == Meridian Bet Tanzania ina sera makini za kubashiri kistaarabu ambazo zinatokana na misimamo tajwa hapa chini; * Kulinda dhidi ya uraibu wa michezo ya kubashiri * Kulinda watoto dhidi ya shughuli za ubashiri *Usalama wa wachezaji na makundi maalumu *Usalama wa mchezo ==Huduma kwa Jamii== Kama Kampuni, Meridianbet Tanzania inaamini katika kusaidia na kuinua makundi mabalimbali nchini yenye uhitaji, na wamekuwa wakifanya hivyo. Katika kipindi cha janga la virusi vya korona, Meridianbet iliendelea kushirikiana jamii na kutoa faraja wa makundi maalumu. Meridianbet Tazania imekuwa ikitoa misaada kwa kaya za vijijini<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=MERIDIAN BET YAENDELEA KUTOA MSAADA KWA JAMII, WAOMBWA KUSAIDIA WALIO VIJIJINI - MTAA KWA MTAA BLOG|url=https://www.mtaakwamtaa.co.tz/2021/01/meridian-bet-yaendelea-kutoa-msaada-kwa.html|work=www.mtaakwamtaa.co.tz|accessdate=2021-09-11}}</ref>, wagonjwa mabilimbali<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Meridian Bet yatoa msaada wa vifaa tiba kwa Wanaougua uti wa mgongo nchini|url=http://michuzijr.blogspot.com/2021/03/meridian-bet-yatoa-msaada-wa-vifaa-tiba.html|work=JIACHIE|accessdate=2021-09-11|author=Michuzi Blog}}</ref>, hostpitali<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Meridianbet Yamwaga Misaada Ocean Road Hospital (Picha +Video) - Global Publishers|url=https://globalpublishers.co.tz/meridianbet-yamwaga-misaada-ocean-road-hospital-picha-video/|work=globalpublishers.co.tz|accessdate=2021-09-11}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Hospitali Ya Temeke Kuwa Na Vyumba Sita Vya Upasuaji - Global Publishers|url=https://globalpublishers.co.tz/hospitali-ya-temeke-kuwa-na-vyumba-sita-vya-upasuaji/|work=globalpublishers.co.tz|accessdate=2021-09-11}}</ref>, waathirika wa madawa ya kulevya na makundi mengine muhimu<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Waathirika Dawa za Kulevya Waomba Elimu, Wapokea Msaada wa Meridian Bet - Global Publishers|url=https://globalpublishers.co.tz/waathirika-dawa-za-kulevya-waomba-elimu-wakipokea-msaada-wa-meridian-bet/|work=globalpublishers.co.tz|accessdate=2021-09-11}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Wenye Ualbino Watamani Kujiajiri - Global Publishers|url=https://globalpublishers.co.tz/wenye-ualbino-watamani-kujiajiri/|work=globalpublishers.co.tz|accessdate=2021-09-11}}</ref>. Kampuni pia imekuwa ikiwasaidia wafanyakazi wake katika kuboresha maisha yao na maisha ya familia zao. == Ukuaji Kimataifa == Meridianbet imekuwa na rekodi nzuri ya kujitanua zaidi kuyafikia maeneo mapya moja kwa moja au kwa uwakilishi kupitia mfumo wake wa biashara. Meridianbet inatazama fursa za kufanya kazi na nchi zenye uthibiti na pale ambapo fursa za kutokuwepo udhibiti zinatokea. ==Soma pia== * [[Kamari]] ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} ==Kiungo cha nje== * [http://www.meridianbet.co.tz/ Meridian Bet Tanzania tovuti] {{Wayback|url=http://www.meridianbet.co.tz/ |date=20201101150908 }} [[Jamii:Kampuni za Tanzania]] qg7mw87urt6zq4zm2vhnfzjl101thk4 1580010 1579966 2026-07-17T21:08:05Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 Boti Replaced Cite web->Rejea tovuti, Cite journal->Rejea jarida, Cite book->Rejea kitabu, Cite news->Rejea habari; 2 template(s) replaced. 1580010 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox organization | name = Meridian Bet Tanzania | bgcolor = <!-- header background color --> | fgcolor = <!-- header text color --> | image = | size = <!-- default 200px --> | alt = | caption = | abbreviation = | motto = | formation = 2017 | type = [[Kamari]] | status = <!-- ad hoc, treaty, foundation, etc --> | purpose = <!-- focus as e.g. humanitarian, peacekeeping, etc --> | headquarters = [[Tanzania]] | coords = <!-- Coordinates of location using a coordinates template --> | region_served = | membership = | language = <!-- official languages --> | leader_title2 = | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = | leader_title4 = | leader_name4 = | leader_title5 = | leader_name5 = | patron = | main_organ = <!-- gral. assembly, board of directors, etc --> | parent_organisation = ''Bit Tech Limited'' | budget = | num_staff = | num_volunteers= | website = http://www.meridianbet.co.tz | remarks = | former name = }} '''Meridian Bet Tanzania''' ni waendeshaji wa michezo ya kubahatisha nchini [[Tanzania]]. Kampuni hiyo ina leseni ya kuendesha michezo ya bahati nasibu katika sekta zote za ubashiri, ikiwa ni pamoja na maduka ya kubashiri<ref>[https://help.meridianbet.co.tz/en/category/674/page/3588 madukani]</ref> na ubashiri wa mtandaoni<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=https://meridianbet.co.tz/ |title=mtandaoni |accessdate=2020-07-24 |archivedate=2020-11-01 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101150908/https://meridianbet.co.tz/ }}</ref><ref name="gbt_sportsbetting">{{Rejea tovuti |url=https://www.gamingboard.go.tz/pages/sports-betting|title=Sports Betting — Licensed Operators|publisher=Gaming Board of Tanzania (GBT)|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref>. Mpaka sasa, Meridian Bet inaendesha shughuli zake katika mikoa yote Tanzania.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bonasi ya 5% Unapojiunga na Meridian Bet Tanzania|url=https://globalpublishers.co.tz/meridianbet-inawajibika-kwa-jamii-afya-na-burudani-vinaenda-bega-kwa-bega/|accessdate=21 July 2020|publisher=globalpublishers.co.tz|date=}}</ref> ==Historia== Meridian Bet Tanzania ilianzishwa mwezi Juni mwaka 2017. Taasisi hii inamilikiwa na kampuni ya Bit Tech Limited, kampuni yenye leseni ya kufanya kazi katika Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania kwa usajili wa namba 135726 kutoka kwa Mamlaka ya Michezo ya Bahati Nasibu Tanzania.<ref name="gbt_sportsbetting" /> Kwa sasa kampuni ya Meridian Bet Tanzania inaendesha biashara zake katika miji takribani yote nchini Tanzania. == Muundo wa Kampuni na Umiliki == Meridian Bet Tanzania inafanya kazi chini ya chapa ya kimataifa ya Meridianbet Group, kampuni ya kubashiri michezo na kasino ya mtandaoni iliyoanzishwa mwaka 2001, ambayo kufikia mwaka 2026 ilikuwa ikifanya kazi katika zaidi ya majimbo/nchi 15 duniani ikiwa na maduka takribani 740 na wafanyakazi wapatao 1,200 kote ulimwenguni.<ref name="stocktitan_10k">{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.stocktitan.net/sec-filings/GMGI/10-k-golden-matrix-group-inc-files-annual-report-75008f4ebb5a.html|title=Meridian Holdings (MRDN) 10-K: reverse split, MeridianBet integration and global betting footprint|publisher=StockTitan|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref> Kampuni mama ya Meridianbet Group ni Meridian Holdings Inc. (zamani ikijulikana kama Golden Matrix Group, Inc.), kampuni inayouzwa hadharani katika soko la hisa la Nasdaq chini ya alama ya hisa "MRDN" tangu tarehe 3 Machi 2026, baada ya kubadili jina na kufanya mgawanyo wa hisa wa aina ya moja-kwa-kumi-na-mbili.<ref name="maltatoday_rebrand2">{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/business/tech/139985/golden_matrix_group_rebrands_to_meridian_holdings_inc|title=Golden Matrix group rebrands to Meridian Holdings Inc.|publisher=MaltaToday|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref> == Mfumo wa biashara == Biashara kubwa ya Meridianbet Tanzania ni ya kuendesha biashara ya Kubashiri Michezo, lakini pia Kasino ya Mtandaoni na Sloti. Imepewa leseni kwa ajili ya Kubashiri kwa Njia ya Ujumbe Mfupi USSD kutoka kwa Mamlaka ya Mawasiliano Tanzania (TCRA).<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Kubeti Kwa Simu, Mpunga Kiganjani!|url=https://888starz.co.ke/en|work=Meridian Sport|date=2021-09-11|accessdate=2026-07-17|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20210911143439/https://meridianbetsport.co.tz/kubeti-kwa-simu-mpunga-kiganjani-2/|archivedate=2021-09-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Muongozo wa Kubashiri Afrika|url=https://africanbettingguide.com/meridianbet-tanzania/|accessdate=21 July 2020|publisher=africanbettingguide.com|date=|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723003926/https://africanbettingguide.com/meridianbet-tanzania/|archivedate=2020-07-23}}</ref> == Washirika == Meridian Bet Tanzania ina washirika wengi wa kimataifa, ikiwa ni pamoja na Meridian Gaming ambao hufanya usambazaji wa programu za kubashiri michezo na kasino za mtandaoni kwenye maduka yake na vilevile kwenye mitandao.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Meridianbet Tanzania Review 2021: Is Meridian Bet TZ reliable?|url=http://www.tccia.co.tz/meridianbet/|work=How to Bet on Football: Predictions & Betting Tips - Tccia.co.tz|date=2020-02-03|accessdate=2021-09-11|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="maltatoday_rebrand">{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.maltatoday.com.mt/business/tech/139985/golden_matrix_group_rebrands_to_meridian_holdings_inc|title=Golden Matrix group rebrands to Meridian Holdings Inc.|publisher=MaltaToday|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref> ==Bidhaa na Huduma== Meridian Bet Tanzania inafanya kazi katika maduka 100 ya kubetisha na vile vile katika tovuti yake ya mtandaoni. Lengo kuu la kampuni hii ni kujikita katika Kubashiri Michezo (kabla ya mechi kuanza na pale zinapokuwa zimeanza) na vile vile kutoa huduma zingine kama vile kasino na odds za mechi kadha wa kadha.<ref>{{cite news|title=Bonasi Kubwa ya TShs milioni 300 kutoka Meridian Bet Tanzania|url=https://soccerbet.co.tz/300-million-mega-jackpot|accessdate=21 July 2020|publisher=soccerbet.co.tz|date=|archivedate=2020-07-23|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723013002/https://soccerbet.co.tz/300-million-mega-jackpot/}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida |last=Chegere |first=Martin J. |last2=Falco |first2=Paolo |last3=Nieddu |first3=Marco G. |last4=Pandolfi |first4=Lorenzo |last5=Stein |first5=Mattea |date=2025 |title=The Magic of the Game: Experimental Evidence on Sports Betting Behavior |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167268125004184 |journal=Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization |language=en |volume=240 |pages=107301 |doi=10.1016/j.jebo.2025.107301}}</ref> ===Ubashiri wa Mtandaoni=== Licha ya kuendesha michezo ya kubashiri kwa mtandao, Meridian Bet Tanzania pia inaendesha michezo ya kasino ya mtandaoni na aina zingine za michezo ya kubashiri ===Huduma Katika Maeneo Maalumu=== Meridianbet ina mfumo kamilifu wa suluhisho la ubashiri katika maeneo maalumu ya maduka. Hii inafanya kazi kama eneo lililoandaliwa maalumu kwa ajili ya ubashiri salama katika maduka, huku kukiwa na mfumo salama wa uendeshaji, uongozi, ripoti na masuala ya kodi. == Programu ya Apple Watch == Meridian Bet ni waendeshaji wa michezo ya kubashiri wa kwanza kuwapa wateja wake huduma ya programu ya Apple Watch. Programu hii inawasaidia watumiaji kufahamu matokeo moja kwa moja, na kupata taarifa na kufurahia ubashiri moja kwa moja. Apple Watch imeunganishwa moja kwa moja na mfumo wa kampuni wa iOS.<ref name="appstore_meridianbet">{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://apps.apple.com/tz/app/meridianbet-tanzania/id1202653537|title=Meridianbet Tanzania on the App Store|publisher=Apple App Store|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref> == Sera za Ubashiri == Meridian Bet Tanzania ina sera makini za kubashiri kistaarabu ambazo zinatokana na misimamo tajwa hapa chini; * Kulinda dhidi ya uraibu wa michezo ya kubashiri * Kulinda watoto dhidi ya shughuli za ubashiri *Usalama wa wachezaji na makundi maalumu *Usalama wa mchezo ==Huduma kwa Jamii== Kama Kampuni, Meridianbet Tanzania inaamini katika kusaidia na kuinua makundi mabalimbali nchini yenye uhitaji, na wamekuwa wakifanya hivyo. Katika kipindi cha janga la virusi vya korona, Meridianbet iliendelea kushirikiana jamii na kutoa faraja wa makundi maalumu. Meridianbet Tazania imekuwa ikitoa misaada kwa kaya za vijijini<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=MERIDIAN BET YAENDELEA KUTOA MSAADA KWA JAMII, WAOMBWA KUSAIDIA WALIO VIJIJINI - MTAA KWA MTAA BLOG|url=https://www.mtaakwamtaa.co.tz/2021/01/meridian-bet-yaendelea-kutoa-msaada-kwa.html|work=www.mtaakwamtaa.co.tz|accessdate=2021-09-11}}</ref>, wagonjwa mabilimbali<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Meridian Bet yatoa msaada wa vifaa tiba kwa Wanaougua uti wa mgongo nchini|url=http://michuzijr.blogspot.com/2021/03/meridian-bet-yatoa-msaada-wa-vifaa-tiba.html|work=JIACHIE|accessdate=2021-09-11|author=Michuzi Blog}}</ref>, hostpitali<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Meridianbet Yamwaga Misaada Ocean Road Hospital (Picha +Video) - Global Publishers|url=https://globalpublishers.co.tz/meridianbet-yamwaga-misaada-ocean-road-hospital-picha-video/|work=globalpublishers.co.tz|accessdate=2021-09-11}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Hospitali Ya Temeke Kuwa Na Vyumba Sita Vya Upasuaji - Global Publishers|url=https://globalpublishers.co.tz/hospitali-ya-temeke-kuwa-na-vyumba-sita-vya-upasuaji/|work=globalpublishers.co.tz|accessdate=2021-09-11}}</ref>, waathirika wa madawa ya kulevya na makundi mengine muhimu<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Waathirika Dawa za Kulevya Waomba Elimu, Wapokea Msaada wa Meridian Bet - Global Publishers|url=https://globalpublishers.co.tz/waathirika-dawa-za-kulevya-waomba-elimu-wakipokea-msaada-wa-meridian-bet/|work=globalpublishers.co.tz|accessdate=2021-09-11}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Wenye Ualbino Watamani Kujiajiri - Global Publishers|url=https://globalpublishers.co.tz/wenye-ualbino-watamani-kujiajiri/|work=globalpublishers.co.tz|accessdate=2021-09-11}}</ref>. Kampuni pia imekuwa ikiwasaidia wafanyakazi wake katika kuboresha maisha yao na maisha ya familia zao. == Ukuaji Kimataifa == Meridianbet imekuwa na rekodi nzuri ya kujitanua zaidi kuyafikia maeneo mapya moja kwa moja au kwa uwakilishi kupitia mfumo wake wa biashara. Meridianbet inatazama fursa za kufanya kazi na nchi zenye uthibiti na pale ambapo fursa za kutokuwepo udhibiti zinatokea. ==Soma pia== * [[Kamari]] ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} ==Kiungo cha nje== * [http://www.meridianbet.co.tz/ Meridian Bet Tanzania tovuti] {{Wayback|url=http://www.meridianbet.co.tz/ |date=20201101150908 }} [[Jamii:Kampuni za Tanzania]] 5w0bsp3tidtp9uwkswfvbshf9ziy2xu 0 129230 1580241 1536310 2026-07-18T01:42:38Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580241 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Arles,St Césaire27,choeur7,St Césaire (cropped).jpg|thumb|Sanamu yake huko [[Arles]].]] '''Sesari wa Arles''' ([[468]]/[[470]] – [[27 Agosti]] [[542]]) alikuwa [[mmonaki]] huko [[Lerins]], halafu [[Askofu mkuu]] wa [[Arles]] ([[Ufaransa]]) miaka [[502]] - [[542]].<ref>{{Rejea kitabu|title = Fastes épiscopaux de l'ancienne Gaule|url = http://archive.org/details/fastespiscopauxd01duch|publisher = Paris, Fontemoing, pp. 257-259.|date = 1907|first = Louis|last = Duchesne}}</ref> Ingawa hakutaka kwanza kukubali [[cheo]] hicho, alijitokeza kuwa [[askofu]] bora wa nchi hiyo katika [[karne ya 6]] akaacha [[maandishi]] mengi<ref>Arthur Malnory, ''Saint Cesaire Évêque d'Arles (503-543)'', 1894 (présentation en ligne) Éditions: G. Morin, Corp. christ. 103-104 (1953). Traductions françaises : A. de Vogüé - J. Courreau, Sources chrétiennes 345 (1988, * Œuvres monastiques, M.-J. Delage, Sources chrétiennes 175, 243 (1971, 1978, Sermons au peuple).</ref><ref name="WEK">William E. Klingshirn: ''Caesarius of Arles : The Making of a Christian Community in Late Antique Gaul'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 1994).</ref><ref>Césaire d'Arles et la christianisation de la Provence, Actes des journées « Césaire » (3-5 novembre 1988, 22 avril 1989), par D. Bertrand, M.-J. Delage, P.-. Février, J. Guyon, A. de Vogüé, Éditions du Cerf, 1994</ref>, zikiwemo [[hotuba]] zaidi ya 250 ambazo zisomwe na [[Upadri|mapadri]] wakati wa kutoa [[katekesi]] kwa waumini na zilihusu hasa [[maadili]] katika jitihada zake za kufanya [[walei]] pia wafuate [[maisha ya kiroho]] kama [[wamonaki]]<ref>{{cite book|author=De Maeyer N., Partoens G.|title=Preaching in the Patristic Era: Sermons, Preachers, and Audiences in the Latin West|chapter=Preaching in Sixth-Century Arles. The Sermons of Bishop Caesarius|location=Cambridge|publisher=BRILL|year=2018|isbn=9789004363564|pages=198—231|url=https://books.google.nl/books?id=_mZjDwAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/67750</ref>. Ndiye aliyesimamia [[mtaguso wa Orange]] wa [[mwaka]] [[529]], ambao maamuzi yake yameeneza athari ya [[Augustino wa Hippo]] katika mafundisho ya [[Kanisa la Kilatini]] kuhusu [[neema]] ya [[Mungu]]<ref>The most important local council over which Caesarius presided was that of [[Councils of Orange (529)|Orange]] (529). Its statements on the subject of grace and free agency have been eulogized by modern historians (see, e.g., Canon Bright, ''Church History'', ch. xi. ad fin.). The following propositions are laid down in the Council of Orange's canon 25: :"This also do we believe, in accordance with the Catholic faith, that after grace received through baptism, all the baptized are able and ought, with the aid and co-operation of Christ, to fulfil all duties needful for salvation, provided they are willing to labour faithfully. But that some men have been predestinated to evil by divine power, we not only do not believe, but if there be those who are willing to believe so evil a thing, we say to them with all abhorrence anathema. This also do we profess and believe to our soul's health, that in every good work, it is not we who begin, and are afterwards assisted by Divine mercy, but that God Himself, with no preceding merits on our part, first inspires within us faith and love."</ref>. Pia ndiye wa kwanza katika [[Ukristo wa Magharibi]] kuandika [[kanuni]] ya kitawa kwa [[wanawake]] ([[512]]) ili kuwaongoza katima maisha ya kimonaki, mbali na ile kwa [[wanaume]] <ref>Caesarius of Arles, ''[http://earlymedievalmonasticism.org/texts/Caesarius-Regula-ad-virgines.html Regula ad virgines]'' and ''[http://earlymedievalmonasticism.org/texts/Caesarius-Regula-ad-monachos.html Regula ad monachos]'' on Monastic Manuscript Project</ref>. Tangu kale anaheshimiwa na [[Kanisa Katoliki]] na [[Waorthodoksi]] kama [[mtakatifu]] na [[babu wa Kanisa]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa tarehe ya [[kifo]] chake.<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref> ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] *[[Mababu wa Kanisa]] == Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} == Vyanzo == Maisha: * Life of Caesarius of Arles (''VIta Caesarii Arelatensis''), by Bishop [[Cyprian of Toulon]] and others, ed. by [http://www.dmgh.de/de/fs1/object/goToPage/bsb00000750.html?pageNo=433&sortIndex=010%3A020%3A0003%3A010%3A00%3A00 Bruno Krusch, ''Monumenta Germaniae Historica'', vol. 3, Hannover: Hahn 1896, pp. 433-501] {{Wayback|url=http://www.dmgh.de/de/fs1/object/goToPage/bsb00000750.html?pageNo=433&sortIndex=010%3A020%3A0003%3A010%3A00%3A00 |date=20160306050951 }}, English translation by William Klingshirn, ''Caesarius of Arles: Life, Testament, Letters'', Liverpool: Liverpool University Press 1994 (Translated Texts for Historians, vol. 19), pp.&nbsp;1–70. Maandishi: * ''Sermons'', ed. by German Morin, ''Corpus Christianorum Series Latina'', vol. 103-104, Turnhout: Brepols 1953, English translation by Magdeleine Mueller, ''Caesarius of Arles, Sermons'', 3 vols., Washington D.C.: Catholic University of America Press 1956-73 (The Fathers of the Church, vol. 31, 47, 66). * ''Rule for nuns'', ed. by Adalbert de Vogüé and Joël Courreau, ''Sources Chrétiennes'', vol. 345, Paris: Cerf 1988, pp.&nbsp;170–272, English translation by Maria Caritas McCarthy, Washington D.C.: Catholic University of America Press 1960. * ''Rule for monks'', ed. by Adalbert de Vogüé and Joël Courreau, ''Sources Chrétiennes'', vol. 398, Paris: Cerf 1994, pp.&nbsp;204–226 (not yet translated into English). * ''Testament'', ed. by Joël Courreau and Adalbert de Vogüé, SC 345, pp.&nbsp;360–396, English translation in Klingshirn, ''Caesarius of Arles: Life, Testament, Letters'', pp.&nbsp;71–76. * ''Letters'', transl. by William E. Klingshirn, ''Caesarius of Arles: Life, Testament, Letters'', Liverpool 1994 (Translated Texts for Historians, vol. 19). Vyanzo vingine: * Acts of Councils in Gaul, in ''Concilia Galliae'', vol. 2: ''a. 511-a. 695'', ed. by Charles de Clercq, ''Corpus Christianorum Series Latina'', vol. 148a, Turnhout: Brepols 1963 (not translated into English). ==Marejeo== * Arbesmann, Rudolph. 1979. "The "cervuli" and "anniculae" in Caesarius of Arles." ''Traditio: Studies in Ancient and Medieval History, Thought, and Religion'' 35: 89-119. * Delcogliano, Mark. 2006. "Caesarius of Arles: On living in the community." ''Cistercian Studies Quarterly'' 41: 17-30. * Diem, Albrecht, ‘ ...ut si professus fuerit se omnia impleturum, tunc excipiatur. Observations on the Rules for Monks and Nuns of Caesarius and Aurelianus of Arles’, in: Victoria Zimmerl-Panagl, Lukas J. Dorfbauer and Clemens Weidmann (eds.), ''Edition und Erforschung lateinischer patristischer Texte. 150 Jahre CSEL. Festschrift für Kurt Smolak zum 70. Geburtstag'', Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter 2014, pp.&nbsp;191–224. * Ferreiro, Alberto. 1992. ""Frequenter legere": the propagation of literacy, education, and Divine Wisdom in Caesarius of Arles." ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 43: 5-15. A discussion of his homilies. * Klingshirn, William E. Caesarius of Arles: Life, Testament, Letters. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1994. * Klingshirn, William E. "Charity and Power: Caesarius of Arles and the Ransoming of Captives in Sub-Roman Gaul;" ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 75 (1985): 183-203. * Leyser, Conrad ''Authority and Asceticism from Augustine to Gregory the Great'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000). * Markus, Robert Austin, ''The End of Ancient Christianity'', (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1990). * Rudge, Lindsay. "Texts and Contexts: Women's Dedicated Life from Caesarius to Benedict." PhD diss., University of St. Andrews, 2006. * {{cite journal |author = Bailey L. K. |editor= |format= |url= https://muse.jhu.edu/article/211046 |title= "These Are Not Men": Sex and Drink in the Sermons of Caesarius of Arles |type= |origyear= | agency = |edition= Journal of Early Christian Studies |location= |date= 2007 |year= 2007 |publisher= |at= |volume= 15 |issue= |number= 1|pages = 23—43 |page= |series= |isbn = |issn = |doi = 10.1353/earl.2007.0011 |bibcode = |arxiv = |pmid = |ref= Bailey |language= |quote= }} * {{cite journal |author = Daly William M. |editor= |format= |url= http://www.jstor.org/stable/27830892 |title= Caesarius of Arles, a Precursor of Medieval Christendom |type= |origyear= | agency = |edition= Traditio: Studies in Ancient and Medieval History, Thought, and Religion |location= |date= 1970 |year= 1970 |publisher= |at= |volume= 26 |issue= |number= |pages = 1—28 |page= |series= |isbn = |issn = |doi = |bibcode = |arxiv = |pmid = |ref= Daly |language= |quote= }} * {{cite book| author = De Maeyer N., Partoens G. | chapter = Preaching in Sixth-Century Arles. The Sermons of Bishop Caesarius| chapter-url = | format = | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_mZjDwAAQBAJ | title = Preaching in the Patristic Era: Sermons, Preachers, and Audiences in the Latin West | orig-year = | agency = | edition = |location= Cambridge |date = 2018 |publisher= BRILL |at= |volume= |issue = | pages = 198—231| page = | series = | isbn = 9789004363564| ref = De Maeyer, Partoens}} * {{cite book| author = Klingshirn William E. | chapter = | chapter-url = | format = | url =https://archive.org/details/caesariusofarles0000klin| title = Caesarius of Arles: The Making of a Christian Community in Late antique Gaul | orig-year = | agency = | edition = |location= Cambridge |date = 1994 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |at= |volume= |issue = | pages = | page = | series = | isbn = | ref = }} * {{cite book| author = Mathisen R. W. | chapter = Caesarius of Arles, Prevenient Grace, and the Second Council of Orange| chapter-url = | format = | url = | title = Grace for Grace. The Dabates after Augustine and Pelagius | orig-year = | agency = | edition = |location= |date = 2014 |publisher= The Catholic university of America Press |at= |volume= |issue = | pages = 208—234| page = | series = | isbn = 978-0-8132-2601-9| ref = Mathisen}} * {{cite journal |author = Shuler E. |editor= |format= |url= https://muse.jhu.edu/article/516523 |title= Caesarius of Arles and the Development of the Ecclesiastical Tithe: From a Theology of Almsgiving to Practical Obligations |type= |origyear= | agency = |edition= Traditio |location= |date= 2012 |year= 2012 |publisher= |at= |volume= 67 |issue= |number= |pages = 43—69 |page= |series= |isbn = |issn = |doi = 10.1353/trd.2012.0006 |bibcode = |arxiv = |pmid = |ref= Shuler |language= |quote= }} * {{cite book| author = Weaver R. H. | chapter = | chapter-url = | format = | url =https://archive.org/details/divinegracehuman0000weav| title = Divine Grace and human Agency. A Study of Semi-Pelagian Controversy | orig-year = | agency = | edition = |location= |date = 1996 |publisher= Mercer University Press |at= |volume= |issue = | pages = | page = | series = | isbn = 0-86554-619-3| ref = Weaver}} * {{cite book| author = Arnold C. F. | chapter = | chapter-url = | format = | url = https://archive.org/details/caesariusvonare00arnogoog | title = Caesarius von Arelate und die gallische Kirche seiner Zeit | orig-year = | agency = | edition = |location= Leipzig |date = 1894 |publisher= |at= |volume= |issue = | pages = | page = | series = | isbn = | ref = Arnold}} * {{cite journal |author = Bardy G. |editor= |format= |url= https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhef_0300-9505_1943_num_29_116_2962 |title= La prédication de saint Césaire d'Arles |type= |origyear= | agency = |edition= Revue d'histoire de l'Église de France |location= |date= 1943 |year= 1943 |publisher= |at= |volume= 116 |issue= |number= |pages = 201—236 |page= |series= |isbn = |issn = |doi = |bibcode = |arxiv = |pmid = |ref= Bardy |language= |quote= }} * {{cite journal |author = Benoit F. |editor= |format= |url= |title= La tombe de saint Césaire d'Arles et sa restauration en 883 |type= |origyear= | agency = |edition= Bulletin Monumental |location= |date= 1935 |year= 1935 |publisher= |at= |volume= 94 |issue= |number= 2|pages = 137—143 |page= |series= |isbn = |issn = |doi = 10.3406/bulmo.1935.8476 |bibcode = |arxiv = |pmid = |ref= Benoit |language= |quote= }} * {{cite journal |author = Fritz G. |editor= |format= |url= |title= Orange (deuxième concile d') |type= |origyear= | agency = |edition= Dictionnaire de théologie catholique |location= |date= 1931 |year= 1931 |publisher= |at= |volume= XI |issue= |number= 1|pages = 1087—1103 |page= |series= |isbn = |issn = |doi = |bibcode = |arxiv = |pmid = |ref= Fritz |language= |quote= }} * {{cite book| author = Lejay P. | chapter = | chapter-url = | format = | url = https://archive.org/details/lerlethologi00leja | title = Le rôle théologique de Césaire d'Arles: étude sur l'histoire du dogme chrétien en Occident au temps des royaumes barbares | orig-year = | agency = | edition = |location= Paris |date = 1906 |publisher= |at= |volume= |issue = | pages = | page = | series = | isbn = | ref = Lejay}} * {{cite book| author = Malnory Arthur | chapter = | chapter-url = | format = | url = https://archive.org/details/SaintCesaire | title = Saint Césaire, évêque d'Arles | orig-year = | agency = | edition = |location= Paris |date = 1894 |publisher= |at= |volume= |issue = | pages = | page = | series = | isbn = | ref = }} == Viungo vya nje == {{commons category|Caesarius of Arles}} * [http://earlymedievalmonasticism.org/texts/Regula-Aureliani-ad-monachos.html Aurelianus' Rule for Monks on Monastic Manuscript Project] * [http://earlymedievalmonasticism.org/texts/Regula-Aureliani-ad-virgines Aurelianus' Rule for Nuns on Monastic Manuscript Project] {{Wayback|url=http://earlymedievalmonasticism.org/texts/Regula-Aureliani-ad-virgines |date=20160819230659 }} * {{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia|last=Shahan|first=Thomas|wstitle=St. Caesarius of Arles|volume=3}} * [https://books.google.com/books?id=pG4I3Yq-WrMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=bishop+of+arles,+caesarius&hl=en&ei=mkHHTPbMKoWdlgfqrNyCAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=bishop%20of%20arles%2C%20caesarius&f=false "Caesarius of Arles: Life, Testaments, Letters] * [https://books.google.com/books?id=W26Akd4ep10C&printsec=frontcover&dq=caesarius+of+arles&hl=en&ei=xkHHTPvUKYWfOvPN0fQB&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false "Caesarius of Arles: The Making of a Christian Community in Late Antique Gaul"] * [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/04z/z_0468-0542__Caesarius_Arelatensis_Episcopus__Sermones__MLT.pdf.html Sermons (Latin)] [[Category:Waliozaliwa 470]] [[Category:Waliofariki 542]] [[Jamii:Wamonaki]] [[Jamii:watawa waanzilishi]] [[Category:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:Mababu wa Kanisa]] f4vev3u3d905rdr5qblbit55kuihdru 0 130767 1580183 1534221 2026-07-18T00:59:41Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580183 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Brébuef-jesuits04jesuuoft.jpg|thumb|Mt. Yohane alivyochorwa.]] [[image:North American Martyrs.jpg|200px|thumb|Wajesuiti [[wafiadini]] wa [[Amerika Kaskazini]].]] '''Yohane wa Brebeuf''', [[S.J.]] ([[Condé-sur-Vire]], [[Normandy]], [[Ufaransa]] [[25 Machi]] [[1593]] &ndash; karibu na [[Midland, Ontario]], [[Kanada]], [[16 Machi]] [[1649]]) alikuwa [[padri]] wa [[Wajesuiti]] [[mmisionari]] kwa [[Wahuroni]] wa [[Amerika Kaskazini]] tangu [[mwaka]] [[1625]] (isipokuwa [[1629]] - [[1633]])<ref>[http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/brebeuf_jean_de_1E.html Dictionary of Canadian Biography Jean de Brébeuf]</ref>. Alikamatwa pamoja na [[Waindio]] hao, akateswa kikatili sana akauawa na [[Wairoki]], [[kabila]] lingine la Waindio<ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/92013</ref>. Alitangazwa na [[Papa Pius XI]] kuwa [[mwenye heri]] [[tarehe]] [[21 Juni]] [[1925]], na kuwa [[mtakatifu]] tarehe [[29 Juni]] [[1930]]<ref>[https://saltandlighttv.org/blogfeed/getpost.php?id=51412 St. Jean de Brébeuf: Canadian Martyr]</ref>. [[Sikukuu]] ya [[kundi]] lake <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/29700</ref> la [[wafiadini]] huadhimishwa tarehe [[19 Oktoba]], lakini ya kwake mwenyewe huadhimishwa tarehe ya [[kifodini]] chake<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo ya Kiswahili== * Masomo ya Breviari - Sikukuu za Bwana, za Bikira Maria na za Watakatifu - Ndanda Mission Press 1978, uk 388-390 * John Kabeya na wengine - Maisha ya Watakatifu – ed. T.M.P. Book Department – Tabora 1965, 1989, uk. 363-364 == Marejeo ya lugha nyingine== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |first=Carol |last=Blackburn |title=Harvest of Souls: The Jesuit Missions and Colonialism in North America, 1632–1650 |url={{google books|flS0Qh6qxf8C |plainurl=yes |page=88}} |location=Montréal |publisher=McGill–Queens University Press |date=2000 |isbn=0-7735-2047-3|}} * {{cite book |last=Brébeuf |first=J. |chapter=The Mission to the Hurons (1635–37) |editor-first=C.G. |editor-last=Calloway |title=First People: A Documentary of American Indian History |url=https://archive.org/details/firstpeoplesdocu0000call_u6u6 |edition=3rd |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Bedford |isbn=978-0-3126-5362-0 |date=2008 |}} * {{cite book |last=Gray |first=Charlotte |title=The Museum Called Canada: 25 Rooms of Wonder |publisher=Random House |date=2004 |isbn=0-6793-1220-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/museumcalledcana00gray}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Greer |editor-first=Allan |title=The Jesuit Relations: Natives and Missionaries in Seventeenth-Century North America |url=https://archive.org/details/jesuitrelationsn0000alla |location=Boston |publisher=Bedford/St. Martins |date=2000 |isbn=0-3122-2744-2}} * {{cite journal |last=Greer |first=Allan |title=Colonial Saints: Gender, Race and Hagiography in New France |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_william-and-mary-quarterly_2000-04_57_2/page/323 |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |publisher=Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture |date=April 2000 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=323–348 |doi=10.2307/2674478 |jstor=2674478 |ref={{sfnRef|Greer|April 2000}} }} * {{cite journal |last=Leahey |first=Margaret J. |title='Comment peut un muet prescher l'évangile' Jesuit Missionaries and the Native Languages of New France |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_french-historical-studies_spring-1995_19_1/page/105 |journal=French Historical Studies |publisher=Duke University Press |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=105–131 |date=1995 |jstor=286901 |doi=10.2307/286901 |}} * {{cite book |last=McGee |first=Timothy J. |title=The Music of Canada |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |date=1985 |isbn=0-393-02279-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/musicofcanada0000mcge }} * {{cite news |title=8 Jesuit Martyrs Declared Saints |first1=Arnaldo |last1=Cortesi |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1930/06/30/archives/8-jesuit-martyrs-proclaimed-saints-first-from-north-america-are.html |date=30 June 1930 |ref={{sfnRef | NY Times | 30 June 1930}} | url-access = subscription }} * {{cite book |last=Parkman |first=Francis |title=The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century |location=Boston |publisher=Little, Brown, and Company |date=1888 |title-link=The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century}} * {{cite book |last=Talbot |first=Francis X. |title=Saint Among the Hurons: The Life of Jean de Brébeuf |url=https://archive.org/details/saintamonghurons00talb |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Brothers |date=1949 |}} * {{cite book |last=Trigger |first=Bruce |title=Natives and Newcomers: Canada's "Heroic Age" Reconsidered |url={{google books|fchA2Ker1vQC |plainurl=yes}} |location=Montreal|publisher=McGill–Queen's University Press |date=1986 |isbn=0-7735-0595-4 |}} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons}} * Bimbenet-Privat, Michèle, « [http://rd.uqam.ca/ Le buste reliquaire de saint Jean de Brébeuf par Charles de Poilly (1664), Un chef-d'œuvre de l'orfèvrerie parisienne conservé au Québec] », Bulletin de la Société nationale des antiquaires de France 1995, Paris, Édition-diffusion de Boccard, 1997, p.&nbsp;229-235, 4 ill. * Derome, Robert, « [http://rd.uqam.ca/ Le buste-reliquaire de saint Jean de Brébeuf, histoires et mythes] », Bulletin de la Société nationale des antiquaires de France 1995, Paris, Édition-diffusion de Boccard, 1997, p.&nbsp;236-253, 6 ill. * Rev. [[Sabine Baring-Gould]] (M.A.). "THE JESUIT MARTYRS IN CANADA. (A.D. 1644-1649.)." In: ''[[:iarchive:TheLivesOfTheSaintsV08|The Lives of the Saints]].'' Volume the Eighth: July - Part II. London: John C. Nimmo, 1898. pp.&nbsp;733–788. {{mbegu-Mkristo}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Brebeuf, Yohane wa}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 1593]] [[Category:Waliofariki 1649]] [[Category:Wajesuiti]] [[Jamii:Mapadri]] [[Jamii:Wamisionari]] [[Jamii:Wafiadini Wakristo]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Kanada]] ituca5a2m183mejtpzx1v1d8lketq2u 0 131319 1580191 1512710 2026-07-18T01:04:33Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580191 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Genseriki''' ([[Ziwa Balaton]], leo nchini [[Hungaria]], [[389]] hivi – [[Karthago]], leo nchini [[Tunisia]], [[25 Januari]] [[477]]) alikuwa [[mfalme]] wa [[Wavandali]] na [[Waalani]] kwa karibu miaka 50 ([[428]]–[[477]]), akiinua [[makabila]] haya madogo kuwa [[ufalme]] imara katika [[Afrika Kaskazini]] uliotikisa [[Dola la Roma Magharibi]] katika [[karne ya 5]] hata kuteka [[jiji]] hilo kwa muda mnamo [[Juni]] [[455]]. Katika [[historia ya Kanisa]] ni maarufu kwa kudhulumu kikatili [[Wakatoliki]] wa [[Afrika Kaskazini]] hivi kwamba [[Waarabu]] [[Waislamu]] walipoiteka [[Ukristo]] ulikoma haraka. ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} *{{cite book | last=Bunson | first=Matthew | year=1995 | title=A Dictionary of the Roman Empire | url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofroma0000buns | location=Oxford and New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19510-233-8 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Bury | first=J.B. | title=History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian | volume=Vol. I | year=1923 | publisher=Macmillan| location=New York | oclc=963903029| ref=harv}} *{{cite book|last=Conant|first=Jonathon|year=2012 | title=Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700|publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge; New York |isbn=978-0-52119-697-0|ref=harv}} *{{cite book|last=Duval|first=Noël|title=L'Afrique vandale et byzantine|publisher=Brepols| location=Turnhout|year=2003|isbn=2503512755 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Early | first=Joseph | title=A History of Christianity | year=2015 | location=Nashville, TN | publisher=B & H Academic | isbn=978-1-43368-363-3 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Gordon | first=Colin D. | title=The Age of Attila: Fifth Century Byzantium and the Barbarians | url=https://archive.org/details/ageofattilafifth00gord | year=1966 | publisher=University of Michigan Press | location=Ann Arbor, MI | oclc=314897401| ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Grant | first=Michael | title=History of Rome | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofrome00gran | year=1978 | publisher=Scribner | location=New York | isbn=0-684-15986-4 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book|last1=Greenhalgh | first1=Peter | last2=Eliopoulos | first2=Edward | title=Deep into Mani: Journey to the Southern Tip of Greece |url=https://archive.org/details/deepintomanijour0000gree | year=1986 | location=London| publisher=Faber and Faber| isbn= 0-57113-524-2| ref=harv}} *{{cite book| last=Heather | first=Peter | year=2012 | title=Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe | url=https://archive.org/details/empiresbarbarian0000pete | place=Oxford and New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-989226-6 | ref=harv}} *{{cite book| last=Hodgkin | first=Thomas| year=1880 | title=Italy and Her Invaders| place=Oxford | publisher=Clarendon Press | volume=Vol. II | oclc=16115605 | url=https://archive.org/details/italyandherinva05hodggoog/page/n9/mode/2up |ref=harv}} *{{cite book | last=Jordanes | year=1915 | title=The Gothic History of Jordanes | url=https://archive.org/details/gothichistoryofj00jorduoft | others=Translated by Charles C. Mierow | location=London | publisher=Oxford University Press | oclc=463056290 | ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Kulikowski | first=Michael | year=2019 | title=The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy | location=Cambridge, MA | publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | isbn=978-0-67466-013-7|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Lançon | first=Bertrand | year=2001 | title=Rome in Late Antiquity: AD 312–609 | url=https://archive.org/details/romeinlateantiqu0000lanc | location=New York | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-0-41592-975-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Lee | first=A.D. | year=2013 | title=From Rome to Byzantium, AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome | location=Edinburgh | publisher= Edinburgh University Press | isbn=978-0-74862-790-5 |ref=harv}} * {{Rejea tovuti|last=Lucas de Heere|title=Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel par Luc Dheere peintre et sculpteur Gantois[manuscript]|url=https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2#?c=&m=&s=&cv=29&xywh=-4120,-220,13707,8315|access-date=2020-08-25|website=lib.ugent.be|ref={{sfnRef|Lucas de Heere,''Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations''}}|archive-date=2020-10-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029015419/https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2#?c=&m=&s=&cv=29&xywh=-4120,-220,13707,8315|url-status=dead}} * {{cite book|last1=Merrills | first1=Andy | last2=Miles | first2=Richard | title=The Vandals | year=2010 | location=Malden, MA | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | isbn=978-1-44431-807-4| ref=harv}} * {{cite book| last=Oost | first=Stewart | title=Galla Placidia Augusta: A Biographical Essay | year=1968 | location=Chicago and London | publisher=University of Chicago Press | oclc=561770132| ref=harv}} *{{cite book | last=Pohl | first=Walter | year=2004 | chapter=The Vandals: Fragments of a Narrative | title= Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa | url=https://archive.org/details/vandalsromansber0000unse | editor=A.H. Merrills | location=Burlington, VT | publisher=Ashgate Publishing | isbn=978-0-75464-145-2|ref=harv}} *{{cite book | last=Schwarcz | first=Andreas | year=2004 | chapter=The Settlement of Vandals in North Africa | title= Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa | url=https://archive.org/details/vandalsromansber0000unse | editor=A.H. Merrills | location=Burlington, VT | publisher=Ashgate Publishing | isbn=978-0-75464-145-2|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last=Wickham | first=Chris | title=Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800 | url=https://archive.org/details/framingearlymidd0000wick | year=2005 | place=Oxford; New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | oclc=1025811203 | ref=harv}} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== *{{cite book|last=Diesner|first=Hans-Joachim|title=Das Vandalenreich. Aufstieg und Untergang|publisher=[[Kohlhammer Verlag]]|location=Stuttgart|year=1966}} *{{cite book|last=Gibbon|first=Edward|author-link=Edward Gibbon|title=The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|year=1896–1902|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York}} *{{cite book|last=Goffart|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Goffart|title=Barbarians and Romans, A.D. 418–584 : the Techniques of Accommodation|url=https://archive.org/details/barbariansromans0000goff|url-access=registration|year=1980|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, N.J.|isbn=0-691-05303-0}} *{{cite book|editor1-last=Gwatkin|editor1-first=H.|editor2-last=Whitney|editor2-first=J.|title=The Cambridge Medieval History|year=1957|publisher=Macmillan|location=Cambridge}} *{{cite book|last=O'Donnell|first=James J.|title=Augustine|year=1985|publisher=Twayne Publishers|location=Boston|isbn=0-8057-6609-X|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/augustine0000odon}} *{{Rejea kitabu |last=Mills |first=Andrew |ref=harv |title=The Vandals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTIHPoyMOFYC |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2010 |isbn=978-1405160681}} *{{cite journal | last=Nsiri | first=Mohamed-Arbi | title=Genséric fossoyeur de la Romanitas africaine? | journal=Libyan Studies | year=2018 | volume=49 | issue=1 | pages=93–119 | ref=harv| doi=10.1017/lis.2018.12}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 389]] [[Category:Waliofariki 477]] [[Category:Historia ya Afrika]] [[Category:Roma ya Kale]] [[Category:Historia ya Ukristo]] [[Category:Historia ya Moroko]] [[Category:Historia ya Algeria]] [[Category:Historia ya Tunisia]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Libya]] bn1h5q25nkawkc7gpsxiqccj7h2yc1w 0 132896 1580256 1528084 2026-07-18T01:56:43Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580256 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Product’s_lifecycle-es.svg|thumb|right|Mzunguko wa utengenezaji.]] [[File:Regenerative thermal oxidizer manufacturing.jpg|thumb|Finished regenerative [[thermal oxidizer]] at manufacturing plant]] [[File:Boeing 787 Section 41 final assembly.jpg|thumb|Assembly of Section 41 of a [[Boeing 787 Dreamliner]]]] [[File:Worker 9.JPG|thumb|An industrial [[worker]] amidst heavy steel semi-products (KINEX BEARINGS, [[Bytča]], [[Slovakia]], c. 1995–2000)]] [[File:Hyundai car assembly line.jpg|thumb|A modern [[automobile]] [[assembly line]]]] '''Utengenezaji''' ni uundaji wa [[vitu]] kwa kutumia [[kazi]] ya [[binadamu]], [[mashine]], [[vifaa]] n.k. Unahesabika kama sekta ya pili ya [[uchumi]].<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|last=Kenton|first=Will|title=Manufacturing|url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/manufacturing.asp|access-date=2021-01-16|website=Investopedia|language=en}}</ref> Inaweza kuitwa hivyo kazi ya [[fundi]] binafsi lakini hasa ile ya [[viwanda]] vikubwa vinavyotumia [[teknolojia]] ya [[Elektroni|kielektroni]]. == Orodha ya nchi 50 zenye utengenezaji mkubwa zaidi == Orodha hii ya [[Benki ya Dunia]] inahesabu utengenezaji kwa [[dolar za Marekani]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.IND.MANF.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true|title=Manufacturing, value added (current US$) {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|language=en-us|access-date=2018-11-11}}</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto" |- ! style="width:2em;" | Nafasi !! Nchi/Eneo !! Milioni za dola ! Mwaka |- style="font-weight:bold;background:#f0f0f0" | ||{{noflag}}''[[Dunia]]''||13,809,122||2019 |- |1||{{flag|China}}||3,896,345||2019 |- |2||{{flag|United States}}||2,317,176||2018 |- |3||{{flag|Japan}}||1,027,967||2018 |- |4||{{flag|Germany}}||747,731||2019 |- |5||{{flag|South Korea}}||416,903||2019 |- |6||{{flag|India}}||394,531||2019 |- |7||{{flag|Italy}}||298,442||2019 |- |13||{{flag|Brazil}}||173,668||2019 |- |8||{{flag|France}}||266,634||2019 |- |9||{{flag|United Kingdom}}||243,114||2019 |- |10||{{flag|Russia}}||222,544||2019 |- |11||{{flag|Indonesia}}||220,503||2019 |- |12||{{flag|Mexico}}||217,852||2019 |- |14||{{flag|Spain}}||154,833||2019 |- |15||{{flag|Canada}}||151,724||2016 |- |16||{{flag|Turkey}}||143,017||2019 |- |17||{{flag|Thailand}}||137,544||2019 |- |18||{{flag|Switzerland}}||131,718||2019 |- |19||{{flag|Ireland}}||119,868||2019 |- |20||{{flag|Polandi}}||100,011||2019 |- |21||{{flag|Netherlands}}||99,648||2019 |- |22||{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}||99,438||2019 |- |23||{{flag|Australia}}||78,657||2019 |- |24||{{flag|Malaysia}}||78,279||2019 |- |25||{{flag|Austria}}||74,710||2019 |- |26||{{flag|Singapore}}||73,677||2019 |- |27||{{flag|Philippines}}||69,568||2019 |- |28||{{flag|Sweden}}||69,262||2019 |- |29||{{flag|Belgium}}||63,569||2019 |- |30||{{flag|Venezuela}}||58,236||2014 |- |31||{{flag|Argentina}}||57,726||2019 |- |32||{{flag|Bangladesh}}||57,284||2019 |- |33||{{flag|Czech Republic}}||55,270||2019 |- |34||{{flag|Iran}}||53,417||2017 |- |35||{{flag|Nigeria}}||51,634||2019 |- |36||{{flag|Egypt}}||48,241||2019 |- |37||{{flag|Puerto Rico}}||47,834||2018 |- |38||{{flag|Denmark}}||45,507||2019 |- |39||{{flag|Israeli}}||44,314||2018 |- |40||{{flag|Vietnam}}||43,172||2019 |- |41||{{flag|Romania}}||42,453||2019 |- |42||{{flag|South Africa}}||41,400||2019 |- |43||{{flag|Algeria}}||41,278||2019 |- |44||{{flag|Finland}}||38,670||2019 |- |45||{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}||36,727||2019 |- |46||{{flag|Colombia}}||35,439||2019 |- |47||{{flag|Pakistan}}||34,658||2019 |- |48||{{flag|Oman}}||30,283||2018 |- |49||{{flag|Hungary}}||29,349||2019 |- |50||{{flag|Peru}}||28,733||2018 |- |} ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Vyanzo== * {{cite book | last = Kalpakjian | first = Serope |author2=Steven Schmid | title = Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology | url = https://archive.org/details/manufacturingeng0000kalp_u2q4 | publisher = [[Prentice Hall]] |date=August 2005 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/manufacturingeng0000kalp_u2q4/page/22 22]–36, 951–88 | isbn = 978-0-13-148965-3 }} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Wiktionary}} {{commons category|Manufacturing}} {{Wikiquote}} <!-- NOTE: Please do not insert a link to a website unless it has useful information for learning about manufacturing. Links to manufacturers and suppliers would be useful for those who work in the manufacturing industry, not encyclopedia readers. Also, the site should be reliable and you should not have any connection to it. Inappropriate links will be removed. --> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181119095041/http://manufacturing.stanford.edu/ How Everyday Things Are Made]: video presentations * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517091852/http://www.internationalbusinessreport.com/files/ibr2008_manufacturing_lo.pdf Grant Thornton IBR 2008 Manufacturing industry focus] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121223115538/http://www.eef.org.uk/default.htm EEF, the manufacturers' organisation – industry group representing uk manufacturers ] * [https://www.nist.gov/el/msid/infotest/digital-thread-manufacturing.cfm Enabling the Digital Thread for Smart Manufacturing] * [https://www.metalworkingsuppliers.com/mw/manufacturing-history/, Evidences of Metal Manufacturing History] {{Wayback|url=https://www.metalworkingsuppliers.com/mw/manufacturing-history/, |date=20210501134215 }} * [https://www.cdc.gov/nora/councils/manuf/default.html Manufacturing Sector] of the [[National Occupational Research Agenda]], USA, 2018. {{mbegu-uchumi}} [[Category:Uchumi| ]] 4sc6vit6i09eyq8o6kxder0oh5g83mf 0 133299 1580068 1535891 2026-07-17T23:44:07Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580068 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Felix of Burgundy.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Sanamu]] ya Mt. Felisi.]] '''Felisi wa Dunwich''' ([[Burgundy]], [[Ufaransa]] - [[Dunwich]], [[Uingereza]], [[8 Machi]] [[647]]/[[648]]) alikuwa [[mmonaki]] aliyepata kuwa [[askofu]] [[mmisionari]] kwa [[Waangli]] wa [[Mashariki]], (leo [[Norfolk]] na [[Suffolk]]) kwa miaka 17 wakati wa [[mfalme]] [[Sigebert III]] <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/92289</ref>. Anaheshimiwa tangu kale kama [[mtakatifu]]. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa [[tarehe]] ya [[kifo]] chake<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== *{{cite book |title=The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: A Collaborative Edition, volume 8: MS. F |last=Baker |first=Peter S. |publisher=St Edmundsbury Press |location=Bury St Edmunds |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-85991-490-1 }} *{{cite book |title=The World of Bede |last=Blair |first=Peter Hunter |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-39819-0 }} *{{cite book |title=Butler's Lives of the Saints (March) |last=Butler |first=Alban |publisher=The Liturgical Press |location=Collegeville |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8146-2379-4 }} *{{cite book |last1=DeWindt |first1=Anne Reiber |last2=DeWindt |first2=Edwin Brezette |title=Ramsey: The Lives of an English Fenland Town, 1200-1600 |volume=1 |year=2006 |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |isbn=978-0-8132-1424-5}} *{{cite book |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-names |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseoxforddic0000ekwa |last=Ekwall |first=Eilert |publisher=OUP |location=Oxford |year=1960 |isbn=978-0-19-869103-7 }} * {{cite book |title=Liber Eliensis |editor-last=Fairweather |editor-first=Janet |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84383-015-3}} *{{cite book |last=Gallyon |first=Margaret |title=The Early Church in Eastern England |url=https://archive.org/details/earlychurchineas0000gall |publisher=Terence Dalton |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-900963-19-3 }} *{{cite book |last=Higham |first=N. J. |title=The convert kings: power and religious affiliation in early Anglo-Saxon England |year=1997 |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester and New York |isbn=978-0-7190-4828-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/convertkingspowe00high }} *{{cite book |last=Kirby |first=D. P. |title=The Earliest English Kings |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-415-24211-0 }} * {{cite book |last1=Lapidge |first1=Michael |author-link1=Michael Lapidge |title=Columbanus: studies on the Latin writings|url=https://archive.org/details/columbanusstudie0000unse |date=1997 |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge, Suffolk |isbn=9-780-85115-667-5 }} *{{Rejea kitabu | editor-last = Matthew |editor-first=Colin | editor-link = Colin Matthew | title = Oxford Dictionary of National Biography | url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/ | access-date = 2011-05-28 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | year = 2004 }} * {{cite book |editor1-last=McClure |editor1-first=Judith |editor2-last=Collins |editor2-first=Roger |title=[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum|The Ecclesiastical History of the English People]] |author-last=Bede |location= Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year= 1994 |isbn= 978-0-19-283866-7}} * {{cite book |title=Landscapes of monastic foundation: the establishment of religious houses in East Anglia {{circa}}650-1200 |last=Pestell |first=Tim |location= Woodbridge |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |year= 2004 |isbn= 978-1-84383-062-7}} * {{cite book |title= William of Malmesbury's The Deeds of the Bishops of England |last= Preest |first=David |location= Woodbridge |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |year= 2002 |isbn= 978-0-85115-884-6}} *{{cite book |last= Swanton |first= Michael |title= The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |url= https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonchroni0000unse_c2u1 |year= 1997 |location=London |publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-92129-9 }} *{{cite book |title=A New Dictionary of Saints: East and West |url=https://archive.org/details/newdictionaryofs0000wals |last=Walsh |first=Michael |year=2007 |publisher=Burns & Oates |location=London |isbn=978-0-86012-438-2 }} *{{cite book |author1-last=Wood |author1-first=Ian |author2-last=Lund |author2-first=Neils |author3-last=Sawyer |author3-first=Peter Hayes |title=People and Places in Northern Europe, 500-1600; Essays in Honour of Peter Hayes Sawyer |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleplacesinno0000unse |publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd |location=Woodbridge |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-85115-547-0 }} {{mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliofariki 647]] [[Jamii:Wamonaki]] [[Jamii:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Jamii:Wamisionari]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:Watakatifu wa Uingereza]] 4q6umi1s6t7g9nr8h11vn60ay6fy9rp 0 133588 1580282 1533118 2026-07-18T04:42:25Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580282 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Cura Brochero 01.jpg|255px|thumb|[[Picha]] halisi ya Mt. Yosefu Gabrieli [[Uzee|uzeeni]].]] '''Yosefu Gabrieli wa Rozari''' (kwa [[Kihispania]]: '''José Gabriel del Rosario Brochero'''; [[Santa Rosa de Río Primero]], [[Argentina]], [[16 Machi]] [[1840]] – [[Villa del Tránsito]], [[Córdoba, Argentina]], [[26 Januari]] [[1914]]) alikuwa [[padri]] aliyeugua [[ukoma]] kutokana na [[utume]] mkubwa kwa ajili ya [[wagonjwa]] na [[fukara]]<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://saints.sqpn.com/blessed-jose-gabriel-del-rosario-brochero/|title=Blessed José Gabriel del Rosario Brochero|publisher=Saints SQPN|date=1 December 2014|accessdate=26 February 2015}}</ref>. Alitangazwa na [[Papa Fransisko]] kuwa [[mwenye heri]] [[tarehe]] [[14 Septemba]] [[2013]], halafu [[mtakatifu]] tarehe [[16 Oktoba]] [[2016]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/pope-praises-newly-beatified-argentine-cowboy-priest/|title=Pope praises newly beatified Argentine "cowboy priest"|publisher=Catholic News Agency|date=15 September 2013|accessdate=22 August 2015|archive-date=2016-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331073032/http://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/pope-praises-newly-beatified-argentine-cowboy-priest/|url-status=dead}}</ref>. [[Sikukuu]] yake huadhimishwa tarehe aliyozaliwa<ref>[[Martyrologium Romanum]]</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Watakatifu wa Agano la Kale]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu wa Afrika]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Mabradha wa Shule za Kikristo]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waaugustino]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabazili]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wabenedikto]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wadominiko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wafransisko]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wajesuiti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakarmeli]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wakolumbani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wamersedari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waoratori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapasionisti]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wapremontree]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waredentori]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wasalesiani]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Waskolopi]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wateatini]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watrinitari]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Watumishi wa Maria]] * [[Orodha ya Watakatifu Wavinsenti]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{commons|José Gabriel Brochero}} *[http://www.newsaints.faithweb.com/year/1914.htm#Brochero Hagiography Circle] *[http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-jose-gabriel-del-rosario-brochero/ Saints SQPN] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20130521023719/http://www.curabrochero.org.ar/ Padre Brochero] {{mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Category:Waliozaliwa 1840]] [[Category:Waliofariki 1914]] [[Category:Wadominiko]] [[Category:Mapadri]] [[Category:Watakatifu wa Argentina]] g8pg1djhwkl57aembt4wimixo0b06qf 0 133715 1580039 1269236 2026-07-17T23:21:47Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580039 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Valerie Adler''' ni [[msanii]] wa [[uchoraji]] na pia mbunifu wa [[Afrika Kusini]] ==Wasifu== Valerie Adler alizaliwa nchini Afrika Kusini na baadaye kuhamia [[Uingereza]] akiwa na [[umri]] wa miaka [[kumi na saba]] na kisha kujiunga na [[shule]] ya [[sanaa]] na ubunifu ya ''Inchbald School of Design''.<ref name="DBuckman">{{cite book|author=David Buckman|publisher=Art Dictionaries Ltd|year=1989|title=Artists in Britain Since 1945 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofarti0000buck|ISBN=0953260909}}</ref> Mwaka [[1970]], baada ya miaka kumi na saba nchini Uingereza alihamia katika nchi ya [[Israeli]] alikojifunza kuhusu Historia ya [[sanaa]] katika [[chuo kikuu]] cha ''Hebrew University of Jerusalem''.<ref name="Spalding">{{cite book|author=[[Frances Spalding]]|publisher=Antique Collectors' Club|year=1990|title=20th Century Painters and Sculptors |url=https://archive.org/details/20thcenturypaint0006spal|ISBN=1 85149 106 6}}</ref> Kisha alijifunza masomo ya uchoraji kutoka kwa Asher Rodnitsky.<ref name="DBuckman"/> Mwaka [[1982]] Adler alirejea katika [[jiji]] la [[London]] katika shule ya sanaa ya ''Chelsea School of Art''.<ref name="Spalding"/> na mapema mwaka [[1990]] alirejea tena nchini Isareli.<ref name="DBuckman"/> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Wachoraji wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Arts and Feminism 2023]] cjnih7jiniqvm3l8epvm14o743w9xgo 0 134237 1580205 1231626 2026-07-18T01:18:40Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580205 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Thomas à Kempis - De Imitatione Christi.gif|thumb|[[Maandishi]] asili: ''De Imitatione Christi''. Koninklijke Bibliotheek, [[Brussel]], [[Ubelgiji]].]] '''''Kumfuasa Yesu Kristo''''' ni [[kitabu]] maarufu katika [[Ukristo]] kilichoandikwa na [[Thomas wa Kempis]] miaka [[1418]]-[[1427]] hivi<ref name=espin >''An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies'' by Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff 2007 ISBN 0-8146-5856-3 page 609</ref> kwa kufuata mfumo wa kiroho wa [[Devotio Moderna]]<ref>{{cite book | author =John H. Van Engen | year=1988 | title=Devotio Moderna| publisher=Paulist Press|isbn=978-0-8091-2962-1 | pages=7–12}}</ref>. Labda ndicho kitabu kinachosomwa zaidi na [[Wakristo]] tangu kilichotungwa, baada ya [[Biblia]] tu<ref name=Miola>{{Harvnb|Miola|2007|p=285}}</ref><ref name=Cathency >[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07674c.htm Catholic encyclopedia: ''Imitation of Christ'']</ref><ref name="Keen">{{Harvnb|Keen|2004|p=175}}</ref>. Kufikia [[mwaka]] [[1650]] kilikuwa kimechapwa tayari mara 745 katika [[tafsiri]] mbalimbali<ref>{{cite book|last=von Habsburg |first=Maximilian| title=Catholic and Protestant Translations of the Imitatio Christi, 1425-1650: from Late Medieval Classic to Early Modern Bestseller|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=9780754667650|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3BppyUmrY5QC}}</ref><ref name=WPAnd >''A Journey Through Christian Theology'' by William P Anderson and Richard L. Diesslin 2000 ISBN 0-8006-3220-6 page 98</ref>. Kutoka [[lugha]] [[asili]] ya [[Kilatini]] (''De Imitatione Christi'') kiliwahi kutafsiriwa na [[Waanglikana]] kwa [[Kiswahili]] na hadi leo kinasomwa na waumini wengi wa [[madhehebu]] mbalimbali. Hicho si kitabu cha [[teolojia]], bali [[maisha]] halisi ambayo mtu aliyevutiwa na [[ukamilifu]] aliyaandika siku kwa siku kutokana na [[sala]] yake, pengine ya shida, pengine ya [[mwanga]] na [[utamu]] wa kimbingu. “Kina [[uzuri]] na [[nguvu]] ambavyo vinagusa na kutikisa na kuvutia sana [[Moyo|mioyo]] dhaifu, isiyojali na hata isiyo na [[imani]]. Lakini walengwa asili si wakosefu, wala wanaoanza; kinadai wasomaji wawe wameendelea kiasi fulani katika [[uadilifu]]. Kinachotaka si kidogo, bali ni kutuinua tuzame katika [[mafumbo]] na kupata [[faraja]] za ndani za maisha ya muungano. Kwa kweli kuzama katika sala na kuungana kwa ndani na Mungu ndiko shabaha, lengo na haja ya dhati ya [[roho]] yetu, inayoweza kuona [[amani]] na pumziko ndani ya Mungu tu. Ndiyo sababu kila anayekisoma, hata akikosa kabisa ukamilifu na kukielewa kidogo tu, anaonja utamu wenye faraja asioweza kujielezea: kwa kuwa kinadokeza hiyo amani na hilo pumziko na kuelekeza roho iungane na [[wema]] mkuu” (pd. Dumas). ==Kumfuasa Yesu Kristo kinalenga mafumbo== [[Ujuzi]] wa kifumbo wa Mungu ni ule unaopatikana kwa kuzingatia mambo si kwa akili, wala kwa [[imani]] tupu, bali kwa [[uvuvio]] maalumu wa [[Roho Mtakatifu]] katika [[sala ya kumiminiwa]]. “Ni ujuzi wa Mungu ambao unakaribia kuwa mang’amuzi” ([[Thoma wa Akwino]]) “Unatokana na athari ya Mungu ambayo inaifundisha roho kwa [[siri]] na kwa ukamilifu wa [[upendo]], yenyewe isielewe hata ni [[kitu]] gani” ([[Yohane wa Msalaba]]). “Kumfuasa Yesu Kristo” hakikomi kuhimiza [[unyenyekevu]], kujikana na [[usikivu]], ambavyo vinaandaa kumiminiwa sala hiyo na kuungana na Mungu: “Nimechoka kusoma na kusikia mengi mara kwa mara. Kwako napata yote ambayo nayatamani na kuyapenda. [[Wataalamu]] wote wanyamaze; viumbe vyote vikae [[kimya]] mbele yako. Wewe peke yako unifundishe! Kama mtu amezoea kujikusanya kwa ndani na kuwa mnyofu, ataelewa mambo mengi makuu pasipo shida; kwa sababu [[akili]] yake inaangazwa na mwanga wa juu” (I,3:1-3). “Mtu gani ni huru kuliko asiye na [[tamaa]] duniani? Kwa hiyo ni lazima nipae juu ya viumbe vyote, na kujiachilia kabisa, niangalie mambo ya Mungu na kufahamu kwamba wewe [[Muumba]] hufanani na kiumbe chochote… [[Elimu]] ya mtu aliyejifunza kwa [[kazi]] yake ni tofauti sana na [[hekima]] ambayo mtu amepewa na Mungu katika sala. Hekima hiyo imetoka juu; ndiyo kazi ya mwangazo wa Mungu; ni bora sana kuliko elimu iliyopatikana kwa mtu kujisumbua akili yake. Wapo wengi wanaotamani miangazo ya roho, lakini hawapendi kujitendea yaliyopaswa kwa hali hiyo. Watu hao huzuiwa sana, kwa sababu hupenda mambo ya ajabu na kusikia utamu, bila kujitesa na kujikana barabara” (III,31:1-3). Mbele [[Bwana]] anasema, “Ndimi ninayemuelimisha mnyenyekevu kwa [[dakika]] moja tu ajue [[ukweli]] wa [[milele]] vema sana, kuliko kwa kufundishwa na [[mwalimu]] mwingine miaka kumi. Mimi nafundisha bila mshindo wa maneno, bila kubishana kwa fujo, bila kutafuta sifa, bila kushindana. Ndimi nifundishaye kudharau malimwengu na kutupa [[furaha]] za sasa, kutaka mambo ya milele na kuyapenda, kuepa sifa za watu, kuvumilia dharau, kunitumikia mimi, kunipenda mimi peke yangu kwa moyo wote na kutotaka kitu ila mimi tu” (III,43:2). Sala ya kumiminiwa inayozungumziwa na kitabu hicho ni [[neema]] ya juu, lakini imo katika njia ya kawaida ya [[utakatifu]]; inatangazwa kuwa ya kutamaniwa kuliko yote: “Ndiyo niombayo, ndiyo nipendayo: tuungane kabisa sisi… nijifunze kuonja mambo ya [[mbinguni]] na ya milele… Ee Bwana Mungu, siku gani nitaungana nawe kabisa kama kuzama ndani mwako hata kujisahau? Wewe ndani mwangu, mimi ndani mwako; nipe tukae hivi sikuzote” (IV,13:1). ==Masharti, yaani juhudi zinazodaiwa== Kwa ajili hiyo, kitabu hicho kinadai hasa kujikana na unyenyekevu: “Ujifunze kuzivunja nia zako, ukakubali kutumikia kwa kila namna. Piga vita motomoto upate kujishinda, wala usikubali jipu la majivuno kuvimba rohoni mwako. Ujifanye mdogo na mnyenyekevu mpaka watu wote waweze kutembea juu yako wakukanyage kama takataka ya njiani” (III,13:2-3). Kujikana hivyo ni kufisha [[umimi]] ili kuwa [[mali]] ya Mungu, ni kutojifanya tena lengo la yote ili kumlenga yeye mfululizo. “Mwanangu, ukitaka kupewa yote, ni sharti utoe yote bila kubakiza chochote kiwe mali yako” (III,27:1): hapo utapata amani ya ndani. [[Usafi wa moyo]] na nia nyofu inayomlenga Mungu tu vinamuandaa mtu kumiminiwa sala inayomfanya ajiaminishe kwake na kuungana naye: “Naomba [[huruma]] yako hata unijalie neema moja iliyo bora, yaani moyo wangu mgumu ulainike kabisa mbele yako, nijae upendo wako nisijitafutie tena kitulizo chochote kwingine” (IV,4:2). Hapo tunaelewa matokeo mazuri ajabu ya upendo wa Mungu ambao “huchukua mzigo pasipo kuona uzito, hugeuza machungu yote kuwa matamu na mazuri… huelekeza kutenda makubwa, na kutamani makubwa zaidi… Hakuna kitamu kushinda upendo, wala chenye nguvu, wala cha ubora, wala kikubwa, wala kipendevu, wala kamili, wala kitimilifu duniani na mbinguni ila upendo tu. Upendo unatoka kwa Mungu, hauwezi kutulia isipokuwa kwa Mungu peke yake” (III,5:3). Kwa mtu aliyebandukana na yote na asiyejifanya tena lengo la chochote, muungano ndio tunda la kuzama katika wema mkuu. Hivyo “Kumfuasa Yesu Kristo” kinaelekeza si kufanya juhudi tu, bali pia kuzama katika mafumbo, yaani kutimiza [[maadili]] ili kujaliwa muungano na Bwana. Maneno yake juu ya kuzama katika wema wa Mungu yanawafaa wote, mradi wakubali kufuata njia ya unyenyekevu, ya kujikana, ya kusali mfululizo na ya kuwa wasikivu kwa [[Roho Mtakatifu]]. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book|last=Creasy|first=William C.|title=The Imitation of Christ by Thomas a Kempis: A New Reading of the 1441 Latin Autograph Manuscript|year=2007|publisher=[[Mercer University Press]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JI7AA0GAbUgC|isbn=9780881460971}} *{{cite book|last=Easwaran|first=Eknath|author-link=Eknath Easwaran|title=Seeing with the Eyes of Love: Eknath Easwaran on the Imitation of Christ|url=https://archive.org/details/seeingwitheyesof0000easw|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=Nilgiri Press|isbn=978-0-915132-87-4}} * {{cite journal|last=Gwynn|first=Aubrey|title=New Light on the Imitation of Christ|journal=Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review|date=March 1940|volume=29|issue=113|pages=84–94|jstor=30097827}} *{{cite book|author-link=Ralph Keen|last=Keen|first=Ralph|title=The Christian tradition|year=2004|publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=978-0-13-090461-4|pages=400|url=https://books.google.com/books?ei=9WzOTenkN42HrAfdjbnCCg}} * {{cite book|last=Miola|first=Robert S.|title=Early modern Catholicism: an anthology of primary sources|year=2007|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-925985-4|pages=285|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fxWcVSWY_3IC}} *{{cite journal|last=Mathews|first=Shailer|author-link=Shailer Mathews|title=The Imitation of Jesus|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_biblical-world_1905-12_26_6/page/455|journal=The Biblical World|year=1905|volume=26|issue=6|pages=455–458|jstor=3140876|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|doi=10.1086/473678|s2cid=144326257}} *{{cite journal|last=Sherlock|first=William|title=The Imitation of Christ|journal=The Irish Church Quarterly|year=1908|volume=1|issue=1|pages=24–38|jstor=30066864|doi=10.2307/30066864|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1449705}} * {{cite book|last=Tylenda|first=Joseph N.|title=The Imitation of Christ|year=1998|publisher=Vintage Spiritual Classics|isbn=978-0-375-70018-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/imitationofchris00thom_2/page/288 288]|url=https://archive.org/details/imitationofchris00thom_2/page/288}} * {{cite book|last=Balthasar |first=Hans Urs von | title=The Glory of the Lord V: The Realm of Metaphysics in the Modern Age|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0898702477|pages=103–104}} * {{cite book|last=Girard |first=Rene | title=I See Satan Fall Like Lightning|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1570753190|pages=13}} * {{cite book|last=Nietzsche |first=Friedrich | title=Twilight of the Idols|url=https://archive.org/details/antichristecceho0000niet |year=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-01688-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/antichristecceho0000niet/page/193 193]}} {{refend}} * {{cite book|last=von Habsburg |first=Maximilian| title=Catholic and Protestant Translations of the Imitatio Christi, 1425-1650: from Late Medieval Classic to Early Modern Bestseller|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate|isbn=9780754667650|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3BppyUmrY5QC}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Wikiquote|Thomas à Kempis}} {{Wikisource|The Imitation of Christ|''The Imitation of Christ''}} *{{cite web|title=''L'Imitation de Jesus-Christ'' - 1659 printed copy|url=http://www.cyclopaedia.org/1659/imitation.html|publisher=Cyclopaedia.org|access-date=14 May 2011}} * [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/kempis.html ''The Imitation of Christ''], in Latin, at The Latin Library <!-- the publication date isn't in the gutenberg text, but can be found at: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=KemImit.xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=teiHeader --> * {{gutenberg|no=1653|name=The Imitation of Christ}}, in English, translated by [[William Benham]], 1905 * [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Of_the_Imitation_of_Christ ''Of the Imitation of Christ''] Wikisource {{mbegu-kitabu}} [[Jamii:Maisha ya kiroho]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Vitabu]] [[Jamii:Fasihi ya Kilatini]] p40677bvvah89k5cyd8pgbegykuruzp 0 136270 1580101 1506738 2026-07-18T00:06:45Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580101 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Ukristo}} '''Lambeth Conference''' au '''Mkutano wa Lambeth''' ni mkutano wa [[maaskofu]] wa [[Jumuiya Anglikana]] unaoitishwa na [[Askofu Mkuu wa Canterbury]] kila baada ya miaka 10. Mkutano kama huo wa kwanza ulifanyika huko [[Lambeth]], [[Uingereza]] mnamo [[mwaka]] [[1867]]. Kwa kuwa Jumiya Anglikana ni umoja wa kimataifa wa [[Kanisa|makanisa]] yanayojitawala, mkutano huo hauna [[mamlaka]] ya kiutawala. Mikutano ya Lambeth hufanya kazi ya kushirikiana na kushauriana, ikionyesha "nia ya jumuiya" katika ya masuala ya siku. <ref>''The truth shall make you free: the Lambeth Conference 1988: the reports, resolutions & pastoral letters from the bishops'' (Church House Publishing, 1988), p. 118</ref> Maazimio ya Mkutano wa Lambeth yanayayopitishwa nao hayana athari za kisheria, hata hivyo yana ushawishi. Kwa hiyo, ingawa maazimio ya mikutano hayana mamlaka ya kisheria, "yanabeba mamlaka kubwa ya maadili na kiroho." "Matamshi yake juu ya masuala ya kijamii yameathiri sera katika makanisa." Katika [[karne ya 21]] Mkutano wa Lambeth umeingia katika kipindi kigumu. Ndani ya Jumuiya Anglikana zimetokea tofauti kali kuhusu masuala ya [[maadili]], hasa suala la kukubali [[wanawake]] kubarikiwa kuwa [[Kasisi|makasisi]] na maaskofu, suala la kubariki [[ndoa ya jinsia moja]] na suala la makasisi wanaoishi kaika ndoa za jinsia moja. Masuala hayo yamefanya maaskofu kadhaa kukataa kuhudhuria tena mikutano. Kwenye mkutano wa Lambeth wa mwaka [[2008]] [[robo]] moja ya maaskofu wote ilikataa kufika baada ya kubarikiwa kuwa askofu kasisi aliyeishi katika ndoa ya jinsia moja. Hapo [[Askofu Mkuu]] wa [[Canterbury]] aliamua kutoitisha mkutano wa mwaka [[2018]]<ref>Kevin Kallsen: [http://anglican.ink/2014/09/30/lambeth-conference-cancelled/ ''Lambeth Conference cancelled.''] 30 Septemba 2014, iliangaliwa 13 Julai 2020.</ref>. Mkutano wa maaskofu wakuu wa majimbo uliazimia kuwa na mkutano wa Lambeth kwenye mwaka [[2020]] lakini ukaahirishwa tena shauri ya [[Mlipuko wa virusi vya korona 2019-20|mlipuko]] wa [[virusi vya korona]] hadi [[2022]]<ref>[https://www.lambethconference.org/ |titel=Welcome to official web site of the fifteenth Lambeth Conference 27 July – 8th August 2022]</ref>. == Marejeo == {{marejeo}} === Bibliografia === {{refbegin|indent=yes|colwidth=35em}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/churchatwarangli00bate|title=A Church at War: Anglicans and Homosexuality|last=Bates|first=Stephen|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2004|isbn=978-1-85043-480-1|location=London|url-access=registration}} * {{cite book|title=This Anglican Church of Ours|last=Bays|first=Patricia|publisher=WoodLake|year=2012|isbn=978-1-77064-439-7|location=Kelowna, British Columbia|orig-year=1995}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/a589564000lambuoft|title=The Lambeth Conferences of 1867, 1878, and 1888|publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|year=1889|editor-last=Davidson|editor-first=Randall T.|editor-link=Randall Davidson|location=London|access-date=11 June 2017}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/a589565300lambuoft|title=The Five Lambeth Conferences|last=Davidson|first=Randall T.|publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|year=1920|location=London|author-mask={{long dash}}|author-link=Randall Davidson|access-date=11 June 2017}} * {{cite book|url=http://anglicanhistory.org/england/ecu/lambeth1930.html|title=The English Church Union and the Lambeth Conference|author=English Church Union|publisher=English Church Union|year=1931|location=London|access-date=11 June 2017|via=Project Canterbury}} * {{cite book|title=The Episcopal Church in Crisis: How Sex, the Bible, and Authority are Dividing the Faithful|url=https://archive.org/details/episcopalchurchi0000kirk|last=Kirkpatrick|first=Frank G.|publisher=Praeger Publishers|year=2008|isbn=978-0-313-34662-0|series=Religion, Politics, and Public Life|location=Westport, Connecticut|issn=1934-290X}} * {{cite book|title=The Bishops Come to Lambeth|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_TP-429-674|last=Morgan|first=Dewi|publisher=A. R. Mowbray|year=1957|location=London}} * {{cite thesis|last=Notare|first=Theresa|year=2008|title="A Revolution in Christian Morals": Lambeth 1930–Resolution #15: History & Reception|type=PhD dissertation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmeKuAAACAAJ|location=Washington|publisher=Catholic University of America|id=[[University Microfilms International number|UMI]] 3340664}} * {{cite book|title=Public Life and the Place of the Church: Reflections to Honour the Bishop of Oxford|url=https://archive.org/details/publiclifeplaceo0000unse|last=Shaw|first=Jane|publisher=Ashgate|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7546-5300-4|editor-last=Brierley|editor-first=Michael|location=Aldershot, England|pages=[https://archive.org/details/publiclifeplaceo0000unse/page/95 95]–112|chapter=Sex and the Church of England|author-link=Jane Shaw}} * {{cite book|title=Anglicanism and the Lambeth Conferences|url=https://archive.org/details/anglicanismlambe0000step|last=Stephenson|first=Alan M. G.|publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|year=1978|isbn=978-0-281-03580-9|location=London}} {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == * {{Official|http://www.lambethconference.org}} * [http://www.anglicancommunion.org/acns/archive/index.html Jalada la Maazimio ya Mikutano ya Lambeth] * [http://anglicanhistory.org/canada/fulford/synod_sermon1866.html Sinodi ya Pan-Anglikana.] [http://anglicanhistory.org/canada/fulford/synod_sermon1866.html Mahubiri yaliyohubiriwa katika Kuwekwa Wakfu Mkuu na Mchungaji wa Haki Bwana Askofu wa Oxford, katika Kanisa Kuu la Kanisa la Kristo huko Oxford, Jumapili, Desemba 23, 1866] , na Francis Fulford. Faili hii ina nyaraka kwenye Mkutano wa kwanza wa Lambeth. * [http://anglicanhistory.org/gore/contra1930.html Nyaraka juu ya Anglikana na uzazi wa mpango kuhusiana na Mkutano wa Lambeth] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130816182534/http://lambeth.iglesiaepiscopal.org.co/ Mkutano wa de Lambeth (2008)] En Español. * [http://archives.lambethpalacelibrary.org.uk/calmview/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&id=LC Rekodi za Mkutano wa Lambeth kwenye Maktaba ya Jumba la Lambeth] [[Jamii:Waanglikana]] m4xh9jffwrvpep85zytyfhkyn10vx7o 0 139619 1580163 1578064 2026-07-18T00:44:52Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580163 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Alexandre Cabanel - Napoleon III - Walters 37146.jpg|350px|thumb|Taswira ya Napoleon III mnamo 1865]] '''Napoleon III''' (Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 Aprili 1808{{Spaced ndash}}9 Januari 1873) alikuwa rais wa kwanza wa Ufaransa (kama Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte) kutoka 1848 hadi 1852 na Kaizari wa Ufaransa kutoka 1852 hadi 1870. Alikuwa mpwa wa [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon I]] na mfalme wa mwisho kutawala Ufaransa. ==Vyeo== Alichaguliwa kwa urais wa Jamhuri ya Pili ya Kifaransa mnamo 1848, alitwaa madaraka kwa nguvu mnamo 1851, wakati hakuweza kuchaguliwa tena kikatiba; baadaye alijitangaza kuwa Kaizari wa Ufaransa. Alitawala hadi kushindwa katika vita dhidi ya Ujerumani na kutekwa kwake na [[Prussia]] na washirika wake kwenye Mapigano ya Sedan mnamo 1870. ==Hitimisho== Napoleon III alikuwa mtawala maarufu aliyependwa na sehemu kubwa ya raia wake, ambaye alitumia [[Kura ya maoni|kura za maoni]] kuongoza siasa yake. Alisimamia mabadiliko ya uchumi wa Ufaransa. Aliwekeza sana katika miundombinu za nchi akaagiza kujengwa kwa idadi kubwa ya meli zabiashara na kivita. Alipanua [[Koloni za Ufaransa|maeneo ya koloni za Ufaransa]]. Alishiriki katika [[Vita ya Italia ya 1859]] akaamuru kuanzisha [[Vita ya Ufaransa dhidi ya Ujerumani ya 1870]] ambapo aliongoza wanajeshi wake wakati wa mapigano na akakamatwa. ==Siasa ya ndani na ya kiuchumi== Napoleon III aliagiza ujenzi mpya wa Paris uliotekelezwa na Georges-Eugène Haussmann, akienelea kupanusha mfumo mzuri wa bustani kubwa za starehe kwenye jiji. Alizindua miradi ya kazi za umma kama hiyo katika miji mingine yote mikubwa nchini Ufaransa. Alipanua na kuimarisha mfumo wa reli kwa taifa lote, na pia akafanya kazi ya kuboresha mfumo wa benki. Napoleon III aliendeleza ujenzi wa [[Mfereji wa Suez]] na kuanzisha kilimo cha kisasa, ambacho kilimaliza njaa nchini Ufaransa na kuifanya nchi kuwa muuzaji nje wa mazao. Alifanya mapatano na Uingereza kuhusu Mkataba wa Biashara Huria na makubaliano kama hayo na mataifa mengine ya Ulaya. Katika siasa ya kijamii alikubali kuwapa wafanyakazi wa Ufaransa haki ya kugoma na haki ya kuunda vyama vyao. Wanafunzi wa kwanza wa kike walidahiliwa huko Chuo Kikuu cha Sorbonne na fursa za elimu kwa wanawake ziliongezeka. Chini yake orodha ya masomo yanayotakiwa kufundishwa shuleni ilipanushwa vievie. ==Siasa ya Nje== Katika siasa ya nje, Napoleon III alilenga kurudisha athira ya Ufaransa huko Ulaya na ulimwenguni kote. Katika Ulaya, alijiunga na [[Uingereza]] na kuishinda [[Urusi]] katika [[Krim|Vita ya Krim]] (1853-1856). Siasa yake ilisaidia kuungana kwa Italia kwa kushinda Dola la Austria katika Vita ya Italia ya 1859. Baadaye alipata maeneo ya Savoy na [[Nice]] kama shukrani kwa msaada wake. Wakati huo huo, vikosi vyake vilitetea [[Dola la Papa]] dhidi ya kuunganishwa na Italia. Alisaidia pia maungano wa mikoa kwenye [[mto Danubi]] yaliyoendelea kuwa Temi za Moldavia na Wallachia. Napoleon III aliongeza [[koloni za Ufaransa]] mara mbili kwa upanuzi katika Asia, Pasifiki na Afrika. Kwa upande mwingine, alishindwa kabisa alipojaribu kuingilia kati ndani ya [[Mexiko|Meksiko]] alichotaka kufanya kuwa nchi chini ya ulinzi wa Ufaransa. ==Ugomvi na Prussia== Kuanzia 1866, Napoleon III alilazimika kukabili nguvu iliyoongezeka ya [[Prussia]] kwani waziri mkuu wake [[Otto von Bismarck]] alilenga kujenga umoja wa madola ya Kijerumani chini ya uongozi wa Prussia. Mnamo Julai 1870, Napoleon III alifuata wito wa wanasiasa na waanchi wengi akatangaza vita dhidi ya Prussia, ingawa alikuwa na wasiwasi. Bila washirika akiwa na jeshi dhaifu, Ufaransa ilishindwa haraka wakati Napoleon III alikamatwa katika mapigano ya Sedan. Aliondolewa cheo cha kifalme na Jamhuri ya Tatu ya Kifaransa ilitangazwa huko Paris. Alikwenda uhamishoni [[Uingereza]], ambapo alikufa mnamo 1873. ==Marejeo== {{Reflist}} == Maandiko ya Napoleon III == * [https://archive.org/details/napoleonicideasd00napoiala/page/n6 ''Des Idées Napoleoniennes''] – an outline of Napoleon III's opinion of the optimal course for France, written before he became Emperor. * [https://archive.org/details/historyofjuliusc01napoiala/page/n10 ''History of Julius Caesar''] – a historical work he wrote during his reign. He drew an analogy between the politics of [[Julius Caesar]] and his own, as well as those of his uncle. * Napoleon III wrote a number of articles on military matters (artillery), scientific issues ([[electromagnetism]], pros and cons of beet versus cane sugar), historical topics (the [[House of Stuart|Stuart]] kings of Scotland), and on the feasibility of the [[Nicaragua canal]]. His pamphlet ''The Extinction of Pauperism'' ({{OCLC|318651712}}, {{JSTOR|60201169}}) helped his political advancement. == Kujisomea == === Wasifu === * {{cite book |last=Baguley |first=David |date=2000 |title=Napoleon III and His Regime: An Extravaganza |url=https://archive.org/details/napoleoniiihisre0000bagu |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |isbn=9780807126240 }} * {{cite book |last=Bresler |first=Fenton |date=1999 |title=Napoleon III: a life (HarperCollins |url=https://archive.org/details/napoleoniiilife0000fent |isbn=9780002557870 }} * {{cite book|last=Corley|first = T. A. B. |title=Democratic Despot: A Life of Napoleon III |url=https://archive.org/details/democraticdespot00corl|year=1961| isbn=978-0837175874}} * {{cite book|last=Duff|first=David|title=Eugénie and Napoleon III|publisher=Collins|date=1978|isbn=978-0688033385|url=https://archive.org/details/eugenienapoleoni00duff}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Gooch|editor-first= Brison D.|title = Napoleon III – Man of Destiny: Enlightened Statesman or Proto-Fascist?| publisher = Holt, Rinehart and Winston |date= 1966 |url=https://www.amazon.com/Napoleon-III--Man-Destiny-Proto-Fascist/dp/B0000CLW4N/|isbn=978-0232070118}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Gooch|editor-first= Brison D.|title= The Reign of Napoleon III|url=https://archive.org/details/reignofnapoleoni0000gooc|publisher = Rand McNally & Company |date=1969 |isbn=978-0528665479}} * {{cite book|last = Guerard|first= Albert |title=Napoleon III A Great Life In Brief| publisher=Carroll & Graf Pub |date=1947 |url=https://archive.org/details/napoleoniiiagrea002678mbp|isbn=978-0786706600}} * {{cite book| last=McMillan|first= James F. |title=Napoleon III | url=https://archive.org/details/napoleoniii0000mcmi|publisher=Routledge|date= 1991|isbn=978-0582494831|series= Profiles In Power}} * {{cite book|last=Markham|first=Felix|title=The Bonapartes|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|location=London|date=1975|isbn=978-0-297-76928-6}} * {{cite book|last=Price|first= Roger|chapter= Napoleon III: 'hero' or 'grotesque mediocrity'?| editor1-last = Cowling|editor1-first=Mark|editor2-last =Martin |editor2-first=James| title=Marx's 'Eighteenth Brumaire': (Post)Modern Interpretations|url=https://archive.org/details/marxseighteenthb00cowl|url-access=limited|publisher = Pluto Press | date= 20 November 2002 |pages = [https://archive.org/details/marxseighteenthb00cowl/page/n150 145]–162 |isbn=978-0745318301}} * {{cite book|last= Ridley|first= Jasper|title=Napoleon III and Eugenie|year=1980|publisher = Viking|url= https://archive.org/details/napoleoniiieugen00ridl_0|isbn=978-0670504282 }} * {{cite journal |last=Spitzer |first=Alan B. |date=1962 |title=The Good Napoleon III |journal=French Historical Studies |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=308–29 |doi=10.2307/285884 |jstor=285884 }} * {{cite book|last=Thompson|first=J. M.|title=Louis Napoleon and the Second Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/louisnapoleonand001713mbp|publisher=The Noonday Press|year=1955}} === Vyanzo vingine === {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book|last1=Briggs|first1=Asa|last2=Clavin|first2=Patricia|author-link1=Asa Briggs|author-link2=Patricia Clavin|title=Modern Europe, 1789-Present|url=https://archive.org/details/moderneurope17890000brig_z2o4|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0582772601|edition=2}} * Campbell, Stuart L. ''The Second Empire Revisited: A Study in French Historiography'' (1978) * {{cite book |last=Case |first= Lynn M. |date=1954 |title=French Opinion on War and Diplomacy during the Second Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/frenchopiniononw0000case |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0374913021 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv5qdk0h |hdl= 2027/mdp.39015051389693 }} * {{cite book | last=Cobban |first=Alfred |author-link=Alfred Cobban |year=1965 |title=A History of Modern France |volume=Vol. 2: 1799–1871 |location=London |publisher=Penguin }} * {{cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Michele |year=2001 |title=Mexico and the Foreign Policy of Napoleon III |publisher=Palgrave | isbn=978-0333793022 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mpiXQgAACAAJ }} * Golicz, Roman. “Napoleon III, Lord Palmerston and the Entente Cordiale.” ''History Today'' 50#12 (December 2000): 10–17 * {{cite book |last=Guedalla|first= Philip|author-link = Philip Guedalla|title = The Second Empire |date=1923 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.95986/page/n11|asin=B00085CK6Y}} * {{cite journal|last=Pinkney|first= David H.|title=Napoleon III's Transformation of Paris: The Origins and Development of the Idea|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-modern-history_1955-06_27_2/page/125|journal= Journal of Modern History|date= 1955|volume= 27|issue= 2 |pages=125–34 |jstor=1874987|doi= 10.1086/237781|s2cid= 144533244}} * {{cite book|last=Pinkney|first = David H. |title=Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris |url=https://archive.org/details/napoleoniiirebui0000pink|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1958|isbn=0-691-00768-3 }} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Plessis |first=Alain |year=1988 |title=The Rise and Fall of the Second Empire 1852–1871 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521358569 }} * {{cite book |last=Price |first=Roger |year=2001 |title=The French Second Empire: An Anatomy of Political Power |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |isbn=9781139430975 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0LMNRvWaLIC }} * {{cite book |last=Wawro |first=Geoffrey |date=2005 |title=The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France in 1870–1871 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521584364 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q1tPB20IMMoC }} * {{cite book |last=Wetzel |first=David |date=2012 |title=A Duel of Nations: Germany, France, and the Diplomacy of the War of 1870–1871 |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |isbn=9780299291341 }} * Williams, Roger Lawrence. ''The Mortal Napoleon III'' (Princeton University Press, 2015). * {{cite book| last= Williams| first = Roger L. |title=Gaslight and shadow: The World of Napoleon III 1851-1870|publisher = Macmillan & Co Ltd| location = New York |date=1957| url= https://archive.org/details/gaslightshadowwo00will| asin = B001NHPZ72}} * {{cite book |last=Wolf |first=John B. |author-link=John Baptist Wolf |date=1963 |orig-date=1940 |title=France: 1815 to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/france1815tothep007252mbp/page/n269/mode/2up }} * {{cite book |last=Zeldin |first=Theodore |date=1958a |title=The Political System of Napoleon III |location=New York |publisher=Macmillan |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.110509/2015.110509.The-Political-System-Of-Napoleon-Iii_djvu.txt }} * {{cite journal |last=Zeldin |first=Theodore |date=1958b |title=The Myth of Napoleon III |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_history-today_1958-02_8_2/page/103 |journal=History Today |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=103–109 }} {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{commons|Napoléon III}} {{Wikisource1911Enc|Napoleon III}} *{{gutenberg author | id=Napoleon_III | name=Napoleon III}} * [https://archive.org/details/napoleonicideasd00napouoft ''Napoleonic ideas. Des idées napoléniennes (1859)''] at the Internet Archive * [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&idno=AHJ8942.0001.001&view=toc ''History of Julius Caesar'' vol. 1 at MOA] * [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&idno=AHJ8942.0002.001&view=toc ''History of Julius Caesar'' vol. 2 at MOA] * [[iarchive:histoiredejulesc01napoiala|''Histoire de Jules César (Volume 1)'']] {{in lang|fr}} at the Internet Archive * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080111053727/http://caricaturesetcaricature.over-blog.com/article-6400408.html Editorial cartoons of the Second Empire] * [http://www.computours.co.uk/beziers/place_de_la_revolution/ Place de la Revolution, Béziers & Napoleon 111] {{Wayback|url=http://www.computours.co.uk/beziers/place_de_la_revolution/ |date=20191013102819 }} * [http://omniatlas.com/maps/europe/18481219/ Maps of Europe covering the reign of Napoleon III (omniatlas)] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1873]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1808]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Ufaransa]] hvjltjxpy0acv4uuvpm4x4y91vyco6f 0 142344 1580076 1432635 2026-07-17T23:50:12Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580076 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Christ Taking Leave of the Apostles.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Yesu]] katika [[Maneno ya Buriani]] aliahidi kumtuma [[Roho Mtakatifu]] kwa [[wanafunzi]] wake; [[mchoro]] wa [[Duccio]], [[1308]]–[[1311]].]] {{Ukristo}} '''Ukamilifu wa Kikristo''' ni [[jina]] la mafundisho mbalimbali katika [[Ukristo]] yanayofafanua mchakato wa kulenga [[ukomavu]] wa kiroho. Lengo ni [[muungano na Mungu|kuungana na]] [[Mungu]] kwa [[upendo kamili]] ambao ndio [[utakatifu]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Living a holy life |url=https://www.methodist.org.uk/about-us/the-methodist-church/what-is-distinctive-about-methodism/living-a-holy-life/ |website=methodist.org.uk |publisher=[[Methodist Church of Great Britain]] |access-date=7 January 2020 |language=en |quote=John Wesley taught about 'Christian perfection.' He believed that a mature Christian can reach a state where the love of God reigns supreme in our heart.}}</ref><ref name="Ogden2008"> {{cite book |last1=Oden |first1=Thomas C. |author-link1=Thomas C. Oden |title=Doctrinal Standards in the Wesleyan Tradition: Revised Edition |date=2008 |publisher=Abingdon Press |isbn=978-1-4267-6124-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XOZOacqHCx4C&pg=PA190 |page=190 |language=en}} </ref> [[Mizizi]] ya mafundisho hayo ni [[maandishi]] ya [[Mababu wa Kanisa]], hasa [[Irenei]],<ref>Against Heresies (Book IV, Chapter 39)</ref> [[Klementi wa Aleksandria]], [[Origen]], halafu [[Makari wa Misri]] na [[Gregori wa Nisa]].<ref name="Burnett2006">{{cite book|last=Burnett|first=Daniel L.|title=In the Shadow of Aldersgate: An Introduction to the Heritage and Faith of the Wesleyan Tradition|date=15 March 2006|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|language=en|isbn=978-1-62189-980-8|pages=116–117|quote=The doctrine of entire sanctification has been present from the very beginnings of the Christian faith. Since the focus of the first few centuries was on the battle against Christological heresies, a systematic doctrine of sanctification did not emerge during that period. Its roots, however, were clearly present in such Early Church Fathers as Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen. By the fourth century the highly regarded writings of Gregory of Nyssa and Macarius the Egyptian... advocated understandings of entire sanctification that sound very Wesleyan.}}</ref> Hata hivyo baadhi ya [[madhehebu]] ya [[Kiprotestanti]], kama [[Walutheri]] na [[Wakalvini]], wanaona mafundisho ya namna hiyo hayapatani na yale juu ya [[wokovu]] kwa njia ya [[imani]] tu. ([[Rom]] 7:14–25; [[Fil]] 3:12)<ref name=WELS-AOG>{{cite web |url=https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=257&cuItem_itemID=7092 |work=WELS Topical Q&A |title=WELS vs Assembly of God |publisher=[[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]] |access-date=29 Jan 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090927075008/https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=257&cuItem_itemID=7092 |archive-date=2009-09-27 |accessdate=2021-09-13 |archivedate=2009-09-27 |archiveurl=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090927075008/https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=257&cuItem_itemID=7092 }}</ref><ref name=WELS-JS>{{cite web |url=https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=2852 |work=WELS Topical Q&A |title=Justification / Salvation |publisher=[[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]] |access-date=29 Jan 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090927133959/https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=2852 |archive-date=2009-09-27 |accessdate=2021-09-13 |archivedate=2009-09-27 |archiveurl=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090927133959/https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=45&cuItem_itemID=2852 }}</ref>. ==Ukamilifu ulivyofikiriwa== Lengo la maisha ya Kiroho, si lengo kuu ambalo ni [[uzima wa milele]], bali lile linaloweza kufikiwa [[duniani]], ni ukamilifu ambao Kikristo unapatikana hasa katika upendo. Tukumbuke kwa ufupi [[dhana]] nyingine mbili za zamani, tukitambua sura zilizonazo siku hizi. Hivyo tutaweza kuthamini zaidi [[ubora]] wa jibu la [[Injili]], pia kwa sababu hizo mbili zina chembe za [[ukweli]] ambazo chini ya upendo zinapata [[thamani]]. Zamani watu wasiostaarabika waliona ukamilifu wa binadamu unategemea [[nguvu]], [[moyo]], [[uhodari]], tunavyoona katika [[hadithi]] zao. Mtazamo huo umechanganyikana na kiasi kikubwa cha [[kiburi]], na pengine cha utovu wa [[haki]]. Kuna waamini motomoto wanaosafisha dhana hiyo na kuihamishia upande wa roho wakijiona [[askari]] wa [[Kristo]] na kujali mno [[kifodini]]. Kumbe ubora wa kifo hicho hautegemei kuwa tendo la nguvu, bali kuwa ishara angavu ya upendo mkuu. [[Karne]] tatu za [[dhuluma]] za [[Kanisa]] la mwanzoni zilikuwa za uhodari, lakini hasa za upendo: ndio unaotofautisha [[wafiadini]] wa Kikristo na mashujaa wa [[Kipagani]]. Kwa mtazamo wa namna hiyo wengine wanaona ukamilifu umo hasa katika [[maisha magumu|ugumu wa maisha]] ([[mafungo]], [[Kesha|makesha]] n.k.): huo unaweza kuhitajiwa na [[utawa]] unaokusudia zaidi [[sala]] na [[sadaka]], lakini si lengo bali njia tu ya ustawi. [[Maisha]] makamilifu zaidi si yale magumu zaidi, bali yale yenye lengo bora na njia za kufaa zaidi kulifikia. Maisha ya Kiroho yanahusu [[uadilifu]] kuliko ugumu. Kwanza si kila tendo gumu ni adilifu: pengine ni [[juhudi]] ya [[ushupavu]] tu. Halafu uadilifu ni mgumu mara nyingi, lakini si daima: vitendo kadhaa vya upendo vinatendeka pasipo shida, kwa msukumo mkubwa wa roho, hata hivyo vina [[stahili]] kubwa kwa kuwa vinatokana na upendo mkubwa. Nguvu ni sifa muhimu ya askari, lakini si ukamilifu wa mtu kama mtu na wa Mkristo kama Mkristo. Inahitajika kwa ukamilifu, lakini juu yake kuna haki kuhusu wengine, kuna [[busara]] inayoongoza [[Adili|maadili]] yote [[Maadili ya kiutu|ya kiutu]], na hasa kuna maadili yanayomlenga [[Mungu]] moja kwa moja: [[imani]], [[tumaini]] na upendo. Basi, hatuwezi kukubali kwamba ukamilifu umo hasa katika nguvu, kwa kuwa hiyo si ukamilifu wa [[akili]] yetu kuhusu [[ukweli]] mkuu, wala si ukamilifu wa [[utashi]] wetu kuhusu [[wema]] mkuu, ila ni adili linaloshinda [[hofu]] tu ili tuzidi kufuata njia nyofu hata kwenye shida na hatari. Ikiwa ukamilifu haumo hasa katika nguvu, je, utapatikana katika [[hekima]]? Ndivyo walivyodhani [[wanafalsafa]] wengi, wakisema binadamu anatofautiana na viumbe vilivyo chini yake kwa akili aliyonayo; kwa hiyo ukamilifu wake ni hasa ule wa akili yake, yaani hekima au [[ujuzi]] mkuu. Hakika hekima inahitajika kwa ukamilifu, lakini si kweli kwamba kumjua Mungu kinadharia kunafuatwa daima na upendo kwake. Mwanafalsafa, hata kama ana akili na wazo sahihi kuhusu Mungu kama asili na lengo kuu la [[ulimwengu]], anaweza akawa mwovu. Ukweli ni ukamilifu wa akili, lakini si ukamilifu wa mtu mzima, wala si jema pekee la binadamu. [[Elimu]] inaweza kuwepo pasipo upendo kwa Mungu na kwa jirani; hapo “huleta majivuno” ([[1Kor]] 8:1). Ukamilifu wa [[mtaalamu]] kama mtaalamu si ule wa binadamu kama binadamu, wala ule wa Mkristo kama Mkristo. Tusichanganye ukamilifu wa akili na ule wa mtu mzima unaohitaji kunyosha utashi uelekee lengo kuu. Tofauti na [[sanaa]] na [[sayansi]], uadilifu unadai utashi unyoshwe: hapo tu mtu ataitwa mtu mwema, si tu [[mchoraji]], [[mjenzi]] au [[mganga]] stadi. Hatimaye hapa duniani kumpenda Mungu ni bora kuliko kumjua. Ujuzi unamvuta kwetu na kumbana ndani ya mipaka ya mawazo yetu finyu; kumbe upendo wa Mungu unatuvuta kwake na kutufanya tupende ndani mwake hata yale tusiyoweza kuyajua sawasawa, kwa sababu tuna hakika ya kuwa maisha yake ya ndani yaliyofichika kwetu yanapendeza kupita kiasi. Dhana ya kuwa hekima ndiyo ukamilifu inajitokeza leo katika wale wanaojali elimu kuliko yote. Hata baadhi ya Wakristo wanaelekea kudhani inawezekana kuufikia ukamilifu haraka kwa kusoma [[maandishi]] mengi ya [[watakatifu]], bila kujitahidi zaidi kutekeleza maadili yao, wala kukumbuka kwamba sala ya kuzama katika mafumbo inatakiwa kujaa upendo upitao maumbile na kujikana. Sala hiyo si ukamilifu hasa, na kuwa huo umo katika kuungana na Mungu kwa upendo; ila kumtazama kwa upendo ni njia iliyounganika na lengo hilo kwa sababu kunatuandaa moja kwa moja tuungane naye. Hivyo tusilenge hasa sala hiyo, bali Mungu mwenyewe ambaye apendwe kuliko yote. Basi, ukamilifu unahitaji kweli nguvu na hekima, lakini pia [[Maadili ya Kimungu|maadili yote ya Kimungu]] na ya kiutu, pamoja na [[Vipaji vya Roho Mtakatifu|vipaji saba vya Roho Mtakatifu]]. Basi, ukamilifu umo katika jumla ya maadili, mradi jumla hiyo iwe imepangwa vizuri kama [[muundo]] hai, na kati ya maadili liwepo moja lenye kuyatawala, kuyaongoza na kuyahuisha yote na kuelekeza juhudi zake zote kwenye lengo kuu. Kama ni hivyo, ukamilifu umo hasa katika adili hilo kuu ambalo mengine yote yanapaswa kulisaidia. Lenyewe ni upendo. ==Ukamilifu kadiri ya Biblia== Mungu amefunua kwa namna mbalimbali kwamba [[amri]] inayotawala maagizo na mashauri yote ni ile ya upendo iliyotajwa tayari katika [[Agano la Kale]]: “Mpende Bwana, Mungu wako, kwa moyo wako wote, na kwa roho yako yote, na kwa nguvu zako zote” ([[Kumb]] 6:5). “Umpende jirani yako kama nafsi yako. Mimi ndimi Bwana” ([[Law]] 19:18). Ndicho kipeo kikuu kuliko nguvu na hekima, chenye nguvu ya aina nyingine, na hekima ya kweli na ya juu zaidi. “Kwa kuwa mmekuwa wateule wa Mungu, watakatifu wapendwao, jivikeni moyo wa rehema, utu wema, unyenyekevu, upole, uvumilivu, mkichukuliana na kusameheana… Zaidi ya hayo yote jivikeni upendo, ndio kifungo cha ukamilifu” ([[Kol]] 3:12-14)”. Upendo ndio kifungo cha ukamilifu kwa sababu unatuunganisha na Mungu na kudumu [[milele]]; ndio unaohuisha maadili yote yawe na stahili kwa kuyalengesha kwa Mungu mpendwa kuliko yote. [[Mtume Paulo]] alikuwa na hakika kwamba upendo ni bora kuliko maadili mengine, vipaji vya Roho Mtakatifu na [[karama]] mbalimbali: “Nijaposema kwa lugha za wanadamu na za malaika, kama sina upendo, nimekuwa shaba iliayo na upatu uvumao. Tena nijapokuwa na unabii, na kujua siri zote na maarifa yote, nijapokuwa na imani timilifu kiasi cha kuweza kuhamisha milima, kama sina upendo, si kitu mimi. Tena nikitoa mali zangu zote kuwalisha maskini, tena nikijitoa mwili wangu niungue moto, kama sina upendo, hainifaidii kitu” (1Kor 13:1-3). Pasipo upendo karama hazisaidii kitu kwa uzima wa milele, kwa sababu nisipopenda sitekelezi [[Amri za Mungu|amri ya kwanza ya Mungu]], silinganishi matakwa yangu na ya kwake, napotoka mbali naye katika njia isiyoelekea moyo wake. Basi, katika [[wokovu]] “kama sina upendo, si kitu mimi”, sistahili kitu ingawa kwa mahubiri na [[miujiza]] ninaweza nikasaidia watu waokoke. Kwa maana hiyo [[Augustino]] alisema, “Penda, halafu tenda lolote utakalo”, nalo litakustahilisha uzima wa milele. Lakini uwe na upendo halisi, kwa sababu hakuna lililo baya kuliko upendo bandia (unaofumba macho usitimize [[wajibu]] wake dhidi ya maovu: huo ni udhaifu au ni [[mguso|miguso]] ya kibinadamu tu inayotaka kukubaliwa na upendo halisi na kuuambukiza). Kati ya mapambano makuu ya leo, mojawapo ni lile kati ya upendo halisi na upendo bandia, ambao unatukumbusha Makristo wa [[uongo]] wanaozungumziwa na [[Injili]]. Uharibifu mbaya zaidi ni ule unaohusu yaliyo bora, kama vile upendo ulio adili kuu. Kwa kuwa yale yanayoonekana tu mema ni ya hatari kadiri ya ubora wa mema halisi yanayoigizwa nayo (k.mf. kipeo cha wanaotaka kuunganisha [[madhehebu]] ya Kikristo kwa kupunguza kweli za imani). Ikiwa kwa upumbavu au woga wale wanaotakiwa kuwakilisha upendo halisi wanayakubali kwa namna moja au nyingine yale yanayoficha upendo bandia, yanaweza yakatokea mabaya yasiyopimika, makubwa kuliko yale yanayosababishwa na watesi waliojitokeza wazi. Tofauti na upendo bandia, ule halisi una maadili yote ndani yake na chini yake hivi kwamba yanaonekana kama namna au sura mbalimbali za upendo kwa Mungu na kwa jirani. “Upendo huvumilia, hufadhili; upendo hauhusudu; upendo hautakabari, haujivuni; haukosi kuwa na adabu; hautafuti mambo yake; hauoni uchungu; hauhesabu mabaya; haufurahii udhalimu, bali hufurahi pamoja na kweli; huvumilia yote, huamini yote; hutumaini yote, hustahimili yote” (1Kor 13:4-7). Kwa upendo huo tunakuwa [[hekalu]] la [[Roho Mtakatifu]]. Kadiri tunavyompenda Mungu tunamfahamu na kama kumng’amua kwa ujuzi upitao maumbile unaoitwa hekima ya Kimungu. “Kristo akae mioyoni mwenu kwa imani mkiwa na shina na msingi katika upendo; ili mpate kufahamu pamoja na watakatifu wote jinsi ulivyo upana, na urefu, na kimo na kina; na kuujua upendo wake Kristo, upitao ufahamu kwa jinsi ulivyo mwingi, mpate kutimilika kwa utimilifu wote wa Mungu” ([[Ef]] 3:17-19). Mafundisho hayohayo tumepewa na [[Mtume Yohane]]: “Mungu ni upendo, naye akaaye katika pendo, hukaa ndani ya Mungu, na Mungu hukaa ndani yake… Yeye ampendaye Mungu, ampende na ndugu yake” ([[1Yoh]] 4:16,21). [[Mtume Petro]] aliandika vilevile, “Zaidi ya yote iweni na juhudi nyingi katika kupendana, kwa sababu upendano husitiri wingi wa dhambi” ([[1Pet]] 4:8). Alivyowahi kusema Yesu, “Amesamehewa dhambi zake ambazo ni nyingi, kwa kuwa amependa sana” ([[Lk]] 7:47). Kadiri ya mafundisho hayo, ukamilifu haumo hasa katika [[unyenyekevu]], [[ufukara]] wala [[ibada]], bali katika upendo unaofanya matendo ya maadili mengine yote yastahili. Ufukara si ukamilifu, ila ni njia ya ukamilifu. Basi, njia haitafutwi kwa ajili yake, bali kwa ajili ya lengo, nayo ni bora si kadiri ya ukubwa wake, bali kadiri inavyolingana na lengo, kama vile [[daktari]] mzuri ni yule anayeponya, si anayetoa matibabu mengi zaidi. Ni vivyo hivyo kuhusu unyenyekevu unaotuinamisha mbele ya Mungu ili tupokee kwa [[mikono]] miwili msaada wake ambao utuinue hadi kwake. “Unyenyekevu ni adili la msingi kwa kuwa unaondoa kizuio kikuu, yaani kiburi, lakini umo chini ya maadili ya Kimungu yanayotuunganisha na Mungu” ([[Thoma wa Akwino]]). Hata adili la ibada, linalompatia [[heshima]] inayotakiwa, halistahili lisipohuishwa na upendo. Si adili la Kimungu kwa sababu halimhusu moja kwa moja yeye, ila ibada kwake. Tukisahau hayo tunaweza tukazingatia [[liturujia]] kuliko Mungu mwenyewe, mifano kuliko ukweli, namna ya kusali [[Baba Yetu]] kuliko maana yake: hapo utumishi wa Mungu ungepiku upendo wake. ==Maelezo ya teolojia ya Kikatoliki kuhusu ukamilifu== “Kila kiumbe ni kamili kadiri kinavyofikia lengo lake ambalo ndio ukamilifu wake wa mwisho. Sasa, lengo kuu la maisha ya binadamu ni Mungu, na upendo ndio unaotuunganisha naye, kadiri ya neno la Mt. Yohane: ‘Kila mtu aishiye katika upendo, anaishi katika muungano na Mungu, na Mungu anaishi katika muungano naye’. Basi, ukamilifu wa maisha ya Kikristo umo hasa katika upendo” (Thoma wa Akwino). Imani na tumaini si kiini cha ukamilifu, kwa sababu vinaweza kuwepo katika mtu ambaye kwa [[dhambi ya mauti]] amepotosha utashi wake mbali na Mungu. Vinabaki ndani mwake kama mzizi wa mti uliokatwa na ambao unaweza kuchipua tena. Thoma akaongeza, “Ukamilifu umo hasa katika upendo kwa Mungu, halafu katika upendo kwa jirani, kwa kuwa ndio amri kuu za sheria ya Kimungu”. Hatutaweza kamwe kusisitiza mno [[neno la Bwana]]: “Amri mpya nawapa: Mpendane. Kama vile nilivyowapenda ninyi, nanyi mpendane vivyo hivyo. Hivyo watu wote watatambua ya kuwa ninyi mmekuwa wanafunzi wangu, mkiwa na upendo ninyi kwa ninyi” (Yoh 13:34-35). Ndiyo dalili kuu ya ustawi wa upendo wa Mungu mioyoni mwetu: “Yeye asemaye kwamba yumo nuruni, naye amchukia ndugu yake, yumo gizani hata sasa… Sisi tunajua ya kuwa tumepita toka mautini kuingia uzimani, kwa maana twawapenda ndugu. Yeye asiyependa, akaa katika mauti. Kila amchukiaye ndugu yake ni mwuaji; nanyi mnajua ya kuwa kila mwuaji hana uzima wa milele ukikaa ndani yake” (1Yoh 3:14-15). Tusisitize neno moja la Thoma wa Akwino, la kwamba hapa duniani "Kumpenda Mungu ni bora kuliko kumjua". Yeye alikiri kuwa akili ni bora kuliko utashi unaoongozwa nayo, kuwa ndiyo kipawa cha kwanza kinachomtofautisha binadamu na [[mnyama]], tena kuwa [[mbinguni]] [[heri]] itatokana hasa na akili kumuona Mungu moja kwa moja, kwa kuwa ndiyo njia ya kumpata milele: kuzamisha akili yetu katika vilindi vya maisha yake ya ndani yakiwa wazi tu. Mungu atajitoa kwetu moja kwa moja, nasi tutajitoa kwake; tutakuwa naye kama [[mali]] yetu, nasi tutakuwa mali yake, kwa kuwa tutamfahamu kama anavyojifahamu na anavyotufahamu. Upendo wenye heri utatokana na huo mtazamo wa moja kwa moja wa umungu, tena utakuwa tokeo la lazima, kwa kuwa utashi wetu utavutwa na uzuri wa Mungu moja kwa moja. Tutaona wema wake mkuu kwa namna wazi hivi hata tusiweze kutompenda; hatutaona kisingizio chochote cha kusimamisha kwa nukta moja tendo hilo la upendo lililo juu kuliko [[hiari]] yetu, na ambalo halitapimwa na [[muda]], bali na umilele tulioshirikishwa, ile [[nukta]] pekee isiyokwisha kamwe ya Mungu kuwepo pasipo badiliko. Upendo kwake na [[furaha]] ya kuwa naye kama mali yetu vitatokana kwa lazima na heri ya kumuona. Pamoja na hayo, mwalimu huyo alisema ukamilifu wa Kikristo hapa duniani umo hasa katika upendo ambao ni adili la utashi, si upande wa akili. Ni kwamba kipawa fulani kinaweza kuwa bora kuliko kingine kwa [[umbile]], lakini tendo fulani la hicho cha pili linaweza kuwa bora kuliko mojawapo la hicho cha kwanza. Kwa mfano uwezo wa kuona ni bora kuliko ule wa kusikia, na [[upofu]] ni [[ulemavu]] mkubwa kuliko [[uziwi]]; lakini kusikiliza [[muziki]] bora kuna thamani kuliko kuona vitu vya kawaida. Vivyo hivyo, ingawa kwa umbile akili ni bora kuliko utashi, hapa duniani kumpenda Mungu ni bora kuliko kumjua, hivi kwamba mtakatifu ambaye hana elimu lakini ana upendo mkubwa kwa hakika ni mkamilifu kuliko [[mwanateolojia]] mkuu mwenye upendo mdogo. Jambo hilo, ambalo Wakristo wote wanalielewa kwa urahisi, tukilifikiria kwa makini tutaliona ni ukweli wa thamani unaoweza kuthibitishwa na madondoo mengi ya [[Biblia]] na ya [[walimu wa Kiroho]]. Huo ubora wa upendo hapa duniani unatokana na kwamba “kazi ya akili yetu inafanyika kwa kujichorea ukweli uliojulikana, kumbe utashi wetu unavutwa na upendo ukiendee kilichopendwa jinsi kilivyo. Alivyosema mwanafalsafa, wema ulio lengo la utashi umo ndani ya vitu, kumbe ukweli umo hasa katika roho yetu” (Thoma wa Akwino). Kwa hiyo tunapomjua Mungu, kwa namna fulani tunambana ndani ya mipaka ya mawazo yetu finyu ili tujichoree alivyo; kumbe tunapompenda, sisi ndio tunaovutwa naye na kuinuliwa kwake jinsi alivyo kweli. Basi, duniani na [[toharani]] upendo kwa Mungu ni bora kuliko kumjua; unahitaji kumjua kwanza, lakini unapita ujuzi huo. Tena tokea hapa duniani upendo wetu unamfikia Mungu na kuambatana naye moja kwa moja: “Ujuzi wetu unamuinukia Mungu kupitia viumbe, kumbe upendo wetu unawashukia viumbe kutoka kwa Mungu” (Thoma wa Akwino). Hatimaye, sisi tunapenda ndani ya Mungu hata yale tusiyoyajua, kwa sababu tuna hakika ya kuwa ndiye wema wenyewe. Hivyo tunaweza kumpenda kuliko tunavyomfahamu; tena ndani mwake tunapenda zaidi yale yaliyofichika, kwa kuwa tunaamini ndiyo maisha yake ya dhati yanayopita uwezo wowote wa kujua. Basi, hapa duniani upendo kwa Mungu unashinda ujuzi unaomhusu. Hilo ni ajabu linalotuonyesha upendo ulivyo mkuu kuliko imani na tumaini, kuliko ujuzi wowote tunaoweza kuwa nao duniani, na hata kuliko tendo la [[kuzama katika sala]], kwa kuwa hilo pia halifikii kumpata Mungu jinsi alivyo, na [[utamu]] ulilonalo unatokana na upendo unaoliongoza. Ndiyo sababu upendo ni kifungo cha ukamilifu: hakuna adili linalotuunganisha na Mungu kwa undani kuliko hili wala pasipo hili. Pamoja na [[mapokeo]] yote ya [[Kanisa Katoliki]] tukariri kwamba ukamilifu wa Kikristo umo hasa katika upendo wa vitendo ambao unatuunganisha na Mungu katika [[ukavu]] kama katika [[faraja]], na kuzaa kila aina ya vitendo vyema. Kwa usahihi zaidi ukamilifu haumo hasa katika adili lenyewe la upendo, bali katika utekelezaji wake ambao kwa waliokamilika ni wa kudumu. Hii ni kwa sababu lengo la adili ni kutekelezwa, na ukamilifu umo katika muungano wa kudumu na Mungu. Kumbe [[Watulivu]] walikataa utendaji wowote kwa kisingizio cha kumuachia Mungu tu kutenda; hali yao ya kutotenda ilikuwa ya kujitakia, si ya kujaliwa: hivyo walifuta juhudi wakasinziasinzia tu! Kinyume chao, wengine wanapindua mpangilio wa upendo wakidhani ukamilifu umo katika kusaidia watu, wakati upendo kwa Mungu ni wa juu kuliko ule kwa jirani ambao ni [[ishara]] na [[tunda]] lake tu. Wengine tena, wanaozingatia zaidi maisha ya Kiroho, wanazidisha matendo ya ibada badala ya kulenga [[sala sahili ya mapendo]] ambayo ni kama tendo moja tu linalodumu kwa muda fulani. Basi, rohoni mwetu upendo ushike nafasi ya kwanza, juu kuliko hamu ya ujuzi na ya maendeleo yoyote ya kibinadamu; hapo utazidisha nguvu zetu zote kwa kumtumikia Mungu na jirani. Pamoja na hayo, hapa duniani upendo hauwezi kudumu kama mbinguni. Ni kwamba Mungu tu anaweza kujipenda anavyostahili, kama vile yeye tu anavyoweza kujifahamu kikamilifu; lakini watakatifu wa mbinguni, bila kumpenda anavyostahili, wanampenda kwa nguvu zao zote, kwa upendo wa kudumu moja kwa moja. Hiyo haiwezekani duniani, hasa kutokana na [[usingizi]]. Ukamilifu unaowezekana hapa ni ule unaozuia yale yote yanayopingana na upendo wa Mungu (yaani dhambi za mauti) au yanayofanya upendo usimuelekee kikamilifu. Wanaoanza maisha ya Kiroho na wale wanaoendelea wanalenga huo muungano na Mungu ambao ni maalumu wa waliokamilika: upendo wao hauzuii tu dhambi za mauti na dhambi nyepesi za makusudi, bali pia kasoro za hiari, k.mf. juhudi pungufu katika kumtumikia Mungu na mazoea ya kutenda kwa namna pungufu (kulingana na [[talanta]] zao) na ya kupokea sakramenti pasipo utashi kuitamani zaidi. Upendo wa waliokamilika kwa jirani unaenea si kwa wote jumla tu, bali ikipatikana nafasi kwa kila mtu, hata adui. Tena ndani mwao upendo wa kidugu una nguvu ya kujitolea hata mali na uhai, kwa kuwa Bwana ametuambia, “Amri yangu ndiyo hii: Mpendane, kama nilivyowapenda ninyi” (Yoh 15:12). Ndiyo sababu Mtume Paulo aliandika, “Nami kwa furaha nyingi nitatapanya, tena nitatapanywa kwa ajili ya roho zenu” ([[2Kor]] 12:15). Ili tufikie hatua hiyo vinahitajika: kazi kubwa juu ya nafsi zetu, juhudi halisi, moyo wa kujikana na kujikatalia hivi kwamba mapendo yetu yaache kuteremkia vitu vya dunia au ubinafsi, na badala yake yazidi kumuinukia Mungu kwa usafi na nguvu. Roho ikiacha kushuka, inapanda kwa Mungu: haiwezi kubaki pale ilipo; sheria yake, kama ile ya [[moto]], ni kupanda, si kushuka. Hapa duniani upendo wa waliokamilika, ingawa haudumu moja kwa moja kama ule wa mbinguni, unatenda karibu mfululizo na kwa namna ya ajabu: “Upendo ni jambo kubwa sana; ni jema kushinda mema yote. Upendo peke yake hugeuza mazito kuwa mepesi, hubeba magumu kwa urahisi… Upendo una hamu ya kupaa, hautaki kuzuiwa na mambo ya chini… Upendo umetoka kwa Mungu, hauwezi kutulia isipokuwa kwa Mungu pekee, mbali na viumbe vyote. Mwenye upendo huenda kama kwa kuruka, huenda mbio kwa furaha, yu huru, hazuiliki, hutoa yote kusudi apewe yote; katika mambo yote yeye hupata yote, kwa sababu humtegemea yule aliye juu kabisa, ndiye asili ya mema yote… Mara nyingi upendo haujui kiwango, huchangamka kupita kiasi… Upendo hukesha unapolala, haupatwi na usingizi; unapochoka haupumziki… Kama moto unaoteketea, kama mwenge unaowaka huruka juu, hupenya kila mahali” ([[Kumfuasa Yesu Kristo]] III,5:3-5). Ndiyo maisha ya watakatifu, na ndiyo [[wito]] wetu, kwa kuwa tunaitwa mbinguni, ambako kuna watakatifu tu. Ili tufike huko tunapaswa kutakasa kila tendo la siku zetu, tukikumbuka kwamba juu ya mfululizo wa matukio ya kila siku (ya kupendeza na ya kuchukiza, yaliyotarajiwa au la) kuna mfululizo sambamba wa [[neema za msaada]] tunazojaliwa nukta kwa nukta ili tufaidi upeo matukio hayo. Hapo tutayaona si tu upande wa [[hisi]] au wa akili iliyopotoshwa na [[umimi]], bali upande wa roho kwa imani. Yatakuwa mafundisho yanayotekeleza yale ya Injili, na polepole maongezi kati ya Bwana na sisi yataelekea kufululiza: ndiyo maisha halisi ya Kiroho na mwanzo wa uzima wa milele. ===Ukamilifu wa Kikristo unadai upendo mkubwa=== Baadhi ya wanateolojia walijiuliza kama ukamilifu unadai upendo mkubwa au unaweza kupatikana pasipo kiwango kikubwa cha adili hilo. Jibu la hakika ni kwamba, kama vile [[utu uzima]] unadai nguvu za mwili nyingi kuliko za [[mtoto]] (ingawa kwa nadra mtoto mwenye [[afya]] ana nguvu kuliko watu wazima kadhaa), hata ukamilifu unadai upendo mkubwa kuliko ule wa wanaoanza (ingawa mwanzoni mwa maisha ya Kiroho, anayeitiwa utakatifu mkuu, anaweza akawa tayari na upendo mkubwa kuliko baadhi ya waliokamilika). Kanisa Katoliki linafundisha hivyo kwa kuwa ukamilifu unapatikana tu baada ya kutekeleza maadili kwa muda mrefu, na kwa utekelezaji huo maadili yanastawi zaidi na zaidi. Ikiwa mwanzoni “upendo wa kiwango cha chini unaweza kushinda [[Kishawishi|vishawishi]] vyote” (Thoma wa Akwino), baadaye unavishinda kweli na kuzidi kuwa na nguvu. Haiwezekani kumfikiria Mkristo mkamilifu, aliye juu kuliko wanaoanza na wanaoendelea, asiye na upendo mkubwa, ingawa kupima kiwango kinachotakiwa ni kazi ya Mungu tu. Msingi mwingine wa fundisho hilo ni kwamba upendo unastawi kwa nguvu kuliko kwa uenezi. Viwango vitatu vya upendo vinavyowafaa wanaoanza, wanaoendelea na waliokamilika, ni viwango vya nguvu ya adili hilo, ambalo linazidi kuzuia dhambi nyepesi na kututenganisha na malimwengu ili tuambatane na Mungu. Hata hivyo mtu mmoja anaweza akakwepa dhambi hizo kuliko mwingine mwenye kiwango kilekile cha upendo, kwa sababu kwa wakati huo ana juhudi nyingi zaidi au halazimiki kupambana zaidi na [[tabia]] yake, uchovu na upinzani. [[Teresa wa Yesu]] alipokuwa nje ya [[monasteri]] katika nafasi zisizotazamiwa ilimtokea kutenda dhambi nyepesi nyingi zaidi, lakini pia kujipatia stahili nyingi zaidi kutokana na majaribu aliyoyashinda. Ni kama mtu ambaye akipanda [[mlima]] mrefu, inamtokea kuanguka kuliko anapotembea mahali [[tambarare]], lakini ana stahili ya kutenda kazi ngumu ya kupanda. Basi, ukamilifu unadai upendo mkubwa unaopatikana tu kwa kushinda kwanza vishawishi vingi na kujipatia stahili nyingi. “Ukamilifu umo katika kumpenda kikamilifu Mungu na kujidharau... Kuna watu wanaoridhika na aina yoyote ya kukusanya mawazo na ya kuongoka; wengine wanaishia katika kutekeleza maadili kwa ukamilifu mkubwa au mdogo, na kuwa waaminifu katika sala na kujinyima. Wanachokikosa ni kujishusha, kuwa mafukara au kujikana na kuwa safi Kiroho… Wanakwepa msalaba ambao ungewalinganisha na Bwana wetu Yesu Kristo. Wanajifanya lengo ndani ya Mungu, jambo ambalo ni kinyume kabisa cha upendo… Ningependa kuwa na uwezo wa kuwathibitishia watu wote wa Kiroho ukweli huu: kwamba njia ya Mungu si kuzidisha mawazo, mbinu na maonjo, ingawa kwa namna fulani wanaoanza wanahitaji vitu hivyo. Ila jambo moja tu ni la lazima kabisa, yaani kuweza kujikana moja kwa moja, kwa ndani na kwa nje, kujitoa mhanga kwa Yesu Kristo kama sadaka kamili ya kuteketezwa. Katika zoezi hilo tu tutayakuta hayo mengine yote na mengi zaidi tena. Kumbe, tukipuuzia zoezi hilo, ambalo ni muhtasari na mzizi wa maadili, tutakuta tu vitu visivyo muhimu, na maendeleo yatakwama, hata tukiwa na mawazo na neema za kimalaika… Mtu wa Kiroho akifaulu kujiangamiza, yaani kutekeleza unyenyekevu kamili, hapo muungano wake na Mungu utatimia, nao ndio hali bora tena kuu tunayoweza kuifikia katika maisha haya” ([[Yohane wa Msalaba]]). Mafundisho hayo yanalingana na yale ya Thoma wa Akwino alipoeleza ukamilifu kuwa “hali ya wale ambao wanalenga hasa kuambatana na Mungu na kumfurahia, na ambao wanatamani kufa ili kuishi na Kristo”, wakikabili magumu kwa [[utukufu]] wa Mungu na wokovu wa watu. Basi, pasipo juhudi kubwa haiwezekani kufikia upendo mkubwa, hata kwa miaka ya kukomunika kila siku na kutenda mema mapungufu. Kwa njia hizo tunaweza kujidumisha katika neema inayotia utakatifu au kuinuka mapema baada ya kutenda dhambi ya mauti, lakini hatutafikia kamwe upendo mkubwa. ===Ukamilifu unadai ushujaa katika maadili yote=== Ikiwa upendo kwa nchi yetu unatudai ushujaa inapopatwa na hatari, zaidi ukamilifu wa Kikristo unadai ushujaa katika maadili, walau upande wa nia. Kwa msaada wa Mungu, kila Mkristo anapaswa kuwa tayari auawe kwa ajili ya imani, kama atajikuta analazimika kuchagua aikane au kuteswa. Padri aliyewekwa wakfu awachunge watu anapaswa kuhatarisha uhai wake ili kuwaletea sakramenti wakiwa na shida kubwa nazo (k.mf. kwenda kuwaungamisha wenye [[tauni]]). Zaidi tena [[askofu]], katika nafasi kadhaa anapaswa kutoa uhai wake kwa ajili ya [[kundi]] lake. Tunapaswa pia kuwapenda maadui wetu na kuwasaidia wakiwa na shida kubwa. Ushujaa huo wa lazima kwa wokovu unadaiwa zaidi na ukamilifu. Mkristo akiwa mwaminifu katika wajibu wowote wa kila siku, awe na hakika kwamba Bwana atamsaidia kulingana na ugumu wa wajibu mkubwa wa dharura: “Aliye mwaminifu katika lililo dogo sana, huwa mwaminifu katika lililo kubwa pia” (Lk 16:10). “Msifadhaike kwa kuwaza maneno yenu jinsi mtakavyojibu au kusema; kwa kuwa Roho Mtakatifu atawafundisha saa ileile yawapasayo kuyasema” (Lk 12:11-12). Vipaji vyake ni vya lazima kwa wokovu ili tupokee kwa dhati na kwa mikono miwili [[uvuvio]] wake wa pekee pale ambapo maadili hayatoshi, kwa kuwa nafasi ni ngumu zaidi. Lakini kuwa tayari rohoni kutekeleza maadili kwa ushujaa ni tofauti na kuwa nayo kwa kiwango cha ushujaa. Tena ukamilifu unadai Mungu atakase hisi na roho ili kufuta kasoro za wanaoanza na za wanaoendelea. Yohane wa Msalaba alifafanua matakaso hayo yanavyowatokea wanasala wanaoitiwa ukamilifu mkuu kwa njia ya mkato; lakini mambo ya namna hiyo yanawatokea wengine pia ambao kwao matakaso hayo ya ndani yanaendana na huzuni na shida za utume. Mara nyingi katika majaribu hayo mtu anatakiwa kushinda kishujaa vishawishi dhidi ya [[usafi wa moyo]] na [[subira]], halafu dhidi ya imani, tumaini na upendo. Hapo unadaiwa ushujaa fulani katika maadili, ambao baadaye unaweza na kutakiwa uongezeke. Hatimaye, upendo wa Kikristo, kwa kuwa unalenga kutulinganisha na Mwokozi aliyesulubiwa kwa ajili yetu, unatakiwa kulenga ushujaa katika maadili. Hiyo inatokana na yale tuliyoyasema kwanza: tendo la kishujaa linalompasa Mkristo yeyote linalingana na lengo la upendo, yaani kumpenda Mungu kuliko yote. Kwa umbile lake, upendo huo unampenda kuliko uhai wa mwili, kwa hiyo unapaswa uwe tayari kumfia. “Upendo wa Mungu unafanya tutende bila kukoma na tuvumilie bila kuchoka” ([[Bernardo wa Clairvaux]]) hasa katika tabu za ndani na za nje ambazo watumishi wa Mungu wanapaswa kustahimili kwa utakaso wao na kwa kuchangia pamoja na Yesu wokovu wa watu. Mtu anaweza akapinga mafundisho hayo akisema eti! Yangekuwa kweli Wakristo wanaofikia ushujaa wangekuwa wengi zaidi. Thoma alijibu hivi hoja ya namna hiyo kuhusu idadi ya wateule, “Jema linalolingana na umbile la binadamu wote kwa kawaida linafikiwa; lakini sivyo kuhusu jema linalopita umbile hilo”. Ni adimu kudumu maisha yote katika neema inayotia utakatifu, bila kutenda dhambi ya mauti baada ya ubatizo. Hata hivyo kwa mfumo wake neema inayotia utakatifu inalenga uzima wa milele, kwa hiyo idumu milele isiangamizwe kamwe na dhambi ya mauti. Ila tumepokea [[hazina]] hiyo katika [[chungu]] cha [[udongo]], hivyo tamaa na kiburi vinaweza kufanya tuipoteze. Wengi wanaishi kijuujuu tu wakifuata hisi, na wachache tu wanafuata akili nyofu; hata hivyo kwa umbile lao wana akili, nayo neema inatakiwa kuwafanya waishi Kimungu. Vivyo hivyo upendo ni [[mbegu]] ya uzima wa milele, hivyo kwa mfumo wake unalenga ushujaa ili kudumu mwaminifu kwa Mungu. Utakatifu mkubwa unadhihirishwa hasa na ulinganifu wa maadili yote, hata yale yaliyo mbalimbali zaidi. Kiumbile mmoja anaelekea nguvu, lakini si upole; mwingine ni kinyume. Kwa namna fulani umbile linaelekea daima upande mmoja, hivi kwamba linahitaji kukamilishwa na maadili tofauti. Kuunganisha nguvu kubwa na upole kamili, kupenda motomoto ukweli na haki pamoja na kuhurumia waliopotoka, kunathibitisha muungano wa dhati na Mungu, kwa kuwa yaliyogawanyika katika ulimwengu huwa yameunganika katika ufalme wake, na hasa ndani mwake mwenyewe. Utakatifu ni mfano mzuri wa umoja wa sifa mbalimbali zisizo na mipaka ndani ya ukuu wa Umungu. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{Citation | first=Randall Herbert | last=Balmer |author-link=Randall Balmer | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=syUupeVJOz4C | title=Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism | place=Louisville, KY | publisher=Westminster John Knox Press | year=2002 | access-date=June 17, 2016 | isbn=978-0-664-22409-7}}. * {{Citation|last=Bebbington|first=David W.|author-link=David Bebbington|title=Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s|year=1989| publisher=Routledge | location=London | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=abKIAgAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-415-10464-7}}. * {{cite book | last = Campbell | first = Ted A. | title = Christian Confessions: A Historical Introduction | publisher = Westminster John Knox Press | date = 1996 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=p2mUxxxGt_sC | isbn = 978-0-664-25650-0 }} * {{Citation|last=Campbell|first=Ted A. |title=Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials |year=1999| publisher=Abingdon Press| location= Nashville, Tennessee | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1OMQUMiM_skC | isbn = 978-0-687-03475-8}}. * {{cite encyclopedia | title = Holiness Movement | editor-last1 = Cross | editor-first1 = F. L. | editor-last2 = Livingstone | editor-first2 = E. A. | encyclopedia = The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 2005 | doi = 10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001|url= http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001/acref-9780192802903-e-3298| isbn = 9780192802903 }} * {{Citation|last=Cunliffe-Jones|first=Hubert|title=A History of Christian Doctrine|year=1978| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HgLUAwAAQBAJ | publisher=T&T Clark| isbn =978-0-567-04393-1}}. * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Devine | first = Arthur | title = Christian and Religious Perfection | encyclopedia = The Catholic Encyclopedia | volume = 11 | publisher = Robert Appleton Company | date = 1911 | url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11665b.htm | access-date = August 9, 2016 }} * {{cite book|last=Garrigou-Lagrange|first=Reginald|author-link=Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange|title=Christian Perfection and Contemplation|url=https://archive.org/details/christianperfect0000rgin|publisher= Saint Benedict Press, LLC, TAN Books|year=2009|isbn=978-0-89555-758-2 }} * {{Citation | last = Macquiban | first = Timothy S. A. | contribution = Dialogue with the Wesleys: Remembering Origins | year = 2006 | title = Methodist Theology Today | editor-last = Marsh | editor-first = Clive | pages = 17–28 | place = London | publisher = Continuum | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CgAdCgAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-8264-8104-7}}. * {{Citation | last = Maddox | first = Randy L. | contribution = 'Letter from America': A United Methodist Perspective | year = 2006 | title = Methodist Theology Today | editor-last = Marsh | editor-first = Clive | pages = 179–84 | place = London | publisher = Continuum | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CgAdCgAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-8264-8104-7}}. * {{cite book | last = McKim | first = Donald K. | title = Presbyterian Questions, Presbyterian Answers: Exploring Christian Faith | publisher = Geneva Press | date = 2003 | location = Louisville, Kentucky | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=54f0oX23u5EC&q=Presbyterians+and+Christian+perfection&pg=PA88 | isbn = 978-0-664-23478-2 }} * {{Citation|last=Noble|first=T. A.|title=Holy Trinity: Holy People: The Theology of Christian Perfecting|year=2013| publisher=Cascade Books| location=Eugene, Oregon | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gOcFBAAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-1-62032-720-3}}. * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Wainwright | first = Geoffrey | title = Methodism | editor-last = McGrath | editor-first = Alister E. | encyclopedia = The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Thought | publisher = Blackwell Publishers | date = 1999 }} * {{Citation|last=Williams|first=Jeffrey|title=Religion and Violence in Early American Methodism: Taking the Kingdom by Force|year=2010| publisher=Indiana University Press| location=Bloomington, Indiana | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=zHFgNXbLhrMC | isbn = 978-0-253-35444-0}}. == Marejeo mengine == === Ya Kikatoliki === * {{cite book | author = [[Bernardo wa Clairvaux]] | author-link = Bernard of Clairvaux | title = On Loving God | url = http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bernard/loving_god }} === Ya Kimethodisti === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160425235558/http://www.umcmission.org/Find-Resources/John-Wesley-Sermons/Sermon-40-Christian-Perfection Sermon 40: "Christian Perfection"] by [[John Wesley]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160613002655/http://www.umcmission.org/Find-Resources/John-Wesley-Sermons/Sermon-43-The-Scripture-Way-of-Salvation Sermon 43: "The Scripture Way of Salvation"] by John Wesley * {{cite web | first1= Howard |last1=Culbertson |first2=Roger |last2=Hahn |first3=Dean |last3=Nelson | title = How entire is Entire Sanctification? | publisher = Southern Nazarene University |date = 1994 | url = http://home.snu.edu/~hculbert/entire.htm }} * {{cite web | author = Allan Brown | title = How to be Entirely Sanctified | publisher = God's Bible School and College | date = 2012 | url = https://www.gbs.edu/how-to-be-entirely-sanctified/ | accessdate = 2021-09-13 | archive-date = 2022-07-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220703143108/https://www.gbs.edu/how-to-be-entirely-sanctified/ | url-status = dead }} * {{cite book | last = Wesley | first = John | author-link = John Wesley | title = A Plain Account of Christian Perfection | orig-year = 1777 |date = 1872 | url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Plain_Account_of_Christian_Perfection }} * A. Philip Brown II, [https://holyjoys.org/a-sketch-of-a-biblical-theology-of-sanctification-wesleyan-arminian-but-not-wesleyan-nazarene/ "A Sketch of a Biblical Theology of Sanctification: Wesleyan-Arminian But Not Wesleyan/Nazarene"] (2018). Holy Joys article. *Darrell Stetler II, [https://www.40daysofholiness.com/day16 "Holiness Means Having An Undivided Heart"], (2021), from [http://www.newstartdiscipleship.com NewStart Discipleship] *{{cite book | last = Arthur | first = William | author-link = William Arthur (minister) | title = The Tongue of Fire, or, the True Power of Christianity | publisher = Harper and Brothers Publishers | orig-year = 1856 | date = 1900 | location = London | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fZw9AAAAYAAJ }} === Ya Kilutheri === * {{cite book | last=Courey | first=D.J. | title=What Has Wittenberg to Do with Azusa?: Luther's Theology of the Cross and Pentecostal Triumphalism | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | year=2015 | isbn=978-0-567-65631-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3PRwBgAAQBAJ}} [[Jamii:Maisha ya kiroho]] [[Jamii:teolojia]] 4xjv4jerppscijpsox0bvzh975z6uyh 0 143261 1580087 1575928 2026-07-17T23:57:59Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580087 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Metropolitan Cathedral Dar es Salaam.jpg|thumb|[[Kanisa kuu la Mtakatifu Yosefu, Dar es Salaam]].]] [[File:Oostende Sint-Petrus-en-Pauluskerk R02.jpg|thumb|350px|[[Kanisa]] la [[Mitume Petro na Paulo]] huko [[Ostend]] ([[Ubelgiji]]), lililojengwa miaka [[1899]]-[[1908]].]] '''Mtindo wa Kigothi mamboleo''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: '''Gothic Revival architecture''', '''Victorian Gothic,''' '''neo-Gothic,''' au '''Gothick''') ulikuwa [[mtindo]] wa [[usanifu majengo]] ambao uliiga kwa kiasi tofauti [[mtindo wa Kigothi|ule wa Kigothi]] uliotawala [[Ulaya]] katika [[Enzi ya kati|karne za kati]]. Mtindo huo ulianza [[Uingereza]] mwishoni mwa [[miaka ya 1740]], ulistawi mwanzoni mwa [[karne ya 19]], na kutawala katika [[ustaarabu wa Magharibi]] katikati ya [[karne]] hiyo. Mfano maarufu katika [[Afrika ya Mashariki|Afrika Mashariki]] ni [[kanisa kuu]] la Mt. Yosefu (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''St Joseph Cathedral church'') [[jiji|jijini]] [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], lililojengwa kwa umahiri na [[wamisionari]] [[Wabenedikto]] kutoka [[Ujerumani]] kuanzia [[mwaka]] [[1897]] hadi [[1902]]<ref>Michael Hodd, ''East Africa Handbook: The Travel Guide'', p. 344</ref> [[kutabaruku|likatabarukiwa]] mwaka [[1905]].<ref>{{it}} [http://www.inkamana.org/ohio/pugu.htm St. Benedict Monastery] {{Wayback|url=http://www.inkamana.org/ohio/pugu.htm |date=20210621162029 }}</ref>. Hadi sasa ni [[kanisa kuu]] la [[Jimbo Kuu la Dar es Salaam]]. Kati ya sifa zake, mojawapo ni [[kioo cha rangi|vioo vya rangi]] nyuma ya [[altare]]<ref>[http://www.lonelyplanet.com/tanzania/dar-es-salaam/sights/440036 St. Joseph's Cathedral] at [[Lonely Planet]]</ref>. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Vyanzo== {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book | last1 = Aldrich | first1 = Megan Brewster | last2 = Atterbury | first2 = Paul | title = A.W.N. Pugin: Master of Gothic Revival | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RfBpd-OZ7e4C&pg=PA372 | year = 1995 | location = New Haven and London | publisher = Yale University Press | isbn = 978-0-300-06656-2 }} * {{cite book | last = Aldrich | first = Megan | title = Gothic Revival | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tfNPAAAAMAAJ&q=Gothic+Revival | year = 2005 | publisher = Phaidon Press | location = London | isbn = 978-0-714-83631-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Aldrich | first = Megan | title = Thomas Rickman and the Victorians | series = Studies in Victorian Architecture and Design | volume = 7 | editor1 = Megan Aldrich | editor2= Alexandrina Buchanan | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/thomas-rickman-and-the-victorians/oclc/1088560920&referer=brief_results | year = 2019 | publisher = [[The Victorian Society]] | location = London | isbn = 978-0-901-65756-5 | oclc = 1088560920 }} * {{cite book | last = Anstruther | first = Ian | year = 1963 | title = The Knight and the Umbrella: An Account of the Eglinton Tournament - 1839 | publisher = Geoffrey Bles | location = London | oclc = 249701828 | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/knight-and-the-umbrella-an-account-of-the-eglinton-tournament-1839/oclc/249701828?referer=br&ht=edition }} * {{cite book | last1 = Atterbury | first1 = Paul | last2 = Wainwright | first2 = Clive | title = Pugin: A Gothic Passion | year = 1994 | location = New Haven and London | publisher = Yale University Press | isbn = 978-0-300-06656-2 | oclc = 750811794 }} * {{cite book | last = Bartlett | first = Robert | author-link=Robert Bartlett (historian) | year = 2001 | title = Medieval Panorama | location = Los Angeles | publisher = Getty Publications | isbn = 978-0-892-36642-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DjI5t3DE00wC&pg=PA15 }} * {{cite book | last = Beard | first = Geoffrey | year = 1985 | title = The National Trust Book of English Furniture | publisher = Viking | location = London | isbn = 978-0-670-80141-1 | oclc = 924269530 | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/national-trust-book-of-english-furniture/oclc/924269530?referer=br&ht=edition }} * {{cite book | last = Bradley | first = Simon | year = 2007 | title = St Pancras Station | url = https://archive.org/details/stpancrasstation0000brad_v3c1 | publisher = Profile Books | location = London | isbn = 978-1-861-97951-3 }} * {{Rejea kitabu | last1= Brooks | first1= Alan | last2= Pevsner | first2= Nikolaus | authorlink2 = Nikolaus Pevsner | series= The Buildings of England | title= Worcestershire | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3sG9568rRJsC&printsec=frontcover | year= 2007 | publisher= Yale University Press | isbn= 978-0-300-11298-6 }} * {{cite book | last = Buggeln | first = Gretchen Townsend | year = 2003 | title = Temples of Grace: The Material Transformation of Connecticut's Churches | url = https://archive.org/details/templesofgracema0000bugg | location = Hanover, US | publisher = New England University Publications | isbn = 978-1-584-65322-6 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Chalcraft | first1 = Anna | last2 = Viscardi | first2 = Judith | title = Strawberry Hill: Horace Walpole's Gothic Castle | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/strawberry-hill-horace-walpoles-gothic-castle/oclc/255611525?referer=br&ht=edition | year = 2007 | location = London | publisher = Frances Lincoln Ltd | isbn = 978-0-711-22687-6 }} * {{cite book | last = Charlesworth | first = Michael | year = 2002 | title = The Gothic Revival 1720-1870 - Literary Sources and Documents: Blood and Ghosts | volume = 1 | location = Robertsbridge, East Sussex | publisher = Helm Information | isbn = 978-1-873-40367-9 | oclc = 491489502 | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/gothic-revival-1720-1870-literary-sources-documents/oclc/491489502?referer=br&ht=edition | ref = {{sfnRef|Charlesworth|2002a}} }} * {{cite book | last = Charlesworth | first = Michael | year = 2002 | title = The Gothic Revival 1720–1870 – Literary Sources and Documents: Gothic and National Architecture | volume = 3 | location = Robertsbridge, East Sussex | publisher = Helm Information | isbn = 978-1-873-40367-9 | oclc = 491489502 | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/gothic-revival-1720-1870-literary-sources-documents/oclc/491489502?referer=br&ht=edition | ref = {{sfnRef|Charlesworth|2002c}} }} * {{cite book |last1 = Cherry |first1 = Bridget |last2 = Pevsner |first2 = Nikolaus |author-link2 = Nikolaus Pevsner |year = 2002 |title = London 4: North |series = The Buildings of England |url = https://archive.org/details/london4north0000unse |publisher = [[Yale University Press]] |location = New Haven, US and London |isbn = 9780300096538 |url-access = registration }} * {{cite book | last = Clark | first = Anthony E. | title = China Gothic: The Bishop of Beijing and His Cathedral | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HFbHDwAAQBAJ&q=best+gothic+revival+architecture | year = 2019 | publisher = University of Washington Press | location = Washington, US | isbn = 978-0-295-74668-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Clark | first = Kenneth |author-link=Kenneth Clark | year = 1983 | title = The Gothic Revival: An Essay in the History of Taste | location = London | publisher = John Murray | isbn = 978-0-719-53102-6 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iBtGQwAACAAJ }} * {{cite book | last = Cooke | first = Robert | author-link = Robert Cooke (Conservative politician) | year = 1987 | title = The Palace of Westminster | location = London | publisher = Burton Skira | isbn = 978-2-882-49014-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/palaceofwestmins00sirr }} * {{cite book | last = Crook | first = J. Mordaunt | author-link = J. Mordaunt Crook | title = William Burges and the High Victorian Dream | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=W1JruwAACAAJ | year = 2013 | publisher = Frances Lincoln | location = London | isbn = 978-0-7112-3349-2 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Cruft | first1 = Kitty | last2 = Dunbar | first2 = John | last3 = Fawcett | first3 = Richard | year = 2006 | title = Borders | series = The Buildings of Scotland | publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | location = New Haven, US and London | isbn = 978-0-300-10702-9 | oclc = 1062076262 | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/borders/oclc/1062076262?referer=br&ht=edition }} * {{cite book | last = Curl | first = James Stevens | year = 1990 | title = Victorian Architecture | url = https://archive.org/details/victorianarchite0000curl_v3m5 | location = Newton Abbot, Devon and London | publisher = David & Charles | isbn = 978-0-715-39144-0 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Dixon | first1 = Roger | last2 = Muthesius | first2 = Stefan | title = Victorian Architecture | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yVcs9z4-rzUC | year = 1993 | location = London | publisher = Thames and Hudson | isbn = 978-0-195-20048-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Eastlake | first = Charles Locke | author-link = Charles Eastlake | title = A History Of The Gothic Revival | year = 2012 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | isbn = 978-1-108-05191-0 }} * {{cite book | last = Ferriday | first = Peter | title = Victorian Architecture | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RmNTAAAAMAAJ | year = 1963 | location = London | publisher = Jonathan Cape | oclc = 270335 }} * {{cite book | last = Finnerty | first = Anne | title = The Architecture of East Australia: An Architectural History in 432 Individual Presentations | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FUItnsGv-doC&q=best+gothic+revival+buildings+in+Australia&pg=PA38 | year = 2001 | publisher = Edition Axel Menges | location = Felbach, Germany | isbn = 978-3-930-69890-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Furneaux Jordan | first = Robert | author-link = Robert Furneaux Jordan | title = A Concise History of Western Architecture | year = 1979 | location = London | publisher = Thames & Hudson | oclc = 757298161 }} * {{cite book | last = Germann | first = Georg | title = Gothic Revival in Europe and Britain: Sources, Influences and Ideas | year = 1972 | location = London | publisher = Lund Humphries | isbn = 978-0-853-31343-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Gifford | first = John | year = 1989 | title = William Adam 1689-1748: A Life and Times of Scotland's Universal Architect | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/william-adam-1689-1748-a-life-and-time-of-scotlands-universal-architect/oclc/600401309?referer=br&ht=edition | publisher = Mainstream Publishing | location = Edinburgh | isbn = 978-1-851-58296-9 | oclc = 600401309 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Glendenning | first1 = Miles | last2 = MacInnes | first2 = Ranald | last3 = MacKechnie | first3 = Aonghus | year = 2002 | title = A History of Scottish Architecture: from the Renaissance to the Present Day | location = Edinburgh | publisher = Edinburgh University Press | isbn = 978-0-748-60741-9 }} * {{cite book | last = Goodhart-Rendel | first = Harry Stuart | author-link=Harry Stuart Goodhart-Rendel | year = 1989 | orig-year= 1953 | title = English Architecture Since The Regency: An Interpretation | location = London | publisher = Century | isbn = 978-0-712-61869-4 | oclc = 243386485 | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/english-architecture-since-the-regency-an-interpretation/oclc/243386485?referer=br&ht=edition }} * {{cite book | last = Hill | first = Rosemary | year = 2007 | title = God's Architect: Pugin and the Building of Romantic Britain | url = https://archive.org/details/godsarchitectpug0000hill | location = London | publisher = Allen Lane | isbn = 978-0-713-99499-5 }} * {{Rejea kitabu | last=Hitchcock|first=Henry-Russell | author-link=Henry-Russell Hitchcock | series=[[Penguin Books#Pelican History of Art|Pelican History of Art]] | title=Architecture: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries | url=https://archive.org/details/architecturenine0000henr_y6i1| year=1968 | orig-year=1958 | publisher=[[Penguin Books]] | location=London | oclc=851173836 }} *{{cite book |last=Hobart |first=John Henry |title=The Moral Efficacy and the Positive Benefits of the Ordinances of the Gospel: A Sermon Preached at the Consecration of Trinity Church, in the City of New Haven, on Wednesday, the 21st Day of February, A.D. 1816 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pS8wAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA5 |year=1816 |publisher=Oliver Steele }} * {{cite book | last = Hull | first = Lise | year = 2006 | title = Britain's Medieval Castles | url = https://archive.org/details/britainsmedieval0000hull | location = London | publisher = Praeger | isbn = 978-0-275-98414-4 }} * {{cite book | last = Jackson | first = Alvin | year = 2011 | title = The Two Unions: Ireland, Scotland, and the Survival of the United Kingdom, 1707–2007 | url = https://archive.org/details/twounionsireland0000jack | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-199-59399-6 }} *{{cite book |last=Jarvis|first=Samuel Farmar |title=An Address, Delivered in the City of New-Haven: At the Laying of the Corner-stone of Trinity Church, May 17th, 1814 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=83VytAEACAAJ |year=1814 |publisher=Oliver Steele }} * {{cite book | last = Lindfield | first = Peter | title = Georgian Gothic: Medievalist Architecture, Furniture and Interiors, 1730–1840 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FI7gDQAAQBAJ&q=lady+pomfret+arlington+street&pg=PA78 | year = 2016 | publisher = Boydell & Brewer | location = London | isbn = 978-1-783-27127-6 }} * {{cite book | last = Lowenthal | first = David | author-link = David Lowenthal | year = 2015 | title = The Past is a Foreign Country - Revisited | location = Cambridge, UK | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn = 978-0-521-85142-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NtuCCgAAQBAJ&q=Arcisse+de+Caumont+normandy+architecture&pg=PA416 }} * {{cite book | last = Macaulay | first = James | year = 1975 | title = The Gothic Revival 1745–1845 | location = Glasgow and London | publisher = Blackie | isbn = 978-0-216-89892-9 | url = https://archive.org/details/gothicrevival1740000maca }} * {{cite book | last = Martin | first = Desmond | chapter = Bishop Robert Gray and Mrs Sophia Gray: Building Anglican Churches in South Africa, 1848-72 | title = Ecclesiology Abroad: The British Empire and Beyond | series = Studies in Victorian Architecture and Design | volume = 4 | editor = G. A. Bremner | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/ecclesiology-abroad-the-british-empire-and-beyond/oclc/825141174&referer=brief_results | year = 2012 | publisher = [[The Victorian Society]] | location = London | isbn = 978-0-901-65753-4 | oclc = 825141174 }} * {{cite book | last = Menin | first = Nicolas | year = 1775 | title = A description of the Coronation of the Kings and Queens of France | publisher = unknown | location = London | oclc = 1064350166 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=58xVAAAAcAAJ&q=clovis+1st+king+of+france+christian&pg=PA5 }} * {{cite book | last = Metcalf | first = Thomas R. | title = An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britain's Raj | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/imperial-vision-indian-architecture-and-britains-raj/oclc/835581414?referer=br&ht=edition | year = 1989 | publisher = Faber & Faber | location = London | isbn = 978-0-571-15419-7 }} * {{cite book | last = Midant | first = Jean-Paul | year = 2002 | title = Viollet-le-Duc: The French Gothic Revival | publisher = L'Aventurine | location = Paris | isbn = 978-2-914-19922-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Morris | first = Jan | author-link=Jan Morris | year = 1986 | title = Stones of Empire: The Buildings of the Raj | location = Oxford, UK | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | isbn = 978-0-192-82036-5 | oclc = 473765817 | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/stones-of-empire-the-buildings-of-the-raj/oclc/473765817?referer=br&ht=edition }} * {{cite book | last = McWilliam | first = Colin | year = 1978 | title = Lothian | series = The Buildings of Scotland | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/lothian-except-edinburgh/oclc/185487752?referer=br&ht=edition | publisher = Penguin Books | location = Harmondsworth, Middlesex | isbn = 978-0-140-71066-3 | oclc = 185487752 }} * {{cite book | last = Pevsner | first = Nikolaus | author-link=Nikolaus Pevsner | year = 1951 | title = High Victorian Design: A Study of the Exhibits of 1851 | location = London | publisher = Architectural Press | oclc = 875412662 | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/high-victorian-design-a-study-of-the-exhibits-of-1851/oclc/875412662?referer=br&ht=edition }} * {{cite book | last = Pevsner | first = Nikolaus | author-link=Nikolaus Pevsner | year = 1969 | title = Ruskin and Viollet-Le-Duc: Englishness and Frenchness in the Appreciation of Gothic Architecture | location = London | publisher = Thames and Hudson | oclc = 264998275 | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/ruskin-and-viollet-le-duc-englishness-and-frenchness-in-the-appreciation-of-gothic-architecture/oclc/264998275&referer=brief_results }} *{{Rejea kitabu | first1= John | last1=Poppeliers | first2= S. Allen| last2=Chambers | first3=Nancy| last3=Schwartz | title = What Style Is It | publisher= The Preservation Press | isbn=978-0-891-33065-3 | location=Washington | date=1979 }} * {{cite book | last = Port | first = M. H. | year = 2006 | title = 600 New Churches: The Church Building Commission 1818–1856 | location = Reading, UK | publisher = Spire Books | isbn = 978-1-904-96508-4 }} *{{cite book |last=Rickman|first=Thomas |title=An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England: From the Conquest to the Reformation |url=https://archive.org/details/stylesofarchitec00rick|page=[https://archive.org/details/stylesofarchitec00rick/page/47 47] |year=1848 |publisher=J. H. Parker |location=London |doi=10.1017/CBO9781107338241 |isbn=978-1-107-33824-1 }} * {{cite book | last = Robson Scott | first = William Douglas | year = 1965 | title = The Literary Background of the Gothic Revival in Germany - A chapter in the history of taste | url = https://archive.org/details/literarybackgrou0000robs | location = Oxford | publisher = Clarendon Press | oclc = 504490694 }} * {{cite book |last = Ruskin |first = John |author-link = John Ruskin |year = 1989 |orig-year=1849 |title = The Seven Lamps Of Architecture |url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/seven-lamps-of-architecture/oclc/19886931?referer=br&ht=edition |publisher = [[Dover Publications]] |location = New York |isbn = 978-0-486-26145-4 |oclc = 19886931 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Sherwood | first1 = Jennifer | last2 = Pevsner | first2 = Nikolaus | author-link2 = Nikolaus Pevsner | year = 1996 | title = Oxfordshire | series = The Buildings of England | publisher = [[Yale University Press]] | location = New Haven, US and London | isbn = 978-0-30009-6392 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NEzDOwAACAAJ | ref = {{sfnRef|Sherwood|Pevsner|2002}} }} * {{cite book | last = Stamp | first = Gavin | author-link = Gavin Stamp | editor = C. Brooks | year = 1995 | title = The Victorian kirk: Presbyterian architecture in nineteenth century Scotland | url = https://archive.org/details/victorianchurcha0000unse_z6y9 | series = The Victorian Church: Architecture and Society | location = Manchester | publisher = Manchester University Press | isbn = 0-7190-4020-5 }} * {{cite book | last = Stamp | first = Gavin | author-link = Gavin Stamp | editor = G. Stamp | year = 1997 | title = Caledonia Gothica: Pugin and the Gothic Revival in Scotland | series = Architectural Heritage | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/caledonia-gothica-pugin-and-the-gothic-revival-in-scotland/oclc/632385481&referer=brief_results | location = Edinburgh | publisher = Journal of the Architectural Heritage Society of Scotland | oclc = 632385481 }} * {{cite book | last = Stamp | first = Gavin | author-link = Gavin Stamp | year = 2011 | title = Saving a Century: the Victorian Society, 1958-2008 | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/saving-a-century-the-victorian-society-1958-2008/oclc/1141858753?referer=br&ht=edition | location = London | publisher = Victorian Society | isbn = 978-0-901-65740-4 | oclc = 1141858753 }} * {{cite book | last = Stamp | first = Gavin | author-link = Gavin Stamp | year = 2015 | title = Gothic For The Steam Age: An Illustrated Biography of George Gilbert Scott | url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/gothic-for-the-steam-age-an-illustrated-biography-of-george-gilbert-scott/oclc/1123924291?referer=br&ht=edition | location = London | publisher = Aurum Press | isbn = 978-1-781-31124-0 | oclc = 1123924291 }} * {{cite book | last = Stanton | first = Phoebe B. | year = 1997 | title = The Gothic Revival and American Church Architecture: An Episode in Taste, 1840–1856 | url = https://archive.org/details/gothicrevivalame0000stan | location = Baltimore, US and London | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | isbn = 978-0-801-85622-8 | oclc = 38338245 }} * {{cite book | last = Steegman | first = John | year = 1970 | title = Victorian Taste - A study of the Arts and Architecture from 1830 to 1870 | location = Cambridge | publisher = Nelson's University Paperbacks | isbn = 978-0-262-69028-7 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=n09fQgAACAAJ&q=victorian+taste+steegman }} * {{cite book | last = Sundt | first = Richard A. | editor1 = Timothy Brittain-Catlin | editor2 = Jan De Maeyer | editor3 = Martin Bressani | year = 2017 | title = Gothic Revival Worldwide: A.W.N. Pugin's Global Influence | location = Leuven, Belgium | publisher = Leuven University Press | isbn = 978-9-462-70091-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NrrvDQAAQBAJ&q=Cathedral+of+La+Plata+Argentina.Ernesto+Meyer&pg=PA124 }} * {{cite book | last = Toker | first = Franklin | author-link = Franklin Toker | title = The Church of Notre Dame in Montreal: An Architectural History | year = 1991 | location = Montreal | publisher = [[McGill–Queen's University Press]] | isbn = 978-0-773-50848-4 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yTnJg_Lmx-UC&q=Basilica+of+Notre+Dame+montreal }} * {{cite book | last = Turnor | first = Reginald | title = Nineteenth Century Architecture in Britain | year = 1950 | location = London | publisher = Batsford | oclc = 520344 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xmRNAAAAMAAJ }} *{{cite book |last=Tuleshkov |first=Nikolaĭ |title=Славинските първомайстори (Master Builders from Slavine) |language=bg |url = https://www.worldcat.org/title/slavinskite-purvomaistori/oclc/264741060&referer=brief_results |year=2007 |publisher=Арх & Арт |location=София |isbn=978-9-548-93140-3 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Verey | first1 = David | last2 = Brooks | first2 = Alan | year = 2002 | orig-year = 1970 | title = Gloucestershire 2: The Vale and the Forest of Dean | series = The Buildings of England | location = New Haven, US and London | publisher = Yale University Press | isbn = 9780300097337 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=m9W2XH11-9EC&q=Gloucestershire+2 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Whyte | first1 = Ian | last2 = Whyte | first2 = Kathleen A | year = 1991 | title = The Changing Scottish Landscape, 1500–1800 | url = https://archive.org/details/changingscottish0000whyt | location = London | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 9780415029926 }} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== * Christian Amalvi, ''Le Goût du moyen âge'', (Paris: Plon), 1996. The first French monograph on French Gothic Revival. * ''"Le Gothique retrouvé" avant Viollet-le-Duc.'' Exhibition, 1979. The first French exhibition concerned with French Neo-Gothic. * Hunter-Stiebel, Penelope, ''Of knights and spires: Gothic revival in France and Germany'', 1989. ISBN|0-614-14120-6 * Phoebe B Stanton, ''Pugin'' (New York, Viking Press 1972, ©1971). ISBN|0-670-58216-6 *[[John Summerson|Summerson, Sir John]], 1948. "Viollet-le-Duc and the rational point of view" collected in ''Heavenly Mansions and other essays on Architecture'' * [[Thomas Graham Jackson|Sir Thomas G. Jackson]], ''Modern Gothic Architecture'' (1873), ''Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture'' (1913), and three-volume ''Gothic Architecture in France, England and Italy'' (1915) ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons|Gothic revival architecture}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060907161140/http://www.sainte-clotilde.com/Basilique/basilique.html Basilique Sainte-Clotilde, Paris] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070422093100/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/structures/parliament/ Canada by Design: Parliament Hill, Ottawa] at Library and Archives Canada * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191335/http://www.achome.co.uk/architecture/gothic.htm Books, Research and Information] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080925214640/http://proyectodocumenta.org/tag/neogotico/ Proyecto Documenta's entries for neo-Gothic elements at the Valparaíso's churches] [[Jamii:Usanifu majengo]] [[Jamii:sanaa]] e72zjx2zdcqvcb6x6qf3soc9uebpnm1 0 145230 1580232 1321473 2026-07-18T01:36:44Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580232 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Dietisalvi di Speme Madonna.jpg|right|thumb|Ukuu wa Bikira Maria unamtegemea Mwanae, Yesu.]] [[Picha:Gentile da Fabriano, Kreuzigung.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Stabat Mater]]'', yaani picha ya Bikira Maria chini ya [[msalaba wa Yesu]], kadiri ya [[Gentile wa Fabriano]], [[1410]]-[[1412]] hivi.]] '''Mariolojia ya Kikatoliki''' inategemea [[Biblia ya Kikristo]] pamoja na [[Mapokeo ya Mitume]] yanayojitokeza hasa katika [[maandishi]] ya [[Babu wa Kanisa|Mababu wa Kanisa]] wa [[Ukristo wa Mashariki|Mashariki]] na wa [[Kanisa la Magharibi|Magharibi]]. Hayo yote yaliongoza [[Papa|Mapapa]] na [[Askofu|maaskofu]] wenzao wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]] kutangaza hasa [[dogma]] nne kuhusu [[Bikira Maria]]. Mafundisho makuu hayo ni lazima kila Mkatoliki [[Imani|ayasadiki]] kutokana na [[ufunuo]] wa [[Mungu]]: # B. Maria [[mkingiwa dhambi ya asili]] # B. Maria [[Mama wa Mungu]] # B. Maria [[Bikira daima]] # B. Maria [[kupalizwa mbinguni]] [[mwili]] na [[roho]] ==Mkingiwa Dhambi ya Asili== [[Malaika]] [[Malaika Gabrieli|Gabrieli]] alimsalimia Maria “umejaa neema” ([[Injili ya Luka|Lk]] 1:28) maana ndiye [[tunda]] bora la [[ukombozi]] ulioletwa na [[Yesu]]. Ni imani ya Wakatoliki kwamba kwa [[stahili]] za Mwanae alikingiwa asirithi kwa [[wazazi]] [[dhambi ya asili]] na madonda yanayotokana nayo, wala asitende [[dhambi]] [[maisha]] yake yote. Kwa maneno mengine, Bikira Maria tangu atungwe [[mimba]] Mungu alimkinga na kila doa la dhambi kwa kutazamia stahili za Yesu [[Masiya|Kristo]] aliye Mkombozi wa [[binadamu]] wote. Maria ndiye aliyekombolewa kwa namna bora kushinda viungo vyote vya [[Kanisa]]. Maisha yake yote hakutenda dhambi hata moja. Mapokeo ya [[mashariki]] yanamuita “A Panagia” = “Mtakatifu tu”. Dogma hiyo ilitangazwa na [[papa Pius IX]] [[mwaka]] [[1854]], halafu mwaka [[1858]] Bikira Maria alijitambulisha kama [[Kukingiwa dhambi ya asili|Mkingiwa]] kwa [[Bernadeta Soubirous]] huko [[Lurdi]] ([[Ufaransa]]) kadiri ya [[njozi]] zilizokubaliwa na Kanisa hilo. Tena waumini wake wanaelekezwa kuamini kwamba mwaka [[1917]] huko [[Fatima]] ([[Ureno]]) aliwafunulia [[Lusia Marto|Lusia]], [[Fransisko Marto|Fransisko]] na [[Yasinta Marto]] [[Moyo Safi wa Maria|moyo wake safi usio na doa]]. ==Mama wa Mungu== [[Injili ya Yohane]] inaanza kwa kishindo, “Hapo mwanzo kulikuwako [[Neno]], naye Neno alikuwako kwa Mungu, naye Neno alikuwa Mungu” (Yoh 1:1). Huyo [[Mungu Mwana]] alitwaa ubinadamu katika Bikira Maria akazaliwa [[mtoto]], [[jina]] lake Yesu, maana yake Mungu Mwokozi. Huyo ni binadamu kama sisi katika yote isipokuwa dhambi. Ubinadamu wa Yesu unategemea [[Nafsi]] yake ya Kimungu: akisema, ‘Mimi’, ni kwa Nafsi yake hiyo. Ndiyo maana aliwaambia [[Wayahudi]], “Kweli nawaambia, kabla Abrahamu hajazaliwa, nalikuwepo” (Yoh 8:50). “Kama vile [[Baba]] alivyo [[asili]] ya uhai, ndivyo alivyomjalia Mwanae kuwa asili ya uhai” (Yoh 5:26). [[Mtakatifu Paulo|Mtume Paulo]] akaeleza, “Wakati maalumu ulipotimia Mungu alimtuma Mwanae aliyezaliwa na mwanamke” ([[Waraka kwa Wagalatia|Gal]] 4:4). Bikira Maria ni [[Mama wa Mungu]] kwanzia wakati huo: tangu Bikira Maria alipojaliwa kumchukua mimba, kumzaa, kumnyonyesha na kumlea mtu ambaye kwa asili ni Mungu. [[Cheo]] hicho kimemuinua juu kuliko hata malaika. “Malaika alimwambia, ‘Hicho kitakachozaliwa kitaitwa Kitakatifu, Mwana wa Mungu’” (Lk 1:35). Dogma hiyo ilitangazwa mwaka [[431]] kwenye [[Mtaguso wa Efeso]] uliomuita “Mzazi wa Mungu”, ukisema Maria anastahili kuitwa hivyo kwa sababu [[Mwana wa Mungu|Mwana wa]] [[milele]] wa Mungu, ambaye ni Mungu sawa na [[mungu Baba|Baba]], alifanyika mtu toka kwake. Akiwa [[Ujauzito|mja mzito]] alishangiliwa: “Umebarikiwa wewe katika wanawake, naye mzao wa tumbo lako amebarikiwa. Limenitokeaje neno hili, hata mama wa Bwana wangu anijilie mimi?” (Lk 1:42-43). Ungamo hilo la [[Elizabeti (Injili)|Elizabeti]] likakamilishwa na [[Mtume Thoma]] aliyemuambia Yesu [[Ufufuko wa Yesu|mfufuka]]: “Bwana wangu na Mungu wangu!” (Yoh 20:28). ==Bikira na Mama== [[Ukristo|Wakristo]] na [[Waislamu]] wote wanakiri kuwa Yesu alitungwa bila ya mchango wa [[Mwanaume|mwanamume]]. La ajabu zaidi katika imani hiyo ni kwamba hata [[uzazi]] wenyewe haukuondoa [[ubikira]] wa Maria, bali uliutakasa: ni [[Ubikira wa kudumu|Bikira daima]]. Ingawa [[akili]] inasita, ni lazima kukiri na malaika, “Hakuna lisilowezekana kwa Mungu” (Lk 1:38). [[Yosefu (mume wa Maria)|Yosefu]], ingawa kisheria alikuwa [[mume]] wake, hakutenda naye [[tendo la ndoa]]. Ni imani ya Wakatoliki na [[Waorthodoksi]] kuwa [[Mama]] wa Yesu anastahili kuitwa “Bikira daima” kwa sababu alimchukua mimba akiwa bikira, akamzaa bila ya kupotewa na ubikira, akabaki bikira hadi mwisho wa maisha yake. Hamu yake ya kuwa bikira hata kisha kuchumbiwa inajitokeza katika jibu alilompa malaika aliyemtabiria mimba: “Litakuwaje neno hili, maana sijui mume?” (Lk 1:35). Ni kielelezo cha Wakristo ambao Mtume Paulo aliwaandikia: “Nawaonea wivu, wivu wa Mungu; kwa kuwa naliwaposea mume mmoja, ili nimletee Kristo bikira safi” ([[Waraka wa pili kwa Wakorintho|2Kor]] 11:2), “mpate kumhudumia Bwana pasipo kuvutwa na mambo mengine” ([[Waraka wa kwanza kwa Wakorintho|1Kor]] 7:35). Wanaosemwa katika [[Injili]] “[[ndugu]] zake Yesu” si watoto wa Bikira Maria, bali ndugu wa [[ukoo]] waliokuwa jirani sana na [[familia takatifu|familia hiyo takatifu]]. Kama Bikira Maria angekuwa na watoto wengine, Yesu angekuwa amefanya kosa la kuwanyang’anya Mama yao na kumfanya awe Mama wa [[mtume Yohane]] alipomkabidhi [[Msalaba wa Yesu|msalabani]], “‘Mwana, tazama Mama yako’. Na tangu saa ile huyo mwanafunzi alimchukua akae nyumbani kwake” (Yoh 19:27). Katika [[Agano Jipya]] yupo Yakobo anayeitwa na mtume Paulo “ndugu yake Bwana” (Gal 1:19): Yakobo huyo alikuwa maarufu katika [[Kanisa la Yerusalemu]] ([[Matendo ya Mitume|Mdo]] 12:7; 15:13-21; 21:18-20; Gal 2:9). Yakobo huyo si [[Yakobo Mkubwa|mtume Yakobo kaka yake Yohane]] (Lk 6:12-16), bali ni Yakobo ndugu yake Yose na mama yao kwenye Injili anaitwa “Maria mwingine”, si Maria Mama wa Yesu. “Walikuwepo pia wanawake waliotazama kwa mbali. Miongoni mwao akiwa [[Maria Magdalena]], [[Salome]] na Maria mama wa akina [[Yakobo mdogo]] na Yose” (Mk 15:40). Maria lilikuwa jina la kawaida kwa [[Wayahudi]]: akina Maria wakiwa wengi hivyo, tujue kuwatofautisha kwenye Injili, ambazo zinamtaja Bikira Maria kama “Mama wa Yesu”. ==Kupalizwa Mbinguni mwili na roho== Baada ya maisha haya ya [[Dunia|duniani]] Bikira Maria alipalizwa [[Mbingu|mbinguni]] mwili na roho, [[ishara]] ya [[mwanamke]] mshindi. “Ishara kubwa ikaonekana mbinguni, ambapo mwanamke aliyevikwa [[jua]], pia na [[mwezi]] chini ya miguu yake, na taji la [[nyota]] kumi na mbili juu ya kichwa chake” ([[Ufunuo wa Yohane|Ufu]] 12:1). Maneno ya shangilio lake yametimia: Mungu “amewaangusha wakuu katika viti vyao vya enzi; na wanyonge amewakweza” (Lk 1:52). Imani hiyo ya mapokeo ya kale, yanavyoshuhudiwa na Mababu wa Kanisa, ilitangazwa rasmi na [[Papa Pius XII]] kwa niaba ya ma[[askofu]] wote mwaka [[1950]]. ==Marejeo== * {{cite book|author1=Benedict XVI|first2=Adrian|last2=Walker|first3=Hans Urs|last3=Von Balthasar|title=Mary: The Church at the Source|date=October 1, 2005|isbn=1-58617-018-X|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/mary_bene_2005_000_8093923}} * {{cite book|last=Hauke|first=Manfred|chapter=The Mother of God|title=Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons|url=https://archive.org/details/mariologyguidefo0000unse|publisher=Queenship Publishing|isbn=978-1-57918-355-4|year=2008}} * [[Louis de Montfort]] ''True Devotion to Mary'' {{ISBN|1-59330-470-6}}, also available as online text [https://web.archive.org/web/20071211223420/http://www.catholictreasury.info/TrueDevotion/Default.htm] * Luigi Gambero, 1999, ''Mary and the Fathers of the Church'', Ignatius Press ISBN|0-89870-686-6 * Michael Schmaus, ''Mariologie'', Katholische Dogmatik, München Vol V, 1955 * K Algermissen, Boes, Egelhard, Feckes, Michael Schmaus, ''Lexikon der Marienkunde'', Verlag Friedrich Pustet, Regensburg, 1967 *Remigius Bäumer, [[Leo Scheffczyk]] (Hrsg.) ''Marienlexikon Gesamtausgabe'', Institutum Marianum Regensburg, 1994, ISBN|3-88096-891-8 (cit. Bäumer) * Stefano De Fiores, (Marianum) ''Maria, sintesi di valori. Storia culturale di mariologia''. Cinisello Balsamo 2005; * Stefano de Fiores, (Marianum), ''Maria. Nuovissimo dizionario''. 2 Vols. Bologna 2006; * [[Mariology Society of America]] [http://mariologicalsociety.com] * [[Acta Apostolicae Sedis]], referenced as AAS by year. * [[Pope Pius IX]], Apostolic Constitution ** [http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_pi09id.htm Apostolic Constitution '''''Ineffabilis Deus'''''] * [[Pope Pius XII]]:[https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_p-xii_apc_19501101_munificentissimus-deus_en.html Apostolic Constitution '''''Munificentissimus Deus''''' on the Vatican Website] * [[Pope John Paul II]], apostolic letters and addresses ** [https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_20021016_rosarium-virginis-mariae_en.html Apostolic Letter '''''Rosarium Virginis Mariae''''' on the Vatican Website] ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20081202070615/http://www.catholicregister.org/content/view/1402/857/ Pope John Paul II on Saint Louis de Montfort] ** [https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/2000/oct-dec/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_20001031_forum-mariologia_en.html Pope John Paul II, '''''Address to the Mariology Forum'''''] ==Marejeo mengine== *{{cite book |title=Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons|url=https://archive.org/details/mariologyguidefo0000unse|last=Burke|first=Raymond L.|author-link=Raymond Leo Burke|year=2008|publisher= Queenship Pub. Co|location=Goleta, California|isbn=978-1-57918-355-4|oclc=225875371|display-authors=etal}} *{{cite book |title=The Mystery of Mary|url=https://archive.org/details/mysteryofmary0000haff|series=Hillenbrand Books studies series|last=Haffner|first=Paul|year=2004|publisher=Gracewing Press|location=Leominster, Herefordshire|isbn=0-85244-650-0|oclc=58964281}} *{{cite book |title=Introduction to Mary: The Heart of Marian Doctrine and Devotion|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoma0000mira|last=Miravalle|first=Mark I.|author-link= Mark Miravalle|year=1993|publisher=Queenship Pub. Co|location=Santa Barbara, California|isbn=978-1-882972-06-7|oclc=28849399}} *{{cite book |title=Mariology; A Dogmatic Treatise on the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God|last=Pohle|first=Joseph|editor=Preuss, Arthur|year=1948|orig-year=1914|publisher=Herder Book|location=St. Louis, Mo|oclc= 1453529|url=https://archive.org/details/mariologydogmati00pohluoft}} *{{cite book |title=The Everything Mary Book|url=https://archive.org/details/everythingmarybo0000schr|last=Schroedel|first=Jenny|author2=Schroedel, John|year=2006|publisher=Adams Media|location=Avon, Mass|isbn=1-59337-713-4|series=Everything profiles series|oclc=70167611}} {{Bikira Maria}} [[Jamii:Bikira Maria]] [[Jamii:Teolojia]] ku0jpbadtf1tov6mo0r51ona1uwvydw 0 147288 1580034 1213878 2026-07-17T23:18:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580034 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrea R Canaan''' (alizaliwa [[1950]]) ni mtetezi wa [[haki]] za [[wanawake]] [[mwandishi]], mzungumzaji, mratibu wa [[jumuiya]], [[mshairi]] na mwanaharakati. ==Maisha ya awali na elimu== Canaan alizaliwa [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]] [[mwaka]] 1950. Alilelewa kama mwanaharakati wa karibu na jumuiya ya [[kiroho]]..<ref name="This Bridge Called My Back, Fourth Edition">{{cite book|oclc=894128432|editor-last1=Moraga|editor-first1=Cherríe|editor-last2=Anzaldúa|editor-first2=Gloria|title=This Bridge Called My Back, Fourth Edition: Writings by Radical Women of Color|url=https://archive.org/details/thisbridgecalled0000unse|date=2015|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1438454382|pages=[https://archive.org/details/thisbridgecalled0000unse/page/232 232]–238, 268}}</ref> Akiwa na [[umri]] wa miaka kumi na miwili, Kanaani alibakwa na mhudumu wa Kimethodisti ambapo pia alikabiliwa na dhuluma kutoka kwa mshauri wa kike wa kambi ya [[kanisa]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Kb6s4xNytEC&q=%22Andrea+Canaan%22&pg=PA79|title=Hope in the Holler: A Womanist Theology|last=Crawford|first=Anna Elaine Brown|date=January 1, 2002|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=9780664222543|pages=79, 85|language=en}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1950]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Marekani]] e3mez7uydmdahmqlm2ch10ubvljp9uf 0 147997 1580280 1529471 2026-07-18T03:40:29Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580280 wikitext text/x-wiki '''William Wasswa''' (alizaliwa katika Hospitali ya Mulago, [[Kampala]], mji mkuu wa Uganda, mwaka wa [[1988]]) ni mhadhiri, [[mhandisi]] na [[Utafiti|mtafiti]] wa [[Uganda]] . <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://innov.afro.who.int/innovators/wasswa-william-13|title=Wasswa William • WHO &#124; Regional Office for Africa|work=innov.afro.who.int|accessdate=2022-03-19|archive-date=2022-02-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213232523/https://innov.afro.who.int/innovators/wasswa-william-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> Anahudumu kama mhadhiri mkuu katika Idara ya Sayansi ya Tiba na Uhandisi wa Chuo Kikuu cha Sayansi na Teknolojia cha Mbarara nchini Uganda. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://fast.must.ac.ug/fast-staff/dr-wasswa-william/|title=Dr.Wasswa William – Faculty of Applied Sciences and Technology|accessdate=2022-03-19|archivedate=2022-05-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527023958/https://fast.must.ac.ug/fast-staff/dr-wasswa-william/}}</ref> == Elimu == Wasswa alipata shahada ya kwanza ya Uhandisi wa Kompyuta kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha Mbarara, shahada ya uzamili ya Uhandisi wa Tiba ya viumbe kutoka [[Chuo Kikuu cha Cape Town]] na Shahada ya Uzamivu ya Uhandisi wa Tiba ya viumbe kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha Mbarara . <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://innov.afro.who.int/innovators/wasswa-william-13|title=Wasswa William • WHO &#124; Regional Office for Africa|work=innov.afro.who.int|accessdate=2022-03-19|archive-date=2022-02-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213232523/https://innov.afro.who.int/innovators/wasswa-william-13|url-status=dead}}[https://innov.afro.who.int/innovators/wasswa-william-13 "Wasswa William • WHO &#x7C; Regional Office for Africa"] {{Wayback|url=https://innov.afro.who.int/innovators/wasswa-william-13 |date=20220213232523 }}. ''innov.afro.who.int''.</ref> Utafiti wake wa wa shahada ya uzamivu ulikuwa juu ya matumizi ya A1 kwa utambuzi wa Saratani ya Shingo ya Kizazi. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://gg2020.nef.org/speaker/william-wasswa/|title=William Wasswa – Global Gathering 2020|work=gg2020.nef.org|accessdate=2022-03-19|archive-date=2020-09-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930085218/https://gg2020.nef.org/speaker/william-wasswa/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Yeye ni Kiongozi wa AfyaBora Global Health Postdoctoral Fellow. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://fast.must.ac.ug/fast-staff/dr-wasswa-william/|title=Dr.Wasswa William – Faculty of Applied Sciences and Technology|accessdate=2022-03-19|archivedate=2022-05-27|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527023958/https://fast.must.ac.ug/fast-staff/dr-wasswa-william/}}[https://fast.must.ac.ug/fast-staff/dr-wasswa-william/ "Dr.Wasswa William – Faculty of Applied Sciences and Technology"] {{Wayback|url=https://fast.must.ac.ug/fast-staff/dr-wasswa-william/ |date=20220527023958 }}.</ref> == Viungo vya nje == * [https://fast.must.ac.ug/fast-staff/dr-wasswa-william/ Dr.Wasswa William – Kitivo cha Sayansi na Teknolojia Tumizi] {{Wayback|url=https://fast.must.ac.ug/fast-staff/dr-wasswa-william/ |date=20220527023958 }} * [https://gg2020.nef.org/speaker/william-wasswa/ William Wasswa - Mkutano wa Kimataifa 2020] {{Wayback|url=https://gg2020.nef.org/speaker/william-wasswa/ |date=20200930085218 }} * [https://medium.com/covidaction/addressing-covid-19s-multiple-challenges-with-technological-innovation-in-uganda-c1b10d89a7c Kutana na mjasiriamali wa Uganda ambaye analeta AI kwenye mapambano ya COVID-19] * [https://www.raeng.org.uk/global/sustainable-development/africa-prize/current-and-recent-awardees/2020 2020 - Chuo cha Kifalme cha Uhandisi] {{Wayback|url=https://www.raeng.org.uk/global/sustainable-development/africa-prize/current-and-recent-awardees/2020 |date=20220319192738 }} * [https://ventureburn.com/2019/11/africa-prize-engineering-innovation-2020-shortlist/ Orodha fupi ya Tuzo ya Afrika ya Ubunifu wa Uhandisi 2020 ilitangazwa] * [https://www.iafrikan.com/2019/11/22/innovation-engineering-africa-prize-royal-academy-for-engineering/ Tuzo la Afrika la 2019 la Ubunifu wa Uhandisi] {{Wayback|url=https://www.iafrikan.com/2019/11/22/innovation-engineering-africa-prize-royal-academy-for-engineering/ |date=20210419054552 }} == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1990]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wahandisi wa Uganda]] [[Jamii:Afrocuration Project 2022 Tanzania]] ismf11uewdy79vb44efe6kavvgrgtck 0 148558 1580125 1542796 2026-07-18T00:22:29Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580125 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} '''Ama Ata Aidoo''' (née '''Christina Ama Aidoo'''; alizaliwa 23 Machi [[1942]]) ni [[mwandishi]], [[Ushairi|mshairi]], mtunzi wa [[tamthilia]] na msomi wa [[Ghana]].<ref>https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ama-Ata-Aidoo</ref> Alikuwa [[Waziri]] wa Elimu chini ya [[utawala]] wa [[Jerry Rawlings]]. Mnamo mwaka 2000, alianzisha Mbaasem Foundation ili kukuza na kuunga mkono kazi za waandishi [[Mwanamke|wanawake]] wa Kiafrika.<ref>https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ama-Ata-Aidoo</ref><ref>https://mbaasem.wordpress.com/</ref> == Maisha ya awali == '''Christina Ama Ata Aidoo''' alizaliwa tarehe 23 Machi 1942 katika kijiji cha Abeadzi Kyiakor, karibu na [[Saltpond]], katika Eneo la Kati la Ghana. Awali alipewa jina la Christiana Ama Aidoo. Baadhi ya vyanzo vinataja tarehe nyingine ya kuzaliwa kuwa 31 Machi 1942.<ref>{{cite book|last=Uwechue|first=Raph|title=Africa Who's Who|publisher=Africa Books Limited|year=1996|pages=80–81}}</ref> Aidoo alikulia katika familia ya kifalme ya kabila la Wafante (Fante). Baba yake alikuwa Nana Yaw Fama, chifu wa kijiji cha Abeadzi Kyiakor, na mama yake alikuwa Maame Abasema.<ref>{{cite book|title=Postcolonial African Writers|publisher=Routledge|year=1998}}</ref> Babu yake aliuawa katika mazingira yaliyohusishwa na ukoloni mamboleo, jambo lililomwathiri baba yake na kumchochea kuwekeza zaidi katika elimu ya jamii yake, hususan elimu ya watoto wa kijiji.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of World Writers, 1800 to the Present|year=2011}}</ref> Kutokana na juhudi hizo, baba yake alianzisha shule ya kwanza kijijini kwao. Hali hiyo ilimsaidia Aidoo kuhamasika kuhusu elimu na baadaye kujiunga na Wesley Girls' High School ambapo alianza kukuza upendo wake kwa uandishi wa fasihi. Baadaye alikiri kuwa miaka yake katika Wesley Girls' High School mjini Cape Coast ilichangia kwa kiasi kikubwa kuibua na kuimarisha kipaji chake cha fasihi. == Elimu == Kuanzia mwaka 1957, Aidoo alisoma katika Wesley Girls' Senior High School mjini [[Cape Coast]] . Baada ya elimu ya sekondari, alijiunga na [[Chuo Kikuu cha Ghana]], Legon, mwaka 1961 ambako alisomea Shahada ya Sanaa katika Kiingereza. Akiwa hapo, aliandika tamthilia yake ya kwanza, ''The Dilemma of a Ghost'' mwaka 1964. Tamthilia hiyo ilichapishwa mwaka uliofuata na kumfanya Aidoo kuwa miongoni mwa waandishi wa kwanza wa kike barani Afrika kuchapisha tamthilia.<ref>{{cite book|title=Postcolonial African Writers: A Bio-bibliographical Critical Sourcebook|publisher=Routledge}}</ref> == Kazi == Baada ya kuhitimu, Aidoo alipewa ufadhili wa uandishi wa ubunifu katika [[Stanford University]] nchini Marekani. Aliporejea Ghana mwaka 1969, alianza kufundisha Kiingereza katika [[Chuo Kikuu cha Ghana]]. Pia alihudumu kama mtafiti katika Institute of African Studies na mhadhiri katika University of Cape Coast, ambako baadaye alipanda hadi cheo cha profesa.<ref>{{cite book|title=Postcolonial African Writers}}</ref> Mwaka 1982 aliteuliwa kuwa Waziri wa Elimu chini ya Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC). Hata hivyo, alijiuzulu baada ya takribani miezi 18, akigundua kuwa hangeweza kutimiza lengo lake la kufanya elimu iwe bure na ipatikane kwa wote nchini Ghana. Katika kazi zake, Aidoo alijulikana kwa kuchambua nafasi ya wanawake wa Kiafrika katika jamii ya kisasa, pamoja na kukosoa matumizi ya utaifa kama chombo cha ukandamizaji. Alisisitiza pia uwepo wa utambulisho wa Kiafrika unaotazamwa kupitia mtazamo wa wanawake.<ref>{{cite journal|title=An Interview with Ama Ata Aidoo|journal=The Massachusetts Review}}</ref> Mnamo 1983 alihamia Zimbabwe, ambako aliendelea kufanya kazi kama mshauri wa mitaala katika Wizara ya Elimu na pia kuendelea kuandika. Akiwa Harare alichapisha mkusanyiko wa mashairi ''Someone Talking to Sometime'' (1985) na kitabu cha watoto ''The Eagle and the Chickens and Other Stories'' (1986).<ref>{{cite news|title=Ama Ata Aidoo obituary|newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref> Mwaka 1986, alitoa mhadhara wa Walter Rodney huko London chini ya ushirikiano wa Bogle-L'Ouverture, akichangia mijadala kuhusu historia na uzoefu wa Afrika. == Kazi zilizochaguliwa == {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" !Kichwa !Maelezo |- ! scope="row" |''The Dilemma of a Ghost'' |Tamthilia, Accra: Longman, 1965. New York: Macmillan, 1971.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Columbia Guide to West African Literature in English|url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetow0000owom|last=Owomoyela|first=Oyekan|date=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetow0000owom/page/64 64]}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |''Anowa'' |Tamthilia inayotokana na hadithi ya kienyeji ya Ghana, London: Longman, 1970. New York: Humanities Press, 1970.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Haffar|first=Anis|date=15 Septemba 2016|title=Ghana's precious playwright, Ama Ata Aidoo|url=https://anishaffar.org/2016/09/15/ghanas-precious-playwright-ama-ata-aidoo/|access-date=8 Machi 2021|website=Education Matters|language=en|archive-date=18 Novemba 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231118233512/https://anishaffar.org/2016/09/15/ghanas-precious-playwright-ama-ata-aidoo/|url-status=live}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |''No Sweetness Here: A Collection of Short Stories'' |London: Longman, 1970. New York: Doubleday.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Killam |first=G. D. |date=1971 |title=Modern Black African Writing in English: A Selected Bibliography |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/606803 |url-status=live |journal=Twentieth Century Literature |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=37–47 |issn=0041-462X |jstor=606803 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601173014/https://www.jstor.org/stable/606803 |archive-date=1 Juni 2023 |access-date=1 Juni 2023}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |''Our Sister Killjoy: or Reflections from a Black-eyed Squint'' |Riwaya, Longman, 1977. |- ! scope="row" |''Someone Talking to Sometime'' |Mkusanyiko wa shairi, Harare: College Press, 1986. |- ! scope="row" |''The Eagle and the Chickens and Other Stories'' |Hadithi za watoto, Enugu: Tana Press, 1986. |- ! scope="row" |''Birds and Other Poems'' |Shairi, Harare: College Press, 1987. |- ! scope="row" |''An Angry Letter in January'' |Shairi, Coventry: Dangaroo Press, 1992, {{ISSN|0106-5734}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aidoo |first=Ama |date=11 Juni 2019 |title=Poems |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/kunapipi/vol14/iss1/20 |url-status=live |journal=Kunapipi |volume=14 |issue=1 |issn=0106-5734 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606001039/https://ro.uow.edu.au/kunapipi/vol14/iss1/20/ |archive-date=6 Juni 2023 |access-date=1 Juni 2023}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |''Changes: A Love Story'' |Riwaya, London: The Women's Press, 1991. New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1993. |- ! scope="row" |''The Girl Who Can and Other Stories'' |Accra: Sub-Saharan Publishers, {{ISBN|978-0435910136}}; Heinemann African Writers Series, 1997. |- ! scope="row" |''Diplomatic Pounds & Other Stories'' |Ayebia Clarke Publishing, 2012, {{ISBN|978-0956240194}}. |} === Kama mhariri === * ''African Love Stories: An Anthology'', Ayebia Clarke Publishing, 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-9547023-6-6}}. ==marejeo== {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[jamii:waliozaliwa 1942]] [[jamii:watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:waandishi wa Ghana]] [[jamii:wanaharakati wa Ghana]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Ghana]] [[Jamii:WikiGap JWK 2026]] 7aws09qbmcjpxzcezmyo2v21ke4wfcf 0 148618 1579997 1528104 2026-07-17T19:22:31Z Don Malya 61486 1579997 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Deborah Danner''' aliuwawa kwa kupigwa risasi na sajenti wa polisi wa [[New York]] Hugh Barry mnamo [[Oktoba 18]], [[2016]],<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Deborah J. Danner (1950-2016) •|url=https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/people-african-american-history/deborah-j-danner-1950-2016/|date=2020-07-02|accessdate=2022-04-16|language=en-US}}</ref> nyumbani kwake huko [[The Bronx|Bronx]], [[New York]]. Kulingana na vyanzo vya polisi, alikuwa na silaha, mkasi na mpira wa besiboli. Barry alishtakiwa kwa kuua bila kukusudia mnamo Mei, 2017. Aliachiliwa huru mnamo Februari 2018.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=NYPD Sergeant Who Fatally Shot Deborah Danner To Face Disciplinary Hearing|url=https://gothamist.com/|work=Gothamist|date=2021-10-04|accessdate=2022-04-16|language=en|author=Jake Offenhartz}}</ref> == Historia == Danner alikuwa [[mgonjwa]] wa akili na alikuwa ameandika insha, "Living with Schizophrenia", mwaka wa [[2012]]. Alikuwa paroko ambaye mara kwa mara alihudhuria ChurchTrinity Wall Street, na alikuwa hai katika vikundi na huduma za jumuiya hiyo.<ref>https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/3146953/Living-With-Schizophrenia-by-Deborah-Danner.pdf</ref> == Matokeo ya tukio == Chini ya saa sita baada ya kifo hicho, Sajenti Barry aliondolewa kwenye majukumu yake ya kawaida na kuwekwa katika likizo ya kiutawala, huku akinyang'anywa beji na [[bunduki]] yake. Kwa mujibu wa ''The New York Times'', Meya Bill de Blasio alisema katika mkutano na waandishi wa habari kwamba sajenti huyo hakufuata mafunzo wala taratibu zinazotakiwa wakati wa kushughulikia watu wenye matatizo ya afya ya akili. Pia alieleza kuwa, kwa sababu zisizojulikana, Barry hakutumia bunduki yake ya umeme (Taser) wala hakusubiri maafisa waliopata mafunzo maalumu ya kushughulikia hali kama hiyo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Board|first=The Editorial|title=Opinion {{!}} The Death of Deborah Danner|date=2016-10-20|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/21/opinion/the-death-of-deborah-danner.html|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref> [[Kifo]] cha Danner, ambaye alikuwa Mwamerika Mweusi, kilisababisha maandamano yaliyofanyika tarehe 19 Oktoba. Waandamanaji walitembea kutoka kwenye jengo alilokuwa akiishi hadi kituo cha polisi cha Precinct ya 43. Miongoni mwa washiriki wa maandamano hayo walikuwa wanachama wa tawi la New York la vuguvugu la Black Lives Matter. Mnamo tarehe 31 Mei 2017, Barry alikamatwa na kushtakiwa kwa kosa la [[mauaji]] ya daraja la pili. Hata hivyo, mashtaka yaliyoendeshwa na Mwanasheria wa Wilaya ya Bronx, Darcel D. Clark, yaliishia kwa Barry kuachiwa huru baada ya mahakama kusikiliza kesi hiyo bila kutumia jopo la majaji. Mnamo tarehe 14 Februari 2018, Jaji Robert A. Neary alimtangaza Barry kuwa hana hatia kwa makosa yote yaliyokuwa yakimkabili.<ref>{{Citation|last=Goldstein|first=Joseph|title=Police Sergeant Acquitted in Killing of Mentally Ill Woman|date=2018-02-15|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/15/nyregion/police-sergeant-acquitted-in-killing-of-mentally-ill-woman.html|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2026-07-17|last2=Jr|first2=James C. McKinley}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2016]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:USLW Iringa]] 6ahct4bza7ke9eioldw93lw2lcictk0 1580325 1579997 2026-07-18T08:50:42Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Uuaji wa Deborah Danner]] hadi [[Deborah Danner]]: urahisi wa kuupata 1579997 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Deborah Danner''' aliuwawa kwa kupigwa risasi na sajenti wa polisi wa [[New York]] Hugh Barry mnamo [[Oktoba 18]], [[2016]],<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Deborah J. Danner (1950-2016) •|url=https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/people-african-american-history/deborah-j-danner-1950-2016/|date=2020-07-02|accessdate=2022-04-16|language=en-US}}</ref> nyumbani kwake huko [[The Bronx|Bronx]], [[New York]]. Kulingana na vyanzo vya polisi, alikuwa na silaha, mkasi na mpira wa besiboli. Barry alishtakiwa kwa kuua bila kukusudia mnamo Mei, 2017. Aliachiliwa huru mnamo Februari 2018.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=NYPD Sergeant Who Fatally Shot Deborah Danner To Face Disciplinary Hearing|url=https://gothamist.com/|work=Gothamist|date=2021-10-04|accessdate=2022-04-16|language=en|author=Jake Offenhartz}}</ref> == Historia == Danner alikuwa [[mgonjwa]] wa akili na alikuwa ameandika insha, "Living with Schizophrenia", mwaka wa [[2012]]. Alikuwa paroko ambaye mara kwa mara alihudhuria ChurchTrinity Wall Street, na alikuwa hai katika vikundi na huduma za jumuiya hiyo.<ref>https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/3146953/Living-With-Schizophrenia-by-Deborah-Danner.pdf</ref> == Matokeo ya tukio == Chini ya saa sita baada ya kifo hicho, Sajenti Barry aliondolewa kwenye majukumu yake ya kawaida na kuwekwa katika likizo ya kiutawala, huku akinyang'anywa beji na [[bunduki]] yake. Kwa mujibu wa ''The New York Times'', Meya Bill de Blasio alisema katika mkutano na waandishi wa habari kwamba sajenti huyo hakufuata mafunzo wala taratibu zinazotakiwa wakati wa kushughulikia watu wenye matatizo ya afya ya akili. Pia alieleza kuwa, kwa sababu zisizojulikana, Barry hakutumia bunduki yake ya umeme (Taser) wala hakusubiri maafisa waliopata mafunzo maalumu ya kushughulikia hali kama hiyo.<ref>{{Citation|last=Board|first=The Editorial|title=Opinion {{!}} The Death of Deborah Danner|date=2016-10-20|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/21/opinion/the-death-of-deborah-danner.html|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref> [[Kifo]] cha Danner, ambaye alikuwa Mwamerika Mweusi, kilisababisha maandamano yaliyofanyika tarehe 19 Oktoba. Waandamanaji walitembea kutoka kwenye jengo alilokuwa akiishi hadi kituo cha polisi cha Precinct ya 43. Miongoni mwa washiriki wa maandamano hayo walikuwa wanachama wa tawi la New York la vuguvugu la Black Lives Matter. Mnamo tarehe 31 Mei 2017, Barry alikamatwa na kushtakiwa kwa kosa la [[mauaji]] ya daraja la pili. Hata hivyo, mashtaka yaliyoendeshwa na Mwanasheria wa Wilaya ya Bronx, Darcel D. Clark, yaliishia kwa Barry kuachiwa huru baada ya mahakama kusikiliza kesi hiyo bila kutumia jopo la majaji. Mnamo tarehe 14 Februari 2018, Jaji Robert A. Neary alimtangaza Barry kuwa hana hatia kwa makosa yote yaliyokuwa yakimkabili.<ref>{{Citation|last=Goldstein|first=Joseph|title=Police Sergeant Acquitted in Killing of Mentally Ill Woman|date=2018-02-15|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/15/nyregion/police-sergeant-acquitted-in-killing-of-mentally-ill-woman.html|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2026-07-17|last2=Jr|first2=James C. McKinley}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2016]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:USLW Iringa]] 6ahct4bza7ke9eioldw93lw2lcictk0 0 149082 1580175 1506178 2026-07-18T00:53:41Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580175 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Moses Mchunu''' (alizaliwa [[1953]])<ref name="LarkinGE">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Popular Music{{!}}The Guinness Encyclopedia of Popular Music|url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessencyclop0000unse_u4d0|date=1992|publisher=Guinness Publishing|isbn=0-85112-939-0|editor=Colin Larkin (writer){{!}}Colin Larkin|edition=First|page=1571}}</ref> ni [[mwanamuziki]] wa Maskandi kutokea kwa Zulu-Natal, [[Afrika Kusini]]. Anajulikana kwa wimbo wake wa "Qhwayilahle", ambao ulishirikishwa kwenye [[albamu]] ya Indestructible Beat ya [[Soweto]] mnamo mwaka [[1985]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Nathan Brackett, Christian David Hoard|title=The New Rolling Stone Album Guide|publisher=Simon and Schuster|date=2004|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newrollingstonea00brac/page/n929 916]|isbn=9780743201698|url=https://archive.org/details/newrollingstonea00brac|url-access= registration|quote= Moses Mchunu.}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Arusha Editathon Muziki]] [[Jamii:Wanamuziki wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1953]] [[jamii:watu walio hai]] e15ku493cf4q7nlssz624et2nzfvy9g 0 149615 1580099 1574368 2026-07-18T00:05:55Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580099 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Innozenz3.jpg|thumb|[[Papa Inosenti III]] (1198–1216) akiwa amevaa taji [[mchoro wa ukutani|alivyochorwa ukutani]] katika [[monasteri]] ya [[Benedikto wa Nursia|Mt. Benedikto]] huko Subiaco, 1219 hivi.]] '''Taji la Kipapa''' lilikuwa [[kofia]] iliyovaliwa na [[Papa|Mapapa]] wengi hadi [[mwaka]] [[1964]]<ref>{{cite news|last1=Doty|first1=Robert C.|title=Pope Paul Donates His Jeweled Tiara To Poor of World|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/11/14/pope-paul-donates-his-jeweled-tiara-to-poor-of-world.html|access-date=27 April 2018|work=The New York Times|date=14 November 1964}}</ref>. Hapo katikati ilizidi kupambwa na [[dhahabu]] na [[vito]] kwa mfano na [[taji la mfalme]]<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14714c.htm Joseph Braun, "Tiara" in ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. Vol. 14. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912]</ref><ref name=EB>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/594839/tiara|title=tiara – papal dress|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>. == Tanbihi == {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{Refbegin|40em}} *{{cite book |author1=Bernstein, Carl |author2=Politi, Marco | title=His Holiness: John Paul II and the Hidden History of our Time |url=https://archive.org/details/hisholinessjohnp00bern |url-access=registration | location=New York | publisher=Doubleday | year=1996 | isbn=0-385-40538-3}} *{{cite book | author=Cornwell, John | title=Hitler's Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII | url=https://archive.org/details/hitlerspope00john | url-access=registration | location=New York | publisher=Viking | year=1999 | isbn=0-670-87620-8}} *{{cite book | author=Cornwell, John | title=A Thief in the Night: The Death of Pope John Paul I | location=London | publisher=Viking | year=1989 | isbn=0-670-82387-2 | url=https://archive.org/details/thiefinnightth00corn }} *{{cite book | author=de Cesare, Raffaele | title=The Last Days of Papal Rome 1850–1870 | url=https://archive.org/details/thelastdaysofpap00cesauoft | location=London | publisher=A. Constable | year=1909 }} *{{cite book |editor = Davis, Raymond |title=The Book of Pontiffs (Liber Pontificalis) |url = https://archive.org/details/bookofpontiffsli0000unse_x3i8 |location=Liverpool | publisher=Liverpool University Press |year=2000 | isbn=0-85323-545-7 }} * {{cite book | author=Duffy, Eamon | title=Saint & Sinners: A History of the Popes | location=New Haven, Conn. | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1997 | isbn=0-300-07332-1 | url=https://archive.org/details/saintssinnershis00duff }} *{{cite book | author=Hales, E.E.Y. (Edward Elton Young) | title=Pio Nono: A Study in European Politics and Religion in the Nineteenth Century. | url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_KU-556-563 | location=London | publisher=Eyre & Spottiswoode | year=1954 }} *{{cite book | author=Hebblethwaite, Peter | title=The Year of Three Popes | location=London | publisher=Collins | year=1978 | isbn=0-00-215047-6}} *{{cite book | author=Hebblethwaite, Peter | title=Paul VI : The First Modern Pope | location=New York | publisher=Paulist Press | year=1993 | isbn=0-8091-0461-X | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/paulvifirstmoder0000hebb }} *{{cite book | author=Hebblethwaite, Peter | title=John XXIII: Pope of the Century | location=London | publisher=Continuum | year=2000 | isbn=0-8264-4995-6 | url=https://archive.org/details/johnxxiiipopeof00hebb }} *{{cite book | author=Heim, Bruno | title=Heraldry in the Catholic Church: Its Origins, Customs and Laws | url=https://archive.org/details/heraldryincathol0000heim | location=Gerrards Cross, Eng. | publisher=Van Duren | year=1978 | isbn=0-905715-05-5 }} *{{cite book | author=Hobsworth, Dean | title=From True Cross to True Crown: Papalism and Its Evils | year=1884 }} *{{cite book | editor=Levillain, Philippe| title=The Papacy: An Encyclopedia | url=https://archive.org/details/papacy00phil_1| url-access=registration| location=New York | publisher=Routledge| year=2002 | isbn=0-415-92228-3 }} *{{cite book | author=Nielsen, Fredrik Kristian | title=The History of the Papacy in the XIXth Century | url=https://archive.org/details/historypapacyin00nielgoog | location=London | publisher=J. Murray | year=1906 }} *{{cite book | author=Noonan, James-Charles. | title=The Church Visible: The Ceremonial Life and Protocol of the Roman Catholic Church | location=New York | publisher=Viking | year=1996 | isbn=0-670-86745-4 | url=https://archive.org/details/churchvisiblecer0000noon }} *{{cite book | author=Rudé, George F. E. | title=Revolutionary Europe, 1783–1815 | url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionaryeur0000rude_w6w4 | location=Oxford | publisher=Blackwell | year=2000 | isbn=0-631-22189-1 }} *{{cite book | author=Smith, Uriah | title=Thoughts, Critical and Practical on the Book of Revelation | url=https://archive.org/details/thoughtscritica02smitgoog | location=Battle Creek, Mich. | publisher=Seventh-day Adventist Publ. Assoc. | year=1881 | isbn=0-8370-5309-9 }} *{{cite book | author=Smithe, Jefferson | title=Roman Catholic Ritual | publisher=London | year=1902 }} *{{cite book | author=Willey, David | title=God's Politician: John Paul at the Vatican | url=https://archive.org/details/godspoliticianjo0000will | location= London | publisher=Faber and Faber | year=1992 | isbn=0-571-16180-4}} *{{cite book | author=Yallop, David A. | title=In God's Name: An Investigation into the Murder of Pope John Paul I | location=Toronto | publisher=Bantam Books | year=1984 | isbn=0-553-05073-7 | url=https://archive.org/details/ingodsnameinvest00yallrich }} {{Refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Papal tiaras}} *{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia |wstitle=Tiara |first=Joseph |last=Braun |volume=14}} *[http://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=Novaes+%22sedi+et+alii+minores%22&btnG= Giuseppe de Novaes, ''Introduzione alle vite de' Sommi Pontefici'', vol. II, Dissertazione V, pp. 74–189] *[https://www.vatican.va/news_services/press/documentazione/documents/sp_ss_scv/insigne/triregno_en.html Holy See Press Office information on the papal tiara] *[http://www.royal-magazin.de/collection/tiara-papst.htm Images of several papal tiaras] {{mbegu-katoliki}} [[Jamii:Mapapa]] j3up40mb4ycq1tgaebdtsdv7c5gpsrm 0 152259 1580289 1571159 2026-07-18T07:14:09Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580289 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:River Afram.JPG|thumb|Mto Afram unaunganika na Ziwa la Volta]] [[Faili:Rivers of south Ghana OSM.png|thumb|Mito ya kusini mwa Ghana na Afram (kati)]] '''Mto Afram''' ni [[mto]] wa nchini [[Ghana]] wenye [[urefu]] wa [[kilomita]] 100. Kabla ya ujenzi wa lambo la Akosombo katika [[miaka ya 1960]], Afram ilikuwa [[tawimto]] kuu la [[Mto Volta|Mto]] [[Volta (mto)|Volta]] na leo ni mkondo muhimu sawa na [[Volta (ziwa)|Ziwa Volta]] . Mto unapita katika mwelekeo wa kusini magharibi. Unakusanya mifereji yote ya maji ya Uwanda wa Kwahu. <ref name="Afram Kwawu">[http://www.scn.org/rdi/kw-fram.htm Afram Kwawu] {{Wayback|url=http://www.scn.org/rdi/kw-fram.htm |date=20220910195417 }}. Accessed August 3, 2012.</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-jio-Afrika}} [[Jamii:Africa Wiki Challenge Arusha 2022]] [[Jamii:Mito ya Ghana]] tcdzrhg8yw3gphpzq1xlzid9jp0aaah 0 152619 1579959 1527600 2026-07-17T14:24:36Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579959 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Tuwon shinkafa]] ni aina ya mlo wa Kinaijeria na [[Niger]] kutoka [[Niger]] na sehemu ya kaskazini ya [[Nigeria]].[<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.allnigerianrecipes.com/fufu-recipes/tuwo-shinkafa.html |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2022-06-17 |archivedate=2015-07-07 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707073554/http://www.allnigerianrecipes.com/fufu-recipes/tuwo-shinkafa.html }}</ref>][<ref>https://trek.zone/en/nigeria/cuisine/tuwo-shinkafa</ref>][<ref>https://artsandculture.google.com/story/three-delicious-delicacies-north-of-the-niger/NwXRvl_Nzd1jLw</ref>]  Ni rojo nzito iliyotayarishwa kutokana na [[mchele]] wa kawaida ambao ni laini na unaonata, na kwa kawaida inaandaliwa na aina tofauti za supu kama vile Miyar kuka, Miyar kubewa, Miyar taushe.  [<ref>https://www.royacshop.com/2797-how-to-prepare-tuwo-shinkafa-and-miyan-taushe.html{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>][<ref>https://familycooking.pages.dev/menu2/1441-simple-way-to-make-ultimate-tuwon-shinkafa-d-miyar-kuka/</ref>]Aina mbili zinazotengenezwa kutokana na unga wa [[Muhindi|Mahindi]] na [[mtama]] zinaitwa Tuwon Masara na Tuwon Dawa.  [<ref>http://www.nigerianfoodtv.com/2014/08/tuwo-shinkafa-tuwon-shinkafa-made-from.html?m=1</ref>][<ref>https://nimedhealth.com.ng/2020/07/31/tuwo-masara-health-benefits-how-to-prepare-tuwo-masara-tuwo-masara-recipes/</ref>][<ref>https://9jafoods.com/how-to-make-tuwon-dawa-nigerian-guinea-corn-fufu/</ref>] [[Faili:Tuwo with miyan kuka and fried fish.jpg|center|thumb|Tuwon shinkafa (kulia) na miyan kuka (kushoto) na samaki wa kukaanga]] [[Jamii:Chakula cha Kiafrika]] [[Jamii:Africa Wiki Challenge Arusha 2022]] gvdugsgavhqsuzg47uknhktuii2jw8r 0 152623 1580233 1231575 2026-07-18T01:37:36Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580233 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Uainishaji | rangi = #D3D3A4 | jina = Kidudu-gurudumu | picha = Habrotrocha rosa 1.jpg | upana_wa_picha = 250px | maelezo_ya_picha = Mfano wa kidudu-gurudumu (''Habrotrocha rosa'') | himaya = [[Animalia]] | nusuhimaya = [[Eumetazoa]] | himaya_bila_tabaka = [[Protostomia]] | faila_ya_juu = [[Platyzoa]] | faila = [[Rotifera]] | bingwa_wa_faila = [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier]], 1798 | subdivision = '''Ngeli za juu 2, ngeli 3:''' * [[Eurotatoria]] <small>[[Marg de Ridder|De Ridder]], 1957</small> ** [[Bdelloidea]] <small>[[Charles Thomas Hudson|Hudson]], 1884</small> ** [[Monogononta]] <small>[[Ludwig Hermann Plate|Plate]], 1889</small> * [[Pararotatoria]] <small>[[Minoru Sudzuki|Sudzuki]], 1964</small> ** [[Seisonidea]] <small>[[Carl Jørgen Wesenberg-Lund|Wesenberg-Lund]], 1899</small> }} '''Vidudu-gurudumu''' ([[Kiingereza|Kiing.]] ''rotifer'', yaani mbeba (''fer'') gurudumu (''rota'')) ni [[mnyama|wanyama]] wadogo sana wa [[faila]] [[Rotifera]] ambao wanabeba [[nywele]] fupi sana au [[silio]] kuzunguka [[kinywa]] zinazofanana na [[gurudumu]] linalodura zikisogea. Takriban [[spishi]] zote huonekana chini ya [[hadubini]] tu, hata hivyo ni [[kiumbe|viumbe]] vyenye [[seli]] nyingi. ==Maelezo== [[Picha:Bdelloid body areas.gif|thumb|250px|Maumbo mbalimbali ya vidudu-gurudumu.<br>Nyekundu - kichwa, buluu - kiwiliwili, nyeupe - mguu.]] Vidudu-gurudumu wana [[ulinganifu]] wa pande mbili na aina za maumbo tofauti. [[Mwili]] wao umegawanyika katika [[kichwa]], [[kiwiliwili]] na [[mguu]], na kwa kawaida una umbo la [[mcheduara]]. Kuna [[kutikula]] iliyokua vizuri na inayoweza kuwa nene na ngumu, ambayo inampatia mnyama umbo la [[sanduku]], au [[kinamo]], ambayo inampatia umbo la [[mnyoo]]. Vidudu-gurudumu kama huo huitwa ''loricate'' na ''illoricate'' mtawalia. Kutikula ngumu mara nyingi huundwa na [[sahani]] nyingi na inaweza kubeba [[mwiba|miiba]], [[tuta|matuta]] au [[pambo|mapambo]] mengine. Kutikula yao haina [[khitini]] lakini imeundwa kwa [[protini]] zilizoimarishika. Sifa mbili bainifu zaidi za vidudu-gurudumu wa kike wa spishi zote ni kuwepo kwa ''corona'' ([[taji]]) kichwani, muundo unaobeba [[silio]] katika [[jenasi]] zote isipokuwa ''[[Cupelopagis]]'', na kuwepo kwa [[mastaksi]] au [[koromeo]] ya kutafuna. Katika spishi za zamani zaidi taji huunda [[mviringo]] sahili wa silio kuzunguka [[kinywa]] ambalo kutoka kwake [[mstari]] wa ziada wa silio huenea nyuma ya kichwa. Katika idadi kubwa ya vidudu-gurudumu, hata hivyo, hii imebadilika kuwa muundo tata zaidi. Marekebisho ya [[mpango]] wa [[msingi]] wa taji ni pamoja na mabadiliko ya silio katika nywele ngumu au [[sekini]] kubwa na ama upanuzi au kupoteza kwa mstari wenye silio kuzunguka kichwa. Katika jenasi kama vile ''[[Collotheca]]'' taji limerekebishika kuunda [[faneli]] inayozunguka kinywa. Katika spishi nyingi, kama zile za jenasi ''[[Testudinella]]'', silio kuzunguka kinywa zimetoweka na kuacha tu mistari miwili midogo ya [[duara]] kichwani. Katika [[Bdelloidea]] mpango huu umerekebishika zaidi na ukanda wa juu ukigawanyika katika [[gurudumu|magurudumu]] mawili yanayoduru na yaliyoinuka juu ya [[kiweko]] kinachotokeza kutoka kwenye uso wa juu wa kichwa.<ref name=IZ>{{cite book |author= Barnes, Robert D. |year=1982 |title= Invertebrate Zoology |url= https://archive.org/details/invertebratezool0000barn_k2e7 |publisher= Holt-Saunders International |location= Philadelphia, PA|pages= [https://archive.org/details/invertebratezool0000barn_k2e7/page/272 272]–286|isbn= 978-0-03-056747-6}}</ref> Kiwiliwili huunda sehemu kuu ya mwili na hufunika [[kiungo|viungo]] vingi vya ndani. Mguu unatokeza kutoka kwa nyuma ya kiwiliwili na kwa kawaida ni nyembamba zaidi, ambayo inampatia mwonekano wa [[mkia]]. Kutikula juu ya mguu mara nyingi huunda miviringo, ambayo inafanya uonekane kuwa na [[pingili]], ingawa muundo wa ndani ni sare. Vidudu-gurudumu wengi wanaweza kurudisha mguu kwa sehemu au kabisa katika kiwiliwili. Mguu huishia kwa [[kidole|vidole]] kutoka kimoja hadi vinne, ambavyo, katika spishi zilizokaa na kutambaa, huwa na [[tezi]] za wambiso ili kumwambatisha mnyama kwenye uso wa chini. Katika spishi nyingi zinazoogelea huru ukubwa wa mguu kwa ujumla umepunguka na mguu unawezza kutokuwapo.<ref name=IZ/> Vidudu-gurudumu wa kiume ni wadogo sana kuliko majike, hadi mara kumi wadogo zaidi. Hawali na kwa hivyo hawana taji wala [[mkundu]], hata hivyo, kuna [[mfumo wa mmeng'enyo wa chakula]] usio na kazi. ==Uzazi na mzunguko wa maisha== Vidudu-gurudumu ni wa kike au wa kiume na kwa hivyo wana [[uzaziwenza]] ([[w:dioecy|dioecy]]). Huzaa [[ngono|kingono]] au kwa [[pathenojenesisi]]. Wanaonyesha [[udimofi]] wa ki[[jinsia]] huku majike wakiwa wakubwa kila wakati kuliko madume. Katika spishi fulani hii ni kiasi kidogo, lakini kwa wengine jike anaweza kuwa hadi mara kumi ya ukubwa wa dume. Katika [[spishi]] za kipathenojenesisi, madume wanaweza kuwepo tu nyakati fulani za [[mwaka]] au kutokuwepo kabisa.<ref name=IZ/> [[Mfumo wa uzazi]] wa jike huwa na [[ovari]] moja au mbili kila moja ikiwa na tezi ya [[kiiniyai]] ambacho mayai huhitaji. Pamoja, kila ovari na tezi ya kiiniyai huunda muundo wa seli moja yenye [[kiini|viini]] vingi katika sehemu ya mbele ya mnyama na unafungua kupitia [[kirijaova]] ndani ya [[kloaka]].<ref name=IZ/> Kwa kawaida madume hawana mfumo wa mmeng'enyo wa chakula unaofanya kazi na kwa hivyo huishi kwa muda mfupi. Mara nyingi huwa na uwezo wa uzazi mara tu wakizaliwa. Wana [[pumbu]] moja na [[kirijamanii]] zinazounganishika na jozi ya miundo ya tezi inayojulikana kama ''[[kibofushahawa|vibofushahawa]]'' (visivyohusiana na kibofushahawa cha [[vertebrata]]). Kirijamanii hufunguka katika [[gonopor]] kwenye sehemu ya nyuma ya mnyama ambayo kwa kawaida hurekebishika kuunda [[mboo]]. Gonopori ina [[homolojia]] na kloaka ya majike, lakini katika spishi nyingi haina mwunganisho na [[utumbo]].<ref name=IZ/> Faila Rotifera huambatanisha [[ngeli]] tatu ambazo huzaa kwa njia tatu tofauti: [[Seisonidea]] huzaa tu kingono; [[Bdelloidea]] huzaa kipathenojenesisi bila ngono tu; [[Monogononta]] huzaa kwa kupishana mifumo hii miwili ("pathenojenesisi kwa mzunguko" au "heterogonia")<ref name="Nogrady, T. 1993">Nogrady, T., Wallace, R.L., Snell, T.W., 1993. Rotifera vol.1: biology, ecology and systematics. Guides to the identification of the microinvertebrates of the continental waters of the world 4. SPB Academic Publishing bv, The Hague.</ref>. Pathenojenesisi bila muunganisho wa gameti hutawala [[mzunguko wa maisha]] wa Monogononta na hivyo inasaidia ukuaji wa haraka wa idadi yao na kuingia kila mahali. Katika [[awamu]] hii madume hawapo na majike hutaga mayai ya [[diploidi]] kupitia [[mitosisi]] ambayo hukua kipathojenesisi kuwa majike walio [[mpachisho|wapachisho]] wa mama wao<ref name="Nogrady, T. 1993"/>. Baadhi ya majike hawa wanaweza kuzaa majike ambao watataga mayai ya [[haploidi]] kupitia [[meiosisi]]. Hii husababishwa na aina tofauti za vichocheo kulingana na spishi. Mayai ya haploidi hukua kuwa madume [[kibete]] wa haploidi iwapo hayatatungishwa na kuwa "mayai ya kupumzika" ya diploidi (au "mayai yanayotua ukuaji") ikiwa yatatungishwa na madume. [[Utungisho]] ni wa ndani. Madume ama huingiza uume wao kwenye kloaka ya jike au kuutumia kupenya [[ngozi]] yake na kuingiza [[shahawa]] katika uwazi wa mwili. Yai hutoa [[ganda]] na linaunganishwa ama kwenye uso wa chini, [[mmea|mimea]] ya karibu, au kwenye mwili wa jike mwenyewe. Spishi chache, kama vile wana wa ''[[Rotaria]]'', huangua mayai [[tumbo]]ni kabla kuzaa wachanga.<ref name=IZ/> Takriban spishi zote huanguliwa kama matoleo madogo ya mpevu. Spishi zinazokaa chini, hata hivyo, huzaliwa wakiwa lava wanayoogelea huru ambao hufanana kwa karibu na wapevu wa spishi zinazohusiana nao na zinazoogelea huru. Majike hukua haraka na kufikia ukubwa wao wa wapevu ndani ya siku chache, huku madume kwa kawaida wasipokua kwa ukubwa kabisa.<ref name=IZ/> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Vidudu-gurudumu]] om0fiqmbg7qa9fay8i87y9pjav3jn88 0 153233 1580075 1497063 2026-07-17T23:49:54Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580075 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Uainishaji | rangi = #D3D3A4 | jina = Daa-mboo | picha = Priapulus caudatus 20150625.jpg | upana_wa_picha = 250px | maelezo_ya_picha = Daa-mboo (''Priapulus caudatus'') | himaya = [[Animalia]] | nusuhimaya = [[Eumetazoa]] | himaya_bila_tabaka = [[Protostomia]] | faila_ya_juu = [[Ecdysozoa]] | faila = [[Priapulida]] | bingwa_wa_faila = [[Johan Hjalmar Théel|Théel]], 1906 | subdivision = '''Ngeli 4:''' * †[[Archaeopriapulida]] <small></small> * [[Halicryptomorpha]] <small></small> * [[Priapulimorpha]] <small></small> * [[Seticoronaria]] <small></small> }} '''Daa-mboo''' (kutoka kwa [[Kiing.]] [[w:Priapulida|penis worm]]) ni [[mnyama|wanyama]] wadogo wa [[bahari]] wa [[faila]] [[Priapulida]] wanaofanana na [[daa]] wa kawaida. Jina la ki[[sayansi]] linatoka kwa Πριάπος – Priapos, [[mungu]] wa uzalishaji wa [[Kiyunani|Wayunani]], kwa sababu umbo wa daa hao ni kama [[mboo]] wa [[binadamu|mtu]]. Huishi katika [[matope]] ya [[sakafu ya bahari]] mpaka [[kina]] cha [[m]] 90<ref name = Shipley>Shipley, Arthur Everett (1911). "Priapuloidea". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press</ref>. [[Spishi]] fulani zina uvumilivu wa ajabu kwa [[sulfidi ya hidrojeni]] na kwa uhaba wa [[oksijeni]]<ref>{{Rejea jarida | doi = 10.1007/BF00017494| title = Histological studies on Halicryptus spinulosus (Priapulida) with regard to environmental hydrogen sulfide resistance| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_hydrobiologia_1991-09-13_222_1/page/n6| journal = Hydrobiologia| volume = 222| pages = 1–12| date = September 1991| last1 = Oeschger | first1 = R. | last2 = Janssen | first2 = H. H. | s2cid = 31342308}}</ref>. Wanaweza kuwa wengi sana katika baadhi ya maeneo. Katika [[Ghuba ya Alaska]] wapevu kama 85 wa ''Priapulus caudatus'' kwa [[mita ya mraba]] wamerekodiwa, huku idadi ya [[lava]] wake ikiweza kuwa hadi 58,000 kwa m²<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9IWaqAOGyt4C&dq=85+adults+per+square+meter&pg=PA286| title = Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth| isbn = 9780080920146| last1 = Margulis| first1 = Lynn| last2 = Chapman| first2 = Michael J.| date = 19 March 2009}}</ref>. Wanyama hao wanaofanana na [[mnyoo|minyoo]] wana umbo la [[mcheduara]] na urefu wa [[sm]] 0.2-0.3<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MKUab3WegL0C&q=Tubiluchus+mm&pg=PA29 |title=Multicellular Animals: Order in Nature – System Made by Man|isbn=978-3-540-00146-1|last1=Ax|first1=Peter|date=2003-04-08}}</ref> hadi 39<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=3227009|title= Halicryptus higginsi n.sp. (Priapulida): A Giant New Species from Barrow, Alaska |journal= Invertebrate Biology | volume=118 |issue= 4 | pages=404–413|last1= Shirley |first1= Thomas C. |last2= Storch |first2= Volker |year= 1999 |doi= 10.2307/3227009 }}</ref>. Wana [[mdomo]] kwenye ncha ya mbele usio na [[silaha]] yoyote au [[mnyiri|minyiri]]. [[Mwili]] umegawanywa katika [[kiwiliwili]] kikuu na sehemu ya [[mkonga]] iliyovimba kidogo na kupambwa kwa vituta vinavyopita kutoka mbele hadi nyuma. Mwili una [[mviringo|miviringo]] na mara nyingi huwa na duara za [[mwiba|miiba]] ambazo zinaendelea kwenye [[koromeo]] inayoweza kujitokeza kidogo. [[Spishi]] fulani zinaweza pia kuwa na [[mkia]] au jozi ya viambatisho kwenye ncha ya nyuma. Mwili una [[kutikulo]] ya [[khitini]] inayobambuliwa mnyama akikua<ref name=IZ>{{cite book | author = Barnes, R. D. | year = 1982 | title = Invertebrate Zoology | url = https://archive.org/details/invertebratezool0000barn_k2e7 | publisher = Holt-Saunders International | location = Philadelphia, PA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/invertebratezool0000barn_k2e7/page/873 873]–877 | isbn = 978-0-03-056747-6 }}</ref>. ==picha== <gallery> Halicryptus spinulosus 1.JPEG|Halicryptus spinulosus </gallery> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Daa-mboo]] 9kjwb6v0by9o0lma250huyvxclejffg 0 153264 1580060 1511217 2026-07-17T23:35:03Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580060 wikitext text/x-wiki {{uainishaji | rangi = #D3D3A4 | jina = Dragoni-matope | picha = Echinoderes hwiizaa.jpg | upana_wa_picha = 200px | maelezo ya picha = Dragoni-matope (''Echinoderes hwiizaa'') | himaya = [[Animalia]] | nusuhimaya = [[Eumetazoa]] | kundi_bila_tabaka = [[Bilateria]] | kundi2_bila_tabaka = [[Prostomia]] | faila_ya_juu = [[Ecdysozoa]] | faila = [[Kinorhyncha]] | bingwa_wa_faila = [[W. Reinhard|Reinhard]], 1881 | subdivision = '''Ngeli 2, oda 3'''<br> * [[Cyclorhagida]] <small>[[Max Theodor E. Rauther|Zelinka]], 1896</small> ** [[Echinorhagata]] <small>Sørensen et al., 2015</small> ** [[Kentrorhagata]] <small>Sørensen et al., 2015</small> ** [[Xenosomata]] <small>Zelinka, 1907</small> * [[Allomalorhagida]] <small>Sørensen et al., 2015</small> }} '''Dragoni-matope''' (kutoka kwa [[kiing.]] [[w:Kinorhyncha|mud dragon]]) ni [[mnyama|wanyama]] wadogo wa [[bahari]] wa [[faila]] [[Kinorhyncha]] walioenea sana kwenye [[matope]] na [[mchanga]] kwa [[kina|vina]] vyote miongoni mwa wanyama wadogo wa [[sakafu ya bahari|sakafu]]. [[Spishi]] za kisasa ni [[mm]] 1 au chini, lakini zamani za kale walikuwa hadi [[sm]] 4<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/mar/21/mindblowing-haul-of-fossils-over-500m-years-old-unearthed-in-china 'Mindblowing' haul of fossils over 500m years old unearthed in China | Science | The Guardian]</ref>. [[File:Comparative-myoanatomy-of-Echinoderes-(Kinorhyncha)-a-comprehensive-investigation-by-CLSM-and-3D-1742-9994-11-31-S3.ogv|thumb|left|Kiolezo cha ''Echinoderes'' akionyesha jinsi ya kusogea na kurudisha kichwa ndani.]] Dragoni-matope ni wanyama wenye [[pingili]] wasio na [[mguu|miguu]] na huwa [[mwili]] unaojumuisha [[kichwa]], [[shingo]] na [[kiwiliwili]] cha pingili kumi na moja. Tofauti na [[invertebrata]] sawa hawana [[silio]] ya nje, lakini badala yao wana idadi ya [[mwiba|miiba]] kando ya mwili pamoja na [[duara]] hadi saba za miiba kuzunguka kichwa<ref>{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Invertebrates.html?id=lSggPQAACAAJ|title=Invertebrates|isbn=978-0-87893-097-5|last1=Brusca|first1=Richard C|last2=Brusca|first2=Gary J|date=2003}} page 347</ref>. Miiba hii hutumika kwa kusogea wakisukuma kichwa mbele na kisha kushika uso wa chini kwa miiba na kuvuta mwili. Dragoni-matope hula [[diatoma]] au dutu ya kioganiki zinazopatikana kwenye matope kulingana na spishi. [[Mdomo]] uko katika muundo wa [[koni]] kwenye ncha ya kichwa na hujifungua kwenye [[koromeo]] na kisha [[umio]], yote mbili zilizofunikwa kwa [[kutikulo]]. Jozi mbili za [[tezi]] za [[mate]] na jozi moja au zaidi ya "tezi za [[kongosho]]" huunganisha kwenye umio na zinaonekana kutoa [[kimeng'enya|vimeng'enya]] vya kumeng'enya [[chakula]]. Mbele ya umio kuna aina ya [[tumbo]] pana linalochanganya kazi za tumbo na [[utumbo]] na kunyonya [[kirutubisho|virutubisho]]. Utumbo mfupi wa nyuma umefunikwa na kutikulo na kumwaga kupitia [[mkundu]] kwenye ncha ya nyuma ya kiwiliwili.<ref>{{cite book |author= Barnes, Robert D. |year=1982 |title= Invertebrate Zoology |url= https://archive.org/details/invertebratezool0000barn_k2e7 |publisher= Holt-Saunders International |location= Philadelphia, PA|pages= [https://archive.org/details/invertebratezool0000barn_k2e7/page/286 286]–288|isbn= 978-0-03-056747-6}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Dragoni-matope]] g7rm5lffyx9s6a19ilvyjxkvjkfb58h 0 155279 1580027 1545308 2026-07-17T23:13:35Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580027 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Pericles Pio-Clementino Inv269 n2.jpg|thumb|[[Sanamu]] ya Perikles]] '''Perikles''' (takriban [[495 KK|490 /495 KK]]–[[429 KK]], {{Lang-el|Περικλῆς}}, linalomaanisha " ''kujaa utukufu'' ") alikuwa kiongozi mashuhuri wa kisiasa na wa kijeshi mjini [[Athens]] wakati wa [[Ugiriki ya Kale]]<ref>Fornara-Samons, ''Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles'', 24–25</ref>. Alikuwa na ushawishi mkubwa katika Ugiriki ya [[karne ya 5 KK]]. Aliweka [[msingi]] wa mfumo wa [[demokrasia]] wa [[Athens]] na kipaumbele cha mji wake katika [[siasa]] ya Ugiriki. == Familia == Perikles alizaliwa katika familia mashuhuri wakati wa shambulio la kwanza la Uajemi dhidi ya Ugiriki na [[Mapigano ya Marathoni|mapigano ya Marathoni.]] Alipokuwa mtoto, misingi ya utaratibu wa kidemokrasia iliwekwa katika mji wake. Aliona pia shambulio la pili la Uajemi na mapigano ya Salamis. == Kamanda wa kijeshi == Akiwa mtu mzima alijipatia sifa kwa kushiriki katika vita za Athens. Kuanzia mwaka [[454 KK|454]] alichaguliwa na kusanyiko la raia wa Athens kuwa strategos yaani kamanda wa kijeshi mara ya kwanza. Perikles alisifiwa kwa uwezo wake wa kuhutubia kusanyiko la raia na pia kwa uwezo wake wa uongozi alichaguliwa kila mwaka tena kuwa kamanda kwa muda wa miaka 15. Katika nafasi ya mkuu wa jeshi aliona umuhimu wa jeshi la majini kwa Athens; nguvu ya jeshi la majini ilitegemea hasa ushirikiano wa raia maskini waliofanya kazi ya kupiga kasia. Hapo Perikles alitafuta njia ya kupanusha uwezo wa raia maskini katika siasa.<ref>L.J. Samons, ''What's Wrong with Democracy?'', 65</ref> == Kiongozi wa kisiasa bila cheo == Perikles mwenyewe hakushika vyeo vya kiserikali mbali na kamanda wa jeshi, maana wakati wake nafasi kwenye halmashauri kuu na vyeo vingine viliteuliwa kwa njia ya kura ya bahati na kwa mwaka mmoja au muda mfupi zaidi. Perikles alipelekea mapendekezo yake kwenye kusanyiko la raia wote ambako yalipokelewa; taratibu alizopendekeza zilikuwa pamoja na kulipa mishahara kwa vyenye vyeo kama wawakilishi katika halmashauri au majaji katika mahakama na taraibu hizo ziliruhusu pia raia maskini kutekeleza kazi za kisiasa bila kukosa mapato ya kila siku. Mapendekezo mengine yalihusu majengo mengi ya mahekalu kwenye Akropolis ambayo ni mlima wa ngome mjini Athens. Perikles alitumia ushawishi wake kufanya Athens kuwa kitovu cha sanaa na elimu kwa Ugiriki yote. Wapinzani walijaribu kumkosoa na kumstaki kuwa anapoteza mali ya umma lakini kura za kusanyiko la raia zilimthibitisha mara kwa mara. Hali halisi alikuwa kiongozi wa Athens.<ref>Plutarch, ''Pericles'', XIV</ref> == Kujenga utawala wa Athens katika Ugiriki   == Katika siasaya nje aliona uwezo mkubwa wa Sparta kwenye [[Rasi ya Peloponesi]] na jeshi lake la nchi kavu. Perikles aliamini kwamba Athens iliweza kushinda tu kwa jeshi la majini na kwa kuimarisha kuta za mji.<ref>A.G. Platias-C. Koliopoulos, ''Thucydides on Strategy'', 105</ref> Hapo alilenga kuimarisha ushirikiano na miji mingine kwenye visiwa vidogo vya [[Bahari ya Aegean]]. Ushirikiano huo uliundwa kiasili kwa shabaha ya kujitetea dhidi ya mashambulio ya Uajemi lakini Perikles aliibadilisha kuwa milki ya Kiathens akidai utii wa washiriki na kuadhibu kila mji uliojaribu kujiondoa katika ushirikiano huo.<ref>H. Butler, ''The Story of Athens'', 195</ref> == Vita dhidi ya Sparta == Kuanzia mwaka 431 KK vita ilianza baina ya Athens na Sparta. Perikles aliwahi kupinga kila mapatano na Sparta<ref>A.G. Platias-C. Koliopoulos, ''Thucydides on Strategy'', 100–03.</ref> na jeshi la Sparta lilivamia [[rasi ya Attika]] na kuharibu mashamba ya wananachi waliokusanyika nyuma ya kuta za mji. Perikles alikataa kuwashambulia Sparta kwenye nchi kavu, badala yake aliongoza jeshi la majini kupora kwani za Sparta. Mwaka 429 KK mlipuko wa ugonjwa uliathiri Athens; wengi walikufa pamoja na Perikles mwenyewe. Vita iliendelea baadaye kwa miaka mingi hadi mwaka 404 KK. Hatimaye Athens ilishinwa baada ya Uajemi kuingia na kujiunga na Sparta. == Marejeo == {{Marejeo}} == Kujsomea == * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/periclesrisef00aird|title=Pericles: The Rise and Fall of Athenian Democracy|last=Aird|first=Hamish|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8239-3828-5}} * {{cite journal|last=Badian|first=E.|year=1987|title=The Peace of Callias|journal=Journal of Hellenic Studies|volume=107|pages=1–39|doi=10.2307/630067|jstor=630067|s2cid=161815508}}* Beloch, K.J. (1884). ''Die Attische Politik seit Perikles ''. Leipzig (in German) * Beloch, K.J. (1893). ''Griechische Geschichte''. Volume II (in German). * {{cite book|title=An Introduction to the Ancient World|last=Blois de|first=Lukas|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=1997|isbn=978-0-415-12774-5}} * {{cite book|title=Aspects of Greek History 750–323 BC|url=https://archive.org/details/aspectsofgreekhi0000buck|last=Buckley|first=Terry|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=1996|isbn=978-0-415-09957-8}} * {{cite book|title=The Story of Athens|last=Butler|first=Howard|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-1-4179-7092-6}} * {{cite book|title=Thucydides and the Peloponnesian War|last=Cawkwell|first=George|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=1997|isbn=978-0-415-16552-5}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/culturevaluessur02cunn|title=Culture And Values|last=Cunningham L.S.|first=Reich J.J.|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|year=2005|isbn=978-0-534-58228-9}} * {{cite book|title=Athenian propertied families, 600–300 B.C.|url=https://archive.org/details/athenianproperti0000davi|last=Davis|first=John Kenyon|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1971|isbn=978-0-19-814273-7}} * Delbrück, Hans (1920): ''History of the Art of War'', University of Nebraska Press; Reprint edition, 1990. Translated by Walter, J. Renfroe. Volume 1. * {{cite book|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0075&query=head%3D%235/|title=The Greek Orators|last=Dobson|first=J.F.|publisher=Methuen|year=1919|location=London|chapter=Pericles as an orator|access-date=12 January 2007}} * Encyclopaedic Dictionary ''The Helios''. ''Volume VIII''. article: ''The Funeral Speech over the Fallen''. ''Volume XV''. article: ''Pericles'' (in Greek). * {{cite book|title=From Solon to Socrates|url=https://archive.org/details/fromsolontosocra0000ehre_k6p6|last=Ehrenberg|first=Victor L.|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=1990|isbn=978-0-415-04024-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientgreeks00john|title=The Ancient Greeks: A critical history|last=Fine|first=John V.A.|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1983|isbn=978-0-674-03314-6|url-access=registration}} * {{cite book|title=Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles|last=Fornara Charles W.|first=Loren J. Samons II|publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press|year=1991}} * {{cite book|title=An Historical Commentary on Thucydides (I-V)|last=Gomme|first=A. W.|author2=A. Andrewes|author3=K. J. Dover|date=1945–1981|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-814198-3|author-link=Arnold Wycombe Gomme}} * {{cite book|title=How the Athenians and Spartans fought the Peloponnesian War (translated in Greek by Angelos Philippatos)|last=Hanson|first=Victor Davis|publisher=Livanis Editions|year=2007|isbn=978-960-14-1495-9|location=Athens|author-link=Victor Davis Hanson|orig-year=English Edition 2005}} * {{cite book|title=Prisoner of History. Aspasia of Miletus and her Biographical Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/prisonerofhistor0000henr|last=Henri|first=Madeleine M.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-19-508712-3}} * {{cite book|title=The Greek World 479–323 BC|last=Hornblower|first=Simon|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=2002|isbn=978-0-415-15344-7}} * {{cite book|title=The Acropolis in the Age of Pericles|url=https://archive.org/details/acropolisinageof0000hurw|last=Hurwit|first=Jeffrey M.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-521-82040-0}} * {{cite book|title=Women in Athenian Law and Life|last=Just|first=Roger|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=1991|isbn=978-0-415-05841-4}} * {{cite book|title=The Making of Strategy: Rules, States and Wars by Williamson Murray, Alvin Bernstein, MacGregor Knox|last=Kagan|first=Donald|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-521-56627-8|chapter=Athenian Strategy in the Peloponnesian War}} * {{cite book|title=The Archidamian War|url=https://archive.org/details/archidamianwar0000kaga|last=Kagan|first=Donald|publisher=Ithaca: [[Cornell University Press]]|year=1974|isbn=978-0-8014-0889-2}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780801405013|title=The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War|last=Kagan|first=Donald|publisher=Ithaca: Cornell University Press|year=1989|isbn=978-0-8014-9556-4|url-access=registration}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/peloponnesianwar00dona|title=The Peloponnesian War|last=Kagan|first=Donald|publisher=Viking Penguin (Penguin Group)|year=2003|isbn=978-0-670-03211-2|chapter=War aims and resources (432–431)}} * Kakridis, Ioannis Th. (1993). ''Interpretative Comments on the Pericles' Funeral Oration''. Estia (in Greek). * {{cite book|title=A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric by James J. Murphy, Richard A. Katula, Forbes I. Hill, Donovan J. Ochs|last=Katula|first=Richard A.|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates|year=2003|isbn=978-1-880393-35-2|chapter=The Origins of Rhetoric}} * King, J.D. (2005). {{cite web|url=http://www.vu.union.edu/~kingj/classics.pdf|title=Athenian Democracy and Empire|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921155603/http://www.vu.union.edu/~kingj/classics.pdf|archive-date=21 September 2006|accessdate=2022-08-06|archivedate=2006-09-21|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921155603/http://www.vu.union.edu/~kingj/classics.pdf}}&nbsp;{{small|(135&nbsp;KB)}}. * {{cite journal|last=Knight|first=D.W.|year=1970|title=Thucydides and the War Strategy of Pericles|journal=[[Mnemosyne (journal)|Mnemosyne]]|volume=23|issue=2|pages=150–60|doi=10.1163/156852570X00713}} * {{cite journal|last=Libourel|first=Jan M.|date=October 1971|title=The Athenian Disaster in Egypt|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-philology_1971-10_92_4/page/605|journal=American Journal of Philology|volume=92|issue=4|pages=605–15|doi=10.2307/292666|jstor=292666}} * {{cite book|title=La Grèce au Féminin (in French)|last=Loraux|first=Nicole|publisher=Belles Lettres|year=2003|isbn=978-2-251-38048-3|chapter=Aspasie, l'étrangère, l'intellectuelle}} * {{cite book|title=Creating a Democratic Public|url=https://archive.org/details/creatingdemocrat0000matt|last=Mattson|first=Kevin|publisher=Penn State Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-271-01723-5}} * {{cite book|title=The Athenians and their Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/athenianstheirem0000mcgr|last=McGregor|first=Malcolm F.|publisher=The University of British Columbia Press|year=1987|isbn=978-0-7748-0269-7|chapter=Government in Athens}} * {{cite book|title=Many Sides: A Protagorean Approach to the Theory, Practice, and Pedagogy of Argument|last=Mendelson|first=Michael|publisher=Springer|year=2002|isbn=978-1-4020-0402-5}} * {{cite news|first=Laura|last=Miller|author-link=Laura Miller (writer)|title=My Favorite War|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F00E0D6123EF932A15750C0A9629C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2|work=The Last Word|date=21 March 2004|access-date=7 June 2008}} * {{cite book|title=Plato's Democratic Entanglements|url=https://archive.org/details/platosdemocratic0000mono|last=Monoson|first=Sara|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-691-04366-1}} * {{cite journal|last=Morrison|first=J.S.|author2=A. W. Gomme|year=1950|title=Pericles Monarchos|journal=Journal of Hellenic Studies|volume=70|pages=76–77|doi=10.2307/629294|jstor=629294|s2cid=250247600}}* {{cite book|title=Hegemonic Rivalry: From Thucydides to the Nuclear Age|url=https://archive.org/details/hegemonicrivalry0000unse|last=Ober|first=Josiah|publisher=Westview Pr|year=1991|isbn=978-0-8133-7744-5|chapter=National Ideology and Strategic Defence of the Population, from Athens to Star Wars}} * {{cite book|title=The Athenian Revolution|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780691001906|last=Ober|first=Josiah|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-691-01095-3|location=Princeton, New Jersey}} * Paparrigopoulos, Konstantinos (Karolidis, Pavlos) (1925), ''History of the Hellenic Nation (Volume Ab)''. Eleftheroudakis (in Greek). * {{cite book|title=Thucydides on Strategy|last=Platias Athanasios G.|first=Koliopoulos Constantinos|publisher=Eurasia Publications|year=2006|isbn=978-960-8187-16-0}} * {{cite encyclopedia|title=Pericles|encyclopedia=Oxford Classical Dictionary edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth|year=1996}} * {{cite encyclopedia|title=Pericles|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2002}} * {{cite book|title=Perikles and His Circle|url=https://archive.org/details/perikleshiscircl0000podl|last=Podlecki|first=A.J.|publisher=Routledge (UK)|year=1997|isbn=978-0-415-06794-2}} * {{cite book|title=A Legacy of Learning|url=https://archive.org/details/legacyoflearning0000powe_s0m2|last=Power|first=Edward J.|publisher=SUNY Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-7914-0610-6}} * {{cite book|title=A History of the Classical Greek World|last=Rhodes|first=P.J.|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=2005|isbn=978-0-631-22564-5}} * {{cite book|title=Lysistrata|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781624661969|last=Ruden|first=Sarah|publisher=Hackett Publishing|year=2003|isbn=978-0-87220-603-8}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/whatswrongwithde00samo|title=What's Wrong with Democracy?|last=Samons|first=Loren J.|publisher=University of California Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-520-23660-8|location=Los Angeles, California|chapter=The Peloponnesian War}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgreekci00raph|title=A History of the Greek City States, 700–338 B.C.|last=Sealey|first=Raphael|publisher=University of California Press|year=1976|isbn=978-0-520-03177-7|chapter=The Peloponnesian War}} * {{cite book|title=Theopompus The Historian|url=https://archive.org/details/theopompushistor0000shri|last=Shrimpton|first=G.|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|year=1991|isbn=978-0-7735-0837-8}} * {{cite book|title=Distant Companions: Selected Papers|last=Sicking|first=CMJ|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|year=1998|isbn=978-90-04-11054-0}} * {{cite book|title=A History of Greece|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorygreecef03smitgoog|last=Smith|first=William|publisher=R. B. Collins|year=1855|chapter=Death and Character of Pericles}} * {{cite book|title=A History of the Ancient World|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000star|last=Starr|first=Chester G.|publisher=Oxford University Press US|year=1991|isbn=978-0-19-506628-9}} * {{cite book|title=The Character of the Athenian Empire|last=Ste Croix de|first=GEM|publisher=Historia III|year=1955–1956}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/anatomyoferroran00stra|title=The Anatomy of Error: Ancient Military Disasters and Their Lessons for Modern ''Strategists|last=Ober Josiah|first=Strauss Barry S.|publisher=St Martins Pr|year=1990|isbn=978-0-312-05051-1}} * {{cite book|title=Pontus and the Outside World|last=Tuplin|first=Christopher J.|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|year=2004|isbn=978-90-04-12154-6}} * Vlachos, Angelos (1992). ''Remarks on Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War (Α΄-Δ΄). Volume I''. Estia (in Greek). * Vlachos, Angelos (1974). ''Thucydides' bias''. Estia (in Greek). * {{cite journal|last=Wade-Grey|first=H.T.|date=July–September 1945|title=The Question of Tribute in 449/8 B.C.|journal=Hesperia|volume=14|issue=3|pages=212–29|doi=10.2307/146708|jstor=146708}} * {{cite journal|last=Wet de|first=B.X.|year=1969|title=This So-Called Defensive Policy of Pericles|journal=Acta Classica|volume=12|pages=103–19}} * {{cite book|title=Taming Democracy|url=https://archive.org/details/tamingdemocracym00yuni|last=Yunis|first=Harvey|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-8014-8358-5}} {{BD|495 KK|429 KK}} [[Jamii:Ugiriki ya Kale]] 9mnhvwhfnhmdeanikyk89l5u0ocihvf 0 155457 1580041 1463252 2026-07-17T23:23:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580041 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Bahá'u'lláh''', (12 Novemba 1817 - 29 Mei 1892) ni mwanzilishi wa [[Mafundisho ya Kibaha'i|Dini ya Kibaha'i]] na kulingana na wabaha'i ni Mdhihirishaji wa Mungu wa enzi hii. Alizaliwa [[Iran]]. Alizaliwa katika familia ya kiungwana huko Persia na alihamishwa kwa sababu ya kufuata dini ya Bab. Mnamo 1863, huko Iraq, alitangaza kwa mara ya kwanza dai lake la kuwa Mdhihirishaji wa Mungu na alitumia maisha yake yaliyobaki katika Dola la Ottoman akiwa kifungoni. Mafundisho yake yanahusu kanuni za umoja na ufanyaji upya wa dini, ambayo yanajumuisha maendeleo ya maadili na kiroho hadi utawala wa ulimwengu.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=xiv–xv, 69–70}}[[Faili:Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh.jpg|thumb | madhabahu ya Baha'u'llah]]'''Bahá'u'lláh''' alilelewa bila elimu rasmi lakini alikuwa amejaa hekima ya kiasili na alikuwa mtu wa kidini. Familia ya Bahá'u'lláh ilitokea jimbo la Māzandarān wilaya ya Nur, ambayo huunda pwani ya kusini ya Bahari ya Caspian. Ilikuwa ni desturi kwa watu mashuhuri wa Nur kufanya kazi kwa serikali huko Tehran kama wakusanya ushuru, walipaji wa jeshi, na maafisa wengine wanaoaminika. Baba yake Bahá'u'lláh, Mirza Abbas Nuri, alikuwa afisa wa cheo cha juu mahakamani.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|title=The world of the Bahá'í faith|last=Stockman|first=Robert H.|date=2022|publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|series=Routledge worlds series|location=London New York (N.Y.)|pages=38-39}}</ref> Familia yao ilikuwa na utajiri mkubwa, na alipofikisha miaka 22, Bahá'u'lláh alikataa nafasi serikalini, badala yake akasimamia mali za familia na akatoa muda na pesa kwa ajili ya misaada.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=38}} Katika umri wa miaka 27 alikubali ujumbe wa Báb na kuwa mmoja wa wafuasi wenye sauti kubwa wa harakati ya dini mpya iliyoeneza kufanya upya kwa sheria za Kiislamu, jambo lililokumbana na upinzani mkali. Katika umri wa miaka 33, wakati wa jaribio la serikali la kuharibu harakati hiyo, Bahá'u'lláh alinusurika kifo, mali zake zilikamatwa, na alifukuzwa kutoka Iran. Kabla tu ya kuondoka, akiwa amefungwa katika gereza la Siyah-Chal, Bahá'u'lláh alidai alipokea ufunuo kutoka kwa Mungu, akioneshwa mwanzo wa utume wake wa kimungu.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=323}} Baada ya kuhamia Iraq, maafisa wa Irani, kwa mara nyingine tena, walijawa na hasira dhidi ya Bahá'u'lláh. Jambo hili lilipelekea kwa maafisa hawa kutuma ombi kwa serikali ya Uturuki kumpeleka mbali. Alikaa Constantinople kwa miezi kadhaa, ambapo maafisa walipinga madai yake ya kidini na kumuweka chini ya kifungo cha nyumbani kwa miaka minne huko Edirne, ikifuatiwa na kifungo cha miaka miwili cha mateso katika mji wa gereza 'Akka'. Vizuizi vyake vilipungua hatua kwa hatua hadi miaka yake ya mwisho ambapo alienda kuishi katika eneo karibu na 'Akka' kwa uhuru. Katika maisha yake yote Bahá'u'lláh alipatwa na majaribu mengi, alipitishwa mateso, mipango ilifanywa na viongozi wa kidini dhidi yake.<ref name=":4" /> {{Infobox person|name=Baháʼu'lláh|image=Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh.jpg|alt=|death_date={{Death-date and age|29 May 1892|12 November 1817}}|death_place=[[Acre, Israel|‘Akká]], [[Ottoman Empire]]<br />{{small|(present-day [[Israel]])}}|resting_place_coordinates={{coord|32|56|36|N|35|05|32|E|source:hewiki_region:IL_type:landmark|display=inline}}|watoto={{unbulleted list|[[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]]|[[Bahíyyih Khánum|Bahíyyih]]|[[Mírzá Mihdí|Mihdí]]|Kázim|ʻAlí Muhammad|Samadiyyih|[[Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí|Muhammad ʻAlí]]|Ḍíyáʼu'lláh|Badiʻu'llah|Sádhijíyyih|Furughiyyih}}}} Bahá'u'lláh alieleza wazi katika barua zake kwamba mwakilishi wa Mungu hupitia mateso kama hayo:<blockquote> Uzuri wa Kale amekubali kufungwa kwa minyororo ili jamii ya wanadamu iweze kuachiliwa kutoka kwenye utumwa wake, na amekubali kufanywa mfungwa ndani ya Ngome hii kuu kabisa ili ulimwengu mzima uweze kufikia kwenye uhuru wa kweli. Amekunywa mashinda ya kikombe cha huzuni, ili watu wote wa dunia waweze kufikia kwenye shangwe ya kudumu, na kujazwa na furaha. Hii ni kwa huruma ya Bwana wenu, Mwenye huruma, Mwenye rehema Kabisa. Tumekubali kutwezwa, Enyi waumini katika Umoja wa Mungu, ili muweze kutukuzwa, na tumepata mateso mengi, ili muweze kusitawi na kushamiri. Yeye Ambaye amekuja kuujenga upya ulimwengu mzima, tazama, jinsi wale ambao wamefanya washiriki wa Mungu walivyomlazimisha kukaa ndani ya miji yenye ukiwa kabisa.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=arise to serve|publisher=Ruhi Institute|year=1987|isbn=9789585988095|location=Cali, Columbia|pages=46}}</ref></blockquote> Bahá'u'lláh alifunua angalau nyaraka 1,500, ambazo zingine ni ndefu kama vitabu na ambazo zimepewa tafsiri angalau katika lugha 802. Baadhi ya mifano mashuhuri ni pamoja na Maneno Yaliyofichwa, Kitabu cha Yakini, na Kitab-i-Aqdas (Kitabu Kitakatifu Kabisa). Baadhi ya mafundisho yake yanahusiana na asili ya Mungu na maendeleo ya roho, wakati mengine yanazungumzia mahitaji ya jamii, wajibu wa kidini wa wafuasi wake, au muundo wa taasisi za kibahá'í ambazo zitashughulikia kufundisha dini.{{sfn|Stockman|2013|p=2}} Aliona wanadamu kimsingi kama viumbe wa kiroho na aliwasihi watu binafsi kukuza sifa za kiroho na kuendeleza maendeleo ya kijamii na kiroho.{{sfn|Stockman|2022a|p=219–220}} == Maisha ya Awali == [[Faili:PikiWiki_Israel_14856_BAHAI_garden_ACCO.jpg|alt=Eneo Takatifu la Baháʼí huko Bahji|right|300x300px]] Bahá'u'lláh, jina lenye maana ya "Utukufu wa Mungu" katika Kiarabu, alizaliwa tarehe 12 Novemba 1817 huko Tehran, Iran. Jina alilopewa alipozaliwa lilikuwa Hussein Ali, na alikuwa ni mwana wa waziri tajiri wa serikali, Mirza Abbas Buzurg-i-Nuri. Baba yake, Mirza Abbas-i-Nuri, ambaye alijulikana kwa jina la Mirza Buzurg{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=13}}, aliwahi kuwa waziri wa mtoto wa kumi na mbili wa Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, Imam-Verdi Mirza. Mama yake aliitwa Khadijeh Khanum.{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=267}} Familia hii ilionyesha uhusiano wao na koo kuu za kifalme za zamani za Iran. Bahá'u'lláh aliishi maisha ya kifahari kama kijana, na alipata elimu iliyojikita zaidi katika uandishi wa maandiko, upandaji farasi, ushairi wa kilasiki, na upiganaji wa upanga. Wanahistoria wameunganisha ukoo wake na Ibrahim, kupitia wake zake wote wawili, Keturah{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=127n}} na Sara, Nabii Zoroaster, Yese baba wa Mfalme Daudi, na Yazdegerd III, ambaye alikuwa mfalme wa mwisho wa Milki ya Sasanian{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=13}}. Bahá'u'lláh alimuoa Asiyeh Khanum, binti wa familia ya kiungwana huko Tehran, mwaka 1835, yeye akiwa na umri wa miaka 18 na mkewe akiwa na umri wa miaka 15{{sfn|Momen|2022|p=41}}. Katika miaka yake ya mwanzo baada ya kufikisha umri wa miaka ishirini, Bahá'u'lláh alikataa maisha ya upendeleo waliyokuwa nayo watu wa ukoo wake na kugawa rasilimali zake pamoja na muda wake kwa kazi nyingi za misaada. Kwa sababu hii, alipata umaarufu kama "baba wa maskini".{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=38}} === Dini na Utambuzi wa Bab === [[Faili:The_Bahai_Temple_in_Haifa_Israel_1.jpg|alt=Kaburi la Mhatma Bab ambalo ni moja ya maeneo ya hija kwa Wabahai na eneo takatifu|left|350x350px]] Mwezi Mei 1844, mfanyabiashara mwenye umri wa miaka 24 kutoka Shiraz, Sayyid Mirza Ali-Muammad, alitikisa Iran nzima kwa kutangaza sio tu kwamba yeye ndiye aliyeahidiwa katika dini ya Uislamu (Qa'im au Mahdi) bali pia kuwa mjumbe mpya kutoka kwa Mungu.{{sfn|Dehghani|2022|p=188–189}} Alijichukulia cheo cha "Bab" (kwa Kiarabu: "mlango"), ili kuonesha nafasi yake kama "mlango wa elimu ya kiungu", na kama mwalimu mkubwa aliyetumwa na Mungu, ambaye alikuja kutayarisha njia yake.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=58–59}} Mara tu baada ya kutangaza ujumbe wake ya kiroho kwa Mulla Husayn, Bab alimuagiza ujumbe kwenda kwa mtu maalum huko Tehran ambaye Mungu angemwongoza kumpata. Baada ya kujua juu ya Baha'u'llah kupitia rafiki, Mulla Husayn alihisi akivutwa kumpelekea Baha'u'llah ujumbe aliokuwa amekabidhiwa - alipomwandikia Bab kuhusu jambo hili, Bab alifurahia sana na habari hiyo.{{sfn|Taherzadeh|1992|p=34–38}} Baha'u'llah alipopokea ujumbe huo alikuwa na umri wa miaka 27, alikubali ukweli wa ujumbe wa Bab mara moja na kusimama kuushiriki na wengine.{{sfn|Momen|2022|p=41}} Umaarufu wa Baha'u'llah kama mtu mashuhuri katika mkoa wake wa asili, Nur, ulimpa nafasi nyingi za kufundisha dini ya Babi, na safari zake zikavutia watu wengi, wakiwemo makasisi wa Kiislamu, kwenye dini hiyo mpya.{{sfn|Balyuzi|2000|p=35–37}} Nyumba yake huko Tehran iligeuka kitovu cha shughuli na alitoa msaada wa fedha kwa ukarimu kwa ajili ya shughuli za dini hiyo.{{sfn|Momen|2019a}} Katika majira ya joto ya 1848, Baha'u'llah alihudhuria na kuandaa mkutano katika Badashat, mkoa wa Khorasan, ambapo wafuasi 84 wa Babi walikutana kwa siku 22. Huko Badashat, alichukua jina la Baha{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=73}}, ambalo maana yake ni "utukufu" na "Baha'u'llah" lina maana "Utukufu wa Mungu". Pia alitoa majina ya kiroho mapya kwa watu wengine wote waliokuwepo; baada ya hapo Bab aliwasiliana nao kwa majina hayo. Baada ya mkutano huo, mwanafunzi wa kike maarufu zaidi wa Bab, Tahirih, alipokamatwa, Baha'u'llah alijaribu kumtetea. Baadaye alifungwa kwa muda na kuadhibiwa kwa kupigwa mwili wake.{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=30}} Dini ya ubabi ilienea haraka katika Uajemi na idadi ya wafuasi wake iliongezeka kwa kasi. Hii ilisababisha upinzani mkubwa kutoka kwa viongozi wa kidini wa Kiislamu, ambao waliogopa kupoteza mamlaka ya kidini na faida zinazohusiana nazo, na kwa upande mwingine, viongozi wa utawala walionesha upinzani kwa sababu waliogopa ushawishi unaoongezeka wa jamii ya Kibabi {{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=9–18}}, na kusababisha kampeni za mateso ambazo zilipelekea kuuwawa kwa maelfu ya wababi. Mnamo Julai 1850, Bab aliuawa na kikosi cha askari huko Tabriz akiwa na umri wa miaka 30 {{sfn|Smith|2000|p=57}}. Katika mafundisho yake, Bab alijitambulisha mwenyewe kama wa kwanza kati ya wadhihirishaji wawili pacha wa Mungu waliotumwa na Muumba ili kuanzisha amani ya kudumu, amani ambayo inaashiria kufikia ukomavu wa jamii ya binadamu - wakati ambapo watu wote wataishi kwa umoja kama familia moja ya kibinadamu.{{sfn|Mahmoudi|2022|p=384–387}} Wabaha'i wanaamini kuwa mafundisho ya Bab yaliandaa msingi wa "umoja wa mataifa, maelewano ya dini, usawa wa haki kwa watu wote, na uanzishwaji wa jamii inayoongozwa na sifa za upole, ushauri, uvumilivu, demokrasia, na maadili ya utaratibu wa dunia."{{sfn|Saiedi|2008|p=343}} Katika mafundisho yote ya Bab kuna maelezo ya "Yule ambaye Mungu atamdhihirisha"{{sfn|Saiedi|2008|p=344}}, mjumbe mkuu aliyetabiriwa ambaye alimuandalia njia. Katika unabii mbalimbali, Bab alisema kwamba mwalimu kutoka kwa Mungu atakayemfuata angeonekana baada ya muda mfupi baada ya kuuwawa kwake kishahidi kulikotarajiwa.{{sfn|Effendi|1944|p=23}} Katika moja ya maandiko yake makuu, Bab alisema: "Heri kwa yule ambaye anakazia mtazamo wake kwa Utaratibu wa Baháʼu'lláh, na kumshukuru Bwana wake."{{sfn|Saiedi|2000|p=295}} === Kufungwa kwao === Kipindi kueleke kuuawa kwa Bab na matukio yaliyofuata, hali ilikuwa ya machafuko kwa Wababi. Viongozi wa Kiislamu waliuchochea umati wa watu dhidi ya vurugu kwa Wababi, Wababi wengi walikataa kuchukua hatua ya mashambulizi dhidi ya wavamizi, bali walichukua hatua za kujilinda{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=32}}, lakini kwa kawaida waliuawa. Tarehe 15 Agosti 1852, vijana wawili wa Kibabi walijaribu kumuua mfalme wa Irani ili kulipiza kisasi kwa kuuwawa kwa Bab na wanafunzi wake wakuu. Mara tu Nasiri-din Shah alipopita kwenye barabara mbele ya umati, vijana hao wawili walizuia njia ya mfalme na kujaribu kumuua kwa bunduki ya kupiga ndege. Mfalme alinusurika bila kujeruhiwa vibaya, lakini tukio hili lilisababisha mateso makubwa zaidi dhidi ya Wababi kuliko matukio ya awali.{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=20–21}} Mfalme aliamuru mauaji ya Wababi, na kila mbabi anayejulikana huko Tehran alikamatwa.<ref name=":4" /> Bahá’u’lláh alikamatwa pia njiani alipokuwa akielekea Tehran, ambako wakati huo alikuwa akienda kumtembelea dada yake. Ingawa uchunguzi ulibaini kuwa vijana waliohusika walifanya tukio hilo peke yao bila kuwahusisha wengine, "utawala wa hofu" ulienea, mwaka huo huo angalau wababí elfu kumi waliuawa{{sfn|Saiedi|2000|p=4}}.Wakati mawaziri wa serikali waliposhindana baina yao katika kuwaadhibu Wababí waliokuwa wakijulikana au wanaohisiwa, Bahá'u'lláh alikuwa miongoni mwa Wababí hawa walioadhibiwa. Akiwa maarufu kwa kuunga mkono maslahi ya dini ya Kibabí, Bahá'u'lláh alikamatwa na kuwekwa gerezani katika Siyah-Chal (shimo jeusi) chini ya ardhi ya Tehran, ambapo aliwekwa pingu nzito ambazo ziliacha makovu mwilini mwake ambayo yalidumu maisha yake yote yaliyobakia. Bahá'u'lláh alikaa gerezani katika pango hilo jeusi kwa miezi minne, ilhali mama wa Shah na maafisa wanaomuunga mkono mfalme walikuwa wakitafuta njia za kumhukumu kifo.{{sfn|Balyuzi|2000|p=99–101}} === Mwanzo wa Ufunuo === Wakati wa kipindi cha kifungo chake katika gereza la Siyah-Chal, Bahá'u'lláh huelezea juu ya matukio ya kipekee, ambapo alipokea jukumu lake la kuwa Mdhihirishaji wa Mungu, aliyeahidiwa ujio wake na Bab. Wabaha'i huona mwanzo huu wa jukumu la kiroho la Bahá'u'lláh kama mwanzo wa utimilizo wa utabiri wa Báb kuhusu "Yule ambaye Mungu atamdhihirisha".{{sfn|BBC|2009}} Kutokana na asili ya 'kutotenganika' ya miitikio ya Bab na Bahá'u'lláh{{sfn|Saiedi|2008|p=344}}, Wabaha'i huona dini zote mbili kama kitengo kimoja kamili cha kidini, na ndio sababu kutangazwa kwa Bab mwaka 1844 kunachukuliwa kama tarehe ya awali ya Dini ya Kibaha'i. === Uhamisho === [[Faili:Cold_mountains_of_middle_east.jpg|alt=Mchoro wa safari katika kilele cha msimu wa baridi|right|250x250px]] Wakati ilipothibitika bila shaka yoyote kwamba Bahá'u'lláh alikuwa hana hatia ya kushiriki katika jaribio dhidi ya maisha ya Shah{{sfn|Saiedi|2000|p=4}}, Shah hatimaye alikubali kumwachilia lakini kwa masharti kwamba Bahá'u'lláh hatimaye angehamishwa kutoka Uajemi milele.{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=lxxiv}} Akiwa amenyimwa mali na utajiri wake mkubwa, katika msimu wa baridi kali sana wa Januari 1853, Bahá'u'lláh alisafiri kwa miezi mitatu hadi Baghdad pamoja na baadhi ya wanafamilia, maisha yake yaliyobaki yakatumika kama uhamisho katika maeneo ya Milki ya Ottoman. Safari kupitia milima mirefu katika kilele cha msimu wa baridi ilikuwa ngumu hasa kwa Bahá'u'lláh na familia yake.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Baha'u'llah: a short biography|url=https://archive.org/details/bahaullahshortbi0000mome|last=Momen|first=Moojan|date=2007|publisher=Oneworld|isbn=978-1-85168-469-4|series=A Oneworld book|location=Oxford|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bahaullahshortbi0000mome/page/n123 114]-117}}</ref> Wakati wa uhamisho huu, Bahá'u'lláh alihamishwa kutoka Baghdad, Iraq hadi Istanbul (Konstantinopoli), kisha Edirne (Adrianopoli) na kufika kwenye kituo cha mwisho huko Akka. Hata hivyo, upande mmoja wa uhamisho huu ulikuwa wa kijamii, ambao ulimgeuza Bahá'u'lláh kutoka kwa afisa mwenye heshima kubwa katika mahakama ya kifalme na kuwa mfungwa aliyehukumiwa na kubaguliwa.<ref name=":5" /> Bahá'u'lláh mwenyewe alielezea dhana ya kiroho ya tukio hili kwa kusema kwamba "Uzuri Uliobarikiwa uliridhia kufungwa ili mwanadamu aweze kufunguliwa kutoka katika utumwa wake, alikubali kuwa mfungwa katika gereza hili kuu ili ulimwengu mzima upate uhuru wa kweli."<ref name=":1" /> === Baghdad === Bahá'u'lláh alifika Baghdad Machi 1853, na baada ya kukaa kwa muda katika mji mdogo wa Qa'imayn nje ya Baghdad, alikodisha nyumba katika eneo la Karkh kwenye ukingo wa magharibi wa Mto Tigris huko Baghdad.<ref name=":4" /> Baada ya kuishi Baghdad, Bahá'u'lláh alianza kutuma mawasiliano na walimu ili kuhamasisha na kufufua ari ya wafuasi walioteswa wa Báb huko Persia. Kwa muda, Wabábi wengi walihamia Baghdad ili kuwa karibu na Bahá'u'lláh. Miongoni mwao alikuwa Mírza Yahyá, ambaye baadaye alijulikana kama Subh-i-Azal, kakaye Bahá'u'lláh wa kambo aliyekuwa mdogo kwa miaka 13, ambaye alimfuata katika dini ya Bábí, na hata alisafiri naye katika baadhi ya safari za awali. Baada ya kifo cha baba yao, elimu na malezi ya Yahyá kwa kiasi kikubwa yaliangaliwa na Bahá'u'lláh.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=53}} Wakati wa kifungo cha Bahá'u'lláh katika Síyáh-Chál, Yahyá alijificha, lakini baada ya Bahá'u'lláh kuhamishwa kuelekea Iraq, Yahyá aliondoka Iran kwa siri na kuingia Baghdad.{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=34}} Kwa muda, Yahya alifanya kazi kama katibu wa Bahá'u'lláh huko Baghdad, lakini alichochewa na wivu kutokana na kuongezeka kwa sifa za Bahá'u'lláh baina ya Wabábi, na kutamani kuongoza dini.{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=34–46}}{{sfn|Balyuzi|2000|p=113–114}} Akiwa anajaribu kujikuza kati ya Wabábí, Yahya na baadhi ya wafuasi wake walirejelea barua ambayo Báb aliandika miaka michache iliyopita wakati Yahya alikuwa bado kijana, ambayo ilimtaja Yahya kama kiongozi wa muda hadi atakapokuja "Yeye ambaye Mungu atamdhihirisha". Yahya alidai kwamba barua hiyo ilimaanisha kwamba kwa kweli aliteuliwa kuwa mrithi wa Báb. Wabábí wenye ufahamu walikataa haraka madai ya Yahya, kwa kuwa barua iliyorejelewa haikueleza nafasi kama hiyo, na kutokana na ukweli kwamba maandiko mengine ya Báb yalifuta wazi "taasisi ya urithi" kutoka katika dini yake.{{sfn|Saiedi|2008|p=344–345}} Báb pia aliamuru kwamba hadi kuwasili kwa Yule Aliyesuburiwa, maneno ya mtu yeyote hayatakuwa ya lazima kwa waumini.{{sfn|Saiedi|2008|p=344–345}} Wengine walihoji nia za Yahya, wakiona kwamba hakuwahi kufanya chochote kulinda dini ya kibábí au maisha ya Wabábí, ambayo sasa alidai nafasi ya juu.{{sfn|Balyuzi|2000|p=113}}{{sfn|Schaefer|Towfigh|Gollmer|2000|p=534–535}} Ili kuimarisha jaribio lake, Yahya alijaribu kumchafulia kati ya Wabábí kwa kueneza uvumi na madai ya uongo kuhusu Bahá'u'lláh, ambayo yalichochea hisia mbaya miongoni mwa Wabábí katika jamii ya Baghdad. Bahá'u'lláh alihisi huzuni kutazama mzozo uliotokea kati ya Wabábí. Kwa kuwa mpango wowote wa Mungu hauwezi kukubaliana na hali ya kuelewana, ndiyo sababu Bahá'u'lláh aliamua kujiondoa mwenyewe kutoka hapo. Takriban mwaka mmoja baada ya kuwasili kwake Baghdad, aliondoka ghafla, bila kumwambia yeyote alikuwa anaenda wapi au jinsi ya kuwasiliana naye. Alisafiri kuelekea milima ya Kurdistan kaskazini ya Baghdad akiwa na mwenzake mmoja tu, ambako aliishi peke yake kwa mtindo wa Kisufi katika pango. Wakurdi wa eneo hilo kwa kiasi kikubwa wanatazama kwa maisha ya Kisufi kwa mwongozo wa kidini, na mmoja wa wasufi hao aligundua kuhusu Bahá'u'lláh na akaanza kuthamini hekima yake ya kiroho. Walimwalika aje katika mkutano wa Wasufi katika mji Mkuu wa Iraqi Kurdistan, Suleimaniyyah, na kuwafundisha wale wafuasi wa Kisufi waliokusanyika hapo. <ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Baha'u'lláh. 1|url=https://archive.org/details/bahaullahki00baly|last=Balyuzi|first=H. M.|date=1980|publisher=Ronald|isbn=978-0-85398-090-2|edition=Reprint|location=Oxford|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bahaullahki00baly/page/n358 339]-353}}</ref> Baadaye, katika waraka moja, aliandika kwamba hakutaka kuwa chanzo cha utofauti kati ya jamii ya Wababí. {{sfn|Smith|2008|p=17}} {{sfn|Saiedi|2000|p=117}} ==== Maisha Suleimaniyah na Kurejea Baghdad ==== [[Faili:Mountains_of_Kurdistan_seen_from_Kure_Hure.jpg|alt=Milima ya Kurdistan|right|350x350px]] Mwanzoni, wakati akiishi kama mtawa katika milima hiyo, Bahá'u'lláh alivaa kama dervish (mtawa) na alitumia jina Dervish Muhammad-i-Irani{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=17}}. Mkuu wa semina maarufu ya kidini huko Suleimaniyah alikutana na Bahá'u'lláh{{sfn|Momen|2022|p=44}} na akamwalika kuja. Huko, mwanafunzi mmoja aliona kazi bora ya uandishi ya Bahá'u'lláh, ambayo ilichochea udadisi wa walimu wakuu. Kwa vile aliweza kujibu maswali yao juu ya mada changamani za kidini, Bahá'u'lláh alipata sifa haraka kwa elimu na hekima yake.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=74}} Sheikh Uthman, Sheikh Abdurrahman, na Sheikh Ismail, viongozi wa amri za Naqshbandiyih, Qadiriyih na Khalidiyyah mtawalia, walianza kutafuta ushauri wake. Katika mojawapo ya maeneo haya, kitabu cha Bahá'u'lláh 'Mabonde Manne' kiliandikwa.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=159}} Kipindi cha kutokuwepo kwa Bahá'u'lláh katika jamii ya Wababi huko Baghdad kilifichua kwa uharaka hali halisi ya Mirza Yahya. Heshima ya umma na morali ya Wababi vilianguka haraka kwasababu Yahya alishindwa kutoa mwongozo wa kiroho au kuonesha viwango vya juu vya maisha vilivyofundishwa na Bab. Vitendo vyake vya kuwaaibisha Bahá'u'lláh na wale wote waliomsifu viliongezeka. Wakati huo huo, Yahya aliitumia imani ya Kibabi kwa faida ya kifedha na kuimarisha nafasi yake ya kudanganya, na kufanya mambo ambayo yalipingana na kauli za Bab kwa namna ambayo iliabisha.{{sfn|Saiedi|2000|p=206}} Polepole, kutomwamini Yahya na kutamani mwongozo wa Bahá'u'lláh kulionekana wazi miongoni mwa Wababi. Hatimaye, Wababi wa Baghdad walipata mahali alipo Bahá'u'lláh na watu wawili walifika Suleimaniyah kumchukua. Bahá'u'lláh mwanzoni hakutaka kuondoka kutoka huko Suleimaniyah. Hakika, katika miaka ya baadaye, aliandika kwamba alipoondoka Baghdad, hakuwa na nia ya kurudi tena. Hata hivyo, aliposikia kuhusu hali mbaya ya jamii ya Wababi ya Baghdad, alisema kwamba alihisi kuwa kama hakuingilia kati, dhabihu zote na ushahidi wa miaka iliyopita ya wa Wababi na Bab mwenyewe vingekuwa bure. Kwa hivyo alikubali kurudi.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> Baada ya kuwa katika upweke kwa takriban miaka miwili huko Suleimaniyah, Bahá'u'lláh alirudi Baghdad tarehe 19 Machi 1856.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=17}} Mara baada ya kurudi, alianza mara moja kurejesha heshima na hadhi ya jamii ya Wababi na kujenga upya ari na umoja wake. Aliandika maandiko kadhaa muhimu, kama vile kitabu chake muhimu zaidi cha Yakini, Kitáb-i-Íqán (Kitabu cha Yakini) na maandiko ya fumbo kama Mabonde Saba, Maneno ya Yaliyofichwa na mashairi kadhaa.<ref name=":4" /> Katika miaka 7 iliyofuata, Bahá’u’lláh aliihuisha "jamii katika kiwango cha maadili na kiroho ambacho ilifikia wakati wa maisha ya Báb" kupitia mfano wa kibinafsi pamoja na msaada na mazungumzo ya kudumu na wafuasi. Watu wengi zaidi walivutiwa kujiunga na vuguvugu la Wababi lililofufuka.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=17}} Kuzidi kuenea kwa heshima ya Bahá’u’lláh katika Baghdad na maeneo ya jirani pamoja na kuenea kwa maandiko yao kuliwavuta "wakuu, wanazuoni, wafuasi wa mafumbo na maafisa wa serikali" kukutana nao, wengi wao walikuwa "watu mashuhuri katika maisha ya umma ya Kiajemi."{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=37}}{{sfn|Momen|2022|p=44}} Maendeleo haya yalitia wasiwasi na kuibua upinzani miongoni mwa viongozi wa kidini wa Kiislamu wa Irani, na kwa mara nyingine yaliongeza "hofu na shaka kali" miongoni mwa mfalme wa Irani na washauri wake.{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=37}} Walijaribu kuandika ripoti za uwongo kuhusu Bahá'u'lláh huko Tehran na kuomba serikali ya Irani kuwa awekwe chini ya adhabu ya kifo kwa kumrudisha Irani. Hatimaye, juhudi zao zilifaulu, na serikali ya Irani rasmi iliomba serikali ya Ottoman kwamba ama Bahá'u'lláh arudishwe Irani au aondolewe Iraq ambako alikuwa karibu na mpaka wa Irani.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Mwaliko wa Istanbul (Konstantinopoli) na Ufunuo wa Baháʼu'lláh ==== Mnamo Machi 1863, Baháʼu'lláh alipokea amri kutoka kwa serikali ya Ottoman kwenda Istanbul, mji mkuu wa Dola la Ottoman, ambapo Sultan Abdülaziz mwenyewe alimwalika Baháʼu'lláh kuishi katika mji mkuu wa Ottoman, Konstantinopoli (sasa Istanbul).{{sfn|Taherzadeh|2000|p=68–69}} Mnamo Aprili 22, 1863, Baháʼu'lláh aliondoka nyumbani kwake Baghdad na kuelekea kingo za Mto Tigris na kuvuka hadi upande mwingine kuingia kwenye bustani ya kijani ya Najībīyyih, ambayo rafiki mmoja wa Baghdad alikuwa ameitoa kwa matumizi ya Baháʼu'lláh. Huko Baháʼu'lláh alikaa kwa siku kumi na mbili pamoja na wanafamilia na baadhi ya wafuasi wake wa karibu waliochaguliwa kuandamana naye. Alipowasili bustanini, Baháʼu'lláh aliwatangaza kwa wenzake kwamba yeye ni "Yule ambaye Mungu atamdhihirisha," kama alivyoahidi Bab,{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=37–38}}, na kutangaza kwamba dhamira yake kama Mdhihirishaji mpya wa Mungu duniani imeanza.{{sfn|Momen|2022|p=44}}{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=409–410}} Kipindi hicho cha siku kumi na mbili, ambapo Baháʼu'lláh alijitangaza kuwa ndiye Mtume aliyetabiriwa na Bab, kinaadhimishwa kila mwaka na Wabaha'i na huitwa Sikukuu ya Ridván, Mfalme wa Sherehe. <ref name=":5" /> Bahá'u'lláh aliondoka kwenye Bustani ya Ridván tarehe 3 Mei 1863 na kusafiri na familia yake kwenda Constantinople kama wageni wa serikali ya Ottoman wakiwa na ulinzi wa serikali ya wapanda farasi iliyopangwa na waziri mkuu wa Sultan, 'Ali Pasha', kwa ajili ya usalama wao.{{sfn|Taherzadeh|2000|p=69}} Wasafiri wengine kadhaa waliomba ruhusa kutoka kwa Bahá'u'lláh ili kuongozana nao. Ingawa Mirza Yahya hakuwepo katika mwaliko wa Sultan, alijiunga na kundi hilo njiani.{{sfn|Momen|2022|p=44–45}} Baada ya majuma kumi na tano, Bahá'u'lláh alifika kwenye mji mkuu wa Ottoman tarehe 16 Agosti 1863. Alipokelewa na mawaziri mbalimbali wa serikali ya Sultan na watu mashuhuri waliompa heshima ya kukutana nae. Balozi wa Kiajemi pia alituma mabalozi kumkaribisha siku iliyofuata ya kuwasili kwake.{{sfn|Taherzadeh|2000|p=75–76}} '''Bahá'u'lláh''' alikaa Istanbul kwa miezi mitatu. Katika kipindi hiki, alikataa kuomba msaada kutoka kwa mawaziri wa serikali au kukutana na Sultan, ambayo ilikuwa ni taratibu ya kawaida kwa watu mashuhuri waliowasili Istanbul. Alisema kuwa aliitwa Istanbul na serikali ya Ottoman na hakuwa na tamanio lolote la kuomba au kuhamasisha mpango wowote. Ukosefu wa urafiki na hali ya Bahá'u'lláh ilitumiwa vibaya na balozi wa Uajemi ambapo alimwasilisha Bahá'u'lláh vibaya kwa kudhamiria mbele ya mahakama ya Ottoman{{sfn|Taherzadeh|1977|p=1}} na kushinikiza kufukuzwa kwake kutoka mji mkuu{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=47}}. Matokeo yake, mwishoni mwa kipindi hiki, amri ilitolewa kwamba Bahá'u'lláh afukuzwe hadi Edirne, mji mkuu wa mkoa, ambao sasa upo katika Uturuki ya Ulaya, na Sultan alikubali bila kusita. <ref name=":6" /> ==== Uhamisho wa Adrianople ==== Tarehe 12 Desemba 1863, Bahá'u'lláh alifika Adrianople pamoja na familia yake na wafuasi wengine. Uwepo wake huko, ambao uliendelea kwa miaka minne na nusu, ulikuwa kipindi muhimu katika kuendeleza zaidi jukumu lake miongoni mwa Wababi na kutangaza lengo lake kwa ujumla.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=141–142}} Katika miaka miwili iliyofuata, maandiko yaliyotoka kwa Bahá'u'lláh yalienea kwa Wababi nchini Iran. Bahá'u'lláh alituma wafuasi kadhaa waaminifu Iran, na wengi wa Wababi walianza kumtambua kama kiongozi wa imani yao.{{sfn|Taherzadeh|1977|p=75–77}}{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=38–39}} {{sfn|Momen|2022|p=44–45}} Akiwa amechochewa na ukosefu wa mateso dhidi ya Wababi, Mirza Yahya aliamua "kujitokeza kutoka katika upweke aliouweka mwenyewe" ili kufufua matarajio yake ya uongozi, ambayo yalisukumwa na wivu wake dhidi ya Baha'u'llah. Akiamini kwamba kifo cha Baha'u'llah kilikuwa muhimu kwa ajili ya kutimiza dhamira yake, jaribio la kwanza la Yahya katika mwelekeo huu lilikuwa ni jaribio la kumtilia sumu Baha'u'llah alipomwalika kwenye chai. {{sfn|Smith|2008|p=24}}{{sfn|Balyuzi|2000|p=225}} Hii ilisababisha Baha'u'llah kuugua vibaya kwa karibu mwezi mmoja, na kubakia na madhara ya kuwa na mikono inayotetemeka kwa maisha yake yote yaliyobakia. Ingawa Baha'u'llah aliwaambia wale waliojua kinachoendelea wasizungumze kuhusu tukio hilo, ufahamu wa tukio hilo ulienea, ukisababisha machafuko makubwa kati ya Wababi. Hata hivyo, lilikuwa jaribio la baadaye la Yahya kwenye maisha ya Baha'u'llah lililosababisha "vurugu kubwa katika jamii."{{sfn|Taherzadeh|2000|p=117}} Hili lilihusisha Ustadh Muhammad-Ali-i-Salmani, ambaye alikuwa kinyozi wa jadi aliyekuwa akihudumia Baha'u'llah katika bafu lake.{{sfn|Momen|2022|p=44–45}} Salmani alieleza kuwa Yahya alianza ghafla kumwonesha urafiki, kisha siku moja akasisitiza kwamba itakuwa "huduma kubwa kwa dini yao" ikiwa atamuua Baha'u'llah wanapokuwa katika bafu. Salmani alichukizwa na wazo hili kiasi kwamba alikiri kwamba wazo lake la kwanza lilikuwa kumuua Yahya—alijizuia tu kwa sababu alijua kuwa kufanya hivyo kungemkasirisha Baha'u'llah. Katika hasira yake alisimulia juu ya tukio hilo kwa Mirza Musa, kaka mwaminifu wa Baha'u'llah, ambaye alimsihi kulipuuza, akisema Yahya alikuwa amelifikiria kwa miaka. {{sfn|Balyuzi|2000|p=229}} Akiwa bado na wasiwasi, Salmani alieleza suala hilo kwa mwana mkubwa wa Baha'u'llah, Abdu'l-Baha, na kuambiwa asiwaambie wengine. Hatimaye Salmani alimjulisha Baha'u'llah, ambaye pia alimwambia asizungumzie jambo hilo na mtu yeyote. Hadi tukio hili, kwa sababu Yahya alikuwa kaka wa kambo ambaye Baha'u'llah alikuwa akimhudumia kwa huruma na fadhili, Wababi wengi walimheshimu Yahya, lakini Salmani alipokosa ukimya na kuwaambia wengine waziwazi kile alichomuombwa na Yahya kufanya {{sfn|Salmání|1982|p=51–52}}, matendo na nia za Yahya, ambazo zilikuwa kinyume na mafundisho ya Bab, zilibua machafuko makubwa kati ya Wababi.{{sfn|Taherzadeh|2000|p=117–120}} ==== Uhamishoni wa Mwisho huko Akka ==== [[Faili:AkkaPrison.jpg|alt=Gereza la Akka ambako Bahá'u'lláh alizuiliwa.|right|350x350px]] Baada ya kupoteza heshima au ushawishi kati ya Wafuasi wa Bab waliokuwa wameikubali dini ya Kibahá'í, Mírzá Yaḥyá alijaribu tena kumchafua Bahá'u'lláh mbele ya maafisa wa Ottoman, akimshutumu kwa kupanga njama dhidi ya serikali ya Kituruki.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=26}}{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=49–50}} Vitendo vya Yaḥyá vilichochea uchunguzi wa serikali, ambao baada ya uchunguzi ulimwachilia Bahá'u'lláh, lakini kwa hofu ya masuala ya kidini kuleta machafuko siku za usoni, serikali ya Ottoman iliamua kuwafunga Bahá'u'lláh na Mírzá Yaḥyá katika vituo vya mbali vya miliki yao.{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=326–327}}{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=26}} Mwezi Julai 1868, amri ya kifalme ilimtia hatiani Bahá'u'lláh na familia yake kwa uhamisho wa kudumu kwenye koloni la adhabu la magonjwa huko Akka; wengi wa Wafuasi wa Kibahá'í walihamishwa kutoka Adrianople pamoja nao.{{sfn|Alkan|2022|p=76}} Kutokana na njama zake mwenyewe, Mírzá Yaḥyá, aliwekwa pia gerezani - kwa sababu maafisa wa Kituruki walishuku kuwa alikuwa na njama fulani, alifungwa gerezani huko Famagusta, Cyprus pamoja na familia yake, baadhi ya wafuasi wake, na wafuasi wanne wa Kibahá'í.{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=42}}{{sfn|Warburg|2006|p=177}}{{sfn|Nakhjavani|1983|p=vii+}} [[Faili:MansionOfBahji.jpg|alt=Jumba la Bahjí|right|250x250px]] Bahá'u'lláh na wenzake waliondoka Adrianople tarehe 12 Agosti 1868, na kufika Akka tarehe 31 Agosti ambako walifungwa gerezani ndani ya mji.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=26}} Wakazi wa Akka waliambiwa kuwa wafungwa wapya walikuwa ni maadui wa ufalme, Mungu na dini yake, na walikatazwa vikali kuwa na uhusiano wowote nao. Miaka ya awali huko 'Akka' ilikuwa na mazingira magumu sana na wengi wa Wafuasi wa Bahá'í waliugua (hatimaye watatu walifariki).{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=26}} Mwezi Juni 1870, Mírzá Mihdí, mwana wa Bahá'u'lláh mwenye umri wa miaka 22, alikufa kwa huzuni, alipokuwa akisali na kutafakari jioni wakati alipoanguka kutoka kwenye paa la jengo gerezani ambako hakukuwa na uangalizi wa kutosha.{{sfn|Momen|2022|p=47}}{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=322}} Baadaye, mahusiano kati ya wafungwa wa Kibahá'í, maafisa, na jamii ya ndani yaliboreshwa, na hivyo masharti ya ufungwaji wao yalilegezwa. Mwezi Aprili 1871, wakati alipotembelea Akka, Dkt. Thomas Chaplin (mkurugenzi wa hospitali inayoendeshwa na Uingereza huko Yerusalemu) alikutana na ʿAbdu'l-Bahá kwa niaba ya Bahá'u'lláh katika nyumba ambako familia yake iliishi baada ya kuondoka gerezani. Baadaye, daktari huyo aliandika barua kwa mhariri wa gazeti la The Times kuhusu Bahá'u'lláh, iliyochapishwa tarehe 5 Oktoba 1871.{{sfn|Momen|1981|p=209–212}} Hatimaye, baada ya kifo cha Sultani, Bahá'u'lláh alipewa ruhusa ya kuondoka mjini kutembelea sehemu za jirani, na kisha kuishi katika maeneo nje ya Akka. Mwaka 1873, matukio mawili muhimu yalitokea; kwanza, Bahá'u'lláh alikamilisha kitabu chake muhimu zaidi, Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Kitabu Kitakatifu Kabisa), ambacho kina sheria za dini mpya pamoja na maelekezo ya maadili na kijamii pamoja na masuala ya utawala. Pili, ʿAbdu'l-Bahá na Munīriyya Khānum, binti ambaye alitoka katika familia ya Mbahá'í mashuhuri huko Isfahan, walifunga ndoa. Mwaka 1876, ʿAbdu'l-Bahá alifanya mipango kwa ajili ya Bahá'u'lláh kuenda nje ya mipaka ya mji, akianza na kutembelea bustani (inayojulikana kama Bustani la Riḍwán) iliyolipiwa kodi na ʿAbdu'l-Bahá. <ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> Kuanzia 1877 hadi 1879, Bahá'u'lláh aliishi katika nyumba yenye umbali wa maili chache kaskazini mwa mji wa magereza, huko Mazra'ih.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=26–27}} Hata hivyo, akiwa rasmi bado ni mfungwa wa Dola ya Ottoman, miaka ya mwisho ya maisha ya Bahá'u'lláh (1879-1892) yalitumika katika jumba la Bahjí lililo nje tu ya Akka. Bahá'u'lláh alitumia muda wake kuandika vitabu kadhaa vinavyoeleza mafundisho yake, ikiwa ni pamoja na dhana ya dunia iliyounganika, haja ya vitendo vya maadili na sala nyingi. Mnamo mwaka 1890, msomi wa Kiorientali wa Cambridge, Edward Granville Browne alifanikiwa kufanya mahojiano na Bahá'u'lláh huko Bahjí. Baada ya kukutana naye, aliandika taswira maarufu ya maelezo ya Bahá'u'lláh: Katika kona ile, karibu na ukuta, alikaa mtu wa ajabu na mwenye heshima... Sitaweza kamwe kuusahau uso ambao macho yangu yaliuona, ingawa siwezi kuuelezea. Macho yake yanayopenyeza yanaweza kusoma nafsi ya mtu; nguvu na mamlaka vilikaa juu ya paji la uso mkubwa; huku mapaji ya uso na uso wenye mistari mizito ikionyesha ishara ya umri.. Haikuhitajika kuuliza nilikuwa mbele ya nani, kwani nilijiinamishia mbele ya chanzo cha ibada na upendo ambao wafalme wanaweza kumuonea gere na watawala wanaweza kusikitika bure! Sauti laini, yenye heshima ilinialika kuketi, kisha ikaendelea: - ''"Sifa iwe kwa Mungu kwamba umefanikiwa kufika!…Umekuja kumuona mfungwa na mhamishwa…Tunatamani tu mambo mema ya ulimwengu na furaha ya mataifa; walakini wao wanadhania sisi ni wachochezi wa ugomvi na maasi tustahilio kifungo na uhamisho…Kwamba mataifa yote yawe taifa moja katika imani na watu wote kama ndugu; kwamba mafundo ya huba na umoja miongoni mwa watoto wa watu yaimarishwe; kwamba tofauti za kidini zikome, na tofauti za kimbari zifutwe—kuna madhara gani katika hili? … Walakini hivyo ndivyo itakavyokuwa; ugomvi huu usio na manufaa; vita hivi viharibifu vitakwisha, na ‘Amani Kuu Kabisa’ itakuja…Je, ninyi huko Ulaya hamhitaji hili pia? Siyo hiki ambacho Kristo alikitabiri?…Walakini tunawaona wafalme na watawala wenu wakifuja hazina zao kwa wingi na kwa uhuru zaidi kwenye mambo yanayoangamiza jamii ya wanadamu kuliko yale ambayo yangesaidia kuleta furaha ya jamii ya wanadamu.…ugomvi huu na umwagaji huu wa damu na mafarakano sharti vikome, na watu wote wawe kama ukoo mmoja na familia moja.… Acha mtu asijitukuze katika hili, kwamba huipenda nchi yake; bali mwache ajitukuze katika hili, kwamba huipenda aina yake…''"{{sfn|Momen|1981|p=229–230}}{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=27}} Bahá'u'lláh alitumia miaka yake ya mwisho ya maisha yake huko Bahji, ambapo aliongoza kazi zake na kukutana na idadi inayoongezeka ya wahujaji wa Kibahá'í na Wabahá'í waliokuwa wakiishi katika eneo hilo. Bahá'u'lláh alifariki tarehe 29 Mei 1892 baada ya ugonjwa wa muda mfupi.<ref name=":4" /> Alizikwa katika jengo lililokuwepo karibu na kasri la Bahji ambalo sasa linajulikana kama kaburi lake.{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=59}} Ni mahali pa hija na mahali patakatifu zaidi kwa Wabahá'í duniani kote{{sfn|Warburg|2006|p=450–454}}, na ni Qiblah wanayogeukia kwa sala za lazima za kila siku.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=162}} Mnamo 2008, kaburi la Bahá'u'lláh liliongezwa kwenye orodha ya maeneo ya [[Urithi wa Dunia]] ya [[UNESCO]] pamoja na maeneo mengine matakatifu ya Kibahá'í huko Akka na Haifa.{{sfn|UNESCO World Heritage Centre|2008}} == Mafundisho == === Mungu === Dhana ya Mungu katika imani ya Kibaha'i ni ya umoja wa Mungu mmoja. Mungu ni asili isiyoumbika na isiyoharibika ambayo ndio chanzo kamili na cha mwisho cha uwepo wote.{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=74}}{{sfn|Warburg|2006|p=12}} Bahá'u'lláh anafundisha wazi "uwepo na umoja wa Mungu, kuwa chanzo kisichojulikana, kisichoweza kufikiwa, cha ufunuo wote wa siri, wa milele, mwenye kujua yote, mwenye kuwa kila mahali na mwenye nguvu zote."{{sfn|Matthews|2005|p=19}} Bahá'u'lláh alisisitiza kuwa Muumba hawezi kueleweka na viumbe - kwa sababu kiumbe chochote hakiwezi kumuelewa Muumbaji wake.{{sfn|Bolodo-Taefi|2022|p=176–178}} Hata hivyo, Bahá'u'lláh alisema kuwa Muumba amempa binadamu uwezo wa kutambua uwepo wake, na uwezo wa kukua kiroho kwa kuzielewa sifa nzuri zisizo na kikomo za Mungu na kufanya jitahida kuonesha sifa hizo kadiri wanavyoweza katika maisha yao{{sfn|Kluge|2022|p=230–231}}{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=117–118}} - kama vile upendo, huruma, wema, ukarimu, haki, na kadhalika. ==== Wajumbe wa Mungu ==== Bahá'u'lláh anaeleza kuwa maarifa ya Mungu na sifa za Muumba kwa wanadamu zinaweza kufahamika tu kupitia Wajumbe wa Mungu wa enzi hiyo. Tofauti na njia hiyo, haiwezekani kwa ulimwengu wa kibinadamu. Bahá'u'lláh na Báb wote wawili wameelezea kuhusu wajumbe wa Mungu.{{sfn|Bolodo-Taefi|2022|p=182–184}} {{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=186–188}} Badala ya kuwa waangalizi wakuu wenye mawazo bora katika maisha ukilinganisha na wengine, wajumbe wa Mungu ni viumbe vya kiroho walioumbwa mahsusi na Mungu, ambao uwezo wao unazidi ule wa wanadamu wa kawaida kwa kiasi kisicho na kipimo. Kabla ya kuzaliwa katika maisha haya ya kidunia, kila Mjumbe wa Mungu alikuwepo katika ufalme wa kiroho, na hutumwa na Mungu katika kipindi maalum na mahali kama chombo cha mwongozo wa kiungu ili kusaidia binadamu kuelewa na kuendeleza uwezo wao wa ndani polepole, ili kutimiza mpango wa Mungu.{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=120}} Wabahá'í wanaamini kwamba hizi dhihirisho za kimungu zinaonesha mwanga wa mapenzi na madhumuni ya Mungu katika dunia hii. Maandishi ya Kibahá'í yamelinganisha Mitume na vioo kamili vinavyoakisi jua - ingawa kila kioo ni tofauti, bado kila mwangaza unaotolewa ni wa jua lilelile, na tu tofauti zinatokana na wakati na hali.{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=116–118}} Bahá'u'lláh anasema kwamba mwongozo wa Mitume unatofautiana kiasili kutokana na hali na mahitaji maalum ya wale wanaoshughulika nao: <blockquote>"Wachukuzi wa ujumbe wa Mungu wanapaswa kuzingatiwa kama waganga ambao kazi yao ni kukuza ustawi wa dunia na watu wake... basi haishangazi kwamba matibabu yaliyowekwa na daktari katika siku hii yanatofautiana na matibabu yaliyowekwa katika nyakati zilizopita. Inakuaje vinginevyo wakati mgonjwa huhitaji matibabu maalum kwa kila hatua ya mwendo wa ugonjwa unaomuathiri? Kila mara Mitume wa Mungu wameipa dunia mwangaza wa siku moja kali zaidi. Kwa njia hiyo hiyo, kila mara Mitume wa Mungu walipoangaza dunia kwa mwanga wa ajabu wa jua ya ufahamu wa kimungu, wamewaita watu wao kuchukua mwanga wa Mungu kupitia njia zinazofaa zaidi za mahitaji ya zama ambazo walidhihirika ndani yake.{{sfn|Baháʼu'lláh|1976|p=80, §XXXIV}}{{sfn|Dehghani|2022|p=190}}</blockquote> Wabahá'í wanaona kila dini kubwa duniani kama sehemu ya mchakato wa kijumla wa kielimu ulioamriwa na Mungu{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=246–247}} ambao umewezesha ustaarabu wa binadamu kusonga mbele kiroho na kijamii - ambapo watu wamejifunza kukumbatia muunganiko unaokua wa umoja, ambao hatimaye umejumuisha familia zinazozidi kuwa nyingi zaidi, hadi kabila, hadi eneo, na kisha taifa. Hatimaye, wanadamu itabidi wakumbatie mzunguko wao wa mwisho wa umoja, yaani dunia yote.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=323–324}} ==== Kanuni za Kijamii ==== Bahá'u'lláh daima alisema kwamba ujumbe wake ni kwa ajili ya watu wote, na mafundisho yake yanalenga kujenga dunia mpya ambapo jamii ya binadamu itaendelea kwa umoja na kwa pamoja. Anatangaza waziwazi kanuni ya umoja wa binadamu{{sfn|Stockman|2022a|p=219–220}}, akiwashauri viongozi wa mataifa kushiriki katika kusuluhisha migogoro ya sasa ili kufikia amani na kuimarisha ulinzi huo kupitia usalama wa pamoja.{{sfn|Mahmoudi|2022|p=390–391}} Ili kuhimiza maendeleo ya jamii ya dunia iliyoungana, Bahá'u'lláh anasisitiza umuhimu wa kuondoa ubaguzi wa kidini na wa kikabila na kuepuka utaifa uliokithiri.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=53, 139}} Zaidi ya hayo, anasema kwamba haki za wachache zinapaswa kulindwa na maendeleo yao yahimizwe.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=111–112}} Masharti yanayohitajika kwa ajili ya kufikia amani ya kimataifa ni usawa kamili kati ya wanawake na wanaume kote duniani.{{sfn|Pearson|2022|p=250–251}} Bahá'u'lláh anasema kwamba machoni pa Mungu, wanawake na wanaume ni sawa; hakuna anayemzidi mwenzake.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=143–144}} Ili kufanikisha usawa huo, mafundisho ya Bahá'i yanapendekeza kutekelezwa kwa mabadiliko makubwa ya kijamii kila mahali{{sfn|Pearson|2022|p=251–252}}, ikihusisha kuondolewa kwa mazoea ya kibaguzi dhidi ya wanawake na kutilia mkazo zaidi elimu kwa wasichana{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=131}} ili kuhakikisha kwamba wanawake wanaweza kutimiza uwezo wao katika nyanja zote za jitihada za kibinadamu.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=41}} === Urithi na Agano lake === [[Faili:Abdulbaha.jpg|alt=Abdu'l-Bahá, mtoto wa kwanza wa Bahá'u'lláh na kitovu cha agano lake|right|288x288px]] Bahá'u'lláh aliweka agano wa wazi na Wabahá'í katika wosia na barua yake ya tamaa, ambayo iliandikwa kabisa kwa mkono wake mwenyewe na inajulikana kama "Kitabu cha Agano". Siku ya tisa baada ya kifo chake mwaka 1892, ilisomwa mbele ya mashahidi na wanachama wa familia yake.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=114}} Ili kutoa kitovu cha mwongozo endelevu, kinachoweza kufafanua na kufasiri maandiko yake inapohitajika, Bahá'u'lláh alikabidhi uongozi huo kwa mwanawe mkubwa [[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá|Abdu'l-Bahá]] katika wosia wake. Yeye ndiye mrithi wa dini ya Kibahá'í, mfasiri pekee aliyeidhinishwa wa maandiko yake, mfano wa mafundisho yake, na kitovu cha agano lake kwa Wabahá'í wote.{{sfn|Alkan|2022|p=72}}{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=50}}{{sfn|Momen|2004|p=97–98}} Uteuzi wa wazi wa Abdu'l-Bahá ulikubaliwa kwa urahisi na Wabahá'í wengi kama tukio lililotarajiwa, kwani kwa miongo kadhaa kabla ya kifo cha Bahá'u'lláh, Abdu'l-Bahá alijulikana kwa kutekeleza majukumu aliyopatiwa na Bahá'u'lláh kwa namna yenye uwezo mkubwa na kujitolea.{{sfn|Alkan|2022|p=78–79}}{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=43}} Bahá'u'lláh aliunda muundo wa Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu, taasisi yenye wajumbe tisa ambao wangeweza kutunga sheria juu ya masuala ya kiimani, na alielezea jukumu la kuteuliwa kwa vizazi vyake, ambayo yote yalielezwa kwa mapana na ʻAbdu'l-Bahá alipo mteua Shoghi Effendi kama mlinzi. Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu iliyochaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka 1963, ni chombo kikuu cha usimamizi cha jamii ya Kibahá'í duniani kote. Mtu yeyote anayekataa kiungo chochote katika mfululizo huu wa uongozi anachukuliwa kama mvunjaji wa agano.{{Sfn|Smith|2000}} Nguvu ya Agano kwa Wabahá'í na ahadi ya umoja iliyoanzishwa na Bahá'u'lláh inalinda dini yao dhidi ya mgawanyiko na utofauti, tatizo ambalo limeathiri dini za huko nyuma. Kupitia Agano, dini ya Kibahá'í imezuia migogoro, na jitihada mbalimbali za kuanzisha uongozi mbadala zimekosa mvuto mkubwa kwa wafuasi kutokana na ukosefu wa mamlaka ya kiimani.{{Sfn|Smith|2000}} === Utawala wa Kibaha'i === [[Faili:Arc_IMG_6648.jpg|alt=Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Kibaha'i|right|350x350px]] Katika nchi nyingi, masuala ya jamii za Kibaha'i yanasimamiwa kwa kutumia kanuni za ushauriano{{sfn|Smith|Ghaemmaghami|2022b|p=454–460}} na maamuzi ya pamoja{{sfn|Warburg|2006|p=196}}. Kwa kuwa katika dini la Kibaha'i hakuna makasisi, hakuna mbaha'i mwenye haki ya kumwambia mwingine jinsi anavyopaswa kufikiri au kufanya.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=113}} Bahá'u'lláh aliwahimiza sana wabaha'i kushiriki mafundisho yake lakini alikataza ubadilishaji kwa nguvu.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=118–121}} Kufanya kazi katika vikundi na ushiriki katika shughuli za kijamii huchukuliwa kama vipengele muhimu vya maisha ya Kibaha'i.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=101–102, 113}} Ikitakiwa au inapohitajika, juhudi za mtu mmoja mmoja na za kikundi na kwa ujumla shughuli za jamii ya kibaha'i huratibiwa, kuelekezwa na kuungwa mkono na mabaraza ya watu tisa (yanayochaguliwa kila mwaka kwa kupiga kura za siri) yanayofanya kazi katika ngazi za eneo, kanda na kitaifa.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=178–180}} Utiaji moyo wa ziada na mwongozo wa kiroho hutolewa na watu walioteuliwa ambao hawana mamlaka ya utekelezaji.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=276}}{{sfn|Warburg|2006|p=209–210}} Miradi ya kibaha'i inaungwa mkono kikamilifu na hazina inayotolewa kwa hiari na Kibaha'i wenyewe, kwani dini ya kibaha'i haikubali michango kutoka kwa watu ambao si waumini wake wamejitangaza.{{sfn|Warburg|2006|p=306–308}} Wajumbe wa asasi yoyote ya Kibaha'i, pamoja na mtu yeyote aliyeteuliwa nao kusaidia katika shughuli mbali mbali za jamii (kama vile madarasa ya mafunzo ya kimaadili kwa watoto na vijana chipukizi), wanahudumu kwa hiari. Utaratibu wa kiutawala wa Kibaha'i unaongozwa na [[Jumba la Haki la Ulimwengu|Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu]]{{sfn|Smith|2022a|p=137–143}}, asasi hii iliteuliwa na kuthibitishwa na Bahá'u'lláh katika kitabu chake cha sheria kwa ajili ya kusudi hili hilo; Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu huchaguliwa kila miaka mitano katika mkutano wa kimataifa unaoandaliwa katika Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Kibaha'i na wawakilishi wa Wabaha'i kutoka dunia nzima.{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=479–48}}{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=176–178}}{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=106–108}} == Maandishi ya Bahá'u'lláh == === Asili === [[Faili:Revelation-writing.jpg|alt=Nakala iliyoandikwa na mwandishi wa maandiko ya Bahá'u'lláh wakati Bahá'u'lláh akifunua ufunuo wake|right]] Wabahá'í wanaamini kwamba maandiko yote ya Bahá'u'lláh yalifunuliwa kwa njia ya kiungu, hata yale yaliyoandikwa kabla ya kujitangaza kuwa yeye ni mjumbe wa Mungu.{{sfn|Smith|2000|uk=79–80}}{{sfn|Smith|2008|uk=18–20}} Wakati Bahá'u'lláh alipokea ufunuo, mara nyingine aliandika mwenyewe, lakini mara nyingi alitamka maneno kwa sauti mbele ya mwandishi wa maandiko. Wakati mwingine alikuwa anaongea kwa kasi sana kiasi kwamba iliwasumbua wale waliokuwa wanarekodi maneno yake.{{sfn|Momen|2019b}} Maandishi mengi ya Bahá'u'lláh yameandikwa kama barua fupi au risala zilizolengwa kwa mtu mmoja au zaidi.{{sfn|Smith|2000|uk=79–80}} Miongoni mwa kazi zake kubwa ni Maneno Yaliyofichwa, Mabonde Saba, Kitabu cha Yakini(Kitáb-i-Íqán), Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Kitabu Kitakatifu Kabisa), na Barua kwa Mwana wa Mbwa Mwitu. Maandiko ya Bahá'u'lláh yameandikwa awali katika Kifarsi na Kiarabu. Maandiko yake ni sawa na zaidi ya vitabu 100 - karibu kazi zake 15,000 zimepatikana na kuthibitishwa.{{sfn|Universal House of Justice|2013}} === Yaliyomo === Mada za maandiko yake ni pana na zinaongelea maudhui yanayohusiana na maisha ya binadamu, kanuni za kijamii, kimaadili na kiroho kwa watu binafsi na makundi. {{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=56–63}} Vipengele hivi vinajumuisha maoni kuhusu maandiko, unabii na imani za dini zilizotangulia; {{sfn|Smith|2008|p=21–22}} kufuta sheria za awali, na kuanzisha sheria na amri za mpango huu mpya; {{sfn|Warburg|2006|p=144–145, 178}} maandiko ya mafumbo; {{sfn|Bolodo-Taefi|2022a|p=258–267}} madai na maelezo yanayodaiwa kuhusu Mungu; matamko yanayohusiana na uumbaji wa roho ya binadamu kuwa asili kuu ya Mungu, {{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=86}} ambayo ina uwezo wa kujua kwamba Muumba yupo na roho ya binadamu ina uwezo wa kuakisi sifa zote za Mungu; madai ya uwepo wa maisha baada ya kifo na maelezo kuhusu jinsi roho zinavyoendelea kwa milele katika malimwengu wa kimungu yasio na kipimo {{sfn|Sergeev|2022|p=270–272, 274–276, 277–279}}{{sfn|Warburg|2006|p=13}}; kuinua kazi inachofanywa kwa roho ya huduma hadi hadhi ya ibada; maelezo juu ya utawala wa haki na kujenga umoja na utaratibu wa dunia; ufafanuzi juu ya maarifa, falsafa, alkemia, tiba na maisha yenye afya; kanuni za kiroho zilizounganishwa katika mafundisho ya kijamii; wito wa elimu ya wote; na kuishi kwa wema na kulingana na mapenzi ya Mungu. Bahá'u'lláh pia huchunguza teolojia na sababu za magumu katika maisha haya {{sfn|Saiedi|2000|p=98}}; na ameandika maombi na maandiko mengi kwa ajili ya tafakari. {{sfn|Smith|2000|p=79–80}}{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=40}} === Barua kwa Viongozi wa Dunia === Bahá'u'lláh aliandika mfululizo wa barua akiwalenga wafalme, viongozi wa kisiasa, na viongozi wa kidini, mmoja mmoja na kwa pamoja, akidai kwamba alikuwa mtu aliyeahidiwa katika Taurati, Injili, na Kurani. Aliwaomba wakubali ufunuo wake, waachane na mali zao za kidunia, watawale kwa haki, walinde haki za watu wasiokuwa na uwezo, wapunguze silaha zao, watatue tofauti zao, na kufanya juhudi kwa pamoja kwa ajili ya ustawi wa dunia na umoja wa watu wake. Aliwaonya kwamba dunia ya wakati huo ilikuwa karibu kufikia mwisho wake na ustaarabu wa kimataifa ulikuwa unazaliwa. Bahá'u'lláh alieleza zaidi kwamba nguvu kali za kihistoria ziko kazini na viongozi wanapaswa kutumia mamlaka waliyopewa na Mungu ili kuhudumia binadamu na kuleta haki, amani, na umoja.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=25–26}} {{sfn|Effendi|1944|p=158–159}} Ujumbe wa kwanza ulikuwa umeandikwa kwa Sultan Abdul-Aziz wa Ufalme wa Ottoman huko Konstantinopoli baada ya Bahá'u'lláh kuamriwa kuhamishwa hadi Adrianopoli mwaka 1863; ujumbe mwingine uliandikwa huko Adrianopoli na 'Akká{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=28–29}}. Jumla, ziliwaelekezwa kwa: Tsar Alexander wa pili wa Urusi; Francis Joseph wa Kwanza wa Austria-Hungary; Napoleon III wa Ufaransa; Naser al-Din Shah wa Uajemi; Pope Pius IX; na Malkia Victoria wa Uingereza na Ireland; Sultan Abdul-Aziz wa Kituruki; Wilhelm wa Kwanza wa Prussia; watawala na marais wa jamhuri za Marekani; wawakilishi waliochaguliwa wa watu katika kila nchi; na viongozi wa dini{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=384–385}}. Ingawa walioandikiwa waliripotiwa hawakujibu kwa kiasi kikubwa, baadaye barua za Bahá'u'lláh zilivutia sana kwa "utimilifu usio wa kawaida wa unabii wake binafsi," zikimwonya Napoleon, Papa, na Kaiser (na hatimaye watu wengine maarufu pia) kuhusu matokeo ya kutotii au kufanya makosa. Wilhelm, Tsar, Emperor Francis Joseph, Shah, Sultan, na mawaziri wao wakuu na mawaziri wa kigeni waliopoteza mamlaka, maeneo, au kukutana na adhabu zingine za kimungu kwa kutotii ushauri{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=28–31}}{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1984|p=45–46}}. Mwandishi maarufu Christopher de Bologne aliandika<blockquote>Baha'u'llah hakufanikiwa kuwavuta viongozi wa enzi zile kuelekea upande wake, ambao aliwaandikia barua, au 'nyaraka', na kuwataka wakabidhi falme zao mbele yake. Malkia Victoria alijibu kwa kujikwamua; Tsar aliahidi kuchunguza zaidi. Napoleon wa Tatu alichana barua hiyo na kusema kwamba ikiwa Baha'u'llah ni Mungu, basi yeye pia ni Mungu. Nasir al-Din Shah alimwua mjumbe wa Baha'u'llah.</blockquote> === Uhifadhi na Tafsiri === Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Kibaha'i kinafanya juhudi endelevu kuhakikisha kuwa maandiko asili ya Baha'u'llah yanakusanywa, yanathibitishwa, yanasajiliwa na yanahifadhiwa.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=100–101, 307}}{{sfn|Universal House of Justice|1993}} Kupitia mpango wa kimataifa wa tafsiri unaoendelea, maandiko ya Baha'u'llah yanapatikana katika lugha zaidi ya 800 kwa sasa.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=56}} == Maelezo == <references/> ==Marejeleo== === Maudhui ya Kibaha'i === {{refbegin|25em|indent=yes}} *{{cite web|url=https://www.bahaullah.org/relics/photograph-of-bahaullah|title=Picha ya Bahá'u'lláh|author=Jumuiya ya Kimataifa ya Baha'i|date=2019|website=Maisha ya Baháʼu'lláh – Simulizi la Picha|access-date=2022-12-23}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/bahaullah/gleanings-writings-bahaullah/|title=Gleanings from the Writings of Baháʼu'lláh|author=Baháʼu'lláh|date=1976|publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust|isbn=0-87743-187-6|location=Wilmette, IL|url=https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/shoghi-effendi/god-passes-by/|title=God Passes By|last=Effendi|first=Shoghi|date=1944|publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust|isbn=0-87743-020-9|location=Wilmette, IL|url=http://www.peyman.info/cl/Baha'i/Others/ROB/V1/Cover.html|title=The Revelation of Baháʼu'lláh, v. 1: Baghdad 1853–63|last=Taherzadeh|first=Adib|date=1976|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-270-8|location=Oxford, UK|url=https://d9263461.github.io/cl/Baha'i/Others/ROB/V2/Cover.html|title=The Revelation of Baháʼu'lláh, v. 2: Adrianople 1863–68|last=Taherzadeh|first=Adib|date=1977|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-071-3|location=Oxford, UK|url=https://d9263461.github.io/cl/Baha'i/Others/ROB/V3/Cover.html|title=The Revelation of Baháʼu'lláh, v. 3: 'Akká, Miaka ya Awali 1868–77|last=Taherzadeh|first=Adib|date=1984|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-144-2|place=Oxford, UK|url=http://www.peyman.info/cl/Baha'i/Others/ROB/V4/Cover.html|title=The Revelation of Baháʼu'lláh, v. 4: Mazra'ih na Bahji 1877–92|last=Taherzadeh|first=Adib|date=1987|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-270-8|place=Oxford, UK|title=Agano la Baháʼu'lláh|url=https://archive.org/details/covenantofbahaul0000tahe|last=Taherzadeh|first=Adib|date=1992|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-344-5|location=Oxford, UK|title=Mwana wa Agano|last=Taherzadeh|first=Adib|date=2000|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-439-5|location=Oxford, UK|url=http://bahai-library.com/uhj_photographs_bahaullah_miller|title=Picha za Baháʼu'lláh; William Miller|author=Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu|date=1980|access-date=2022-12-23}} *{{cite journal|author=Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu|date=1993|title=Maktaba za Baháʼí: Kuhifadhi na Kulinda Maandishi Matakatifu|url=https://bahai-library.com/uhj_bahai_archives_texts|journal=Andalib|volume=12|access-date=2022-12-23}} *{{cite web|url=http://bahai-library.com/uhj_website_photo_bahaullah|title=Picha ya Baha'u'llah kwenye Tovuti|author=Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu|date=1999|access-date=2022-12-23}} *{{cite journal|author=Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu|date=2013|title=Nambari na Aina za Maandishi na Maandishi Matakatifu|url=http://bahai-library.com/uhj_numbers_sacred_writings|journal=Lights of Irfan|location=Wilmette, IL|publisher=Irfan Colloquia|volume=10|access-date=2022-12-23}} {{refend}} === Kamusi elezo === {{refbegin|25em|indent=yes}} *{{cite encyclopedia|last=Bausani|first=A.|date=2011|title=AQDAS|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|article=|volume=II, Fasc. 2|pages=191–192|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aqdas-more-fullv-al-ketah-al-aqdas-pers}} *{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Bausani|first1=A.|last2=MacEoin|first2=D.|date=2011|title=ʿAbd-Al-Bahāʾ|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|article=|volume=I, Fasc. 1|pages=102–104|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abd-al-baha}} *{{cite encyclopedia|date=13 Desemba 2022|title=Bahāʾī Faith|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bahai-Faith|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=2022-01-01|ref={{sfnref|Britannica|2022b}}}} *{{cite book|title=Lights of Guidance: A Baháʼí Reference File|url=https://archive.org/details/lightsofguidance0000unse|date=1988|publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust|isbn=81-85091-46-3|editor-last=Hornby|editor-first=Helen|edition=Toleo la pili lililorekebishwa na kuongezwa|location=New Delhi}} *{{cite encyclopedia|last=Smith|first=Peter|date=2000|title=A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith|publisher=Oneworld Publications|location=Oxford, Uingereza|isbn=1-85168-184-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yhy9DwAAQBAJ}} *{{Encyclopedia|year=1988|title=BAHĀʾ-ALLĀH|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/baha-allah|last=Cole|first=Juan|volume=III, Fasc. 4|pages=422–429}} {{refend}} === Vyanzo Vingine === {{refbegin|25em|indent=yes}} *{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of the Baháʼí Faith|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000unse_e6n7|last=Adamson|first=Hugh|date=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-3353-1|location=Oxford, UK}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Alkan|first=Necati|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=72–87|chapter=Ch. 6: ‘Abdu’l-Bahá ‘Abbás}} *{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ykelPf5GY0C|title=Jewish Identities in Iran: Resistance and Conversion to Islam and the Baha'i Faith|last=Amanat|first=Mehrdad|date=2011|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1845118914}} *{{cite book|title=Baháʼu'lláh: King of Glory|last=Balyuzi|first=Hassan|date=2000|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-328-3|location=Oxford, UK|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/bahai/history/bahaullah_1.shtml|title=Religions – Baháʼí: Baháʼu'lláh|author=BBC|date=28 September 2009|publisher=[[BBC News]]|access-date=2022-12-23}} *{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/bahai/history/bab_1.shtml|title=Religions – Baháʼí: The Báb|author=BBC|date=28 September 2009b|publisher=[[BBC News]]|access-date=2022-12-23}} *{{cite book|title=The Islamic Enlightenment: The Modern Struggle Between Faith and Reason|url=https://archive.org/details/islamicenlighten0000chri|last=de Bellaigue|first=Christopher|date=2018|publisher=Vintage|isbn=978-0-099-57870-3|location=London}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Bolodo-Taefi|first=Vargha|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=175–187|chapter=Ch. 14: God, Revelation, and Manifestation}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Bolodo-Taefi|first=Vargha|date=2022a|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=258–268|chapter=Ch. 22: Mysticism}} *{{cite book|title=Studies in Modern Religions, Religious Movements and the Bābī-Bahā'ī Faiths|last=Buck|first=Christopher|date=2004|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-13904-4|editor=Sharon, Moshe|location=Boston|pages=143–178|chapter=The eschatology of Globalization: The multiple-messiahship of Bahā'u'llāh revisited|chapter-url=http://bahai-library.com/buck_eschatology_globalization}} *{{cite 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Trees|url=https://archive.org/details/leavesoftwindivi0000rouh|last=Ma'ani|first=Baharieh Rouhani|date=2008|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=978-0-85398-533-4|location=Oxford, UK}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Kluge|first=Ian|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=230–239|chapter=Ch. 19: The Physical and Spiritual Dimensions of Human Nature}} *{{cite book|title=The Messiah of Shiraz: Studies in Early and Middle Babism|last=MacEoin|first=Denis|date=2009|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-17035-3|doi=10.1163/ej.9789004170353.i-740|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Mahmoudi|first=Hoda|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=384–393|chapter=Ch. 32: Peace}} *{{cite journal|last=Maneck|first=Susan|date=1990|title=Conversion of Religious Minorities to the Baha'i Faith in Iran: Some Preliminary Observations|url=http://bahai-library.com/maneck_conversion_minorities_iran|journal=Journal of Bahá'í Studies|volume=3|issue=3|access-date=2012-03-28}} *{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xbzoJ5wFG4C|title=Studies in Bábí and Bahá'í history|last=Maneck|first=Susan|date=1984|publisher=Kalimat Press|isbn=978-0933770409|editor-last=Cole|editor-first=Juan Ricardo|edition=illustrated|volume=2 of Studies in Babi and Baha'i History: From Iran East and West|pages=67–93|chapter=Early Zoroastrian Conversions to the Bahá'í Faith in Yazd, Iran|editor2-last=Momen|editor2-first=Moojan|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xbzoJ5wFG4C}} *{{cite book|title=The Challenge of Baháʼu'lláh: Does God Still Speak to Humanity Today?|url=https://archive.org/details/challengeofbahau0000matt|last=Matthews|first=Gary|date=2005|publisher=Baháʼí Publishing|isbn=1-931847-16-9|location=Wilmette, IL}} *{{cite book|url=https://bahai-library.com/momen_babi_bahai_religions|title=The Bábí and Baháʼí Religions, 1844–1944: Some Contemporary Western Accounts|date=1981|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-102-7|editor-last=Momen|editor-first=Moojan|location=Oxford, UK}} *{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5cQH17-HnMC|title=Holy People of the World: A Cross-cultural Encyclopedia, volume 3|last=Momen|first=Moojan|date=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=1-57607-355-6|editor-last=Jestice|editor-first=Phyllis G.|location=Santa Barbara, CA|chapter=Baha'i Faith and Holy People|url=https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/central-figures-of-the-bahai-faith|title=Central Figures of the Bahaʼi Faith|last=Momen|first=Moojan|date=23 September 2019a|website=British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023090707/https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/central-figures-of-the-bahai-faith|archive-date=23 October 2020|url-status=live}} *{{cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/bahai-sacred-texts|title=Bahaʼi Sacred Texts|last=Momen|first=Moojan|date=23 September 2019b|website=British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223140807/https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/bahai-sacred-texts|archive-date=23 December 2019|url-status=live}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Momen|first=Moojan|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=40–50|chapter=Ch. 4: Baháʼuʼlláh|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Mount|first=Guy Emerson|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=240–246|chapter=Ch. 20: Unity in Diversity}} *{{cite book|title=Four on an Island|url=https://archive.org/details/fouronisland0000nakh|last=Nakhjavani|first=Bahiyyih|date=1983|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-174-4|location=Oxford, UK}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Pearson|first=Anne M.|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=247–257|chapter=Ch. 21: The Equality of the Sexes}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Phelps|first=Steven|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=51–71|chapter=Ch. 5: The Writings of Baháʼuʼlláh}} *{{cite book|title=Gate of the Heart: Understanding the Writings of the Báb|last=Saiedi|first=Nader|date=2008|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press|isbn=978-1-55458-035-4|place=Waterloo, ON}} *{{cite book|title=Logos and Civilization: Spirit, History and Order in the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh|last=Saiedi|first=Nader|date=2000|publisher=University Press of Maryland|isbn=1-88305-363-3|place=Bethesda, MD}} *{{cite book|url=http://bahai-library.com/salmani_memories_bahaullah|title=My Memories of Baháʼu'lláh|last=Salmání|first=Ustád Muhammad-ʻAlíy-i|date=1982|publisher=Kalimát Press|location=Los Angeles, CA}} *{{cite book|url=https://openlibrary.org/b/OL11609763M/Making_the_Crooked_Straight|title=Making the Crooked Straight: A Contribution to Baháʼí Apologetics|last1=Schaefer|first1=U.|last2=Towfigh|first2=N.|last3=Gollmer|first3=U.|date=2000|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-443-3|location=Oxford, UK}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Sergeev|first=Mikhail|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=269–281|chapter=Ch. 23: Progress of the Soul: Life After Death}} *{{cite web|url=http://www.hum.huji.ac.il/english/units.php?cat=3666&incat=3479|title=Jewish Conversion to the Baha?i faith|last=Sharon|first=Moshe|date=2011-01-13|work=Chair in Baha'i Studies Publications|publisher=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020213127/http://www.hum.huji.ac.il/english/units.php?cat=3666&incat=3479|archive-date=2013-10-20|access-date=2012-03-28|url-status=dead}} *{{cite book|title=The Bábí & Baháʼí Religions: From Messianic Shí'ism to a World Religion|last=Smith|first=Peter|date=1987|publisher=The University Press|isbn=0-521-30128-9|location=Cambridge|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Smith|first=Peter|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=501–512|chapter=Ch. 41: The History of the Bábí and Bahá’í Faiths|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7zdDFTzNr0C|title=An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith|last=Smith|first=Peter|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-68107-0|location=New York|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Smith|first=Todd|date=2022a|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=134–144|chapter=Ch. 11: The Universal House of Justice}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last1=Smith|first1=Todd|last2=Ghaemmaghami|first2=Omid|date=2022b|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=450–462|chapter=Ch. 37: Consultation}} *{{cite book|title=Understanding Christian Beliefs|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingchr0000sour|last=Sours|first=Michael|date=1991|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=1-85168-032-2|location=Oxford, UK}} *{{cite book|title=Baháʼí Faith: A Guide For The Perplexed|last=Stockman|first=Robert|date=2013|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-4411-8781-9|location=New York|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=Stockman|first=Robert|date=2022a|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=219–229|chapter=Ch. 18: Oneness and Unity|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1220|title=Baháʼí Holy Places in Haifa and the Western Galilee|author=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|date=8 July 2008|access-date=9 December 2021}} *{{cite book|title=Citizens of the World: A History and Sociology of the Baha'is from a Globalisation Perspective|last=Warburg|first=Margit|date=2006|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-14373-9|location=Leiden, The Netherlands|oclc=234309958|url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722#|title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|last=White|first=Christopher|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=282–288|chapter=Ch. 24: Bahá’í Spirituality and Spiritual Practices}} {{refend}} [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1892]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1817]] [[Jamii:Baha'i]] [[Jamii:watu wa Uajemi]] myak1k510nq9chp8ecq2p8khvi0y8p3 0 155992 1580197 1433330 2026-07-18T01:13:09Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 12 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580197 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Thomas Cranmer by Gerlach Flicke.jpg|thumb|Thomas Cranmer]] '''Thomas Cranmer''' (2 Julai [[1489]] – 21 Machi [[1556]]) alikuwa [[Askofu Mkuu wa Canterbury]] na [[kiongozi]] wa [[Matengenezo ya Kiprotestanti|Matengenezo]] ya [[Kanisa]] la [[Uingereza]] enzi za [[Mfalme|wafalme]] [[Henry VIII]], [[Edward VI wa Uingereza|Edward VI]] na [[malkia]] [[Mary I wa Uingereza|Mary I]]. Alisaidia kujenga kesi ya kubatilishwa kwa [[Ndoa (sakramenti)|ndoa]] ya Henry VIII na [[Katarina wa Aragon]]. [[Talaka]] hiyo ilikuwa mojawapo ya sababu za kutengana kwa [[Jumuiya Anglikana|Kanisa la Uingereza]] na [[Kanisa Katoliki]] chini ya [[Papa]] wa [[Roma]]. Pamoja na [[Thomas Cromwell]] aliunga mkono kanuni ya ukuu wa kifalme. Hapo alikubali [[mamlaka]] ya mfalme juu ya [[Kanisa]] ndani ya [[Dola|milki]] yake. Aliuawa chini ya malkia Mary alipokataa kurudi katika Ukatoliki. == Mtengenezaji wa Kanisa la Uingereza == Wakati wa [[uongozi]] wake kama Askofu Mkuu wa Canterbury Cranmer alianzisha mabadiliko katika mafundisho na [[liturgia]] ya Kanisa la Uingereza. Wakati wa utawala wa mfalme Henry VIII, Cranmer hakufanya mabadiliko mengi. Alitunga utaratibu wa [[ibada]] ya kwanza uliotafsiriwa kwa [[lugha]] ya [[Kiingereza]] badala ya [[Kilatini]]. Chini ya mfalme Edward VI, aliyemfuata Henry VIII, Cranmer aliweza kuleta mabadiliko mengi zaidi. Alitunga matoleo mawili ya kwanza ya Kitabu cha Sala kwa Watu ([[Book of Common Prayer]]) chenye liturgia kamili kwa ajili ya Kanisa la Uingereza. Alipokea wanamatengenezo kadhaa kutoka [[Ulaya Bara]] waliofika kama [[Mkimbizi|wakimbizi]] kutoka maeneo chini ya [[serikali]] za Kikatoliki. Walimsaidia kubadilisha mafundisho kuhusu mambo kama vile [[ekaristi]], [[useja]] wa [[kasisi|makasisi]], nafasi ya [[sanamu]] makanisani na [[heshima]] kwa [[watakatifu]]. Cranmer alieneza mafundisho mapya, pamoja na Kitabu cha sala, kwa vitabu viwili vya mahubiri ([[hotuba]]) yaliyotakiwa kusomwa na mapadre katika ibada makanisani. == Kifo chini ya Malkia Mary == Baada ya Edward VI, malkia Mary I alichukua [[madaraka]]; alikuwa Mkatoliki akalenga kurudisha nchi chini ya Kanisa Katoliki. Aliagiza kumkamata Cranmer na kumshtaki kwa [[uhaini]] na [[uzushi]]. Alipelekwa mbele ya [[mahakama]] ya mahakimu Wakatoliki pamoja na wasaidizi wawili. Wote walihukumiwa [[adhabu ya kifo]] cha kuchomwa hai [[moto|motoni]] ambayo ilikuwa adhabu ya wazushi. Katika miaka miwili alipokaa [[gereza|gerezani]], Cranmer alipaswa kushuhudia kuchomwa kwa wenzake. Baadaye alijaribu kuokoa [[uhai]] wake kwa kukana mafundisho yake ya awali. Kwa kawaida angesamehewa baada ya kukana, lakini malkia Mary I hakutaka kumsamehe bali auawe. [[Siku]] ya [[hukumu]] yake aliambiwa kusoma tena ukanisho wake kanisani mbele ya watu kabla ya kufa. Cranmer alitumia nafasi hiyo kuonyesha masikitiko juu ya udhaifu wake akamtaja Papa kama mwongo na [[adui]] wa [[Yesu|Kristo]]. Hivyo alichomwa akafa kama mzushi kwa Wakatoliki na [[mfiadini|mfia imani]] kwa Kanisa [[Waanglikana|Anglikana]] lililoendelea baadaye kwenye misingi aliyowahi kuweka. [[Urithi]] wake unaendelea katika Kitabu cha Sala kwa Watu Wote na [[Hoja Thelathini na Tisa]] ambayo ni [[Kanuni ya Imani|ungamo la imani]] ya Kianglikana linalotokana na kazi yake. == Marejeo == {{Marejeo}} == Vyanzo == * {{cite journal|last1=Avis|first1=Paul|year=2005|title=The Revision of the Ordinal in the Church of England 1550–2005|journal=Ecclesiology|volume=1|issue=2|pages=95–110|doi=10.1177/1744136605051929|issn=1744-1366}}* {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerchu0000unse|last=Ayris|first=Paul|date=1993a|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]]|isbn=0-85115-549-9|editor-last=Ayris|editor-first=Paul|place=Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK|contribution=God's Vicegerent and Christ's Vicar: the Relationship between the Crown and the Archbishopric of Canterbury, 1533–53|editor2-last=Selwyn|editor2-first=David}} * {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerchu0000unse|last=Ayris|first=Paul|date=1993b|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]]|isbn=0-85115-549-9|editor-last=Ayris|editor-first=Paul|place=Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK|contribution=Canon Law Studies|editor2-last=Selwyn|editor2-first=David}} * {{cite journal|last1=Ayris|first1=Paul|year=2001|title=The Correspondence of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, and his English Audience 1533-54|journal=Reformation & Renaissance Review|volume=3|issue=1|pages=9–33|doi=10.1558/rrr.v0i3.9|issn=1462-2459|s2cid=170741842}}* {{cite journal|last1=Ayris|first1=Paul|year=2002|title=The Public Career of Thomas Cranmer|journal=Reformation & Renaissance Review|volume=4|issue=1|pages=75–125|doi=10.1558/rrr.v0i4.75|issn=1462-2459|s2cid=145396417}}* {{cite book|title=The Cambridge Companion to Reformation Theology|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_o2y9|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2004|isbn=0-521-77662-7|editor-last=Bagchi|editor-first=David V. N.|place=Cambridge|editor2-last=Steinmetz|editor2-first=David Curtis}} * {{cite book|title=The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church|url=https://archive.org/details/kingsreformation00bern|last=Bernard|first=G. W.|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=2005|isbn=0-300-12271-3|place=London}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ahistorynotting00browgoog|title=A History of Nottinghamshire|last=Brown|first=Cornelius|publisher=E. Stock|year=1891|chapter=Ch VIII|author-link=Cornelius Brown}} * {{cite journal|last=Coleman-Norton|first=P. R.|year=1929|title=The Correspondence of S. John Chrysostom (With Special Reference to His Epistles to Pope S. Innocent I)|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_classical-philology_1929-07_24_3/page/279|journal=Classical Philology|volume=24|page=279|doi=10.1086/361140|number=3|s2cid=162281389}}* {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerchu0000unse|last=Dowling|first=Maria|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]]|year=1993|isbn=0-85115-549-9|editor-last=Ayris|editor-first=Paul|place=Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK|contribution=Cranmer as Humanist Reformer|author-link=Maria Dowling|editor2-last=Selwyn|editor2-first=David}} * {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerchu0000unse|last=Hall|first=Basil|date=1993a|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]]|isbn=0-85115-549-9|editor-last=Ayris|editor-first=Paul|place=Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK|contribution=Cranmer's Relations with Erasmianism and Lutheranism|editor2-last=Selwyn|editor2-first=David}} * {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerchu0000unse|last=Hall|first=Basil|date=1993b|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]]|isbn=0-85115-549-9|editor-last=Ayris|editor-first=Paul|place=Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK|contribution=Cranmer, the Eucharist, and the Foreign Divines in the Reign of Edward VI|editor2-last=Selwyn|editor2-first=David}} * {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerchu0000unse|last=Heinze|first=Rudolph W.|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]]|year=1993|isbn=0-85115-549-9|editor-last=Ayris|editor-first=Paul|place=Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK|contribution='I pray God to grant that I may endure to the end': A New Look at the Martyrdom of Thomas Cranmer|editor2-last=Selwyn|editor2-first=David}} * {{cite journal|last=Hirst|first=Rev E, (Vicar of St. Paul’s Stockport)|date=1934|title=Archbishop Cranmer|url=http://archive.churchsociety.org/churchman/documents/cman_048_2_hirst.pdf|journal=Churchman Journal|volume=48|issue=2|page=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107054309/http://archive.churchsociety.org/churchman/documents/cman_048_2_hirst.pdf|archive-date=7 November 2018|access-date=7 November 2018|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/acompletecollec14jardgoog|title=A Complete Collection of State Trials and Proceedings for High Treason and Other Crimes and Misdemeanors from the Earliest Period to the Year 1783|publisher=T. C. Hansard|year=1816|editor-last=Howell|editor-first=Thomas Bayly|place=London|oclc=3815652}} * {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerchu0000unse|last=Loades|first=David|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]]|year=1993|isbn=0-85115-549-9|editor-last=Ayris|editor-first=Paul|place=Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK|contribution=Thomas Cranmer and John Dudley: An Uneasy Alliance, 1549–1553|editor2-last=Selwyn|editor2-first=David}} * {{cite book|title=Intrigue and Treason: The Tudor Court, 1547–1558|url=https://archive.org/details/intriguetreasont0000load|last=Loades|first=David M.|publisher=Pearson Longman|year=2004|isbn=0-582-77226-5|place=Harlow, England}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerlif0000macc|title=Thomas Cranmer: A Life|last=MacCulloch|first=Diarmaid|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|year=1996|isbn=0-300-06688-0|place=London|author-link=Diarmaid MacCulloch|url-access=registration}} *{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N3TADAAAQBAJ|title=All Things Made New: The Reformation and Its Legacy|last=MacCulloch|first=Diarmaid|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0-19-061682-3|authorlink=Diarmaid MacCulloch}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M7S_DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA397|title=Heretics and Believers: A History of the English Reformation|last=Marshall|first=Peter|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-0-300-17062-7}} * {{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Matthew|editor-first=H. C. G.|editor2-last=Harrison|editor2-first=Brian Howard|title=Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|date=2004|place=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|oclc=56568095}} * {{cite book|title=Interfaces in Language|last=Mills|first=Jon|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4438-2433-0|editor-last=Partridge|editor-first=John|chapter=Genocide and Ethnocide: The Suppression of the Cornish Language|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xF4nBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189}} * {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer's Doctrine of Repentance: Renewing the Power to Love|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmersdo0000null|last=Null|first=Ashley|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2006|isbn=0-19-827021-6|place=Oxford}} * {{cite book|title=Italian reform and English Reformations, c.1535-c.1585|url=https://archive.org/details/italianreformeng0000over|last=Overell|first=Anne|publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7546-5579-4|place=Farnham, Surrey, UK}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/anapologyfordoc00socigoog|title=An Apology for the Doctrine of Apostolical Succession: With an Appendix, on the English Orders.|last=Perceval|first=Arthur Philip|date=1841|publisher=Rivington|edition=second|location=London|author-link=Arthur Philip Perceval}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmer0000ridl|title=Thomas Cranmer|last=Ridley|first=Jasper|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|year=1962|place=Oxford|oclc=398369|author-link=Jasper Ridley|url-access=registration}} * {{cite book|title=The Establishment of Modern English Prose in the Reformation and the Enlightenment|url=https://archive.org/details/establishmentofm0000robi|last=Robinson|first=Ian|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1998|isbn=0-521-48088-4|place=Cambridge}} * {{cite book|title=The Rise & Fall of Thomas Cromwell|url=https://archive.org/details/risefallofthomas0000scho|last=Schofield|first=John|publisher=The History Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-7524-4604-2|place=Stroud, England}} * {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerchu0000unse|last=Selwyn|first=D. G.|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]]|year=1993|isbn=0-85115-549-9|editor-last=Ayris|editor-first=Paul|place=Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK|contribution=Cranmer's Library|editor2-last=Selwyn|editor2-first=David}} * {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerchu0000unse|last=Spinks|first=Bryan D.|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]]|year=1993|isbn=0-85115-549-9|editor-last=Ayris|editor-first=Paul|place=Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK|chapter=Treasures Old and New: A Look at Some of Thomas Cranmer's Methods of Liturgical Compilation|editor2-last=Selwyn|editor2-first=David}} * {{cite book|title=Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar|url=https://archive.org/details/thomascranmerchu0000unse|last=Stevenson|first=Kenneth W.|publisher=[[Boydell & Brewer|The Boydell Press]]|year=1993|isbn=0-85115-549-9|editor-last=Ayris|editor-first=Paul|place=Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK|contribution=Cranmer's Marriage Vow: Its Place in the Tradition|editor2-last=Selwyn|editor2-first=David}} * {{cite book|title=Historical and Biographical Works: Memorials of Thomas Cranmer|last=Strype|first=John|date=1840|chapter=Chapter 28|orig-year=1544|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJVIAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA181}} {{BD|1489|1556}} [[Jamii:Maaskofu]] [[Jamii:Wafiadini]] [[Jamii:Waanglikana]] fo2xjvi049tktlu043c4ihr9mfzrqc9 0 158028 1580281 1529629 2026-07-18T04:05:57Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580281 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Yannick Zachee''' (alizaliwa 29 Oktoba 1986 huko Meulan, Ufaransa) Ni mchezaji wa mpira wa kikapu wa Afrika ya Kati ambaye ni mwanachama wa timu ya taifa ya [[mpira wa kikapu]] ya Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://libya2009.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/09/fafcm/player/p/pid/76268/sid/6599/tid/259/profile.html |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2022-09-03 |archivedate=2017-01-31 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131195305/http://libya2009.fiba.com/pages/eng/fe/09/fafcm/player/p/pid/76268/sid/6599/tid/259/profile.html }}</ref>Alizaliwa [[Ufaransa]], anaiwakilisha Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati kimataifa. Zachee hapo zamani alichezea timu ya Fos Ouest Provence Basket ambayo inashiriki Ligi ya Mpira wa Kikapu Nchini Ufaransa.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.africabasket.com/Central-Africa/basketball-National-Team.asp |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2022-09-03 |archivedate=2013-03-13 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313185732/http://www.africabasket.com/Central-Africa/basketball-National-Team.asp }}</ref>Hapo awali, Zachee alikuwa amechezea timu ya Chorale Roanne Basket pamoja na timu ya JA Vichy of Ligue Nationale de Basketball.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Kiến Thức Bóng Rổ, Cá Độ Bóng Rổ Thabet -|url=https://basketpedya.com/|accessdate=2022-09-03|language=vi|archive-date=2013-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112193042/http://www.basketpedya.com/Acc002InfJug.php?idjug=62727|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Jeanne d'Arc de Vichy Val d'Allier Auvergne Basket|date=2022-07-09|url=https://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jeanne_d%27Arc_de_Vichy_Val_d%27Allier_Auvergne_Basket&oldid=195185018|work=Wikipédia|language=fr|access-date=2022-09-03}}</ref> Zachee alikuwa mshiriki wa timu ya taifa ya mpira wa kikapu ya [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] iliyomaliza nafasi ya sita kwenye Mashindano ya FIBA Afrika ya mwaka 2009. == Marejeo == [[Jamii:Mpira wa kikapu]] [[Jamii:Afrika ya Kati]] 7lji5ir9qmm4bitc64f8pro7eujx61m 0 158925 1580094 1518791 2026-07-18T00:02:59Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580094 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mafunzo ya vijana''' ni mafunzo ya kitaaluma yanayohusika na utafiti katika maendeleo,historia,[[tamaduni]],na [[siasa]] ya vijana. Mafunzo haya sio tu yapo katika tamaduni za vijana lakini pia mahusiano,kazi na majukumu ya vijana hao ambayo inachukua nafasi kubwa katika jamii.Mafunzo ya vijana yanaimarisha uelewa na uzoefu ambao unatumika kwa kiwango kikubwa na vijana,ambayo kwa ujumla ni kama ishara ya mabadiliko ya kijamii.Mafunzo haya yanahusisha wasomi wa elimu,lugha,historia,dini,sayansi ya jamii,na mambo mengine ya nidhamu katika ubinadamu na sayansi ya jamii.[<ref>{{cite book|title=Youth Studies: An Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/youthstudiesintr0000furl|last=Furlong|first=Andy|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=978-0-415-56479-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/youthstudiesintr0000furl/page/4 4]}}</ref>Watu wengi waliokuwa kwenye miaka kati ya 15-24 mnamo mwaka [[2008]] waliishi katika nchi zilizoendelea.[<ref name="Furlong">{{cite book|title=Youth Studies: An Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/youthstudiesintr0000furl|last1=Furlong|first1=Andy|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-0-415-56479-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/youthstudiesintr0000furl/page/227 227]}}</ref>]Ufafanuzi wa vijana umetofautina katika mazingira ya kiutamaduni.[<ref name="Furlong3">{{cite book|title=Youth Studies: An Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/youthstudiesintr0000furl|last1=Furlong|first1=Andy|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-0-415-56479-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/youthstudiesintr0000furl/page/227 227]}}</ref>]Uzoefu wa kijamii na mpangilio wa muda na nafasi ni mambo ya muhimu katika mafunzo ya vijana.Wasomi wanaonyesha ni jinsi gani utandawazi na mfumo wa leo wa maisha umeathiri mfumo wa maisha wa vijana ukitofautisha na vizazi vilivyopita.[<ref>{{Rejea jarida|last=Vandegrift|first=Darcie|date=2015|title='We don't have any limits': Russian young adult life narratives through a social generations lens|journal=Journal of Youth Studies}}</ref>][<ref>{{cite book|title=Youth and Generation: Rethinking Change and Inequality in the Lives of Young People|url=https://archive.org/details/youthgenerationr0000wood|last=Woodman|first=Dan|last2=Wyn|first2=Johanna|publisher=SAGE publication|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4462-5905-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/youthgenerationr0000wood/page/124 124]}}</ref>] == Marejeo == [[Jamii:Ujana]] [[Jamii:WikiVibrance International Youth Day 2022 Arusha]] <references /> pew291pq7bc601adwutxo82lyw2gxfj 0 161766 1580285 1426644 2026-07-18T06:44:15Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580285 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Filamu 2|mtayarishaji=Suzanne Buirgy<br />Peilin Chou|muziki=|nchi={{plainlist| * United States * China }}|lugha=English}} '''''Abominable''''' ni [[filamu]] ya matukio ya uhuishaji iliyoachiwa mwaka [[2019]] na kutayarishwa na [[DreamWorks Animation]] na Pearl Studio, iliandikwa na kuongozwa na Jill Culton akiwa na msaidizi wake Todd Wilderman, na waigiza sauti [[Chloe Bennet]], [[Albert Tsai]], Tenzing Norgay Trainor, [[Eddie Izzard]], Sarah Paulson, Tsai Chin, na Michelle Wong. Filamu hiyo inamuelezea msichana anayeitwa Yi, ambaye anakutana na Yeti mdogo juu ya paa la ghorofa lao huko Shanghai, na kumpa jina la Everest na kuanza jitihada kubwa ya kumuunganisha kiumbe huyo wa kichawi na [[familia]] yake katika sehemu ya juu zaidi duniani akiwa na zake marafiki wakorofi Jin na Peng, lakini marafiki hao watatu watalazimika kukaa hatua moja mbele ya Burnish,ambae ni tajiri mwenye nia ya kukamata Yeti, akiwa na mtaalamu wa wanyama Dk. Zara. Filamu hii ilionyeshwa kwa mara ya kwanza katika Tamasha la Kimataifa la [[Filamu]] la [[Toronto]] mnamo 7 Septemba [[2019]], na iliachiliwa na [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures]] nchini [[Marekani]] mnamo 27 Septemba <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.awn.com/news/universal-delays-dreamworks-animation-s-how-train-your-dragon-3-sets-everest-feature| title = Universal Delays DreamWorks Animation's 'How to Train Your Dragon 3,' Sets 'Everest' Feature|publisher=Animation World Network| date = Desemba 7, 2016|accessdate=July 23, 2017}}</ref> <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|author=Brendon Connelly|url=https://www.denofgeek.com/movies/whats-going-on-at-dreamworks-animation/| title = What's going on at DreamWorks Animation?| date = 23 Machi 2017|publisher=Den of Geek|accessdate=February 11, 2022}}</ref> <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Abominable|url=https://www.universalpictures.com/movies/abominable|work=Universal Pictures|accessdate=22 February 2019|archive-date=2019-11-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191119221204/https://www.universalpictures.com/movies/abominable|url-status=dead}}</ref> huku Pearl Studio ikisambaza [[filamu]] hiyo nchini [[China]]. <ref name="AbominableAM">{{Rejea habari| title = 'Abominable': All Yeti for the Big Screen|url=https://www.animationmagazine.net/features/abominable-all-yeti-for-the-big-screen/| date = Septemba 8, 2019}}</ref> Filamu hiyo ilipokewa kwa maoni chanya kutoka kwa wachambuaji wa filamu na imeingiza zaidi ya [[Dolar ya Marekani|dola]] za [[Kimarekani]] milioni 188 kote ulimwenguni. Katika [[Asia ya Kusini-Mashariki|Kusini-mashariki mwa Asia]], ''Abominable'' imepata utata kwa tukio linalohusisha [[ramani]] ya eneo hilo na laini ya dashi tisa, njia ya kuweka mipaka inayopingwa inayotumiwa na [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] kudai sehemu ya [[Bahari ya Kusini ya China]]. Kutokana na hili, [[filamu]] hiyo imepigwa marufuku katika nchi kadhaa zinazohusika katika mizozo ya kimaeneo na [[China]] kuhusu Bahari hiyo, yaani, [[Ufilipino]], [[Vietnam]] na [[Malaysia]]. Muendelezo wa [[filamu]] hii, ''Abominable and the Invisible City'', ulitolewa kwenye huduma za utayarishaji wa [[filamu]] Peacock na Hulu mnamo Oktoba 2022. ==  Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-filamu}} [[Jamii:Filamu za Universal Pictures]] [[Jamii:Filamu za DreamWorks Animation]] [[Jamii:Filamu za 2019]] 0avii2hfot9lltyi9099t6teltvcw5e 0 161797 1580212 1260032 2026-07-18T01:21:29Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580212 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Uainishaji | rangi = pink | jina = Kunguni-makasia | picha = Sigara fossarum 01.JPG | upana_wa_picha = 250px | maelezo_ya_picha = ''Sigara fossarum'' | himaya = [[Animalia]] <small>(Wanyama)</small> | faila = [[Arthropoda]] <small>(Wanyama wenye mwili wa pingili na miguu ya kuunga wasio na ugwe wa mgongo kama wadudu, nge, buibui)</small> | nusufaila = [[Hexapoda]] <small>(Arithropodi wenye miguu sita)</small> | ngeli = [[Insecta]] <small>(Wadudu)</small> | ngeli_bila_tabaka = [[Dicondylia]] <small>(Wadudu walio na mandibula zenye [[w:Condyle (anatomy)|condyle]] mbili)</small> | nusungeli = [[Pterygota]] <small>(Wadudu wenye mabawa)</small> | oda_ya_juu = [[Paraneoptera]] | oda = [[Hemiptera]] | bingwa_wa_oda = [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], 1896 | nusuoda = [[Heteroptera]] | oda_ya_chini = [[Nepomorpha]] | familia_ya_juu = [[Corixoidea]] | familia = [[Corixidae]] | bingwa_wa_familia = [[William Elford Leach|Leach]], 1815 | subdivision = '''Nusufamilia 5, jenasi 52, ?? katika Afrika ya Mashariki:''' * [[Corixinae]] <small>[[Günther Enderlein|Enderlein]], 1915</small> * [[Cymatiainae]] <small>[[Herbert Barker Hungerford|Hungerford]], 1948</small> * [[Diaprepocorinae]] <small>[[Carl Olov Lundblad|Lundblad]], 1928</small> * [[Hererocorixinae]] <small>Hungerford, 1948</small> * [[Stenocorixinae]] <small>Hungerford, 1948</small> }} '''Kunguni-makasia''' ni [[wadudu]] wadogo wa [[maji]] wa [[familia (biolojia)|familia]] [[Corixidae]] katika [[oda ya chini]] [[Nepomorpha]] ya [[oda]] [[Hemiptera]] wanaoogelea chini ya uso wa maji kwa msaada wa [[mguu|miguu]] yao ya nyuma inayofanana na [[kasia|makasia]]. Kinyume na [[kunguni-maji]] wengine, walio [[mbuai]], kunguni-makasia hufyonza [[kiowevu]] cha [[mmea|mimea]]. Kuna takriban [[spishi]] 500 zinazotokea [[dunia]]ni kote kwa ujumla katika [[maji matamu]] lakini nyingi kiasi katika [[maji ya chumvi kidogo]] au hata maji ya [[bahari]]<ref name=Schuh1996>{{cite book |author1=Randall T. Schuh |author2=James Alexander Slater | year=1996 | title=True Bugs of the World (Hemiptera:Heteroptera): Classification and Natural History |url=https://archive.org/details/truebugsofworldh0000schu | publisher=Cornell University Press | pages=[https://archive.org/details/truebugsofworldh0000schu/page/119 119]-122 | edition=2 | isbn=978-0801420665 }}</ref>. ==Maelezo== Kunguni-makasia wana urefu wa [[mm]] 4-16. [[Mwili]] wao ni kama duaradufu iliyorefuka na kuwa mwembamba wenye [[mguu|miguu]] mirefu ya nyuma kama [[kasia|makasia]]. Wanafanana na [[mwogeleaji-juuchini|waogeleaji-juuchini]], lakini hawa wa mwisho huogelea juu chini na kuwinda wadudu wengine. Pia hukosa [[mstari|mistari]] myeusi [[sambamba]] kwenye pronoto na mabawa wa mbele ambayo kunguni-makasia wanayo<ref name=pond>https://pondinformer.com/water-boatman-corixidae/</ref>. ==Biolojia== Wadudu hawa huogelea chini ya uso wa maji karibu na [[sakafu]] ambapo hutafuta [[chakula]] kama [[mwani|viani]], [[diatoma]], [[protozoa]], [[nematoda]] na wadudu wadogo. Hawako wa kawaida miongoni mwa [[kunguni-maji]] kwa kuwa baadhi ya spishi si [[mbuai]] bali hula mimea na miani, ambayo huitoboa kwa kinywa chenye umbo la [[mrija]] na kuiingizia [[mate]] ambayo hufanya [[tishu]] zao kuwa [[kiowevu]]<ref name= nathis>https://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/hemipt/Corixid.htm</ref>. Kiowevu hiki kisha hufyonzwa. Hata hivyo, spishi nyingi sana si [[mlamani|walamani]] kabisa na wanaweza hata kuwa mbuai kabisa, kama zile za [[nusufamilia]] [[Cymatiainae]]<ref>Nieser, N. (2002): Guide to aquatic Heteroptera of Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia. IV. Corixoidea. ''The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology'' '''50''': 26-274.</ref>. Kwa hakika, kunguni-makasia wana aina mbalimbali za mitindo ya kujilisha: [[mlanyama|walanyama]], [[mlataka|walataka]], walamani na [[mlavyote|walavyote]]. Miguu mifupi ya mbele hutumika ili kushikilia mimea na chembe za chakula na ile mirefu ya nyuma ili kuogelea. Miguu ya mbele hutumiwa pia kutoa [[sauti]] kwa kusugua vigingi juu yao dhidi ya miinuko juu ya [[kichwa]] ili kuvuta jike. Kunguni-makasia huishi katika maji tamu hadi ya chumvi yenye uoto na dutu nyingi ya kioganiki, kama vile maziwa, mabwawa, mito inayotiririka polepole, vinamasi, nyangwa na ghuba tulivu. Wana mabawa yaliyostawi vizuri na huruka vizuri. Wanavutiwa na mwanga wakiruka. Mwili wao, hasa mabawa ya mbele, umefunikwa kwa [[nywele]] ndogo sana zinazoelekea ndani ambazo waogeleaji-juuchini hutumia kunasa [[povu|mapovu]] ya [[hewa]], ambayo inaongeza muda wanaoweza kutumia chini ya maji. Mdudu anapomaliza chanzo chake cha [[oksijeni]], lazima arudi kwenye uso ili kupata hewa zaidi<ref name=nathis />. Wakati wa kupandana kunguni-makasia huruka kwa makundi ya wadudu hadi elfu kadhaa juu ya maji na kingo zake<ref name=pond />. Baada ya kupandana, majike hurudi majini na kutaga [[yai|mayai]] kwenye mimea. Baada ya [[wiki]] moja au mbili [[tunutu]] huibuka wanaoonekana kama matoleo madogo ya wapevu. Wanapitia hatua 5 kabla ya kukua mabawa na kuwa wapevu. ==Spishi kadhaa za Afrika ya Mashariki== * ''Agraptocorixa dakarica'' * ''Agraptocorixa gestroi'' * ''Sigara chinana'' * ''Sigara hieroglyphica'' * ''Sigara pectoralis'' * ''Sigara sjostedti'' ==Picha== <gallery> CorixaPunctata.JPG|''Corixa punctata'' Hesperocorixa.castanea.-.lindsey.jpg|''Hesperocorixa castanea'' Sigara distincta (Corixidae) - (imago), Arnhem, the Netherlands.jpg|''Sigara distincta'' </gallery> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Wadudu mabawa-nusu]] 0fcgwvmz6uvb23gpok3mwi4nrlamcn6 0 162872 1580023 1517534 2026-07-17T23:10:30Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580023 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Uainishaji | rangi = pink | jina = Kunguni-maji mkubwa | picha = Giant water bug (Belostomatidae), Vohimana reserve, Madagascar (13569458513).jpg | upana_wa_picha = 250px | maelezo_ya_picha = ''Lethocerus oculatus'' nchini Madagaska | himaya = [[Animalia]] <small>(Wanyama)</small> | faila = [[Arthropoda]] <small>(Wanyama wenye mwili wa pingili na miguu ya kuunga wasio na ugwe wa mgongo kama wadudu, nge, buibui)</small> | nusufaila = [[Hexapoda]] <small>(Arithropodi wenye miguu sita)</small> | ngeli = [[Insecta]] <small>(Wadudu)</small> | ngeli_bila_tabaka = [[Dicondylia]] <small>(Wadudu walio na mandibula zenye [[w:Condyle (anatomy)|condyle]] mbili)</small> | nusungeli = [[Pterygota]] <small>(Wadudu wenye mabawa)</small> | oda_ya_juu = [[Paraneoptera]] | oda = [[Hemiptera]] | bingwa_wa_oda = [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], 1896 | nusuoda = [[Heteroptera]] | oda_ya_chini = [[Nepomorpha]] | familia_ya_juu = [[Nepoidea]] | familia = [[Belostomatidae]] | bingwa_wa_familia = [[William Elford Leach|Leach]], 1815 | subdivision = '''Nusufamilia 3; jenasi 11, 5 katika Afrika:''' * [[Belostomatinae]] <small>Leach, 1815</small> ** ''[[Abedus]]'' <small>[[Carl Stål|Stål]], 1862</small> ** ''[[Appasus]]'' <small>[[Charles Jean-Baptiste Amyot|Amyot]] & [[Jean Guillaume Audinet-Serville|Audinet-Serville]], 1843</small> ** ''[[Belostoma]]'' <small>[[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1807</small> ** ''[[Diplonychus]]'' <small>[[François Louis Nompar de Caumont de Laporte|Laporte]], 1832</small> ** ''[[Hydrocyrius]]'' <small>[[Maximilian Spinola|Spinola]], 1850</small> ** ''[[Limnogeton]]'' <small>[[Gustav Leopold Mayr|Mayr]], 1853</small> ** ''[[Weberiella]]'' <small>[[José A. de Carlo|De Carlo]], 1966</small> * [[Horvathiniinae]] <small>[[David R. Lauck|Lauck]] & [[Arnold S. Menke|Menke]], 1961</small> ** ''[[Horvathinia]]'' <small>[[Arnold Lucien Montandon|Montandon]], 1911</small> * [[Lethocerinae]] <small>Lauck & Menke, 1961</small> ** ''[[Benacus]]'' <small>Stål, 1861</small> ** ''[[Kirkaldyia]]'' <small>Montandon, 1899</small> ** ''[[Lethocerus]]'' <small>Mayr, 1853</small> }} '''Kunguni-maji wakubwa''', '''wauma kidole''' au '''mende-maji''' ni [[wadudu]] wadogo hadi wakubwa sana wa [[maji]] wa [[familia (biolojia)|familia]] [[Belostomatidae]] katika [[oda ya chini]] [[Nepomorpha]] ya [[oda]] [[Hemiptera]] ambao madume wa [[spishi]] nyingi (isipokuwa zile za [[Lethocerinae]]) hubeba [[yai|mayai]] [[mgongo]]ni. Spishi za ''[[Lethocerus]]'' zinaweza kufikia zaidi ya [[sm]] 10 na ni miongoni mwa wadudu wakubwa kabisa [[dunia]]ni<ref name=PerezGoodwyn2006>{{cite journal |author=P. J. Perez-Goodwyn |year=2006|title=Taxonomic revision of the subfamily Lethocerinae Lauck & Menke (Heteroptera: Belostomatidae) |journal=Stuttgarter Beiträge zur Naturkunde |series=Serie A (Biologie) |volume=695 |pages=1–71}}</ref>. Wadudu hawa wanatokea maeneo yote yenye maji ya [[tropiki]] na [[nusutropiki]], spishi nyingi sana huko [[Amerika ya Kusini]] na 26 tu hapa [[Afrika]]<ref name=Thorp2015>{{cite book | editor1=J.H. Thorp | editor2=D.C. Rogers |year=2015 | title=Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology | publisher=Elsevier | pages=954–955 | volume=1 | edition=4 | isbn=978-0-12-385026-3 }}</ref>. ==Maelezo== Kunguni-maji wakubwa wana urefu wa [[sm]] 1-12. Mwili wao ni bapa na una umbo la [[duaradufu]]<ref name=Schuh1996>{{cite book |author1=Randall T. Schuh |author2=James Alexander Slater | year=1996 | title=True Bugs of the World (Hemiptera:Heteroptera): Classification and Natural History |url=https://archive.org/details/truebugsofworldh0000schu | publisher=Cornell University Press | pages=[https://archive.org/details/truebugsofworldh0000schu/page/111 111]–114 | edition=2 | isbn=978-0801420665 }}</ref>. [[Mguu|Miguu]] yao ya mbele ni imara sana na ina [[ukucha]] mmoja tu na hutumiwa kukamata [[mbuawa]]. Walakini, spishi za ''[[Limnogeton]]'' zina miguu ya mbele ya kawaida, kwa sababu zinakula [[konokono]] tu. Miguu ya kati na ya nyuma hutumiwa kwa kuogelea, ingawa haijatoholewa sana kwa hiyo. Sehemu za [[kinywa]] ni imara na kama [[sindano]]. Spishi nyingi zina [[bawa|mabawa]] yaliyokuzwa vizuri na huruka vizuri, lakini nyingine haiwezi kuruka kwa sababu mabawa yao yamepunguka<ref name=Thorp2015>{{cite book | editor1=J.H. Thorp | editor2=D.C. Rogers |year=2015 | title=Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates: Ecology and General Biology | publisher=Elsevier | pages=954–955 | volume=1 | edition=4 | isbn=978-0-12-385026-3 }}</ref>. Kama [[nge-maji]] wana [[mrija]] wa kupumua mwishoni mwa [[fumbatio]] yao, lakini ni fupi zaidi. Kwa kawaida hauonekani, kwa sababu umerudishwa ndani wakati hawapumui. ==Biolojia== Wadudu hao huwa wanakaa kwenye [[sakafu]] ya maji au kati ya [[uoto]] wa maji. Wengi sana hutokea katika maji yasiyotiririka, lakini wengine hutokea kwenye vijito na [[mito]] yenye [[mmea|mimea]]. Wanaogelea kwa shida na ili kukimbia tu au kwenda kwa uso wa maji ili kupumua kwa mrija wao wa kupumulia. Mbuawa anapokaribia wanamshika kwa miguu yao imara ya mbele<ref name=":0">{{Rejea kitabu|title=An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoaq0000merr|last=Merritt|first=R.W.|publisher=Kendall/Hunt Company|year=2008|location=Dubuque, Iowa}}</ref>. Kisha wanamtoboa kwa kinywa chao na kuingiza [[mate]] ambayo hufanya [[tishu]] kuwa [[kiowevu]]. Baada ya hayo wanafyonza yaliyomo. Mbuawa ni pamoja na wadudu wakubwa, [[samaki]] wadogo, [[ndubwi]], [[chura|vyura]] wadogo, [[salamanda]] na [[nyoka]] wachanga wa maji. Spishi kubwa zaidi zinaweza hata kukamata [[ndege (mnyama)|ndege]] wadogo. Kunguni wakubwa wa maji wanajulikana sana kunyakua [[kidole|vidole]] vya miguu vya [[binadamu|watu]]<ref name="huntley">{{cite journal |author=A. C. Huntley |year=1998 |title=''Lethocerus americanus'', the "toe biter" |journal=[[Dermatology Online Journal]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=6 |url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/4cb2q8wg/letho.html|pmid=10328676 }}</ref>. Ikiwa mguu haujaondolewa haraka vya kutosha, kinywa kinaweza kutoboa kidole, ambacho ni chungu sana. Kwa watu wengine inaweza kusababisha [[uvimbe]], [[homa]] na ugumu wa kupumua. Miongoni mwa wadudu hao, madume hutunza [[yai|mayai]], wakati mwingine wale wa majike kadhaa. Majike wa Lethocerinae hutaga mayai yao kati ya mimea, lakini wale wa jamii nyingine hubandika mayai yao kwenye [[mgongo|migongo]] ya madume, ambao huyabeba mpaka yanapoanguliwa. Spishi zinazoweza kuruka mara nyingi huonekana usiku karibu na [[taa]] za [[umeme]]. Kwa watu wengi, ni fursa pekee ya kuona wadudu hao. ==Kama chakula== Katika [[Asia ya Kusini]] na [[Asia ya Kusini-Mashariki|ya Kusini-Mashariki]] kunguni-maji wakubwa huliwa sana, hasa ''[[Lethocerus indicus]]''<ref name=Mitsuhashi2017>{{cite book| author=Mitsuhashi, J. | title=Edible Insects of the World | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781498756570 | year=2017 | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=978-1-4987-5657-0 }}</ref>. Watu huwavutia [[usiku]] kwa [[taa]] katika [[mtego|mitego]]. Hukaangwa kabla ya kuliwa. ==Spishi za Afrika== {{Columns | width = 30em | col1 = * ''Appasus ampliatus'' * ''Appasus capensis'' * ''Appasus grassei'' * ''Appasus major'' * ''Appasus nepoides'' * ''Appasus procerus'' * ''Appasus quadrivittatus'' * ''Appasus severini'' * ''Appasus stappersi'' * ''Appasus urinator'' * ''Appasus wittei'' * ''Diplonychus eques'' * ''Diplonychus esakii'' | col2 = * ''Diplonychus eques'' * ''Hydrocyrius colombiae'' * ''Hydrocyrius longifemoratus'' * ''Hydrocyrius nanus'' * ''Hydrocyrius punctatus'' * ''Diplonychus rectus'' * ''Lethocerus cordofanus'' * ''Lethocerus edentulus'' * ''Lethocerus oculatus'' * ''Limnogeton expansum'' * ''Limnogeton fieberi'' * ''Limnogeton hedenborgi'' * ''Limnogeton scutellatum'' }} ==Picha== <gallery> Hydrocyrius columbiae MC Algérie.jpg|''Hydrocyrius colombiae'' Limnogeton fieberi Gorongosa, SO, MZ.jpg|''Limnogeton fieberi'' </gallery> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Wadudu mabawa-nusu]] 25dtl0sdwi6nfpvcgvhvk59fgwiwchs 0 163149 1580106 1517533 2026-07-18T00:09:22Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580106 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Uainishaji | rangi = pink | jina = Kunguni-chura | picha = Toad bug (7346222446).jpg | upana_wa_picha = 250px | maelezo_ya_picha = ''Nerthria'' sp. nchini Australia | himaya = [[Animalia]] <small>(Wanyama)</small> | faila = [[Arthropoda]] <small>(Wanyama wenye mwili wa pingili na miguu ya kuunga wasio na ugwe wa mgongo kama wadudu, nge, buibui)</small> | nusufaila = [[Hexapoda]] <small>(Arithropodi wenye miguu sita)</small> | ngeli = [[Insecta]] <small>(Wadudu)</small> | ngeli_bila_tabaka = [[Dicondylia]] <small>(Wadudu walio na mandibula zenye [[w:Condyle (anatomy)|condyle]] mbili)</small> | nusungeli = [[Pterygota]] <small>(Wadudu wenye mabawa)</small> | oda_ya_juu = [[Paraneoptera]] | oda = [[Hemiptera]] | bingwa_wa_oda = [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], 1896 | nusuoda = [[Heteroptera]] | oda_ya_chini = [[Nepomorpha]] | familia_ya_juu = [[Ochteroidea]] | familia = [[Gelastocoridae]] | bingwa_wa_familia = [[George Willis Kirkaldy|Kirkaldy]], 1897 | subdivision = '''Nusufamilia 2; jenasi 3, 1 katika Afrika ya Mashariki:''' * [[Gelastocorinae]] <small>Kirkaldy, 1897</small> ** ''[[Gelastocoris]]'' <small>Kirkaldy, 1897</small> ** ''[[Montandonius]]'' <small>[[Douglas Melin|Melin]], 1930</small> * [[Nerthrinae]] <small>Kirkaldy, 1897</small> ** ''[[Nerthra]]'' <small>[[Thomas Say|Say]], 1832</small> }} '''Kunguni-chura''' ni [[wadudu]] wadogo wa [[familia (biolojia)|familia]] [[Gelastocoridae]] katika [[oda ya chini]] [[Nepomorpha]] ya [[oda]] [[Hemiptera]] wanaofanana na [[chura|vyura]] wadogo kwa [[sura]] na [[tabia]]. Kuna [[spishi]] takriban 120 [[dunia]]ni kote, isipokuwa [[Ulaya]], lakini spishi 1 tu [[bara]]ni [[Afrika]]<ref name=Schuh1996>{{cite book |author1=Randall T. Schuh |author2=James Alexander Slater | year=1996 | title=True Bugs of the World (Hemiptera:Heteroptera): Classification and Natural History |url=https://archive.org/details/truebugsofworldh0000schu | publisher=Cornell University Press | page=[https://archive.org/details/truebugsofworldh0000schu/page/116 116]-117 | edition=2 | isbn=978-0801420665 }}</ref>. ==Maelezo== Kunguni-chura wana urefu wa [[mm]] 6-15. [[Mwili]] wao ni imara na una umbo la [[duaradufu]] .[[Mguu|Miguu]] yao ya mbele ni imara na inatumiwa kukamata [[mbuawa]]. Miguu ya kati na ya nyuma inatumiwa kwa kuruka juu ya mbuawa<ref name ="Borror 1989">Borror DJ, Tripplehorn CA, Johnson NF (1989) An Introduction to the Study of Insects, 6th edition. Harcourt Brace College Publishers. New York. pg 213</ref>. Sehemu za [[kinywa]] ni imara na kama [[sindano]]. Kwa kawaida wadudu hao hawana [[bawa|mabawa]] ya nyuma na kwa hivyo hawawezi kuruka angani. Mara nyingi mabawa ya mbele yameunganishwa. [[Kipapasio|Vipapasio]] vimefichwa katika [[mfuo|mifuo]] ya [[uso]]. Rangi ni kama [[kamafleji]] na hata wanaweza kubadilisha rangi ili kuilingana na [[mazingira]] yao. ==Biolojia== Wadudu hao huishi kando ya maji kwa kawaida, lakini spishi kadhaa zimepatikana mbali na maji. Huwinda [[vertebrata]] wadogo kwa kuruka juu yao ambao wanawatoboa kwa kinywa chao na kufyonza yaliyomo. [[Yai|Mayai]] hutagwa kwenye [[mchanga]]<ref name=":0">{{Rejea kitabu|last1=Triplehorn|first1=Charles A.|title=Borror and Delong's Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th Edition|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontost0000trip|last2=Johnson|first2=Norman F.|publisher=Books/Cole, Cengage Learning|year=2005|isbn=978-0-03-096835-8|location=Belmont, CA|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontost0000trip/page/290 290]|language=English}}</ref>. [[Tunutu]] ([[lava]]) hujifunika kwa tabaka la chembe za mchanga ili kutoonekana dhidi ya nyuma<ref name="isbn1-86872-713-0">{{cite book |author1=Alan Weaving |author2=Mike Picker |author3=Griffiths, Charles Llewellyn |title=Field Guide to Insects of South Africa |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetoinse0000pick |publisher=New Holland Publishers, Ltd |year=2003 |isbn=1-86872-713-0 }}</ref>. ==Spishi ya Afrika ya Mashariki== * ''Nerthra grandicollis'' ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Wadudu mabawa-nusu]] bc7p1ieh6n8s93pvwups3loahqknm24 0 164738 1580173 1574196 2026-07-18T00:51:52Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580173 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Karama ya kutodanganyika''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: "infallibility", kutoka [[Kilatini]] "infallibilitas") ni ile ambayo [[Ukristo|Wakristo]] wa [[madhehebu]] mbalimbali, hasa [[Kanisa Katoliki|Wakatoliki]] na [[Waorthodoksi]], wanasadiki ilishirikishwa na [[Yesu]] kwa [[Kanisa]] lake ili liweze kuongoza watu kwenye [[ukweli]] wote chini ya [[Roho Mtakatifu]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c3a3.htm#2035 |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - The Church, Mother and Teacher §2035|website=Vatican.va |access-date=2016-12-21}}</ref>. Kuhusu nani, katika Kanisa, na namna gani anatumia [[karama]] hiyo<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a9p2.htm#801 |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church – The Church – People of God, Body of Christ, Temple of the Holy Spirit |website=Vatican.va |access-date=2016-12-21 |quote=It is in this sense that discernment of charisms is always necessary. No charism is exempt from being referred and submitted to the Church's shepherds. "Their office [is] not indeed to extinguish the Spirit, but to test all things and hold fast to what is good," (LG 12; cf. 30; 1 Thess 5:12, 19–21; John Paul II, Christifideles Laici, 24.) so that all the diverse and complementary charisms work together "for the common good." (1 Cor 12:7.)}}</ref>, misimamo ni tofauti, kwa mfano [[mitaguso ya kiekumene]]<ref>''See, e.g.'' Lutheran-Orthodox Joint Commission, Seventh Meeting, The Ecumenical Councils, Common Statement, 1993, ''available at'' http://www.helsinki.fi/~risaarin/lutortjointtext.html#ecum ("We agree on the doctrine of God, the Holy Trinity, as formulated by the Ecumenical Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople and on the doctrine of the person of Christ as formulated by the first four Ecumenical Councils.").</ref>. ==Katika Kanisa Katoliki== [[File:G.P.A.Healy, Portrait of Pope Pius IX (1871).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Papa Pius IX]] ([[1846]]–[[1878]]), ambaye chini yake dogma kuhusu karama a kutodanganyika ya Papa ilitangazwa na [[Mtaguso wa kwanza wa Vatikano]] ([[1869]]-[[1870]])<ref name=":3">''Encyclopedia of Catholicism'' by Frank K. Flinn, J. Gordon Melton 207 {{ISBN|0-8160-5455-X}} p. 267</ref>.]] Wakatoliki<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: General Councils |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04423f.htm |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=www.newadvent.org}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida |last=Washburn |first=Christian D. |date=2010 |title=St. Robert Bellarmine on the Infallibility of General Councils of the Church |url=https://www.academia.edu/36244015/St_Robert_Bellarmine_on_the_Infallibility_of_General_Councils_of_the_Church |journal=Annuarium Historiae Conciliorum |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=171 |issn=0003-5157}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti |title=Philip Schaff: NPNF2-14. The Seven Ecumenical Councils - Christian Classics Ethereal Library |url=https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.iii.ii.html |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=www.ccel.org}}</ref> wanasadiki [[mhusika]] mkuu ni [[mwandamizi]] wa [[Mtume Petro]], yaani [[Papa]] wa [[Roma]], kama mkuu wa [[kundi la maaskofu]]<ref>Erwin Fahlbusch et al. ''The encyclopedia of Christianity'' Eradman Books {{ISBN|0-8028-2416-1}}</ref>, anapofundisha rasmi ("ex cathedra"<ref>Wilhelm, Joseph and Thomas Scannell. ''Manual of Catholic Theology''. Volume 1, Part 1. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. Ltd. 1906. pp. 94–100</ref>) kwa niaba ya [[Askofu|maaskofu]] wote.<ref name="vatican1">{{cite web|date=|title=Catechism of the Catholic Church - Christ's Faithful - Hierarchy, Laity, Consecrated Life|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#890|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906142233/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm|archive-date=6 September 2010|access-date=2016-12-21|website=Vatican.va}}</ref> kwamba fundisho fulani ni [[dogma]] [[ufunuo|iliyofunuliwa]] na [[Mungu]], hivyo lazima isadikiwe na waumini wote<ref name="Dulles2">{{cite web|date=2016-11-30|title=Theological Studies – A journal of academic theology|url=http://www.ts.mu.edu/content/51/51.3/51.3.3.pdf|access-date=2016-12-22|website=Ts.mu.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Fr. Christopher Phillips |url=http://www.theanglocatholic.com/tag/pastor-aeternus/ |title=Exploring Doctrine: Papal Infallibility – The Anglo-Catholic |website=Theanglocatholic.com |date=2010-06-16 |access-date=2016-12-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223063726/http://www.theanglocatholic.com/tag/pastor-aeternus/ |archive-date=23 December 2016}}</ref>. Bila shaka, jambo hilo ni wazi zaidi dogma ikitangazwa na [[Mtaguso Mkuu]] pamoja na Papa. [[File:Pope Benedict Supporters by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|left|Wakatoliki wakishika bango mbele ya [[makao makuu]] ya [[Umoja wa Mataifa]] [[mwaka]] [[2008]].]] Kwa vyovyote, dogma hiyo haihusu yale yote yanayosemwa na Papa, wala haihusu mwenendo wake, kama kwamba karama hiyo ingemuepusha na [[dhambi]]. Imani hiyo imestawi katika [[historia ya Kanisa]] kuanzia maneno ya Yesu kwa Mtume Petro, hasa katika [[Injili ya Mathayo]] 16:19 ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{ cite book | last = Bermejo | first = Luis | others = ''[[imprimi potest]]'' by Julian Fernandes, Provincial of India | title = Infallibility on Trial: Church, Conciliarity and Communion | url = https://archive.org/details/infallibilityont0000berm | year = 1990 | isbn = 0-87061-190-9 }} * {{ cite book | last = Chirico | first = Peter | title = Infallibility: The Crossroads of Doctrine | year = 1983 | isbn = 0-89453-296-0 }} * {{ cite book | url = https://archive.org/details/thelastdaysofpap00cesauoft | page = [https://archive.org/details/thelastdaysofpap00cesauoft/page/449 449] | quote = the last days of papal rome. | title = The Last Days of Papal Rome | first = Raffaele | last = De Cesare | year = 1909 | location = London | publisher = Archibald Constable & Co. }} * {{cite book | last = Gaillardetz | first = Richard | title = By What Authority?: A Primer on Scripture, the Magisterium, and the Sense of the Faithful | isbn = 0-8146-2872-9 | year = 2003 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/bywhatauthorityp0000gail }} * {{ cite book | last = Hasler | first = Bernhard | title = How the Pope became infallible: Pius IX and the Politics of Persuasion | url = https://archive.org/details/howpopebecameinf0000hasl | url-access = registration | year = 1981 | isbn = 9780385158510 }} Translation of {{ cite book | last = Hasler | first = Bernhard | title = Wie der Papst unfehlbar wurde : Macht und Ohnmacht eines Dogmas | year = 1979 | publisher = R. Piper & Co. Verlag | language = de }} * {{cite book | last = Küng | first = Hans | author-link = Hans Küng | title = Infallible?: An inquiry | isbn = 0-385-18483-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/infallibleinquir00kung | year = 1983 }} * {{ cite book | last = Lio | first = Ermenegildo | title = Humanae vitae e infallibilità: Paolo VI, il Concilio e Giovanni Paolo II (Teologia e filosofia) | language = it | isbn = 88-209-1528-6 | year = 1986 }} * {{cite book | last = McClory | first = Robert | title = Power and the Papacy: The People and Politics Behind the Doctrine of Infallibility | isbn = 0-7648-0141-4 | year = 1997 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/powerpapacy0000mccl }} * {{ cite book | last = O'Connor | first = James | title = The Gift of Infallibility: The Official Relatio on Infallibility of Bishop Vincent Gasser at Vatican Council I | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-8198-3042-9 }} * {{ cite book | last = Powell | first = Mark E | title = Papal Infallibility: A Protestant Evaluation of an Ecumenical Issue | url = https://archive.org/details/papalinfallibili0000powe | isbn = 978-0-8028-6284-6 | date = 27 January 2009 }} * {{ cite book | last = Sullivan | first = Francis | author-link = Francis A. Sullivan | title = Creative Fidelity: Weighing and Interpreting Documents of the Magisterium | url = https://archive.org/details/creativefidelity0000sull | isbn = 1-59244-208-0 | date = 31 March 2003 }} * {{ cite book | last = Sullivan | first = Francis | author-link = Francis A. Sullivan | title = The Magisterium: Teaching Authority in the Catholic Church | isbn = 1-59244-060-6 | date = 30 September 2002 }} * {{ cite book | last = Tierney | first = Brian | title = Origins of Papal Infallibility, 1150–1350: A Study on the Concepts of Infallibility, Sovereignty and Tradition in the Middle Ages | url = https://archive.org/details/originsofpapalin0000tier | isbn = 90-04-08884-9 | year = 1972 }} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Harkianakis|first=Stylianos|author-link=Stylianos Harkianakis|title=The Infallibility of the Church in Orthodox Theology|year=2008|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MB7lQKmusxwC|location=Sydney|publisher=St Andrew's Orthodox Press|isbn=9781920691981}} ==Marejeo mengine== * {{cite journal|url=http://ejournals.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/ctsa/article/view/2986/2600 |title=The Historical Origins of Papal Infallibility &#124; Heft &#124; Proceedings of the Catholic Theological Society of America |journal=Proceedings of the Catholic Theological Society of America |year=1980 |access-date=2016-12-22|last1=Heft |first1=James }} * [http://www.catholicapologetics.info/modernproblems/vatican2/Fessler.htm The true and the false infallibility of the Popes. (1871)], by bishop [[Joseph Fessler]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110429072610/https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2A.HTM ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' on infallibility] (Holy See official website) * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Infallibility |short=x}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716221451/http://www.catholicregister.org/content/view/2356/858/ Catholicregister.org] News article from the Catholic Register on ''Rethinking Papal Infallibilty''. *{{cite book|chapter=[[s:Sermons from the Latins/Sermon 38|The Indestructibility of the Church.]] |title=Sermons from the Latins|year=1902|publisher= Benziger Brothers|first=Robert|last=Bellarmine|author-link=Robert Bellarmine}} *{{Cite Catholic Encyclopedia |wstitle=Infallibility |volume=7 |first=Patrick Joseph |last=Toner}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/stylian_3.html Dogma and Authority in the Orthodox Church] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070222052844/http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7063.asp The Fundamental Teachings of the Eastern Orthodox Church] {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Teolojia]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Kanisa Katoliki]] [[Jamii:Mapapa]] fxcsglfpjjcjo9r1s83olxmxzg5ajqb 0 164973 1580054 1527082 2026-07-17T23:32:04Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580054 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Teodorico re dei Goti (493-526).png|thumb|Theodoriki Mkuu.]] [[File:Theodoric Kingdom 523.png|thumb|[[Dola]] la Theodoriki mwaka 523: [[rangi]] [[nyekundu]] inaonyesha maeneo aliyoyatawala mwenyewe, ile ya pink maeneo yaliyokuwa chini ya himaya yake.]] '''Theodoriki Mkuu''' ([[454]] - [[30 Agosti]] [[526]]) alikuwa [[mfalme]] wa [[Waostrogoti]] kuanzia [[mwaka]] [[474]]. Ndiye aliyewaongoza kuteka [[Italia]] na kufikia mwaka [[523]] alitawala hadi [[Bahari]] ya [[Atlantiki]]. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Vyanzo== {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book | last=Arnold | first=Jonathan J.| title=Theoderic and the Roman Imperial Restoration | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge; New York | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-107-05440-0 }} * {{cite book |last=Boethius |title=The Consolation of Philosophy |translator=P. G. Walsh | place=Oxford and New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | date=2000 |isbn=0-19-283883-0 }} * {{cite book | last=Brown | first=Peter | year=1989 | title=The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150–750 | url=https://archive.org/details/worldoflateantiq0000brow | place=New York and London | publisher=W.W. Norton and Co.| isbn=978-0-39395-803-4}} * {{cite book | last=Brown | first=Thomas S. | chapter=The Role of Arianism in Ostrogothic Italy: The Evidence from Ravenna | title=The Ostrogoths from the Migration Period to the Sixth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective | url=https://archive.org/details/ostrogothsfrommi0000unse | editor1=J. B. Barnish | editor2=Sam J. Barnish | editor3=Federico Marazzi | year=2007 | location=Woodridge; Suffolk; Rochester, NY | publisher=Boydell Press | isbn= 978-1-84383-074-0 }} * {{cite book | last=Burns | first=Thomas | year=1991 | title=A History of the Ostrogoths | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofostrogo0000burn | place= Bloomington; Indianapolis | publisher=Indiana University Press | isbn=978-0-25320-600-8 }} * {{cite book | last=Collins | first=Roger | year=2004 | title=Visigothic Spain, 409–711 | place=Malden, MA | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | isbn=978-0-47075-461-0 }} * {{cite book| last=Dailey | first=E. T. | year=2015 | title=Queens, Consorts, Concubines: Gregory of Tours and Women of the Merovingian Elite | place=Leiden; Boston | publisher=Brill | isbn=978-9-00429-089-1 }} * {{cite book | last=Delbrück | first=Hans | year=1990 | title=The Barbarian Invasions | volume=II | series=History of the Art of War | location=Lincoln and London | publisher=University of Nebraska Press | isbn=978-0-80329-200-0}} * {{cite book | last=Elton | first=Hugh | year=2018 | title=The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity: A Political and Military History | url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireinlat0000elto | location= Cambridge and New York | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-1-10845-631-9 }} * {{cite book | last=Fletcher | first=Richard | year=1997 | title=The Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity | location=New York | publisher=Henry Holt | isbn=0-8050-2763-7 | url=https://archive.org/details/barbarianconvers00flet }} * {{cite book| last=Frassetto | first=Michael | year=2003 | title=Encyclopedia of Barbarian Europe: Society in Transformation | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9791576072638 | place=Santa Barbara, CA |publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-263-9}} * {{cite book | last=Fried| first=Johannes | year=2015 | title=The Middle Ages | url=https://archive.org/details/middleages0000frie| place=Cambridge and London | publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | isbn=978-0-67405-562-9}} * {{cite book | last = Geary | first = Patrick J. | year = 1999 | chapter = Barbarians and Ethnicity | title = Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World | editor1 = G.W. Bowersock | editor2 = Peter Brown | editor3 = Oleg Grabar | location = Cambridge, MA | publisher = The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | isbn = 978-0-67451-173-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/lateantiquitygui00bowe }} * {{cite book| last=Halsall | first=Guy | year=2007 | title= Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 | url=https://archive.org/details/barbarianmigrati0000hals | place= Cambridge and New York | publisher= Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-52143-543-7 }} * {{cite book|last1=Haymes|first1=Edward R.|last2=Samples|first2=Susan T.|title=Heroic legends of the North: an introduction to the Nibelung and Dietrich cycles|url=https://archive.org/details/heroiclegendsofn0000haym|date=1996|publisher=Garland|location=New York|isbn=0815300336}} * {{cite book|last=Heather|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Heather|title=The Restoration of Rome: Barbarian Popes & Imperial Pretenders|url=https://archive.org/details/restorationofrom0000heat_l0f9|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|date=2013|isbn=978-0-19-936851-8}} * {{cite book|last1=Heinzle|first1=Joachim|title=Einführung in die mittelhochdeutsche Dietrichepik|date=1999|publisher=De Gruyter|location=Berlin, New York|isbn=3-11-015094-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Sz4f9YS53EC }} * {{cite book | last=Heydemann | first=Gerda | chapter=The Ostrogothic Kingdom: Ideologies and Transitions | title= A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy | editor1=Jonathan J. Arnold | editor2=M. Shane Bjornlie | editor3=[[Kristina Sessa]] | year=2016 | location=Leiden and Boston | publisher=Brill | isbn=978-9004-31376-7 }} * {{cite book | last=James | first=Edward | title=Europe's Barbarians, AD 200–600 | url=https://archive.org/details/europesbarbarian0000jame | year=2014 | location=London and New York | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-0-58277-296-0}} * {{cite journal | last=Johnson | first=Mark J. | title=Toward a History of Theoderic's Building Program |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers|date=1988|volume=42| pages=73–96 | jstor=1291590 | doi=10.2307/1291590 }} * {{cite book | last=Koenigsberger | first=H.G.| title=Medieval Europe, 400–1500 | url=https://archive.org/details/medievaleurope400000koen | publisher=Longman | location=Essex | year=1987 | isbn=0-582-49403-6 }} * {{cite book | last=Langer | first=William L. | year=1968 | title=An Encyclopedia of World History | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KlmAAAAMAAJ&q=Thiudareiks | chapter=Italy, 489–554 | publisher=George G. Harrap and Co.}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Lienert|editor1-first=Elisabeth|title=Dietrich-Testimonien des 6. bis 16. Jahrhunderts|date=2008|publisher=de Gruyter|location=Berlin|language=de| isbn=978-3484645042|series=Texte und Studien zur mittelhochdeutschen Heldenepik| volume=4}} * {{cite book |last=Mango | first=Cyril | year=2002 |chapter=Introduction | title=The Oxford History of Byzantium | editor=Cyril Mango | location=New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19814-098-6 }} * {{cite book | last=Näsman| first=Ulf | chapter=Från Attila till Karl den Store | title=Hem till Jarlabanke: Jord, makt och evigt liv i östra Mälardalen under järnåder och medeltid | trans-title=Home to Jarlabanke: Land, power and eternal life in eastern Mälardalen during the Iron Age and the Middle Ages | language=Swedish | editor1=M. Olausson | year=2008 | location=Lund | publisher=Historiska media | isbn=978-91-85507-94-8}} * {{cite book| last=Norwich| first=John Julius | authorlink= John Julius Norwich| year=1988 |title=Byzantium: The Early Centuries |place=London |publisher=Guild Publishing}} * {{cite web | last=O'Donnell| first=James |website=Georgetown University online text |title=Cassiodorus | year=1995 | access-date=16 July 2017 | url=http://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/texts/cassbook/chap1.html | place=Berkeley, CA | publisher=University of California Press}} * {{cite book | last=Owen | first=Francis |authorlink=Francis Owen (philologist) | year=1990 | title=The Germanic People: Their Origin, Expansion & Culture | url=https://archive.org/details/germanicpeopleth0000owen_p8e5 | place=New York |publisher=Dorset Press | isbn=978-0-88029-579-6 }} * {{cite book|last1=Ring|first1=Trudy|last2=Salkin|first2=Robert M.|last3=La Boda|first3=Sharon|title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Southern Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=74JI2UlcU8AC&pg=PA556|date=1996|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-884964-02-2}} * {{cite book| last=Rosenwein | first=Barbara H. | year=2009 | title=A Short History of the Middle Ages | url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofmi0000rose_g7j3 | place=Toronto | publisher=University of Toronto Press | isbn=978-1-44260-104-8 }} * {{cite book|last=Silber|first=Manfred| year=1970 | title=The Gallic Royalty of the Merovingians in Its Relationship to the Orbis Terrarum Romanum During the 5th and the 6th Centuries A.D.| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4s4lAAAAMAAJ&q=%22theodericus+pius+princis%22|place=Zürich|publisher=Peter Lang}} * {{cite book|last=Steffens|first=Franz|year=1903|title=Lateinische Paläographie: Hundert Tafeln in Lichtdruck, mit gegenüberstehender Transscription, nebst Erläuterungen und einer systematischen Darstellung der Entwicklung der lateinischen Schrift|place=Freiburg|publisher=Universitäts-Buchhandlung|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQs4AQAAMAAJ&q=%22theodericus+pius+princis%22+%22invictus+semper%22&pg=PR2}} * {{cite book |first=Ingmar |last=Stenroth |title=Goternas Historia |year=2015 |location=Göteborg |publisher=Citytidningen CT |isbn=978-91-974194-8-2 |language=sv }} * {{cite book|last=Vasiliev|first=A. A.|title=Justin the First|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W9-CUG-567|location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press|date=1950|oclc=310492065}} * {{cite book| last=Wolfram | first=Herwig | year=1988 | title=History of the Goths | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofgoths0000wolf | place=Berkeley and Los Angeles| publisher=University of California Press | isbn= 0-520-05259-5}} * {{cite book| last=Wolfram | first=Herwig | year=1997 | title=The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples | url=https://archive.org/details/romanempireitsge0000wolf | place=Berkeley and Los Angeles| publisher=University of California Press | isbn=0-520-08511-6}} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== * Andreas Goltz, ''Barbar – König – Tyrann. Das Bild Theoderichs des Großen in der Überlieferung des 5. bis 9. Jahrhunderts'' (Berlin: de Gruyter 2008) (Millenium-Studien zu Kultur und Geschichte des ersten Jahrtausends n. Chr., 12). * {{cite journal |last1=Heather |first1=Peter |date=September 1995 |title=Theoderic, king of the Goths |trans-title= |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0254.1995.tb00065.x |journal=[[Early Medieval Europe (journal)|Early Medieval Europe]] |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=145–173 |biorxiv= |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0254.1995.tb00065.x }} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Heather |first=Peter |title=The Goths |url=https://archive.org/details/goths0000heat_c0r7 |date=1998 |publisher=Wiley |year=1998 |isbn=0-631-20932-8 |location=Oxford, UK |oclc=39945694}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Moorhead |first=John |authorlink=John Moorhead |url=https://archive.org/details/theodericinitaly0000moor|title=Theoderic in Italy |date=1992 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-814781-3 |location=Oxford |oclc=25547805}} * {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Theodoric|volume=26}} * {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Dietrich of Bern|volume=8}} * {{cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Theodoric the Great|volume=14|first=Franz|last=Kampers}} * [http://www.themiddleages.net/people/theodoric.html Theodoric the Great] at MiddleAges.net * [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20063 Theodoric the Goth], 1897, by Thomas Hodgkin, from [[Project Gutenberg]] * [http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/ITALY,%20Kings%20to%20962.htm#_Toc144276915 Medieval Lands Project on Theodoric the Great, King of Italy] {{Wayback|url=http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/ITALY,%20Kings%20to%20962.htm#_Toc144276915 |date=20110825102421 }} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Commons category|Theodoric the Great|Theoderic the Great}} {{BD|454|526}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] j5ety2p4ki9l2elpx7xr35q95mgh38w 0 166385 1580180 1417943 2026-07-18T00:58:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580180 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File: Brunswick Terrace, Weymouth (geograph 1943843).jpg|thumb|300px|[[jengo|Majengo]] na [[Motokaa|magari]] ni kati ya mali ya kawaida siku hizi.]] '''Mali''' (kutoka [[neno]] la [[Kiarabu]]) katika [[uchumi]] linamaanisha chochote kile chenye [[thamani]] kilicho chini ya [[mamlaka]] ya [[Binadamu|mtu]], [[Kundi|kikundi]], [[taasisi]] au [[umma]] kama mmiliki wake<ref>{{cite book |last1=Powell |first1=Richard R. |editor1-last=Wolf |editor1-first=Michael Alan |title=Powell on Real Property |date=2009 |location=New Providence, NJ |isbn=9781579111588|section=2.02}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century |url=https://archive.org/details/comparingeconomi0000greg |year=2003 |last1=Gregory |first1=Paul R. |last2=Stuart |first2=Robert C. |location=Boston |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=0-618-26181-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/comparingeconomi0000greg/page/27 27] |quote=There are three broad forms of property ownership-private, public, and collective (cooperative).}}</ref> . Pia ni [[bidhaa]] alizonunua [[mfanyabiashara]] kwa lengo la kuziuza tena. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist|30em}} ==Marejeo== * [[Frédéric Bastiat|Bastiat, Frédéric]], 1850. ''Economic Harmonies.'' W. Hayden Boyers. * Bastiat, Frédéric, 1850. [http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/thelaw/mpintro.htm "The Law"], tr. Dean Russell. * [[Tom Bethell|Bethell, Tom]], 1998. "The Noblest Triumph: Property and Prosperity through the Ages." New York: St. Martin's Press. * [[William Blackstone|Blackstone, William]], 1765–69. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20080224171053/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/blackstone/blacksto.htm Commentaries on the Laws of England]", 4 vols. Oxford Univ. Press. Especially Books the Second and Third. * [[Hernando de Soto Polar|De Soto, Hernando]], 1989. "The Other Path". Harper & Row. * De Soto, Hernando, and Francis Cheneval, 2006. ''[http://www.swisshumanrightsbook.com/ Realizing Property Rights] {{Wayback|url=http://www.swisshumanrightsbook.com/ |date=20230318134640 }}''. Ruffer & Rub. * Ellickson, Robert, 1993. "{{cite web |url=http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Ellickson_Property_in_Land.pdf |title=Property in Land |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409155336/http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Ellickson_Property_in_Land.pdf |archive-date=2008-04-09 |accessdate=2023-03-18 |archivedate=2008-04-09 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409155336/http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Ellickson_Property_in_Land.pdf }}&nbsp;{{small|(6.40&nbsp;MB)}}", ''[[Yale Law Journal]]'' 102: 1315–1400. * Mckay, John P., 2004, "A History of World Societies". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company * Palda, Filip (2011) "Pareto's Republic and the New Science of Peace" 2011 [http://www.paretorepublic.com] {{Wayback|url=http://www.paretorepublic.com/ |date=20220127013934 }} chapters online. Published by Cooper-Wolfling. {{ISBN|978-0-9877880-0-9}} * [[Richard Pipes|Pipes, Richard]], 1999. "Property and Freedom". New York: Knopf Doubleday. {{ISBN|978-0-375-40498-6}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/prop-con Concepts of Property], Hugh Breakey, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081230024424/http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/property.htm "Right to Private Property"], Tibor Machan, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy * {{cite book |last1=Friedmann |first1=Wolfgang |author-link1=Wolfgang Friedmann |editor1-last=Wiener |editor1-first=Philip P. |title=Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas |date=1974 |publisher=Scribners |location=New York |volume=3 |pages=650–657 |edition=University of Virginia, Electronic Text Center |chapter-url=http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist3.xml;chunk.id=dv3-77;toc.depth=1;toc.id=dv3-77;brand=default |chapter=Property}} * [https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/property/ "Property and Ownership"] [[Jeremy Waldron]], The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). {{mbegu-uchumi}} [[Jamii:Sheria]] [[Jamii:uchumi]] 8ku9k1ey7szofilhi25qd41vnyula0p 0 172244 1580277 1529323 2026-07-18T02:59:26Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580277 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Wharetutu Te Aroha Stirling''' ([[28 Januari]] [[1924]] – [[31 Machi]] [[1993]]) alikuwa kiongozi mashuhuri wa kabila la [[Nyuzilandi]] na mhifadhi. Mwenye asili ya [[Wamaori|Māori]], alijitambulisha na [[Ngai Tahu iwi]] . Alikuwa mshiriki mkuu katika Mkataba wa Ngāi Tahu wa madai na mchakato wa suluhu wa Waitangi .<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Kaikōura Whakatau {{!}} NZHistory, New Zealand history online|url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/treaty/signatory/7-10|access-date=2021-01-04|website=nzhistory.govt.nz}}</ref> Alizaliwa Lyttelton, [[Canterbury]] Mashariki, Nyuzilandi mnamo [[1924]].<ref>https://natlib.govt.nz/records/22521625</ref> Stirling alikuwa mjukuu wa [[Hariata Pitini-Morera]].<ref>{{Rejea kitabu|last=Tau|first=Te Maire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ghzAAAAMAAJ&q=Wharetutu|title=The Oral Traditions of Ngāi Tahu|date=2003|publisher=University of Otago Press|isbn=978-1-877276-27-9|page=293|language=en}}</ref> Kaka yake Bill Solomon alikuwa mzee wa [[kabila]].<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=A vibrant presence|url=https://ngaitahu.iwi.nz/our_stories/vibrant-presence/|access-date=2021-01-04|website=Te Rūnanga o Ngāi Tahu|language=en-NZ|archive-date=2021-03-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302232556/https://ngaitahu.iwi.nz/our_stories/vibrant-presence/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea kitabu|last=Neal|first=Judi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VmnOnSRKU8QC&pg=PA162|title=Handbook of Faith and Spirituality in the Workplace: Emerging Research and Practice|date=2012-12-09|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4614-5233-1|page=162|language=en}}</ref> Kazi zilizoandikwa za Stirling zilikusanywa na kuchapishwa.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|last=Rākaihautū|first=Te Pā o|title=Te Wharetutu Stirling|url=https://hail.to/rakaihautu/publication/XvKIA1k|access-date=2021-01-04|website=Te Pā o Rākaihautū}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1924]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1993]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa New Zealand]] [[Jamii:wanaharakati wa New Zealand]] [[Jamii:Swahili climate voices]] ccy99972q0l333pslv4ow18rntv6wm7 0 173388 1580037 1529281 2026-07-17T23:21:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580037 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Yazidi Girl tradicional clothes.jpg|thumb|[[Mwanamke|Wanawake]] wa Kiyazidi wakiwa wamevaa [[nguo]] za [[utamaduni|kitamaduni]].]] '''Wayazidi''' ni [[kabila]] la watu wanaoishi hasa katika eneo la [[Kurdistan]]<ref name="Fuccaro" >{{cite book |author1=Nelida Fuccaro |title=The Other Kurds: Yazidis in Colonial Iraq |url=https://archive.org/details/otherkurdsyazidi0000neli |date=1999 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |location=London & New York |isbn=1860641709 |page=[https://archive.org/details/otherkurdsyazidi0000neli/page/9 9]}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea kitabu|last1=Pirbari|first1=Dimitri|url=https://www.academia.edu/2464521|title=Holy Lalish, 2008 (Ezidian temple Lalish in Iraqi Kurdistan).|last2=Grigoriev|first2=Stanislav}}</ref><ref name="Omarkhali 2017">{{Rejea kitabu|last=Omarkhali|first=Khanna|title=The Yezidi religious textual tradition, from oral to written : categories, transmission, scripturalisation, and canonisation of the Yezidi oral religious texts: with samples of oral and written religious texts and with audio and video samples on CD-ROM|year=2017|isbn=978-3-447-10856-0|oclc=994778968}}</ref> na kwa namna ya pekee katika sehemu yake nchini [[Iraq]]<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/128591/PW69.pdf |title=Iraq's disputed territories |last=Kane |first=Sean |date=2011 |website=PeaceWorks |publisher=[[United States Institute of Peace]]|access-date=15 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="HRW">{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/iraq1109web.pdf |title=On Vulnerable Ground – Violence against Minority Communities in Nineveh Province's Disputed Territories |date=November 2009 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|access-date=15 October 2018}}</ref>, lakini wengine wengi wamekimbilia [[Ujerumani]]<ref>{{Rejea habari|url=https://www.welt.de/politik/ausland/article187843490/Mir-Tahsin-Said-Beg-Oberhaupt-der-Jesiden-stirbt-im-deutschen-Exil.html|title=Mir Tahsin Said Beg: Oberhaupt der Jesiden stirbt im deutschen Exil|last=Alkaidy|first=Gohdar|date=28 January 2019|access-date=19 May 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.westfalen-blatt.de/OWL/Kreis-Herford/Loehne/3762570-Jesidische-Gemeinde-OWL-informiert-in-der-Werretalhalle-in-Loehne-Geschichten-vom-Leid-der-Verfolgung|title=Geschichten vom Leid der Verfolgung|last=Meyer|first=Natalie Lydia|website=Westfalen-Blatt|language=de-DE|access-date=19 May 2019}}</ref> na nchi nyingine. Wanakadiriwa kuwa [[milioni]] [[moja]] au moja [[nusu|unusu]]. Wanafuata [[dini]] yao maalumu ambayo [[ibada|inamuabudu]] [[Mungu]] mmoja tu. Kwa ajili yake wamedhulumiwa sana na [[Uislamu|Waislamu]] waliotawala eneo lao, kwanza [[Waarabu]], halafu [[Waturuki]]. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} == Marejeo == {{refbegin|33em}} * {{cite book|last1=Açıkyıldız|first1=Birgül|title=The Yezidis: The History of a Community, Culture and Religion|url=https://archive.org/details/yezidishistoryof0000acky|date=2014|publisher=I.B. Tauris & Company|location=London|isbn=978-1-784-53216-1|oclc=888467694}} * {{cite book|last1=Cumont|first1=Franz|title=The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism|date=1911|publisher=Open Court Publishing|location=Chicago, IL|isbn=978-0-486-20321-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/orientalreligion00cumo/page/152 152]–153|url=https://archive.org/details/orientalreligion00cumo|oclc=670375427}} * {{cite book|last1=Drower|first1=E.S.|title=Peacock Angel; Being Some Account of Votaries of a Secret Cult and Their Sanctuaries|date=1941|publisher=John Murray|location=London|url=http://www.avesta.org/yezidi/peacock.htm|oclc=4821609}} * {{cite book|last1=Husseini|first1=Rana|editor1-last=Clark|editor1-first=Kelly James|title=Abraham's Children: Liberty and Tolerance in an Age of Religious Conflict|date=2012|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven|isbn=978-0-300-18333-7|chapter=Chapter 15. The Historical and Religious Seeds of 'Honor'|oclc=809235956}} * {{cite journal|last1=Joseph|first1=Isya|title=Yezidi Texts|journal=[[Journal of Near Eastern Studies|The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures]]|date=January 1909|volume=25|issue=2|pages=111–156|doi=10.1086/369616|jstor=527914|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last1=Kreyenbroek|first1=Philip G.|author-link1=Philip G. Kreyenbroek|title=Yezidism -- Its Background, Observances, and Textual Tradition|journal=Texts and Studies in Religion|date=1995|volume=62|publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]]|location=Lewiston, Queenston and Lampeter, NY|language=ku, en|oclc=31377794}} {{ISBN|978-0-773-49004-8}} * {{cite book|last1=Kreyenbroek|first1=Philip G.|author-link1=Philip G. Kreyenbroek|last2=Kartal|first2=Z.|last3=Omarkhali|first3=Kh.|last4=Rashow|first4=Kh. Jindy|title=Yezidism in Europe: Different Generations Speak About Their Religion.|date=2009|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|location=Wiesbaden|isbn=978-3-447-06060-8|oclc=554952854}} * Omarkhali, Kh. "Yezidism: Society, Symbol, Observance". Istanbul, 2007. In Kurdish. * {{cite journal |last1=Reshid |first1=Tosine |title=Yezidism: historical roots |journal=International Journal of Kurdish Studies |date=2005 |volume=19 |issue=1–2 |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CA135732895&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=10736697&p=AONE&sw=w&userGroupName=anon%7E54d5a000 |access-date=29 May 2022}} * Rodziewicz, A., Yezidi Eros. Love as The Cosmogonic Factor and Distinctive Feature of The Yezidi Theology in The Light of Some Ancient Cosmogonies, ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140407094706/http://www.kurdishstudies.pl/files/Fritillaria_Kurdica_2014_03_04%5B1%5D.pdf Fritillaria Kurdica]'', 2014/3,41, pp.&nbsp;42–105. * Rodziewicz, A., Tawus Protogonos: Parallels between the Yezidi Theology and Some Ancient Greek Cosmogonies, ''Iran and the Caucasus'', 2014/18,1, pp.&nbsp;27–45. * Williams, Kayla, and Michael E. Staub. 2005. ''[[Love My Rifle More Than You]]''. W.W. Norton, New York. {{ISBN|0-393-06098-5}} * Victoria Arakelova [https://www.academia.edu/35393677/Yezdistan_versus_Kurdistan_Another_Legend_on_the_Origin_of_the_Yezidis Yezdistan versus Kurdistan: Another Legend on the Origin of the Yezidis] // Iran and the Caucasus 21 (2017) {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [http://ezidi.fr Les Ezidis de France] {{Wayback|url=http://ezidi.fr/ |date=20200326140840 }} * [http://yazda.org Yazda – A Global Yazidi Organization] * [http://www.michaeltotten.com/archives/001064.html The Beginning of the Universe] {{Wayback|url=http://www.michaeltotten.com/archives/001064.html |date=20071222224300 }}, photos and a description of Yezidi life in Lalish, Iraq, by [[Michael J. Totten]] (22 February 2006). * {{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/14/world/middleeast/14iraq.html |title=Persecuted Sect in Iraq Avoids Its Shrine |work=[[The New York Times]] |first=Alissa J. |last=Rubin |author-link=Alissa J. Rubin |date=14 October 2007 |access-date=4 August 2009 }} [[Jamii:Watu wa Iraq]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Uajemi]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Syria]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Uturuki]] 6z3yl98lkqj88s5tk4z8jmtotsog130 0 175999 1580235 1306240 2026-07-18T01:38:58Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580235 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vivo (Communication Technology Co. Ltd).''' ni kampuni ya kiteknolojia ya kimataifa ya Kichina iliyo na makao makuu yake huko [[Dongguan]], [[Guangdong]] inayobuni na kukuza simu za mkononi, vifaa vya simu, programu, na huduma za mtandaoni. Kampuni hii inaendeleza programu kwa ajili ya simu zake, zinazosambazwa kupitia V-Appstore yake, na iManager imejumuishwa katika mfumo wake wa uendeshaji wa kipekee, Origin OS, unaotumia mfumo wa Android, katika Bara la China, na ''Funtouch OS'' mahali pengine. Ina wafanyakazi 10,000, na vituo vya utafiti na maendeleo 10 huko Shenzhen, Dongguan, Nanjing, Beijing, Hangzhou, Shanghai, Xi'an, Taipei, Tokyo, na San Diego. <ref>{{cite web |title= Tazama Ndani: Kituo cha Utafiti na Maendeleo cha Vivo Tokyo |url= https://techplugged.com/a-look-inside-vivo-tokyo-rd-center |website= TechPlugged |publisher= TechPlugged |date=22 Januari 2022 |access-date=8 Februari 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Vivo Inaboresha Mtandao wake wa Uzalishaji wa Kimataifa na Vituo Viwili Zaidi vya Uzalishaji |url=https://techuncode.com/vivo-bolsters-its-global-manufacturing-network-with-two-more-production-bases |website=Techuncode |last=Anthony |first=Ogbonna |date=11 Agosti 2021 |access-date=8 Februari 2022 |archive-date=2023-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016113629/https://techuncode.com/vivo-bolsters-its-global-manufacturing-network-with-two-more-production-bases/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ==List ya baadhi ya simu za Vivo== *Vivo X60 Pro+: Simu ya hali ya juu na kamera bora. *Vivo V21: Inajulikana kwa muundo mwembamba na kamera ya mbele yenye nguvu. *Vivo Y20: Simu ya bei nafuu inayolenga soko la kati. *Vivo V23 Pro: Ina kamera za hali ya juu na utendaji mzuri. *Vivo S1 Pro: Simu ya kati na sifa nzuri za kamera. *Vivo X50 Pro+: Inazingatia utendaji wa kamera na muundo wa kuvutia. *Vivo Y53s: Simu ya bei nafuu na sifa za kati. *Vivo V21e: Inajulikana kwa kamera bora ya mbele na muundo mwembamba. *Vivo Y72 5G: Simu inayosaidia teknolojia ya 5G. *Vivo iQOO 7: Simu inayolenga watumiaji wa michezo na utendaji wa hali ya juu. * Vivo X80. * Vivo X70 Pro. * Vivo V23 5G. * VivoV75 5G. ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Teknolojia|!]] [[Jamii:Uhandisi]] aj1ym7zbuhdesq3dxd5q7plt2h2qygr 0 178774 1580031 1525726 2026-07-17T23:16:30Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580031 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Shule ya Nisibi''' ilikuwa kimojawapo kati ya vituo vya [[teolojia]] na [[ufafanuzi]] wa [[Biblia ya Kikristo]] wakati wa [[Mababu wa Kanisa]]<ref>{{cite book|title=The Clash of Ideologies|url=https://archive.org/details/clashofideologie0000davi|author=Jonsson, David J.|year=2002|page=[https://archive.org/details/clashofideologie0000davi/page/181 181]|publisher=[[Xulon Press]]|isbn=978-1-59781-039-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The politically incorrect guide to Islam (and the Crusades)|url=https://archive.org/details/politicallyincor00spen_448|url-access=limited|author=Spencer, Robert|page=[https://archive.org/details/politicallyincor00spen_448/page/n100 91]|isbn=978-0-89526-013-0|year=2005|publisher=[[Regnery Publishing]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://syrianorthodoxchurch.org/library/articles/monastic-life-in-the-syrian-orthodox-church-of-antioch|title=MONASTIC LIFE IN THE SYRIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH OF ANTIOCH|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728080135/http://syrianorthodoxchurch.org/library/articles/monastic-life-in-the-syrian-orthodox-church-of-antioch|archivedate=2011-07-28}}</ref> ; vingine muhimu zaidi vilikuwa [[Shule ya Aleksandria]] na [[Shule ya Antiokia]]. Majina ya hivyo vituo vyote yalitokana na [[miji]] vilipostawi katika [[Ukristo]]. Ilianzishwa [[mwaka]] [[350]], halafu mwaka [[363]], [[Nusaybin|mji huo]] ulipotekwa na [[Uajemi|Waajemi]], [[Efrem wa Syria]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://syrianorthodoxchurch.org/library/articles/monastic-life-in-the-syrian-orthodox-church-of-antioch|title=MONASTIC LIFE IN THE SYRIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH OF ANTIOCH|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728080135/http://syrianorthodoxchurch.org/library/articles/monastic-life-in-the-syrian-orthodox-church-of-antioch|archivedate=2011-07-28}}</ref> aliihamishia [[Şanlıurfa|Edessa]]. Mwaka [[489]] ilirudishwa Nisibi<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |title=School of Nisibis - School |url=https://www.routeyou.com/en-sy/location/view/51554107/school-of-nisibis |access-date=2023-08-21 |website=RouteYou |language=en}}</ref>. ==Tazama pia== *[[Mababu wa Kanisa]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|2}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|chapter=The Theological Schools of Antioch, Edessa and Nisibis|title=Christianity: A History in the Middle East|year=2005|location=Beirut|publisher=Middle East Council of Churches|pages=143–160|isbn=9789953003436|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xBpVAAAAYAAJ}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|year=1989|title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D.|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=9780881410563|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Reinink|first=Gerrit J.|chapter=Edessa Grew Dim and Nisibis Shone Forth: The School of Nisibis at the Transition of the Sixth-Seventh Century|title=Centres of Learning: Learning and Location in Pre-modern Europe and the Near East|year=1995|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|pages=77–89|isbn=9004101934|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_J7rbzsVeMC&pg=PA77}} * {{Rejea jarida|last=Seleznyov|first=Nikolai N.|title=Nestorius of Constantinople: Condemnation, Suppression, Veneration: With special reference to the role of his name in East-Syriac Christianity|journal=Journal of Eastern Christian Studies|year=2010|volume=62|issue=3–4|pages=165–190|url=https://www.academia.edu/1845014}} {{refend}} {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Category:Historia ya Ukristo]] [[Category:Teolojia]] [[Jamii:Mababu wa Kanisa]] [[Category:Waorthodoksi wa Mashariki]] q14t7qg880073vnrphbluzxkn5ni2ks 0 181610 1580153 1506813 2026-07-18T00:39:16Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580153 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Teolojia ya shule''' (kwa [[Kilatini]]: ''Theologia Scholastica'') ni aina ya [[teolojia]] iliyoanza katika [[shule]] za [[monasteri]] zilipogundua upya [[falsafa]] ya [[Aristoteli]] kupitia [[tafsiri]] za wanafalsafa [[Wayahudi]] na [[Waislamu]]. Katika juhudi ya kulinganisha [[metafizikia]] hiyo na teolojia ya [[Kanisa la Magharibi|Ukristo wa Magharibi]], iliwekwa [[msingi|misingi]] ya [[Chuo Kikuu|vyuo vikuu]] vya [[Enzi ya kati|Karne za Kati]], na hatimaye ya [[ustawi]] wa [[sayansi]]. Teolojia hiyo ilitawala [[elimu]] ya [[Ulaya]] miaka [[1100]]-[[1700]] hivi<ref>See Steven P. Marone, "Medieval philosophy in context" in A. S. McGrade, ed., ''The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). On the difference between scholastic and medieval monastic postures towards learning, see Jean Leclercq, ''The Love of Learning and the Desire for God'' (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970) esp. 89; 238ff.</ref>. Kati ya wawakilishi wakuu wa shule hiyo kuna: [[Anselm wa Canterbury]] ("baba wa falsafa ya shule"<ref>Grant, Edward. ''God and Reason in the Middle Ages.'' Cambridge University Press, 2004, 56</ref>), [[Petro Abelardo]], [[Aleksanda wa Hales]], [[Alberto Mkuu]], [[Yohane Duns Scotus]], [[William wa Ockham]], [[Bonaventura wa Bagnoregio]], na [[Thoma wa Akwino]]. [[Kitabu]] chake bora, ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' ([[1265]]–[[1274]]) kinahesabika kilele cha [[falsafa ya shule]], ya Karne za Kati na ya [[Ukristo|Kikristo]] kwa jumla<ref name=GilsonP>{{cite book|last=Gilson|first=Etienne|title=The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (Gifford Lectures 1933–35)|url=https://archive.org/details/spiritofmediaeva0000gils|year=1991|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|location=Notre Dame, IN|isbn=978-0-268-01740-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/spiritofmediaeva0000gils/page/490 490]}}</ref>. == Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} == Vyanzo vikuu == * {{cite book |title=Philosophy in the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyinmidd0000arth_x9l4 |editor-last=Hyman |editor-first=J. |editor2=Walsh, J. J. |year=1973 |publisher=Hackett Publishing |location=Indianapolis |isbn=978-0-915144-05-1 }} * {{cite book |title=Readings in Medieval Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/readingsinmediev0000unse_j2d6 |editor-last=Schoedinger |editor-first=Andrew B. |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-509293-6 }} == Vyanzo vingine == * {{cite book|title=Inleiding in de Gereformeerde Scholastiek|language=nl|trans-title=Introduction to Reformed Scholasticism|year=2011|publisher=Reformation Heritage Books|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|isbn=978-1-60178-121-5|first1=Willem J. |last1=van Asselt |author1-link=Willem van Asselt |others=With contributions by T. Theo J. Pleizier, Pieter L. Rouwendal, and Maarten Wisse; Translated by Albert Gootjes}} * {{cite journal |last=Clagett |first=Marshall |year=1982 |title=William of Moerbeke: Translator of Archimedes |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-american-philosophical-society_1982-10-21_126_5/page/n11 |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=126 |issue=5 |pages=356–366 |jstor= 986212 }} * Decock, W. (2013), ''[https://brill.com/view/title/21931 Theologians and Contract Law: The Moral Transformation of the Ius Commune (c. 1500–1650)]'', Leiden/Boston, Brill/Nijhoff, {{ISBN|978-90-04-23284-6}}. * Fryde, E., ''The Early Palaeologan Renaissance'', Brill 2000. * {{cite web |url=http://users.sbuniv.edu/~hgallatin/ht34632e18.html#res |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201183302/http://users.sbuniv.edu/~hgallatin/ht34632e18.html#res |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-02-01 |title=Medieval Intellectual Life and Christianity |last=Gallatin |first=Harlie Kay |year=2001 }} * Gracia, J. G. and Noone, T. B., eds., (2003) ''A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages''. London: Blackwell, {{ISBN|0-631-21672-3}} * McGrade, A. S., ed., (2003) ''The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * {{cite book |title=Science in the Middle Ages |last=Lindberg |first=David C. |year=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-48232-3 }} * {{cite book |title=Medieval Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalphilosop0000maur |url-access=registration |last=Maurer |first=Armand A. |year=1982 |edition=2nd |publisher=Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies |location=Toronto |isbn=978-0-88844-704-3 }} * {{cite book |title=The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting |last=Toman |first=Rolf |others=photography by Achim Bednorz |year=2007 |publisher=[[Tandem Verlag GmbH]] |isbn=978-3-8331-4676-3}} == Marejeo mengine == * Trueman, Carl R. and R. Scott Clark, ''jt. eds''. (1999). ''Protestant Scholasticism: Essays in Reassessment''. Carlisle, Eng.: Paternoster Press. {{ISBN|0-85364-853-0}} *{{cite book |last1=Rexroth |first1=Frank |title=Knowledge True and Useful: A Cultural History of Early Scholasticism |date=2023 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-1-5128-2471-1 |language=en}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://scholasticon.fr Scholasticon by Jacob Schmutz] * [http://capricorn.bc.edu/siepm/ Medieval Philosophy Electronic Resources] {{Wayback|url=http://capricorn.bc.edu/siepm/ |date=20121017182202 }} * [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108672/Scholasticism "Scholasticism"]. In ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' Online. * [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/scholas1.htm ''Scholasticism''] Joseph Rickaby, (1908), 121 pp. [https://archive.org/details/scholasticism00rickgoog <!-- quote=Joseph Rickaby. --> (also at googlebooks)] * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13548a.htm Scholasticism] in The Catholic Encyclopedia * [https://web.archive.org/web/20020406104415/http://dir.yahoo.com/Arts/Humanities/Philosophy/Scholasticism/ Yahoo! directory category: Scholasticism] * [http://web.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/scholastics.html The genius of the scholastics and the orbit of Aristotle], article by James Franklin on the influence of scholasticism on later thought * [http://jameshannam.com/medievalscience.htm Medieval Philosophy, Universities and the Church] by James Hannam * {{de}} [http://www.alcuin.de/ ALCUIN – Regensburger Infothek der Scholastik] – Huge database with information on biography, text chronology, editions. {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:teolojia]] [[Jamii:historia ya Ukristo]] [[Jamii:historia ya Ulaya]] 2qm4gvj2no8f30smhnghgskdlyvinxy 0 182400 1580110 1338813 2026-07-18T00:12:05Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580110 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mashambulizi ya Bone''' yalikuwa operesheni ya kushambulia na kukimbia iliyotekelezwa na Wanarishi wa [[Mtakatifu]] [[Stefano]] na wanajeshi wa Tuscany dhidi ya mji wa [[Aljeria]] wa [[Hippo|Annaba]] (kwa Kifaransa: Bône) mnamo mwaka wa [[1607]]. Waislamu 470 waliuawa na 1,464 wakakamatwa kama wafungwa. Wanajeshi wa Tuscany walipata majeraha madogo tu ya watu 47. Ushirika huu ulikuwa operesheni kubwa zaidi ya majini iliyotekelezwa na Shirika la Mtakatifu Stefano.<ref name="hattendorf">{{cite book|title=War at Sea in the Middle Ages and Renaissance|url=https://archive.org/details/waratseainmiddle0000unse|last1=Hattendorf|first1=John B.|last2=Unger|first2=Richard Watson|publisher=Boydell Press|year=2002|isbn=9780851159034|p=[https://archive.org/details/waratseainmiddle0000unse/page/182 182]}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} == Bibliografia == * Gemignani, Marco (1994). "Ushindi wa Bona". Società di Storia Militare. 2: 7–36. {{Mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Algeria]] [[Jamii:1607]] aezfnr0es3zbaxjn3bdgn0rgwajmfzh 0 182494 1580150 1498123 2026-07-18T00:37:58Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580150 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Operesheni Atlante''' ilikuwa operesheni ya kijeshi ya [[Vita vya Kwanza vya Indochina]] iliyojumuisha awamu tatu, Aréthuse, Axelle na Attila, iliyofanyika kwa miezi sita kuanzia Januari 20, 1954. Kamanda wa Jeshi la [[Ufaransa]] Jenerali Henri Navarre alitumia vikosi 53 vya askari wa miguu na artillery ya Ufaransa katika jaribio la kuwazunguka wanajeshi 30,000 wa Việt Minh waliodhaniwa kujificha miongoni mwa wakazi milioni 2 katika maeneo ya mabwawa yenye matope kati ya Da Nang na Nha Trang kusini mwa Vietnam. Lengo lilikuwa ni kuwatuliza wenyeji na kurejesha mamlaka ya serikali ya Bảo Đại.<ref>http://www.cdef.terre.defense.gouv.fr/publications/doctrine/doctrine12/version_us/libre_reflex/art4_us.pdf</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Windrow|first=Martin|title=Mumbles Jahr|date=2015-03-16|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3139/9783446443273.008|work=Die Eule, die gern aus dem Wasserhahn trank|pages=247–278|publisher=Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Co. KG|isbn=978-3-446-44328-0|access-date=2024-06-11|last2=Hübner|first2=Sabine}}</ref> Kupitia kupelekwa kwa awali kwa wiki nne za kutua kwa majini kwenye pwani katika awamu ya Aréthuse kati ya Januari 20 na 29, vikosi vya Ufaransa viliendelea kuimarishwa kupitia wiki nane za Axelle. Attila, iliyopangwa kuwa awamu ya miezi miwili ambapo vikosi kamili vya Ufaransa vilifunga kazi ya Việt Minh, haikuweza kutekelezeka kufikia Machi kutokana na ongezeko la majeruhi wa Kifaransa. Washambuliaji wa mbali na mabomu yalipunguza nguvu ya vikosi vya Ufaransa, wakati mashambulizi ya Việt Minh katika maeneo ya milimani yalielekeza umakini wa Ufaransa kwingine. Ufaransa ilikabiliwa na msururu wa vitendo vya kujitolea kwa kila kijiji wakati vikosi vikuu vya Việt Minh viliendelea kuwa ngumu kupatikana. Wanajeshi wa Võ Nguyên Giáp walikusanya nguvu na kuanza kurudi nyuma, na pamoja na utekelezaji wa Jeshi la Taifa la Vietnam, hii ililazimisha Ufaransa kuacha Operesheni Atlante. Navarre baadaye alitangaza Aréthuse na Axelle kuwa zilizofanikiwa, huku Attila ikiwa haikutekelezwa. Atlante ilisababisha fikira nyingi kati ya uongozi wa Ufaransa. Utendaji wa ANV ulisababisha Mkuu wa Ulinzi wa Ufaransa Paul Ely kusema kwamba "Sasa ni wazi kuwa, hata nilipokuwa na shaka wakati Bwana Pleven alipouliza maoni yangu juu ya uwezekano wa Wavietnam kuturithi kwa muda mfupi, nilikuwa bado mwerevu zaidi. Hawana uwezo wa kufanya kitu chochote kikubwa kwa miaka kadhaa." Ilikuwa jaribio kubwa la kwanza la ANV katika operesheni za kijeshi. Mkuu wa Jeshi la Anga Jenerali Fay aliandika kwamba "Ingeleta matokeo bora ikiwa tungekuwa tunalenga kwa uthabiti idadi kubwa ya mabomu kwenye sehemu moja au mbili na kuhakikisha kukatwa kwa njia kwa karibu kila mara kwa kuharibu kazi ya ukarabati." Navarre alipokea ukosoaji kwa kuzingatia Atlante wakati operesheni zilikuwa zinaendelea huko Dien Bien Phu, hata hivyo mwanahistoria Martin Windrow anasema kwamba hii haikuwa na haki ikizingatiwa asili tofauti ya matukio hayo mawili. == Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} == Marejeo == * {{cite web|url=http://calldp.leavenworth.army.mil/eng_mr/txts/VOL36/00000012/art8.pdf|title=Indochina: The Last Year of the War. The Navarre Plan|last=Fall|first=Bernard B.|date=December 1956|work=The Military Review|access-date=2009-07-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731093148/http://calldp.leavenworth.army.mil/eng_mr/txts/VOL36/00000012/art8.pdf|archive-date=2009-07-31}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.cdef.terre.defense.gouv.fr/publications/doctrine/doctrine12/version_us/libre_reflex/art4_us.pdf|title=Operation Atlante (January-July 1954) The Last Pacification Operation in Indochina|last=Colonel Grintchenko|date=May 2007|publisher=Centre de Doctrine d'Emploi des Forces}} * {{cite book|title=Hell in a Very Small Place. The Siege of Dien Bien Phu|url=https://archive.org/details/hellinverysmallp0000fall_o5z0|last=Fall|first=Bernard B.|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=1966|isbn=978-0-306-81157-9|location=London}} * {{cite book|title=Street Without Joy. The French Debacle in Indochina|url=https://archive.org/details/streetwithoutjoy0000fall_n4l6|last=Fall|first=Bernard B.|publisher=Stackpole Military History|year=1961|isbn=978-0-8117-3236-9|location=New York}} * {{cite book|title=The Two Vietnams. A Political and Military Analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/twovietnamspolit00fall|last=Fall|first=Bernard B.|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger, Inc.|year=1967|edition=Second|location=New York}} * {{cite book|title=The Battle of Dien Bien Phu|url=https://archive.org/details/battleofdienbien0000royj|last=Roy|first=Jules|publisher=Carroll and Graf Publishers|year=1963|isbn=978-0-7867-0958-8|location=New York}} * {{cite book|title=The Last Valley. Dien Bien Phu and the French Defeat in Vietnam|last=Windrow|first=Martin|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|year=2004|isbn=978-0-304-36692-7|location=London}} {{Mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Vietnam]] [[Jamii:1954]] t89y8tk3z5oruyte92ahb8f788olwhn 0 182566 1580135 1339240 2026-07-18T00:29:04Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580135 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Establishment ya Watu kwa Uchapishaji, Usambazaji, na Matangazo''' ilikuwa taasisi ya serikali ya Jamhuri ya Watu ya Kiarabu ya [[Libya]] ya Kisoshalisti Kubwa iliyohusika na uchapishaji na usambazaji wa Kitabu cha Kijani na machapisho mengine yanayosambaza Nadharia ya Tatu ya Kimataifa ya Muammar Gaddafi, iliyoanzishwa mwaka 1975. Establishment ya Watu ilikuwa sehemu ya Kamati Kuu ya Watu.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/libyasinceindepe00vand|title=Libya since Independence: Oil and State-building|last=Vandewalle|first=Dirk|date=2018|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-1501732362|location=|page=[https://archive.org/details/libyasinceindepe00vand/page/202 200]|author-link=}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Libya]] jnvnmcon1n5y9l4jz5cjo9is0oltskh 0 183545 1580245 1341891 2026-07-18T01:46:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580245 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tamasha la Hogbetsotso''' (linatamkwa Hogbechocho) <ref name=bradt>{{cite book|last=Briggs|first=Philip|title=Bradt Ghana|url=https://archive.org/details/ghanabradttravel0000brig|year=2010|publisher=Bradt Travel Guide|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ghanabradttravel0000brig/page/49 49]}}</ref> linasherehekewa na machifu na watu wa Anlo katika Mkoa wa [[Volta]] nchini [[Ghana]].<ref name=Bak>{{cite web|title=Festivals in Ghana|url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/tourism/festivals.php|publisher=www.ghanaweb.com|access-date=27 December 2011|archive-date=27 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227070729/http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/tourism/festivals.php|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Marejeo== <references /> {{Mbegu-utamaduni}} [[Jamii:Matamasha nchini Ghana]] an5jfxl12nwsikr4uhnvg5tfi4058ez 0 184095 1580204 1529063 2026-07-18T01:17:26Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580204 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Waigbo''' (pia: '''Waibo''') ni [[kabila]] kubwa la [[Nigeria]] [[kusini]] [[mashariki]]. [[Mwaka]] [[2024]] [[kadirio|walikadiriwa]] kuwa [[milioni]] 38 hivi<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|last=Sare|first=Watimagbo|date=2024|title=Total population of the Igbo people|url=https://joshuaproject.net/clusters/190|access-date=28 May 2024|website=Joshuaproject.net}}</ref>, wakiwemo 15[[%]] ya wakazi wote wa nchi hiyo, mbali ya wanaoishi nje yake. == Tanbihi == {{reflist}} == Marejeo == {{Refbegin}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break|width=50%}} '''Jumla''' * {{cite book |url=http://www.opensourceguinea.org/2013/02/cyril-daryll-forde-and-g-i-jones-ibo.html |title=The Ibo and Ibibio-Speaking Peoples of South-Eastern Nigeria |last=Forde |first=Cyril Daryll |author2=Jones, G. I. |year=1950 |publisher=International African Institute by Oxford Unive}} * {{cite book |title=The Igbos of Nigeria: Ancient Rites, Changes, and Survival |url=https://archive.org/details/igbosofnigeriaan0014njok |last= Njoku |first= John Eberegbulam |year= 1990 |publisher= [[Edwin Mellen Press]] |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |isbn= 978-0-88946-173-4}} * Chuku, Gloria. "Igbo historiography: Parts I, II, and III." ''History Compass'' 16.10 (2018): e12489. '''Art''' * {{cite book |title=Igbo Art & Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/igboartcultureot0000otte |first=Simon |last=Ottenberg |editor=Toyin Falola |publisher= Africa World Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59221-442-6}} '''Muziki''' * {{cite book |title=The Performing arts: music and dance |first1=John |last1=Blacking |first2=Joann W. |last2=Kealiinohomoku |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=1979 |isbn=978-90-279-7870-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/performingartsmu0000cong }} * {{cite book |title=Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions |url=https://archive.org/details/representingafri0000agaw |last=Agawu |first=Kofi |year=2003 |publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-94390-1}} '''Uchumi''' * Chidi Leonard Ilechukwu: ''Igbo: Indigenous Economy and the Search for Sustainable Development in Post Colonial African Society''. Cidjap Press, Enugu, Nigeria 2008, {{ISBN|978-978-087-181-9}}. {{col-break|width=50%}} '''Siasa''' * {{cite book |title= Ibo Politics: The Role Of Ethnic Unions In Eastern Nigeria |last= Smock |first= Audrey C. |year= 1971 |publisher= [[Harvard University Press]] |location= Cambridge, MA |isbn= 978-0-674-44025-8 |url= https://archive.org/details/ibopoliticsroleo0000smoc }} * {{cite book |title=Igbo political culture |first=Elechukwu Nnadibuagha |last=Njaka |publisher=Northwestern University Press |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-8101-0428-0}} '''Jamii''' * {{cite book |title=Social Problems in Africa: New Visions |last= Rwomire |first= Apollo |year= 2001 |publisher= Praeger/Greenwood |isbn= 978-0-275-96343-9}} * {{cite book |title= Emerging Perspectives on Chinua Achebe |editor=Emenyonu, Ernest |year= 2003 |publisher= Africa World Press |isbn= 978-0-86543-876-7}} * {{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender: Men and Women in the World's Cultures. Volume I: Topics and Cultures A–K |last= Smith |first= David Jordan |year= 2004 |chapter= Igbo |publisher= Springer |isbn= 978-0-306-47770-6}} * {{cite book |title= Toasting the Bride: Memoirs of Milestones to Manhood |last= Okpala |first= Benneth |year= 2003 |publisher= Trafford Publishing |edition= 2nd |isbn= 978-1-4120-0777-1}} * P.E. Aligwekwe, The Continuity of Traditional Values in the African Societies (the Igbo of Nigeria), Xlibris Publishing Company, IN, USA, 2008. '''Diaspora''' * {{cite book |title=Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia |url=https://archive.org/details/murderatmontpeli0000cham |first=Douglas B. |last=Chambers |publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-57806-706-0}} * {{cite book |title=Slave counterpoint: Black culture in the eighteenth-century Chesapeake and Lowcountry |url=https://archive.org/details/slavecounterpoin00morg |url-access=registration |first=Philip D. |last=Morgan |author2=Omohundro Institute of Early American History & Culture |publisher=UNC Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8078-4717-6}} {{col-end}} {{Refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Igbo people}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081015034453/http://mccoy.lib.siu.edu/jmccall/jones/ GI Jones Photographic Archive of southeastern Nigeria] * [http://www.igboguide.org/ Igboguide.org – Insight into Igbo Culture and Language] * [https://naijagists.com/igbo-weddings-how-to-do-igbo-traditional-marriage-wedding-igboland Wedding Tradition In Igboland] {{mbegu-utamaduni}} [[Jamii:Waigbo]] [[Jamii:makabila ya Nigeria]] 6y5tek85tclhhe8yyb1ipevj1xgz5i0 0 185093 1580058 1448855 2026-07-17T23:33:20Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580058 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Raja Sher Singh Attariwala (1853)-01.jpg|thumb|Raja Sher Singh Attariwala akiwa amesimama kando ya [[mizinga]]]] '''Raja Sher Singh Attariwala''' alikuwa [[kamanda]] wa [[jeshi|kijeshi]] na mmoja kati ya wakuu wa [[Kalasinga|Wasingasinga]] wakati wa dola la Sikh katikati mwa [[karne ya 19]] huko [[Punjab]], na baadaye alihudumu chini ya [[Waingereza]] wakati wa uasi wa [[1857]]. == Maisha == [[Faili:Sher_Singh_Attariwalla_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Sher Singh Attariwala]] Alikuwa [[kamanda]] wa Jeshi la Sikh Khalsa katika Vita vya Pili vya Waingereza na Sikh dhidi ya ''Kampuni ya British East India''. Baba yake alikuwa Chattar Singh Attariwalla. Jenerali Sher Singh na [[jeshi]] lililokuwa chini ya uongozi wake walipigana dhidi ya [[Waingereza]] katika Mapigano ya Chillianwala. Chini ya uongozi wake, Jeshi la Sikh Khalsa liliweza kutetea nafasi yake kwa mafanikio dhidi ya mashambulizi kadhaa ya Waingereza. Majeshi yote mawili yalikata tamaa na kurudi nyuma baada ya vita hivyo, kila upande ukidai ushindi. Waisikh walipoteza wanajeshi wapatao 4,000 katika mapigano hayo, na ilikuwa mojawapo ya vita vigumu zaidi vilivyopiganwa na Waingereza nchini [[India]]. Kuporomoka kwa hadhi ya Waingereza katika mapigano ya Chillianwala kulichangia katika kuzuka kwa Mapinduzi ya India ya [[1857]] takribani miaka tisa baadaye.<ref>{{cite book|title=Queen Victoria's Little Wars|url=https://archive.org/details/queenvictoriasli0000farw_g7t9|last=Farwell|first=Byron|publisher=Wordsworth Military Library|year=1973|isbn=1-84022-216-6|author-link=Byron Farwell}}</ref> Kwa ushindi wa Waingereza dhidi ya Waisikh wakati wa vita hivyo, Sher Singh Attariwalla alilazimishwa kuingia uhamishoni kutoka [[Punjab]]. Waingereza waliogopa kuwa kiongozi mwenye nguvu kama huyo angeweza kuchochea tena vita vya wazi dhidi yao. Sher Singh aliishi uhamishoni huko Benares, mbali na ardhi yake ya nyumbani Punjab. Baadaye aliitwa na Waingereza kusaidia kukandamiza Mapinduzi ya India ya 1857 huko [[Delhi]] dhidi ya [[Wamongol]]. Alifanikiwa katika jukumu hilo na akapewa cheo cha Sardar Bahadur, pamoja na zawadi ya kitambaa kilichopambwa kwa [[almasi]] kutoka hazina ya Bahadur Shah Zafar na Agizo la India ya Kiengereza. Pia alitembelea [[Uingereza]] na akapokea barua kutoka kwa [[Malkia Victoria|Malkia Victoria I]] ikisema kuwa vizazi vyake vingepata upendeleo maalumu kutoka kwa mamlaka za Kiengereza. ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:watu wa Uhindi]] [[jamii:waliofariki 1858]] [[jamii:WikiMonthly Edit-a-thon Kilimanjaro]] 6sfloysk6asx0qrfpxbxa2vegxeykfd 0 185585 1580145 1506696 2026-07-18T00:34:09Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580145 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Aspasia''' ([[470 KK|470]] - [[400]] [[KK]]) alikuwa [[mwanamke]] wa [[Mileto]] aliyefahamika kwa uhusiano wake na [[Perikles]], [[kiongozi]] maarufu wa [[Athens|Athene]]. Alijulikana kwa akili na ufasaha wake na aliendesha saluni ya kitamaduni iliyokuwa na ushawishi mkubwa katika mijadala ya kisiasa na falsafa ya Athene. Ingawa alikuwa na nafasi ya pekee kwa mwanamke wa wakati huo, alikabiliwa na ukosoaji na shutuma za kisiasa<ref>https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aspasia-Greek-courtesan</ref><ref>https://www.worldhistory.org/Aspasia_of_Miletus/</ref>. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book|title=Pericles of Athens|last=Azoulay|first=Vincent|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-691-15459-6|translator-last=Lloyd|translator-first=Janet|orig-date=Published in French 2010}} * {{cite journal |last=Bicknell |first=Peter J. |year=1982 |title=Axiochus Alkibiadou, Aspasia and Aspasios |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/antiq_0770-2817_1982_num_51_1_2070 |journal=L'Antiquité Classique |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=240–250 |doi=10.3406/antiq.1982.2070}} * {{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/womeninancientgr00blun/mode/2up|title=Women in Ancient Greece|last=Blundell|first=Sue|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-674-95473-1}} * {{cite book|url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/in/socrates-in-love-9781408883914/|title=Socrates in Love|last=D'Angour|first=Armand|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2019|isbn=978-14-08-88391-4|author-link=Armand D'Angour}} * {{cite journal |last=Diamantakou-Agathou |first=Kaiti |year=2020 |title=From Aspasia to Lysistrata: Literary Versions and Intertextual Diffusions of the Feminine Other in Classical Athens |url=https://www.logeion.upatras.gr/sites/logeion.upatras.gr/files/pdffiles/LOGEION_10_2020_07_Diamantakou.pdf |journal=Logeion |volume=10 |pages=238–260}} * {{cite book|url=http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft2p30058m/|title=Athens from Cleisthenes to Pericles|last1=Fornara|first1=Charles W.|last2=Samons|first2=Loren J.|publisher=University of California Press|year=1991|location=Berkeley, CA}} * {{cite journal |last1=Geraths |first1=Cory |last2=Kennerly |first2=Michele |year=2016 |title=Painted Lady: Aspasia in Nineteenth-Century European Art |journal=Rhetoric Review |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=197–211 |doi=10.1080/07350198.2016.1178688 |s2cid=148042837}} * {{cite journal |last1=Glenn |first1=Cheryl |year=1994 |title=Sex, Lies, and Manuscript: Refiguring Aspasia in the History of Rhetoric |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_college-composition-and-communication_1994-05_45_2/page/180 |journal=College Composition and Communication |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=180–199 |doi=10.2307/359005 |jstor=359005}} * {{cite book|title=Prisoner of History. Aspasia of Miletus and her Biographical Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/prisonerofhistor0000henr|last=Henry|first=Madeleine M.|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=978-0-19-508712-3}} * {{cite journal |last=Ianetta |first=Melissa |year=2008 |title='She Must Be a Rare One': Aspasia, 'Corinne', and the Improvisatrice Tradition |journal=PMLA |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=92–108 |jstor=25501829}} * {{cite thesis|last=Jordan|first=Nicole|title="A Very Amusing Bit of Blasphemy": Honoré Daumier's Histoire Ancienne|publisher=University of Alabama|year=2012}} * {{cite book|title=Prostitution in the Ancient Greek World|last=Kapparis|first=Konstantinos|publisher=De Gruyter|year=2018|isbn=978-3-11-055795-4|location=Berlin}} * {{cite book|title=Poetae Comici Graeci|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1983|isbn=978-3-11-002405-0|editor1-last=Kassel|editor1-first=Rudolf|volume=IV Aristophon – Crobylus|location=Berlin|ref=CITEREFK-A|editor2-last=Austin|editor2-first=Colin}} * {{cite book|title=Immigrant Women in Athens: Gender, Ethnicity and Citizenship in the Classical City|url=https://archive.org/details/immigrantwomenin0000kenn|last=Kennedy|first=Rebecca Futo|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-0-415-73786-9|authorlink=Rebecca Futo Kennedy}} * {{cite journal |last=Loraux |first=Nicole |author-link=Nicole Loraux |year=2021 |orig-date=Published in French 2003 |title=Aspasia, Foreigner, Intellectual |journal=Journal of Continental Philosophy |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=9–32 |doi=10.5840/jcp2021102823 |s2cid=240237486 |translator-last=Ling |translator-first=Alex}} * {{cite book|title=The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics|url=https://archive.org/details/peopleofplatopro0000nail|last=Nails|first=Debra|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-87220-564-2|author-link=Debra Nails}} * {{cite journal |last=Pentassuglio |first=Francesca |year=2020 |title=''Paideutikos eros'': Aspasia as an '''alter'' Sokrates' |journal=Archai |volume=30 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.14195/1984-249X_30_15 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite book|title=Perikles and His Circle|url=https://archive.org/details/perikleshiscircl0000podl|last=Podlecki|first=Anthony J.|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=978-0-415-06794-2}} * {{cite journal |last=Pomeroy |first=Sarah B. |author-link=Sarah Pomeroy |year=1996 |title=Review: Madeleine M. Henry, ''Prisoner of History'' |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-philology_winter-1996_117_4/page/648 |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=117 |issue=4 |pages=648–651 |doi=10.1353/ajp.1996.0054 |jstor=1561953 |s2cid=161551430}} * {{cite book|title=Women in Classical Video Games|last=Tuplin|first=Roz|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|year=2022|isbn=978-1-350-24193-0|editor1-last=Draycott|editor1-first=Jane|location=London|chapter='We do what we must to survive': Female Sex Workers in ''Assassin's Creed''|editor2-last=Cook|editor2-first=Kate}} * {{cite journal |last=Vickers |first=Michael |year=2000 |title=Alcibiades and Aspasia: Notes on the Hippolytus |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_2000_num_26_2_2423 |journal=Dialogues d'histoire ancienne |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=7–17 |doi=10.3406/dha.2000.2423}} * {{cite book|title=Sophocles and Alcibiades: Athenian Politics in Ancient Greek Literature|last=Vickers|first=Michael|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=978-1-84465-123-8|location=London}} * {{cite journal |last=Wallace |first=Robert |year=1996 |title=Review: Madeleine M. Henry, ''Prisoner of History'' |url=https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/1996/1996.04.07 |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review}} {{mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|470 KK|400 KK}} [[Jamii:wanawake wa Uturuki]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ugiriki]] [[Jamii:Ugiriki ya Kale]] [[Jamii:WikiMonthly Edit-a-thon Kilimanjaro]] 9m0p65b6iwpa0npkdfrkr4i9p1ees7i 0 185771 1580096 1516068 2026-07-18T00:04:49Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580096 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Judith A. Resnik, official portrait (cropped).jpg|thumb|Judith A. Resnik.]] '''Judith Resnik''' ([[5 Aprili]] [[1949]] – [[28 Januari]] [[1986]]) alikuwa [[mhandisi]] na [[mwanaanga]] wa [[Marekani]] aliyepata kuwa mwanamke wa pili wa Marekani kwenda angani. Resnik aliteuliwa kuwa mwanaanga wa [[NASA]] mwaka [[1978]] na aliruka kwa mara ya kwanza kwenye chombo cha anga cha Discovery mwaka [[1984]]<ref name="NASA">{{cite web |title=Biographical Data – Judith A. Resnik (Ph.D.) NASA astronaut (deceased) |publisher= NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/resnik_judith_with_photo_0.pdf |access-date=February 27, 2020}}</ref>. Kifo chake kilitokea wakati wa ajali ya chombo cha Challenger, kilicholipuka sekunde 73 baada ya kurushwa, na kuua wafanyakazi wote saba waliokuwa ndani. Resnik anakumbukwa kwa ujasiri wake na mchango wake katika uhandisi na usafiri wa anga za juu. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Tanbihi == {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|title=The Real Stuff: Historia ya Mpango wa Ajira wa Wanasayansi wa NASA|url=https://archive.org/details/realstuffhistory0000atki|last1=Atkinson|first1=Joseph D.|last2=Shafritz|first2=Jay M.|publisher=Praeger|year=1985|isbn=978-0-03-005187-6|series=Praeger special studies|location=New York|oclc=12052375}} * {{cite book|title=Judith Resnik, Mwanaanga wa Challenger|url=https://archive.org/details/judithresnikchal00bern|last1=Bernstein|first1=Joanne E|last2=Blue|first2=Rose|last3=Gerber|first3=Alan Jay|publisher=Lodestar Books|year=1990|isbn=978-0-525-67305-7|location=New York|oclc=20594024}} * {{cite book|title=Wanawake Wanaosafiri Angani: Njia Sitini Tofauti za Kufikia Anga|url=https://archive.org/details/womenspacefarers0000cava|last=Cavallaro|first=Umberto|publisher=Springer|year=2017|isbn=978-3-319-34047-0|location=Chichester|oclc=1066696221}} * {{cite book|title=Tragedi na Ushindi Angani: Miaka ya The Eighties na Nineties|last=Evans|first=Ben|publisher=Springer|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4614-3429-0|location=New York|oclc=816202257}} * {{cite book|title=Wanawake Angani: Hadithi 23 za Ndege za Kwanza, Misheni za Kiasayansi, na Maajabu ya Kuvunja Mvuto wa Dunia|url=https://archive.org/details/womeninspace23st0000kare|last=Gibson|first=Karen|publisher=Chicago Review Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-64160-313-3|location=Chicago|oclc=1111936104}} * {{cite book|title=Kukabiliana na Roketi: Hadithi za Kushangaza za Mwanaanga wa Space Shuttle|title-link=Riding Rockets|last=Mullane|first=Mike|publisher=Scribner|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7432-7682-5|location=New York|oclc=237049278|author-link=Mike Mullane}} * {{cite book|title=Wanawake Angani – Kufuatia Valentina|url=https://archive.org/details/womeninspacefoll0000shay|last1=Shayler|first1=David|last2=Moule|first2=Ian A.|publisher=Springer|year=2006|isbn=978-1-85233-744-5|location=New York|oclc=218506039}} * {{cite book|title=Uchaguzi wa Mwanaanga wa Kwanza wa Space Shuttle wa NASA: Kurekebisha Mpango wa Ajira|url=https://archive.org/details/nasasfirstspaces0000davi|last1=Shayler|first1=David J.|last2=Burgess|first2=Colin|publisher=Praxis Publishing|year=2020|isbn=978-3030-45741-9|location=Chicester, UK|oclc=1145568343|author-link2=Colin Burgess (author)}} * {{Rejea kitabu|title=Wanawake Wa Uhandisi: Kurekebisha Mafanikio na Athari za Sayansi za Wanawake|last=Tietjen|first=Jill S.|publisher=Springer|year=2017|isbn=978-3-319-40800-2|location=Cham, Switzerland|oclc=1105279881}} * {{cite book|title=Wanawake Maarufu wa Marekani: Kamusi ya Maisha ya Biashara ya Karne ya Ishirini|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-674-01488-6|editor-last1=Ware|editor-first1=Susan|volume=5|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|oclc=184794830|editor-last2=Braukman|editor-first2=Stacy}} * {{cite book|title=Wanawake wa Marekani wa Sayansi Tangu 1900|last=Wayne|first=Tiffany K.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2011|isbn=978-1-59884-158-9|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|oclc=841850385}} {{refend}}{{mbegu-mwanasayansi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1949]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1986]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Wanaanga wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:WikiMonthly Edit-a-thon Kilimanjaro]] trc72awm8xyob90kws6qjlf6wwen29a 0 186636 1580098 1527778 2026-07-18T00:05:12Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580098 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition | name = Ugonjwa wa mshtuko wa sumu | synonym = Maradhi yasababishayo vipele vya Staphylococcal;<ref>{{cite web |title=Toxic shock syndrome {{!}} DermNet |url=https://dermnetnz.org/topics/toxic-shock-syndrome-and-toxic-shock-like-syndrome |website=dermnetnz.org |accessdate=21 December 2022 |language=en |archive-date=24 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124014139/https://dermnetnz.org/topics/toxic-shock-syndrome-and-toxic-shock-like-syndrome |url-status=live |archivedate=24 November 2022 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221124014139/https://dermnetnz.org/topics/toxic-shock-syndrome-and-toxic-shock-like-syndrome }}</ref> ugonjwa wa mshtuko wa sumu wa bakteria<ref>{{cite web |last1=RESERVED |first1=INSERM US14-- ALL RIGHTS |title=Orphanet: Bacterial toxic shock syndrome |url=https://www.orpha.net/consor/cgi-bin/OC_Exp.php?lng=EN&Expert=36234 |website=www.orpha.net |accessdate=15 February 2024 |language=en |archive-date=29 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129030218/https://www.orpha.net/consor/cgi-bin/OC_Exp.php?lng=en&Expert=36234 |url-status=live |archivedate=29 November 2023 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129030218/https://www.orpha.net/consor/cgi-bin/OC_Exp.php?lng=en&Expert=36234 }}</ref> | image = PDB 1aw7 EBI.jpg | image_size = | image_thumbtime = | alt = | caption = [[Sumu ya ugonjwa wa mshtuko sumu-1]] protini kutoka staphylococcus | pronounce = | specialty = [[Ugonjwa wa kuambukizwa (utalaam wa kimatibabu)|Ugonjwa wa kuambukizwa]] | Dalili = [[homa]], [[upele]], [[kuchibuka ngozi]], [[shinikizo la chini la damu]]<ref name=Low2013/> | onset = Huanza kwa ghafla na haraka sana<ref name=Low2013/> | duration = | causes = ''[[Streptococcus pyogenes]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'', nyingine<ref name=Low2013/><ref name=Got2018/> | risks = [[Tamponi]] zenye uwezo mkubwa sana wa kufyonza damu, vidonda vya ngozi miongoni mwa watoto wachanga<ref name=Low2013/> | diagnosis = Kulingana na dalili<ref name=Low2013/> | differential = [[Mshtuko wa septiki]], [[Ugonjwa wa Kawasaki|Ugonjwa wa Kawasaki]], [[Maradhi ya Stevens-Johnson]], [[maradhi yasababishayo vipele ngozini]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferri|first1=Fred F.|title=Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders|url=https://archive.org/details/ferrisdifferenti0000ferr|date=2010|publisher=Elsevier/Mosby|location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0323076999|page=Chapter T|edition=2nd}}</ref> | prevention = | treatment = Matumizi ya [[Antibiotiki|Antibiotiki]], [[upasuaji na uondoaji wa usaha]] wowote [[kwenye tishu]], [[uwekaji wa immuniglobulini kwenye mishipa]]<ref name=Low2013/> | medication = | prognosis = Hatari ya kifo kutokea: ~asilimia 50% kwa (streptococcal), ~asilimia 5% kwa (staphylococcal)<ref name=Low2013/> | frequency = watu 3 kati ya watu 100,000 kwa mwaka (nchi zilizokua kimaendeleo)<ref name=Low2013/> | deaths = }} '''Ugonjwa wa mshtuko wa sumu''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''Toxic shock syndrome, TSS'') ni hali inayosababishwa na sumu za [[Vijasumu|bakteria]].<ref name="Low2013" /> Dalili zinaweza kujumuisha [[homa]], [[upele]], [[kuchibuka kwa ngozi]] na [[shinikizo la chini la damu]].<ref name="Low2013" /> Kunaweza pia kuwa na dalili zinazohusiana na maambukizi maalum yaliyopo mwilini kama vile [[ugonjwa wa matiti]] (mastitis), [[ugonjwa wa mifupa]] (osteomyelitis), ugonjwa wa kuoza kwa tishu za mwili (netrotising fasciitis) au [[nimonia]].<ref name="Low2013" /> Ugonjwa wa TSS kwa kawaida husababishwa na bakteria wa aina ya ''Streptococcus pyogenes'' au ''Staphylococcus aureus'', ingawa bakteria wengine wanaweza pia kuhusika.<ref name="Low2013" /><ref name="Got2018">{{Rejea jarida|last=Gottlieb|first=Michael|last2=Long|first2=Brit|last3=Koyfman|first3=Alex|date=June 2018|title=The Evaluation and Management of Toxic Shock Syndrome in the Emergency Department: A Review of the Literature|journal=[[The Journal of Emergency Medicine]]|volume=54|issue=6|pages=807–814|doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2017.12.048|pmid=29366615}}</ref> Ugonjwa wa mshtuko wa sumu wa Streptococcal wakati mwingine unajulikana kama ugonjwa unaofanana na mshtuko wa sumu (TSLS).<ref name="Low2013" /> Michakato ya msingi iliyopo huhusisha uzalishaji wa antijeni kuu (superantigens) wakati wa maambukizi vamizi ya streptococcus au maambukizi ya sehemu mahususi ya mwili ya staphylococcus.<ref name="Low2013" /> Sababu za hatari zinazoweza kuongeza maambukizi ya aina ya staphylococcal ni pamoja na matumizi ya tamponi zenye uwezo mkubwa sana wa kufyonza damu na vidonda vya ngozi kwa watoto wadogo.<ref name="Low2013" /> Kwa kawaida, utambuzi wa ugonjwa huo hutegemea dalili.<ref name="Low2013" /> Matibabu yake yanajumuisha uwekwaji wa viowevu kwenye mishipa, [[antibiotiki|matumizi ya antibiotiki]], upasuaji na uondoaji wa usaha wowote kwenye tishu na ikiwezekana uwekwaji wa immunoglobulini kwenye mishipa.<ref name="Low2013" /><ref name="Ama2017">{{Rejea jarida|last=Wilkins|first=Amanda L.|last2=Steer|first2=Andrew C.|last3=Smeesters|first3=Pierre R.|last4=Curtis|first4=Nigel|date=2017|title=Toxic shock syndrome – the seven Rs of management and treatment|journal=Journal of Infection|language=en|volume=74|pages=S147–S152|doi=10.1016/S0163-4453(17)30206-2|pmid=28646955}}</ref> Haja ya kuondolewa kwa haraka kwa tishu zilizoambukizwa kupitia upasuaji kwa wale waliougua kutokana maambukizi ya streptococcal, ingawa inapendekezwa sana, haina ushahidi wa kutosha wa kuiunga mkono.<ref name="Low2013">{{Rejea jarida|last=Low|first=DE|title=Toxic shock syndrome: major advances in pathogenesis, but not treatment.|journal=[[Critical Care Clinics]]|date=July 2013|volume=29|issue=3|pages=651–75|doi=10.1016/j.ccc.2013.03.012|pmid=23830657}}</ref> Watu wengine hupendekeza kuchelewesha mchakato wa uondoaji wa tishu zilizoambukizwa kwa njia ya upasuaji.<ref name="Low2013" /> Hatari ya jumla ya kifo kutokea kutokana na ugonjwa wa streptococcal ni takribani asilimia 50%, na asilimia 5% kutokana na ugonjwa wa staphylococcal.<ref name="Low2013" /> Kifo kinaweza kutokea ndani ya siku 2.<ref name="Low2013" /> Nchini Marekani ugonjwa wa streptococcal TSS hutokea kwa takriban watu 3 kati ya watu 100,000 kwa mwaka na ugonjwa wa staphylococcal TSS kwa takriban 0.5 kati ya watu 100,000 kwa mwaka.<ref name="Low2013" /> Ugonjwa huo hutokea zaidi zaidi katika [[Nchi inayoendelea|nchi zinazoendelea kukua]].<ref name="Low2013" /> Ugonjwa huu ulielezewa kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1927.<ref name="Low2013" /> Kwa sababu ya kuhusishwa kwake na tamponi zenye uwezo mkubwa sana wa kufyonza damu, bidhaa hizi ziliacha kuuzwa.<ref name="Low2013" /> ==Tanbihi== <references /> [[Jamii:Magonjwa ya bakteria]] bh6j16vqpzzgdc22s4xh2nhkh51t3vc 0 187742 1580151 1528663 2026-07-18T00:38:27Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580151 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition | name = Fibromyalgia | synonym = Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) | image = Tender points fibromyalgia.svg | image_size = | image_thumbtime = | alt = | caption = Sehemu tisa za mbili zisizo kuwa na hisia ambazo zimejumuishwa kwenye vigezo vya mwaka wa 1990 [[Chuo cha Marekani cha Rheumatology]] kwa ajili ya utambuzi wa ya Fibromyalgia. | pronounce = {{IPAc-en|ˌ|f|aɪ|b|r|oʊ|m|aɪ|ˈ|æ|l|dʒ|ə}}<ref>{{cite web|title=fibromyalgia|url=http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/fibromyalgia|website=Collins Dictionaries|accessdate=16 March 2016|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004020527/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/american/fibromyalgia|archivedate=4 October 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> | specialty = [[Matibabu ya Akili]], [[magonjwa ya yabisi baridi]], [[neurolojia]] | Dalili = Maumivu yaliyoenea, hisia ya uchovu, matatizo ya usingizi<ref name="pmid21303476">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Ngian GS, Guymer EK, Littlejohn GO|title=The use of opioids in fibromyalgia|journal=Int J Rheum Dis|volume=14|issue=1|pages=6–11|date=February 2011|pmid=21303476|doi=10.1111/j.1756-185X.2010.01567.x}}</ref><ref name=JAMA2014/> | onset = Watu wenye umri wa kati<ref name=NIH2014Tx/> | duration = Ya muda mrefu<ref name="pmid21303476"/> | causes = Hakijulikani<ref name=JAMA2014/><ref name=NIH2014Tx/> | risks = | diagnosis = Kulingana na dalili zilizopo baada ya kuondoa sababu zingine zinazoweza kuusababisha<ref name=JAMA2014/><ref name=NIH2014Tx/> | differential = [[Ugonjwa wa Polymyalgia rheumatica]], [[ugonjwa wa yabisi-baridi (rheumatoid arthritis)]], [[ugonjwa wa yabisi-barid (osteoarthritis)]], [[ugonjwa wa dundumio (thyroid)]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferri|first1=Fred F.|title=Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders|url=https://archive.org/details/ferrisdifferenti0000ferr|date=2010|publisher=Elsevier/Mosby|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0323076999|page=Chapter F|edition=2nd}}</ref> | prevention = | treatment = Kulala na mazoezi ya kutosha, [[lishe bora]]<ref name=NIH2014Tx/> | medication = [[Duloxetine]], [[milnacipran]], [[pregabalin]], [[gabapentin]]<ref name=NIH2014Tx/><ref name=Coch2017Gab>{{cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=TE|last2=Derry|first2=S|last3=Wiffen|first3=PJ|last4=Moore|first4=RA|title=Gabapentin for fibromyalgia pain in adults.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=3 January 2017|volume=1|pages=CD012188|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD012188.pub2|pmid=28045473|pmc=6465053}}</ref> | prognosis = Umri wa kuishi wa kawaida<ref name=NIH2014Tx/> | frequency = asilimia 2–8%<ref name=JAMA2014/> | deaths = }} '''Uyabisi wa Misuli (Fibromyalgia''', '''FM''') ni [[ugonjwa]] wenye [[dalili]] za [[maumivu]] ya muda mrefu yaliyoenea kote mwilini na mwitikio wa maumivu makali kwa shinikizo yoyote kwenye mwili.<ref name="pmid21303476" /> Dalili nyingine ni pamoja na uchovu mwingi kiasi kwamba shughuli za kawaida huathiriwa, matatizo ya usingizi na matatizo ya [[kumbukumbu]].<ref name="JAMA2014">{{Rejea jarida|last=Clauw|first=Daniel J.|title=Fibromyalgia|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_2014-04-16_311_15/page/1546|journal=JAMA|date=16 April 2014|volume=311|issue=15|pages=1547–55|doi=10.1001/jama.2014.3266|pmid=24737367}}</ref> Baadhi ya watu pia huripoti dalili za miguu kutotulia, matatizo [[Irritable bowel syndrome|ya utumbo]] au kibofu cha mkojo kuwasha, kufa ganzi na kuhisi mwasho na kuwa na hisia kali kwa kelele, mwanga au halijoto.<ref name="NIH2014Tx">{{Rejea tovuti|title=Questions and Answers about Fibromyalgia|url=http://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/fibromyalgia/|work=NIAMS|accessdate=15 March 2016|date=July 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315112712/http://www.niams.nih.gov/health_info/fibromyalgia/|archivedate=15 March 2016}}</ref> Mara nyingi huhusishwa na [[unyogovu]], wasiwasi na [[Tatizo la kiakili linalotokana na kiwewe|ugonjwa wa kiakili unaotokana na kiwewe]].<ref name="JAMA2014" /> Aina nyingine za maumivu ya muda mrefu pia hutokea mara kwa mara.<ref name="JAMA2014" /> Kisababishi hakijulikani, hata hivyo, inaaminika kuwa inahusisha mchanganyiko wa mambo ya [[Jenetikia|kijenetikia]] na ya mazingira.<ref name="JAMA2014" /><ref name="NIH2014Tx" /> Hali hiyo hutokea katika familia na jeni nyingi zinaaminika kuhusika.<ref name="Buskila-2006">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Buskila D, Sarzi-Puttini P|title=Biology and therapy of fibromyalgia. Genetic aspects of fibromyalgia syndrome|journal=[[Arthritis Research & Therapy]]|volume=8|issue=5|page=218|year=2006|pmid=16887010|pmc=1779444|doi=10.1186/ar2005}}</ref> Sababu za kimazingira zinaweza kujumuisha mfadhaiko wa kisaikolojia, kiwewe na [[maambukizo|maambukizi]] fulani.<ref name="JAMA2014" /> Maumivu yanaonekana kuwa yanatokana na michakato katika mfumo mkuu wa neva na hali hiyo inajulikana kama "ugonjwa wa kihisia wa neva ya kati".<ref name="pmid21303476" /><ref name="JAMA2014" /> Fibromyalgia inatambuliwa kama ugonjwa na Taasisi za Kitaifa za Afya za Marekani na Chuo cha Marekani cha Rheumatology .<ref name="NIH2014Tx" /><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Fibromyalgia|url=http://www.rheumatology.org/I-Am-A/Patient-Caregiver/Diseases-Conditions/Fibromyalgia|work=American College of Rheumatology|accessdate=16 March 2016|date=May 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317104756/http://www.rheumatology.org/I-Am-A/Patient-Caregiver/Diseases-Conditions/Fibromyalgia|archivedate=17 March 2016}}</ref> Hakuna vipimo maalum wa utambuzi wa ugonjwa.<ref name="NIH2014Tx" /> Utambuzi wa ugonjwa unahusisha kwanza kuondoa sababu zingine zinazoweza kuusababisha na kuthibitisha kuwa kuna idadi fulani ya dalili.<ref name="JAMA2014" /><ref name="NIH2014Tx" /> Matibabu ya Fibromyalgia yanaweza kuwa magumu.<ref name="NIH2014Tx" /> Mapendekezo ya matibabu mara nyingi hujumuisha maelekezo ya kulala vya kutosha, kufanya mazoezi mara kwa mara, na kula vyakula vyenye [[Mlo kamili|lishe bora]].<ref name="NIH2014Tx" /> Tiba ya kitabia ya utambuzi (CBT) inaweza pia kusaidia.<ref name="JAMA2014" /><ref name="JAMA2020">{{Rejea jarida|last=Mascarenhas|first=Rodrigo Oliveira|last2=Souza|first2=Mateus Bastos|last3=Oliveira|first3=Murilo Xavier|last4=Lacerda|first4=Ana Cristina|last5=Mendonça|first5=Vanessa Amaral|last6=Henschke|first6=Nicholas|last7=Oliveira|first7=Vinícius Cunha|title=Association of Therapies With Reduced Pain and Improved Quality of Life in Patients With Fibromyalgia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=JAMA Internal Medicine|date=26 October 2020|doi=10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.5651}}</ref> Dawa za duloxetine, milnacipran au pregabalin zinaweza kutumiwa.<ref name="NIH2014Tx" /> Matumizi ya dawa za maumivu ya opioidi ni ya utata, huku wengine wakisema manufaa yana ushahidi hafifu wa kuunga mkono utumiaji wake<ref name="NIH2014Tx" /><ref name="Don2016">{{Rejea jarida|last=Goldenberg|first=DL|last2=Clauw|first2=DJ|last3=Palmer|first3=RE|last4=Clair|first4=AG|title=Opioid Use in Fibromyalgia: A Cautionary Tale.|journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings|date=May 2016|volume=91|issue=5|pages=640–8|pmid=26975749|doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.02.002|url=http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(16)00102-6/fulltext|type=Review|access-date=22 July 2020|archive-date=29 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210829130759/https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196%2816%2900102-6/fulltext}}</ref> na wengine wakisema kwamba utumiaji wa opioid kidogo inaweza kuwa sawa ikiwa dawa zingine hazifanyi kazi.<ref>{{Rejea kitabu|last=Sumpton|first=JE|last2=Moulin|first2=DE|title=Fibromyalgia.|work=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|date=2014|volume=119|pages=513–27|pmid=24365316|doi=10.1016/B978-0-7020-4086-3.00033-3|isbn=9780702040863}}</ref> Virutubisho vya lishe havina ushahidi wa kuunga mkono matumizi yao.<ref name="NIH2014Tx" /> Ingawa fibromyalgia inaweza kudumu kwa muda mrefu, haisababishi kifo au uharibifu wa tishu za mwili.<ref name="NIH2014Tx" /> Fibromyalgia inakadiriwa kuwa inaathiri asilimia 2 hadi 8 ya idadi ya watu.<ref name="JAMA2014" /> Wanawake huathiriwa mara mbili zaidi kuliko wanaume.<ref name="JAMA2014" /> Viwango vinaonekana sawa katika maeneo tofauti ya ulimwengu na kati ya tamaduni tofauti.<ref name="JAMA2014" /> Fibromyalgia ilifafanuliwa kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1990 na vigezo vikasasishwa mwaka wa 2011.<ref name="JAMA2014" /> Kuna utata kuhusu uainishaji, utambuzi na matibabu ya fibromyalgia.<ref name="pmid19623319">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Häuser W, Eich W, Herrmann M, Nutzinger DO, Schiltenwolf M, Henningsen P|title=Fibromyalgia syndrome: classification, diagnosis, and treatment|journal=Dtsch Arztebl Int|volume=106|issue=23|pages=383–91|date=June 2009|pmid=19623319|pmc=2712241|doi=10.3238/arztebl.2009.0383|url=}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida|last=Wang|first=SM|last2=Han|first2=C|last3=Lee|first3=SJ|last4=Patkar|first4=AA|last5=Masand|first5=PS|last6=Pae|first6=CU|title=Fibromyalgia diagnosis: a review of the past, present and future.|journal=Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics|date=June 2015|volume=15|issue=6|pages=667–79|pmid=26035624|doi=10.1586/14737175.2015.1046841}}</ref> Ingawa wengine wanahisi kuwa utambuzi wa fibromyalgia unaweza kuathiri mtu vibaya, utafiti mwingine umebaini kuwa unaweza ukawa na manufaa.<ref name="JAMA2014" /> Neno "fibromyalgia" linatokana na neno la lugha ya New Latin ''fibro-'', ikimaanisha "tishu zenye nyuzi", [[Kigiriki]] μυώ ''myo-'', "misuli", na Kigiriki άλγος ''algos'', "maumivu"; kwa hivyo, tafsiri ya moja kwa moja ya neno hilo inamaanisha "maumivu ya tishu za kuunganisha zenye nyuzi na [[Musuli|misuli]]".<ref>{{Rejea kitabu|last=Bergmann|first=Uri|title=Neurobiological foundations for EMDR practice|date=2012|publisher=Springer Pub. Co.|location=New York, NY|isbn=9780826109385|page=165|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxEiRjNm8nMC&pg=PA165}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] [[Jamii:Magonjwa]] fq319773kdhvuxlpfp54m8inpqcujy6 0 187746 1580162 1514397 2026-07-18T00:44:27Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580162 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition | name = Hypothyroidism | synonym = tezi mfu, tezi ya chini, hypothyreosis | image = Thyroxine-2D-skeletal.png | image_size = | image_thumbtime = | alt = Muundo wa kimolekuli wa molekuli ya thyroxine | caption = Muundo wa kimolekyuli wa molekuli ya thyroxine, upungufu usababishao dalili za hypothyroidism | pronounce = | specialty = [[Endokrinolojia]] | Dalili = Kuwashwa, udhaifu wa misuli, matatizo ya kulala, [[mapigo ya moyo ya haraka]], [[kushindwa kuhimili joto]], [[kuhara]], [[kupanuka kwa tezi ya dundumio]], [[kupungua kwa uzani]]<ref name=NIH2016 /> | onset = > Kuanzia miaka 20–50 <ref name=NIH2016/> | duration = | causes = [[Upungufu wa iodini ]], [[Ugonjwa wa Grave]], [[ugonjwa wa goita yenye vinundu vingi (multinodular goiter)]], [[uvimbe usio wa kisaratani unaozalisha homoni nyingi za tezi ya dundumio (toxic adenoma)]], [[kuvimba kwa tezi ya dundumio]], [[ulaji uliopitiliza wa iodini]], [[utumiaji mwingi wa homoni ya tezi ya dundumio ya kutengeneza]]<ref name=NIH2016/> | risks = | diagnosis = Kulingana na dalili na kuthibitishwa na [[vipimo vya damu]]<ref name=NIH2016/> | differential = [[Msongo wa mawazo (hisia)|Msongo wa mawazo]], [[kupoteza kumbukumbu]], [[moyo kushindwa kufanya kazi]], [[ugonjwa wa wasiwasi iliyopitiliza]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferri|first1=Fred F.|title=Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders|url=https://archive.org/details/ferrisdifferenti0000ferr|date=2010|publisher=Elsevier/Mosby|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0323076999|page=Chapter H|edition=2nd}}</ref> | prevention = [[chumvi yenye madini joto|Utiaji madini joto katika chumvi]]<ref name=Sye2015/> | treatment = [[Tiba ya radioiodini]], utumiaji wa dawa, upasuaji wa tezi ya dundumio<ref name=NIH2016/> | medication = | prognosis = | frequency = asilmia 1.2% ya watu (Marekani)<ref name=Garber/> | deaths = }} '''Hyperthyroidism (uzalishaji wa homoni nyingi mno kwenye tezi ya dundumio)''' ni hali inayotokana na uzalishwaji wa ziada wa homoni ya tezi kutoka kwenye dundumio.<ref name="NIH2016">{{Rejea tovuti|title=Hypothyroidism|url=http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/endocrine/hypothyroidism/Pages/fact-sheet.aspx|work=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases|accessdate=5 March 2016|date=March 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305010654/http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/endocrine/hypothyroidism/Pages/fact-sheet.aspx|archivedate=5 March 2016}}</ref> '''Thyrotoxicosis''' ni hali ya kuwa na kiwango kikubwa cha homoni za tezi ya dundumio kutokana na sababu yoyote na hivyo kujumuisha hyperthyroidism.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Baaadhi ya watu, hata hivyo hutumia maneno hayo kumaanisha kitu kimoja.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Dalili na na ishara zake hutofautiana kulingana na watu na zinaweza kujumuisha miwasho, udhaifu wa misuli, matatizo ya kulala, mapigo ya moyo ya haraka, kushindwa kuhimili joto, kuhara,&nbsp; kupanuka kwa tezi ya dundumio, utetemekaji wa mikono, na kupungua kwa uzani.<ref name="Pre2009">{{Rejea kitabu|last=Preedy|first=Victor|title=Comprehensive Handbook of Iodine Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects.|date=2009|publisher=Elsevier|location=Burlington|isbn=9780080920863|page=616|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=7v7g5XoCQQwC&pg=PA616|access-date=2020-07-28|archive-date=2020-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518145128/https://books.google.ca/books?id=7v7g5XoCQQwC&pg=PA616}}</ref> Dalili kwa kawaida si kali sana kwa wazee na kipindi cha ujauzito.<ref name="Garber">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Garber JR, Cobin RH, Gharib H, Hennessey JV, Klein I, Mechanick JI, Pessah-Pollack R, Singer PA, Woeber KA|title=Clinical practice guidelines for hypothyroidism in adults: cosponsored by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Thyroid Association|journal=Thyroid|volume=22|issue=12|pages=1200–35|date=December 2012|pmid=22954017|doi=10.1089/thy.2012.0205|url=https://www.aace.com/files/final-file-hypo-guidelines.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114192331/https://www.aace.com/files/final-file-hypo-guidelines.pdf|archive-date=2016-01-14|access-date=2013-12-25}}</ref><ref name="Chakera">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Chakera AJ, Pearce SH, Vaidya B|title=Treatment for primary hypothyroidism: current approaches and future possibilities|journal=Drug Design, Development and Therapy|volume=6|issue=|pages=1–11|year=2012|pmid=22291465|pmc=3267517|doi=10.2147/DDDT.S12894|type=Review}}</ref> Utata usio wa kawaida ni uzalishaji wa homoni nyingi kabisa za tezi ya dundomio ambapo iwapo kuna maambukizo hupelekea kwa dalili kuzidi kuwa mbaya kama vile kuchanganyikiwa na kupanda kwa hali joto na mara nyingi husababisha kifo.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Kinyume chake ni hypothyroidism, wakati ambapo tezi ya dundumio haizalishi homoni za kutosha za tezi ya dundumio.<ref name="NIH2016" /><ref name="Persani2012">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Persani L|title=Clinical review: Central hypothyroidism: pathogenic, diagnostic, and therapeutic challenges|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=97|issue=9|pages=3068–78|date=September 2012|pmid=22851492|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-1616|type=Review|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ugonjwa wa Grave ni kisababishi cha takribani asilimia 50% hadi 80% ya visa vyote vya hyperthyroidism nchini Marekani.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Visababishi vingine vinajumuisha ugonjwa wa goita yenye vinundu vingi (multinodular goiter), uvimbe usio wa kisaratani unaozalisha homoni nyingi za tezi ya dundumio (toxic adenoma), kuvimba kwa tezi ya dundumio, ulaji uliopitiliza wa iodini na utumiaji mwingi wa homoni ya tezi ya dundumio ya kutengeneza.<ref name="Sye2015">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Syed S|title=Iodine and the "near" eradication of cretinism|journal=Pediatrics|volume=135|issue=4|pages=594–6|date=April 2015|pmid=25825529|doi=10.1542/peds.2014-3718|doi-access=free}}</ref> Kisababishi kisicho cha kawaida ni uvimbe usio wa kisaratani katika tezi ya pituitari.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Utambuzi huo unaweza kugunduliwa kwa kuzingatia dalili na ishara na baadaye kuthibitishwa kwa vipimo vya damu.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Kwa kawaida vipimo vya damu huonesha kiwango cha chini cha homoni chochezi za tezi ya dundumio (thyroid stimulating hormone, TSH) na viwango vya juu vya T₃ au T₄.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Upimaji wa utumiaji wa iodini ya mionzi na tezi ya dundumio, uchunguzi wa tezi ya dundumio na kingamwili za TSI kunaweza kusaidia kubaini kisababishi.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Matibabu hutegemea kwa kiasi fulani kisababishi na ukali wa ugonjwa.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Kuna chaguo kuu tatu za matibabu: tiba ya mionzi ya iodini, umezaji wa dawa na upasuaji wa tezi ya dundumio.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Tiba ya mionzi ya iodini hujumuisha umezaji wa iodini-131 kwenye kinywa ambayo hujikusanya na kuharibu tezi ya dundumio ndani ya wiki au miezi.<ref name="Garber" /> Hypothyroidism iliyojitokeza hutibiwa kwa kutumia homoni ya tezi za dundumio iliyotengenezwa.Utumiaji wa dawa kama vile vizuizi vya beta vinaweza kudhibiti dalili na matumizi ya dawa za kupunguza tezi ya dundumio kama vile methimazole zinaweza kusaidia watu kwa muda mfupi wakati matibabu mengine yakiendelea kufanya kazi. Upasuaji wa kuondoa tezi ya dundumio ni chaguo jingine la matibabu. Hii inaweza kutumika kwa wale wenye vimbe kubwa sana za tezi ya dundumio au wakati saratani inapotiliwa shaka. Nchini Marekani, hyperthyroidism huathiri takriban asilimia 1.2% ya idadi ya watu wote.<ref name="Garber" /> Hutokea kati ya mara mbili hadi kumi zaidi kwa wanawake.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Watu zaidi ya umri wa miaka 60 huathiriwa zaidi.<ref name="NIH2016" /> Kwa kawaida, huanza kati ya umri wa miaka 20 hadi 50.<ref name="Merck">{{Rejea tovuti|title=Hypothyroidism|work=Merck Veterinary Manual, 10th edition (online version)|url=http://www.merckmanuals.com/vet/endocrine_system/the_thyroid_gland/hypothyroidism.html|year=2012|accessdate=2013-12-25|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120823162629/http://www.merckmanuals.com/vet/endocrine_system/the_thyroid_gland/hypothyroidism.html|archivedate=2012-08-23}}</ref> Kwa ujumla ugonjwa huu huwapata zaidi wale walio na zaidi ya miaka 60.<ref>{{Rejea kitabu|title=Mosby's Medical Dictionary|date=2013|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9780323112581|page=887|edition=9|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=aW0zkZl0JgQC&pg=PA887|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307010245/https://books.google.ca/books?id=aW0zkZl0JgQC&pg=PA887|archive-date=2016-03-07}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[jamii:Magonjwa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] de0r6qolm6so5btf14n3gqgjqegigf4 0 188658 1580140 1358195 2026-07-18T00:31:32Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580140 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Valli Kemp''' (amezaliwa [[19 Novemba]] [[1950]]) ni [[mwanamitindo]] wa zamani wa [[Australia]], [[mwigizaji]], [[Mitindo|mbunifu wa mitindo]], [[mpiga picha]], [[mwalimu]] na mshindi wa mashindano ya urembo. Anajulikana zaidi kwa kushiriki katika mashindano kadhaa maarufu ya urembo mwanzoni mwa miaka ya [[1970]] na kwa jukumu lake katika filamu ya kutisha ya mwaka [[1972]] ''Dr. Phibes Rises Again'', ambapo alionekana pamoja na ''Vincent Price'' kama msaidizi wa kimya na mshiriki wa daktari mhalifu, Vulnavia.<ref name="kemp">Valli Kemp, [http://www.vallikempart.com/page1/page1.html "Valli Kemp Bio"] {{Wayback|url=http://www.vallikempart.com/page1/page1.html |date=20110220122544 }}. Retrieved 15 February 2011.</ref><ref name="kemp2">The Vincent Price Exhibit, [https://web.archive.org/web/20100401172855/http://www.angelfire.com/film/rdsquires/valli.htm "Vulnavia Speaks: An Exclusive Interview with Valli Kemp"]. Retrieved 15 February 2011</ref><ref>"A Snap for His Album", ''Sydney Morning Herald'', 7 May 1967, p 3.</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanamitindo wa Australia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Australia]] ned5goztk7xzt34po8h6mdm8t6hr7qa 0 189191 1580272 1515472 2026-07-18T02:06:54Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580272 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox | name = Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli |- | native_name = {{Noitalics|{{Script/Hebrew|צבא ההגנה לישראל}}}} | image = [[File:Badge of the Israeli Defense Forces 2022 version.svg|150px]] | alt = alternative text | caption = Nembo ya Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli | image2 = [[File:Flag of the Israel Defense Forces.svg|200px]] | caption2 = Bendera ya Israeli na Nembo }} '''Jeshi la Ulinzi la Israeli''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]] '''Israel Defense Forces''', [[kifupi]]: '''IDF'''; <small>{{lang-he|צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל}}</small> {{Audio|He-Israeli Defense Forces.ogg|''Tsva ha-Hagana le-Yisra'el''}}, kwa ufafanuzi wa neno kwa neno: ''Jeshi la Ulinzi wa Waisraeli'', pia hutajwa kwa finyanzo la [[Kiebrania]] '''Tzahal''' ({{Lang|he|צה״ל}}), ni jeshi la ulinzi la [[taifa]] la [[Israeli]]. ''IDF'' ni jeshi lenye sehemu kuu tatu: Jeshi la Askari wa Miguu la Israeli, Jeshi la Anga la Israeli na Jeshi la Wanamaji la Israeli.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|date=|title=The State: Israel Defense Forces (IDF)|url=https://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/aboutisrael/state/pages/the%20state-%20israel%20defense%20forces%20-idf-.aspx#:~:text=The%20IDF's%20three%20service%20branches,to%20the%20minister%20of%20defense.|access-date=18 August 2021|website=Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs|quote=The IDF's three service branches (ground forces, air force, and navy) function under a unified command, headed by the Chief of the General Staff, with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is responsible to the minister of defence.|archive-date=18 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818074136/https://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/aboutisrael/state/pages/the%20state-%20israel%20defense%20forces%20-idf-.aspx#:~:text=The%20IDF's%20three%20service%20branches,to%20the%20minister%20of%20defense.|url-status=live}}</ref> Ndio tawi pekee la kijeshi la vikosi vya ulinzi na usalawa vya taifa la Israeli. IDF huongozwa na Mkuu wa Jeshi, ambaye huwa chini ya Waziri wa Ulinzi wa Israeli. Chini ya maelekezo ya Waziri Mkuu wa kwanza David Ben-Gurion, IDF ilianzishwa mnamo tarehe 26 Mei 1948 na lilianza kwa kutumikisha watu kisheria , huku wasajiliwa wake wa awali kabisa wakiwa ni askari ambao tayari walikuwepo, wa [[kundi la kijeshi]] la ''Yishuv'' — maarufu kama ''Haganah'', [Irgun], na kundi lingine lililojulikana kama ''Lehi''. Lilianzishwa muda mfupi baada ya Israeli kujitangazia uhuru wake na limeshiriki katika kila mgogoro wa kivita ambamo Israeli ilihusika. Ndani ya vipindi vya mikataba ya amani; kati ya Israeli na Misri wa 1979 na ule wa Israeli na Jordan wa 1994, IDF ilifanya mabadiliko makubwa ya kimkakati. Hapo kabla, jeshi hilo lilikuwa likisambazwa kwenye maeneo mbalimbali ya mstari wa mbele —[[Lebanon]] na [[Syria]] upande wa kaskazini, [[Jordan]] na [[Iraq]] upande wa mashariki, na [[Misri]] upande wa kusini — IDF ikahamishia umakinifu wake kwenye maeneo inayoyakalia ya kusini mwa Lebanoni na kwenye kuzikalia kimabavu himaya za Palestina za [[Ukanda wa Gaza]] na Ukingo wa Magharibi, ikijumuisha [[Yerusalemu]] ya [[Mashariki]]. Mnamo mwaka 2000, IDF iliondoka kusini mwa Lebanoni na mnamo 2005 iliondoka Gaza. Mizozo kati ya Israeli na makundi ya Kiislamu ya Gaza, hususan [[Hamas]], imekuwa ikiendelea tangia wakati huo. Zaidi ya hayo, mgogoro mwingine uliotikisa ni ule wa Israeli na Syria, ambao ulikuwa ukifukuta mara kwa mara tangu 2011, kutokana na hali tete ya Mashariki ya Kati inayosababishwa na vita vya wenyewe kwa wenyewe huko Syria. Tangu mwaka 1967, IDF imekuwa ikijenga uhusiano wa karibu wa masuala ya kiusalama na [[Marekani]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Mahler, Gregory S. |title=Israel After Begin |url=https://archive.org/details/israelafterbegin0000unse |page=[https://archive.org/details/israelafterbegin0000unse/page/45 45] |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-7914-0367-9}}</ref> wakishirikiana pia katika masuala ya utafiti wa maendeleo, wakiweka juhudi za pamoja kwenye uundaji wa ''McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle'' au F-15I na makombora ya kujilindia ya ''Arrow'' , miongoni mwa mambo mengine . Pia inashukiwa kuwa IDF imejitengenezea na inamiliki silaha za kinyuklia tangia mwaka 1967, ikiwa na vichwa vya silaza hizo kati ya 80 na 400.<ref name="israelcohen">There is a wide range of estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal. For a compiled list of estimates, see [[Avner Cohen]], ''The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb'' (Columbia University Press, 2010), Table 1, page xxvii and page 82.</ref> IDF inazidhibiti himaya za Palestina zinazokaliwa kimabavu na Israeli kupitia ukandamizaji, ubaguzi uliorasmishwa na uporaji wa haki za binadamu (za Wapalestina) na unyanyasaji wa kikatili; mambo ambayo yamekumbana na ukosoji mkubwa kote duniani.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |title=Israel, West Bank and Gaza |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240306132629/https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/israel-west-bank-and-gaza/ |archive-date=6 March 2024 |access-date=2024-08-03 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US }}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti |date=2022-02-01 |title=Israel's apartheid against Palestinians: a cruel system of domination and a crime against humanity |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/02/israels-apartheid-against-palestinians-a-cruel-system-of-domination-and-a-crime-against-humanity/ |access-date=2024-08-03 |website=Amnesty International |language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Mashariki ya Kati]] [[Jamii:Jeshi]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Israeli]] ewuzeosxaum7q31cb64poopur2c8vhm 0 190203 1580149 1362448 2026-07-18T00:37:07Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580149 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Donald_Attwater.jpg|right|thumb|Donald Attwater na Eric Gill, 1929, mkusanyiko wa kibinafsi.]] '''Donald Attwater''' ([[24 Desemba]] [[1892]] – [[30 Januari]] [[1977]]) alikuwa [[mwandishi]], mhariri, na mtafsiri [[Mkatoliki]] kutoka [[Uingereza]], na mhadhiri mgeni katika Chuo Kikuu cha Notre Dame.<ref>{{cite book|title=Adam Schall: A Jesuit in the Court of China, 1592-1666|url=https://archive.org/details/adamschalljesuit0000attw|last=Attwater|first=Rachel|date=1963|publisher=Bruce Publishing Company|location=[[Milwaukee]]}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1992]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1977]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Uingereza]] skorpx33zhf75lhljwuiqbxz6k06e88 0 190216 1580193 1574222 2026-07-18T01:05:28Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580193 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lugha za Kiatlantiki-Kongo''' ni [[familia]] kubwa zaidi ya [[lugha]] zilizoonyeshwa kuwa na uhusiano [[bara|barani]] [[Afrika]]. Lugha hizo zina mifumo maalumu ya vikundi vya [[jina|majina]] na zinaunda msingi wa [[nadharia]] ya familia ya [[lugha za Kiniger-Kongo]]. Lugha hizo zinajumuisha karibu lugha zote za Kiniger-Congo isipokuwa [[Kimande]], [[Kidogon]], [[Kijoid]], [[Kisiamou]], [[Kikru]], na [[lugha za Katla]] na [[lugha za Rashad|Rashad]] (ambazo hapo awali zilijulikana kama Kikordofanian), na pengine baadhi au zote za [[lugha za Ubangi]]. Nadharia ya "Western Nigritic" ya Hans Gunther Mukanovsky ilikuwa inahusiana zaidi na Kiatlantiki-Kongo ya kisasa. ==Msamiati linganishi== Mfano wa [[msamiati]] wa msingi kwa lugha za proto zilizorekebishwa za [[tawi|matawi]] mbalimbali ya Kiatlantiki-Kongo: {| class="wikitable sortable" | style="font-size: 90%;" | ! Tawi !! Lugha !! jicho !! sikio !! pua !! jino !! ulimi !! mdomo !! damu !! mfupa !! mti !! maji !! kula !! jina |- | "Western Nigritic"<br/>(roughly Atlantic–Congo) || Proto-"Western Nigritic" || *-nín-, *-nínu || *-thúi, *-thú- || *-míl-, *-míla || *-nín- (*-níghin-) || *-líma (*-líami); *-lélum- (*-lúm-) || *-níana; *-níuna (*-núa) || *-ghìá; *-kàl- || *-khwúpà || *-tí || *-lingi || *di- || *-ghínà |- | Benue-Congo || Proto-[[Benue-Congo languages|Benue-Congo]]<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9783110905311 |title=The Noun-Class System of Proto-Benue-Congo |url=https://archive.org/details/nounclasssystemo0000dewo |date=1971 |last1=Wolf |first1=Paul de |isbn=9783110905311 }}</ref> || *-lito || *-tuŋi || *-zua || *-nini, *-nino; *-sana; *-gaŋgo || *-lemi; *-lake || || *-zi; *-luŋ || *-kupe || *-titi; *-kwon || *-izi; *-ni || || *-zina |- | Bantu || Proto-[[Bantu languages|Bantu]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Schadeberg |first=Thilo C. |author-link=Thilo C. Schadeberg |isbn=978-0-700-71134-5 |year=2003 |chapter=Historical linguistics |editor-first1=Derek |editor-last1=Nurse |editor-first2=Gérard |editor-last2=Philippson |title=The Bantu Languages|url=https://archive.org/details/bantulanguages0000unse |publisher=Routledge }}</ref> || *i=jíco || *kʊ=tʊ́i || *i=jʊ́lʊ || *i=jíno; *i=gego || *lʊ=lɪ́mi || *ka=nʊa; *mʊ=lomo || *ma=gilá; *=gil-a; *ma=gadí; *=gadí; *mʊ=lopa; *ma=ɲínga || *i=kúpa || *mʊ=tɪ́ || *ma=jíjɪ; *i=diba (HH?) || *=lɪ́ -a || *i=jína |- | Yoruboid || [[Proto-Yoruboid language]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aubry |first1=N. |last2=Friedman |first2=H. |last3=Pozdniakov |first3=K. |year=2004 |url=http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/NC/Public/pdf/swadesh_yoruba-igala_2004.pdf |title=Proto-Yoruba-Igala Swadesh list |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105021854/http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/NC/Public/pdf/swadesh_yoruba-igala_2004.pdf |archive-date=2021-01-05 |publisher=Langage, Langues et Cultures d’Afrique (LLACAN), Centre National de la Récherche Sciéntifique (CNRS).}}</ref> || *é-jú || *é-tí || *ímṵ́ || *éŋḭ́ || [[Yoruba language|Yor]]. ahá̰ || *ɛ́lṵ ? || *ɛ̀-gyɛ̀ || *égbṵ́gbṵ́ || [[Yoruba language|Yor]]. igi || *ó-mḭ || *jɛṵ || *órú- ? |- | Gbe || Proto-[[Gbe languages|Gbe]]<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9783110870534 |title=A Comparative Phonology of Gbe |date=1991 |last1=Capo |first1=Hounkpati B.C. |isbn=978-3-11-013392-9 }}</ref> || || *-tó || || *aɖú || *-ɖɛ́ || *-ɖũ; *-ɖũkpá || *-ʁʷũ || *-χʷú || *-tĩ́ || *-tsĩ || *ɖu || *yĩ́kɔ́ |- | Gur || Proto-[[Central Gur languages|Central Gur]]<ref>{{cite book |isbn=2852970635 |title=Contribution à la classification généalogique des langues voltaïques |last1=Manessy |first1=Gabriel |date=1979 |publisher=Peeters Publishers }}</ref> || || || *me (Oti-Volta, Gurunsi) || *ye (Gurunsi, Kurumfe) || || || *ñam, *ñim (Oti-Volta, Kurumfe) || *ʔob, *ʔo || *tɪ (Oti-Volta, Gurunsi) || *ni, *ne; *nã (Oti-Volta, Gurunsi) || *di || *yɪɗ, *yɪd (Oti-Volta, Gurunsi) |- | Gbaya || Proto-[[Gbaya languages|Gbaya]]<ref>{{cite book |isbn=9782705303532 |title=Lexique comparatif des langues oubanguiennes |last1=Moñino |first1=Yves |date=1988 |publisher=Laboratoire de langues et civilisations à tradition orale, Dép. "Langues et parole en Afrique centrale" }}</ref> || *gbà.l̥í/l̥í || *zɛ̀rà || *zɔ̰̀p || *ɲín || *léɓé ~ lémbè || *nú || *tɔ̀k || *gbà̰là̰ || *l̥ì || *tè || *ɲɔŋ/l̥i || *l̥ín ~ l̥íŋ |} ==Marejeo== {{marejeo}} {{Wamandé}} {{MUM}} [[Jamii:Lugha za Kiniger-Kongo]] 4ty1vzbelhn7o2dpbs09o0ua9y3teyu 0 190788 1580143 1364740 2026-07-18T00:33:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580143 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Syriantravel.jpg|thumb|Bamba kutoka kwa crescent na msalaba ulioitwa "kambi huko Baalbec, Lady na Dragoman mbele."]] '''Bartholomew Eliot George Warburton''' (anajulikana zaidi kama Eliot Warburton, [[1810]]–[[1852]]) alikuwa msafiri na [[mwandishi]] wa [[riwaya]] kutoka [[Ireland]], aliyezaliwa karibu na Tullamore, Ireland.<ref name="boylan">{{cite book|title=A Dictionary of Irish Biography|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofiris0000unse_t5c2|last=Boylan|first=Henry|publisher=Gill and MacMillan|year=1998|isbn=0-7171-2945-4|edition=3rd|place=Dublin|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofiris0000unse_t5c2/page/440 440]}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1810]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1852]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Ireland]] 36ypydl1zi8sqfyiy5vq1intye7lgkc 0 195827 1580065 1528124 2026-07-17T23:40:57Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580065 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox medical condition|image=Acute Appendicitis.jpg|caption=Kidole tumbo kilichovimba sana na kupanuliwa, kilichokatwa kwa urefu.|specialty=[[Upasuaji wa jumla]]|synonym=Epityphlitis<ref>{{cite web |title=appendicitis |work=Medical Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/epityphlitis |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235451/http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/epityphlitis |archive-date=2013-12-30 }}</ref>|Dalili=Chini kulia [[maumivu ya tumbo]], [[kutapika]], [[anorexia (dalili)|kupungua kwa hamu ya kula]]<ref name=Graf1996/>|onset=|duration=|causes=|risks=|diagnosis=Kulingana na dalili, [[picha za kimatibabu]], vipimo vya damu<ref name=Paul2003/>|differential=[[Mesenteric adenitis]], [[cholecystitis]], [[jipu la psoas]], [[magonjwa ya kifuko la aorta ya tumbo]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferri|first1=Fred F.|title=Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders|url=https://archive.org/details/ferrisdifferenti0000ferr|date=2010|publisher=Elsevier/Mosby|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-0323076999|pages = Chapter A|edition=2nd}}</ref>|prevention=|treatment=[[appendectomy|Kuondolewa kwa kiambatisho kwa upasuaji]], [[antibiotiki]]<ref name=Har2012/><ref name=Antibiotics2012/>|medication=|prognosis=|frequency=Milioni 11.6 (2015)<!-- incidence table --><ref name=GBD2015Pre/>|deaths=50,100 (2015)<ref name=GBD2015De/>|name=Uvimbe wa kidole tumbo (Appendicitis)}} '''Uvimbe wa kidole tumbo''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''Appendicitis'') ni kuvimba kwa [[kidole tumbo]].<ref name="Graf1996" /> [[Dalili]] zake za kawaida ni pamoja na [[maumivu]] ya chini ya [[Fumbatio|tumbo]] upande wa kulia, [[kichefuchefu]], [[kutapika]] na [[Anoreksia|kupungua kwa hamu ya kula]].<ref name="Graf1996" /> Walakini, takriban 40% ya watu hawana dalili hizi za kawaida.<ref name="Graf1996">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Graffeo CS, Counselman FL|title=Appendicitis|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_emergency-medicine-clinics-of-north-america_1996-11_14_4/page/n9|journal=Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America|volume=14|issue=4|pages=653–71|date=November 1996|pmid=8921763|doi=10.1016/s0733-8627(05)70273-x}}</ref> Matatizo makubwa ya kidole tumbo kilichopasuka ni pamoja na kuenea, kuvimba kwa uchungu kwa kitambaa cha ndani cha ukuta wa tumbo na sumu ya damu ([[Sepsisi)]].<ref name="Hob1998">{{Rejea jarida|last=Hobler|first=K.|date=Spring 1998|title=Acute and Suppurative Appendicitis: Disease Duration and its Implications for Quality Improvement|url=http://www.thepermanentejournal.org/files/Spring1998/appendicitis.pdf|journal=Permanente Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=2|access-date=2020-08-01|archive-date=2021-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306021312/https://www.thepermanentejournal.org/files/Spring1998/appendicitis.pdf}}</ref> Uvimbe wa kidole tumbo husababishwa na kuziba kwa sehemu yenye shimo ya kiambatisho.<ref name="Piep1982">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Pieper R, Kager L, Tidefeldt U|title=Obstruction of appendix vermiformis causing acute appendicitis. An experimental study in the rabbit|journal=Acta Chirurgica Scandinavica|volume=148|issue=1|pages=63–72|year=1982|pmid=7136413}}</ref> Hii kwa kawaida hutokana na "jiwe" linalojumuisha kinyesi lililojaa madini.<ref name="Har2012" /> Tishu za limfoidi zilizovimba kutokana na maambukizi ya virusi, [[Kimelea|vimelea]], [[Kijiwe cha nyongo|jiwe la nyongo]], au uvimbe pia vinaweza kusababisha kuziba.<ref name="Har2012">{{Rejea kitabu|editor-last=Longo|editor-first=Dan L.|display-editors=etal|title=Harrison's principles of internal medicine.|date=2012|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07174889-6|pages=Chapter 300|edition=18th|url=http://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=331&Sectionid=40727094|access-date=6 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160330064145/http://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=331&sectionid=40727094|archive-date=30 March 2016}}</ref> Uzuiaji huu husababisha kuongezeka kwa shinikizo kwenye kiambatisho, kupungua kwa mtiririko wa damu kwenye tishu za kiambatisho, na ukuaji wa bakteria ndani ya kiambatisho na kusababisha kuvimba.<ref name="Har2012" /><ref name="Tint2011">{{Rejea kitabu|editor-last=Tintinalli|editor-first=Judith E.|title=Emergency medicine : a comprehensive study guide|date=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-174467-6|pages=Chapter 84|edition=7th|url=http://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=348&Sectionid=40381551|access-date=6 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222153008/http://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=348&Sectionid=40381551|archive-date=22 December 2016}}</ref> Mchanganyiko wa kuvimba, kupungua kwa mtiririko wa damu kwenye kiambatisho na kuenea kwa kiambatisho husababisha kuumia kwa tishu na kifo cha tishu.<ref name="Schw2010">{{Rejea kitabu|title=Schwartz's principles of surgery|url=https://archive.org/details/schwartzsprincip0000unse_l9f8|date=2010|publisher=McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division|location=New York|isbn=978-0-07-1547703|pages=Chapter 30|edition=9th}}</ref> Ikiwa mchakato huu haujatibiwa, kiambatisho kinaweza kupasuka, kikitoa bakteria kwenye utupu wa tumbo, na kusababisha matatizo yaliyoongezeka.<ref name="Schw2010" /><ref name="Barrett2013">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Barrett ML, Hines AL, Andrews RM|title=Trends in Rates of Perforated Appendix, 2001–2010|journal=Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP) Statistical Brief #159|date=July 2013|publisher=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality|location=Rockville, MD|pmid=24199256|url=http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb159.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020110746/http://www.hcup-us.ahrq.gov/reports/statbriefs/sb159.pdf|archive-date=2016-10-20}}</ref> Utambuzi wa uvimbe wa kidole tumbo kwa kiasi kikubwa yanategemea ishara na dalili za mtu.<ref name="Tint2011" /> Katika hali ambapo utambuzi hauko wazi, uchunguzi wa karibu, [[Upigaji picha za kimatibabu|picha ya kimatibabu]], na vipimo vya maabara vinaweza kusaidia.<ref name="Paul2003" /> Vipimo viwili vya kawaida vya kupima picha vinavyotumiwa ni ultrasound na tomografia ya kompyuta (CT scan).<ref name="Paul2003">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Paulson EK, Kalady MF, Pappas TN|title=Clinical practice. Suspected appendicitis|journal=The New England Journal of Medicine|volume=348|issue=3|pages=236–42|date=January 2003|pmid=12529465|doi=10.1056/nejmcp013351|url=http://faculty.vet.upenn.edu/gastro/documents/NEJMappendicitis.pdf|access-date=2017-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922005733/http://faculty.vet.upenn.edu/gastro/documents/NEJMappendicitis.pdf|archive-date=2017-09-22}}</ref> Uchunguzi wa CT umeonyeshwa kuwa sahihi zaidi kuliko ultrasound katika kugundua uvimbe wa kidole tumbo mkali.<ref name="Shogilev2014">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Shogilev DJ, Duus N, Odom SR, Shapiro NI|title=Diagnosing appendicitis: evidence-based review of the diagnostic approach in 2014|journal=The Western Journal of Emergency Medicine|volume=15|issue=7|pages=859–71|date=November 2014|pmid=25493136|pmc=4251237|doi=10.5811/westjem.2014.9.21568|type=Review}}</ref> Hata hivyo, uchunguzi wa ultrasound unaweza kupendekezwa kuwa kipimo cha kwanza cha kupiga picha kwa watoto na wanawake wajawazito kwa sababu ya hatari zinazohusiana na mionzi ya jua kutoka kwa tomografia ya kompyuta (CT scans).<ref name="Paul2003" /> Matibabu ya kawaida ya uvimbe wa kidole tumbo mkali ni kuondolewa kwa kiambatisho kwa upasuaji.<ref name="Har2012" /><ref name="Tint2011" /> Hili linaweza kufanywa kwa mkato wazi wa tumbo (laparotomia) au kupitia mikato michache kwa msaada wa kamera (laparoscopy). Upasuaji hupunguza hatari ya madhara au kifo kinachohusiana na kupasuka kwa kiambatisho.<ref name="Hob1998" /> [[Antibiotiki]] zinaweza kuwa na ufanisi sawa katika matukio fulani ya uvimbe wa kidole tumbo ambayo haijapasuka.<ref name="Antibiotics2012">{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Varadhan KK, Neal KR, Lobo DN|title=Safety and efficacy of antibiotics compared with appendicectomy for treatment of uncomplicated acute appendicitis: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials|journal=BMJ|volume=344|pages=e2156|date=April 2012|pmid=22491789|pmc=3320713|doi=10.1136/bmj.e2156}}</ref> Ni moja ya sababu za kawaida na muhimu za maumivu makali ya tumbo ambayo huja haraka. Mwaka wa 2015 takriban visa milioni 11.6 vya ugonjwa wa uvimbe wa kidole tumbo vilitokea ambavyo vilisababisha vifo vipatavyo 50,100.<ref name="GBD2015Pre">{{Rejea jarida|last=GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators|title=Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015|journal=Lancet|volume=388|issue=10053|pages=1545–1602|date=October 2016|pmid=27733282|pmc=5055577|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="GBD2015De">{{Rejea jarida|last=GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators|title=Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015|journal=Lancet|volume=388|issue=10053|pages=1459–1544|date=October 2016|pmid=27733281|pmc=5388903|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(16)31012-1|doi-access=free}}</ref> Nchini Marekani, uvimbe wa kidole tumbo ndio sababu ya kawaida ya maumivu ya tumbo ya ghafla yanayohitaji upasuaji.<ref name="Graf1996" /> Kila mwaka nchini Marekani, zaidi ya watu 300,000 walio na uvimbe wa kidole tumbo huondolewa kwa upasuaji.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Mason RJ|title=Surgery for appendicitis: is it necessary?|journal=Surgical Infections|volume=9|issue=4|pages=481–8|date=August 2008|pmid=18687030|doi=10.1089/sur.2007.079}}</ref> Reginald Fitz anahesabiwa kuwa mtu wa kwanza kuelezea hali hiyo katika mwaka wa 1886.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|vauthors=Fitz RH|title=Perforating inflammation of the vermiform appendix with special reference to its early diagnosis and treatment|journal=American Journal of the Medical Sciences|issue=92|pages=321–46|year=1886}}</ref> [[File:En.Wikipedia-VideoWiki-Appendicitis.webm|thumb| Muhtasari wa video ya kiongozi ( [[:en:VideoWiki/Appendicitis|hati]] )]] == Marejeo == <references /> [[Category:Magonjwa]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] 6pmompn3fus83snaqdkpsou5apoztsd 0 196455 1580251 1382876 2026-07-18T01:52:20Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580251 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Moses Elias Kiley''' (13 Novemba [[1876]] - 15 Aprili [[1953]]) alikuwa ni askofu kutoka [[Marekani]] wa Kani[[sa Katoliki]]. Aliwahi kuwa askofu wa [[Dayosisi]] ya [[Trenton, New Jersey|Trenton]] huko [[New Jersey]] (1934-1940) na Askofu Mkuu wa Jimbo Kuu la [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]] huko [[Wisconsin]] (1940-1953).<ref name="mcnamara">{{cite book|title=The American College in Rome, 1855–1955|url=https://archive.org/details/americancollegei0000unse|last1=McNamara|first1=Robert Francis|year=1956}}</ref><ref name="time">{{cite magazine|date=January 15, 1940|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME Magazine]]|title=Religion: Stritch to Chicago|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,772332,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101014065046/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,772332,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 14, 2010}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-Mkristo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1876]] [[Jamii:Maaskofu Wakatoliki]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1953]] e73u9zd0sxyjo9cw728uahyxhlwyntg 2 196481 1579967 1564520 2026-07-17T17:04:41Z ~2026-40118-33 91004 1579967 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Michael Alacoque''' '''Michael Alacoque''' (born 6 August) is a Tanzanian entrepreneur, pharmacist, fashion model , and Creative Media personality Based in Tanzania. He is the founder of Swahili Urban House and NovaCare Pharmacy. His professional activities span healthcare, entrepreneurship , fashion , entertainment , and digital media , with a focus on business development , media production , and cultural storytelling. '''Early Life and Education''' Michael Alacoque was born on 6 August 1995 in Sumbawanga, Tanzania. He developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, healthcare, media, and the creative arts. His formative years were marked by a strong curiosity about business, communication, and innovation, interests that would later influence his professional career. Michael Alacoque pursued higher education in South Korea, where he studied Pharmaceutical Science at Seoul National University. During his academic training, he gained knowledge in pharmaceutical sciences, healthcare systems, research methodologies, and professional pharmacy practice. His international educational experience contributed to the development of a global perspective that later informed his entrepreneurial and creative pursuits. '''Career''' '''Healthcare and Entrepreneurship''' Following his education, Michael Alacoque became involved in healthcare and pharmaceutical services. He later founded NovaCare Pharmacy, a healthcare enterprise focused on pharmaceutical services and healthcare solutions. Through the company, he has promoted professional standards, accessibility, and innovation within the healthcare sector. In addition to healthcare, Michael Alacoque expanded his interests into media, business, and lifestyle industries. He founded Swahili Urban House, a media and lifestyle platform dedicated to entrepreneurship, entertainment, fashion, culture, and digital storytelling. The platform was established with the objective of highlighting contemporary African experiences while supporting emerging talent and creative expression. His entrepreneurial activities have included business development, brand building, content creation, and media initiatives. His work reflects an interest in combining commercial enterprise with cultural and creative engagement. '''Fashion and Modeling''' Michael Alacoque has also worked as a fashion model and has participated in creative and promotional projects within the fashion industry. His involvement in fashion reflects a broader interest in branding, personal image, and the role of fashion in cultural communication. Over the years, he has explored opportunities in fashion-related media, lifestyle content, and creative collaborations aimed at promoting African creativity and contemporary style. '''Business Interests''' Alacoque’s business interests include healthcare, media, fashion, branding, entertainment, digital content creation, and entrepreneurship. His work is characterized by a multidisciplinary approach that combines commercial strategy with creative innovation. He has advocated for the use of media and entrepreneurship as tools for economic development, cultural representation, and the promotion of African talent on international platforms. '''Personal Life''' Alacoque is based in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. His professional activities continue to focus on business development, healthcare initiatives, media production, and creative projects. He has stated his interest in building internationally recognized brands and contributing to the growth of Africa’s entrepreneurial and creative sectors. '''Legacy and Vision''' Michael Alacoque belongs to a generation of African entrepreneurs and creatives working across multiple industries. Through his involvement in healthcare, media, fashion, and entertainment, he has sought to create ventures that combine innovation, creativity, and business development. His long-term vision includes the expansion of his business interests, the development of media properties, and the promotion of African entrepreneurship and storytelling on a global scale. 758n31s1zvzf1tqiular3keonxojg26 1579968 1579967 2026-07-17T17:07:20Z ~2026-40118-33 91004 1579968 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Michael Alacoque''' '''Michael Alacoque''' (born 6 August) is a Tanzanian entrepreneur, pharmacist, fashion model , and Creative Media personality Based in Tanzania. He is the founder of Swahili Urban House and velnix Pharmacy. His professional activities span healthcare, entrepreneurship , fashion , entertainment , and digital media , with a focus on business development , media production , and cultural storytelling. '''Early Life and Education''' Michael Alacoque was born on 6 August in Sumbawanga, Tanzania. He developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, healthcare, media, and the creative arts. His formative years were marked by a strong curiosity about business, communication, and innovation, interests that would later influence his professional career. Michael Alacoque pursued higher education in South Korea, where he studied Pharmaceutical Science at Seoul National University. During his academic training, he gained knowledge in pharmaceutical sciences, healthcare systems, research methodologies, and professional pharmacy practice. His international educational experience contributed to the development of a global perspective that later informed his entrepreneurial and creative pursuits. '''Career''' '''Healthcare and Entrepreneurship''' Following his education, Michael Alacoque became involved in healthcare and pharmaceutical services. He later founded NovaCare Pharmacy, a healthcare enterprise focused on pharmaceutical services and healthcare solutions. Through the company, he has promoted professional standards, accessibility, and innovation within the healthcare sector. In addition to healthcare, Michael Alacoque expanded his interests into media, business, and lifestyle industries. He founded Swahili Urban House, a media and lifestyle platform dedicated to entrepreneurship, entertainment, fashion, culture, and digital storytelling. The platform was established with the objective of highlighting contemporary African experiences while supporting emerging talent and creative expression. His entrepreneurial activities have included business development, brand building, content creation, and media initiatives. His work reflects an interest in combining commercial enterprise with cultural and creative engagement. '''Fashion and Modeling''' Michael Alacoque has also worked as a fashion model and has participated in creative and promotional projects within the fashion industry. His involvement in fashion reflects a broader interest in branding, personal image, and the role of fashion in cultural communication. Over the years, he has explored opportunities in fashion-related media, lifestyle content, and creative collaborations aimed at promoting African creativity and contemporary style. '''Business Interests''' Alacoque’s business interests include healthcare, media, fashion, branding, entertainment, digital content creation, and entrepreneurship. His work is characterized by a multidisciplinary approach that combines commercial strategy with creative innovation. He has advocated for the use of media and entrepreneurship as tools for economic development, cultural representation, and the promotion of African talent on international platforms. '''Personal Life''' Alacoque is based in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. His professional activities continue to focus on business development, healthcare initiatives, media production, and creative projects. He has stated his interest in building internationally recognized brands and contributing to the growth of Africa’s entrepreneurial and creative sectors. '''Legacy and Vision''' Michael Alacoque belongs to a generation of African entrepreneurs and creatives working across multiple industries. Through his involvement in healthcare, media, fashion, and entertainment, he has sought to create ventures that combine innovation, creativity, and business development. His long-term vision includes the expansion of his business interests, the development of media properties, and the promotion of African entrepreneurship and storytelling on a global scale. okvqenhszgak2bmlcnzl7fccdasjutg 1579969 1579968 2026-07-17T17:09:15Z ~2026-40118-33 91004 1579969 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Michael Alacoque''' '''Michael Alacoque''' (born 6 August) is a Tanzanian entrepreneur, pharmacist, fashion model , and Creative Media personality Based in Tanzania. He is the founder of Swahili Urban House and velnix Pharmacy. His professional activities span healthcare, entrepreneurship , fashion , entertainment , and digital media , with a focus on business development , media production , and cultural storytelling. '''Early Life and Education''' Michael Alacoque was born on 6 August in Sumbawanga, Tanzania. He developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, healthcare, media, and the creative arts. His formative years were marked by a strong curiosity about business, communication, and innovation, interests that would later influence his professional career. Michael Alacoque pursued higher education in South Korea, where he studied Pharmaceutical Science at Seoul National University. During his academic training, he gained knowledge in pharmaceutical sciences, healthcare systems, research methodologies, and professional pharmacy practice. His international educational experience contributed to the development of a global perspective that later informed his entrepreneurial and creative pursuits. '''Career''' '''Healthcare and Entrepreneurship''' Following his education, Michael Alacoque became involved in healthcare and pharmaceutical services. He later founded velnix Pharmacy, a healthcare enterprise focused on pharmaceutical services and healthcare solutions. Through the company, he has promoted professional standards, accessibility, and innovation within the healthcare sector. In addition to healthcare, Michael Alacoque expanded his interests into media, business, and lifestyle industries. He founded Swahili Urban House, a media and lifestyle platform dedicated to entrepreneurship, entertainment, fashion, culture, and digital storytelling. The platform was established with the objective of highlighting contemporary African experiences while supporting emerging talent and creative expression. His entrepreneurial activities have included business development, brand building, content creation, and media initiatives. His work reflects an interest in combining commercial enterprise with cultural and creative engagement. '''Fashion and Modeling''' Michael Alacoque has also worked as a fashion model and has participated in creative and promotional projects within the fashion industry. His involvement in fashion reflects a broader interest in branding, personal image, and the role of fashion in cultural communication. Over the years, he has explored opportunities in fashion-related media, lifestyle content, and creative collaborations aimed at promoting African creativity and contemporary style. '''Business Interests''' Alacoque’s business interests include healthcare, media, fashion, branding, entertainment, digital content creation, and entrepreneurship. His work is characterized by a multidisciplinary approach that combines commercial strategy with creative innovation. He has advocated for the use of media and entrepreneurship as tools for economic development, cultural representation, and the promotion of African talent on international platforms. '''Personal Life''' Alacoque is based in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. His professional activities continue to focus on business development, healthcare initiatives, media production, and creative projects. He has stated his interest in building internationally recognized brands and contributing to the growth of Africa’s entrepreneurial and creative sectors. '''Legacy and Vision''' Michael Alacoque belongs to a generation of African entrepreneurs and creatives working across multiple industries. Through his involvement in healthcare, media, fashion, and entertainment, he has sought to create ventures that combine innovation, creativity, and business development. His long-term vision includes the expansion of his business interests, the development of media properties, and the promotion of African entrepreneurship and storytelling on a global scale. f3ksy8bowsxbt3yzkggcvb58tza3z5p 0 201120 1580105 1398908 2026-07-18T00:08:45Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580105 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gordon Marshall''' ([[2 Julai]] [[1939]] – [[Februari]] [[2025]]) alikuwa kipa wa mpira wa miguu wa kitaalamu mwenye asili ya ''Anglo-Scottish''. Aliichezea timu katika ligi za juu za [[Scotland]] na [[England]] katika kipindi cha miaka 22 ya taaluma yake ya soka.<ref name="Hoggan">{{cite book|title=Hearts in Art|url=https://archive.org/details/heartsinart0000andr|author=Andrew Hoggan|publisher=Mainstream|year=1995|isbn=1-85158-736-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/heartsinart0000andr/page/131 131]}}</ref><ref name="GordonMarshall">{{cite web|url=http://www.thecelticwiki.com/page/Marshall%2C+Gordon+Snr|title=Marshall, Gordon SNR – the Celtic Wiki}}</ref><ref name="Son">{{cite news|url=http://sport.scotsman.com/football_spl.cfm?id=2456322005|publisher=[[Edinburgh Evening News]]|title=The journeyman's travels come to an end|date=24 December 2005}}</ref><ref name="Caught">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/article382100.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523062500/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/article382100.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 May 2011|work=[[The Times]]|title=Caught in Time: Hearts win their last championship, 1960|date=17 April 2005|location=London|first=Matt|last=Vallance|accessdate=3 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/sport/football/hearts/latest-hearts-news/hearts-saddened-by-death-of-legendary-league-title-winner-who-also-played-for-hibs-celtic-and-newcastle-4979352|title=Hearts saddened by death of legendary league title winner who also played for Hibs, Celtic and Newcastle|work=scotsman.com|publisher=[[The Scotsman]]|date=6 February 2025|accessdate=26 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/sport/football/hearts/former-hearts-hibs-goalkeeper-passes-aged-85-jambos-pay-tribute-4979011|title=Former Hearts and Hibs goalkeeper passes aged 85 as Jambos pay tribute to man who 'inspired' silverware rush|work=edinburghnews.scotsman.com|publisher=[[Edinburgh Evening News]]|date=6 February 2025|accessdate=26 January 2025}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}}{{Mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1939]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2025]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji mpira wa Uingereza]] lznwfpxzju92uaiowp71ywwoimg7iqb 0 201751 1580378 1459989 2026-07-18T11:47:16Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580378 wikitext text/x-wiki '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ([[Rieti]], [[1195]] - [[Assisi]], [[13 Februari]] [[1258]]) alikuwa mmojawapo kati ya wafuasi wa kwanza wa [[Fransisko wa Asizi]] <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/90708</ref>. [[Kumbukumbu]] zake zilizoandikwa zimechangia sana [[Kitabu|vitabu]] mbalimbali juu ya Fransisko kama vile [[Ngano za Wenzi Watatu]]. ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} ==Marejeo== * Riccardo Pratesi, ANGELO da Rieti, in Dizionario biografico degli italiani, vol. 3, Roma, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, 1961. {{BD|1195|1258}} [[Jamii:Wafransisko]] [[Jamii:wanaume wa Italia]] 0pqq8gqrpwqly3giurg9jz925f3h9d2 0 203313 1580200 1511978 2026-07-18T01:15:16Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580200 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} [[File:Euripide (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Sanamu]] yake.]] '''Euripides''' (takriban 480 KK – takriban 406 KK) ni mmoja wa [[Mwandishi|waandishi]] bora wa [[tamthilia]] za [[Kiyunani|Kigiriki cha kale]] huko [[Athens|Athene]]<ref>B. Knox, 'Euripides' in ''The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I: Greek Literature'', P. Easterling and B. Knox (ed.s), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 316</ref><ref>Moses Hadas, ''Ten Plays by Euripides'', Bantam Classic (2006), Introduction, p. ix</ref><ref>L.P.E.Parker, ''Euripides: Alcestis'', [[Oxford University Press]] (2007), Introduction p. lx</ref>. ==Mtazamo wake kuhusu wanawake== Euripides alionyesha shauku kubwa kuhusu hali ya wanawake katika ulimwengu wa Kigiriki. Katika jamii iliyotawaliwa na mfumo dume, alitumia kazi zake kuchunguza na mara nyingine kupinga dhuluma walizokumbana nazo wanawake pamoja na kanuni fulani za kijamii na maadili zilizowahusu. Wahusika wake wa kike, walioundwa kwa kina cha kisaikolojia na ubunifu wa hali ya juu, walichukua nafasi kuu katika tamthilia zake na mara nyingi ndio waliokuwa wahusika wenye mawazo na [[falsafa]] kubwa. Kupitia wahusika hawa, Euripides aliwaonesha wanawake si tu kama wenye akili halisi bali pia kama njia ya kuwasilisha ukosoaji wa hali ya wanawake kwa hadhira ya michezo yake. [[Faili:Iphigenia_in_Tauris_MAN_Napoli_Inv111439.jpg|thumb|Iphigenia kama kuhani wa kike wa Artemi huko Tauris anaanza kuwasalimia wafungwa, miongoni mwao ni kaka yake Orestes na rafiki yake Pylades; Fresco ya Kirumi kutoka Pompeii, karne ya 1 BK]] Mwandishi huyu alitengeneza mbinu mbalimbali za kifasihi na kisanaa ili kuwafanya wahusika wake wa kike kuwa wa kweli na wa kipekee kwa kuwapa uwezo wa kuchukua hatua na kufikiri ndani ya muktadha wa tamthilia za Kigiriki. Mara kwa mara, alibadili hadithi za kifasihi ili kuunda upya nafasi za mashujaa wa kike katika kazi zake na kuzipinga simulizi zao za jadi. Medea na Helen ni mifano miwili ya wahusika ambao Euripides aliwabadilisha kwa kiasi kikubwa, akiwatumia kupinga itikadi za kiume za Athene na kuangazia changamoto za kijamii zilizowakumba wanawake wa Athene. Katika kazi zake, aligusia masuala mbalimbali ya kijamii, kisiasa, na kifamilia yaliyowaathiri wanawake, ikiwa ni pamoja na hamu ya kimapenzi ya wanawake na vizuizi vilivyoizunguka, ukosoaji wa ndoa, upuuzaji wa kiakili wa wanawake katika jamii ya Kigiriki, na hata ukosoaji wa waandishi waliokuwa na mtazamo wa chuki dhidi ya wanawake, kama Hesiodi. Kupitia maendeleo yake ya kifalsafa na kifasihi, Euripides anahusishwa kwa namna fulani na dhana ya kuwapa wanawake nafasi kama wahusika wa uhuru katika fasihi ya Kigiriki. Mtazamo wake wa kisanii na kifalsafa ulimfanya ashutumiwe na Aristophanes kuwa ni mpinzani wa wanawake; kwa kuwaonyesha wanawake kama wenye uwezo wa kufanya maovu, ikiwemo uzinzi, Euripides alionekana kudhoofisha maslahi ya wanawake. Hata hivyo, utafiti wa kisasa hauungi mkono tuhuma hizi, badala yake ukibainisha kwamba Euripides ana nafasi ya kipekee katika tamthilia za Kigiriki kuhusu suala hili. Licha ya mitazamo yake ya kipekee, maandishi yake bado yanadhihirisha athari za mfumo dume na mawazo ya kibaguzi dhidi ya wanawake yaliyoenea katika jamii yake na muktadha wake wa kifasihi. === Muktadha === [[Faili:Christian_Daniel_Rauch_-_Jason_und_Medea.jpg|thumb|Jason na Medea, bas-relief na Christian Daniel Rauch (1818)]] Katika karne ya 5 KK, Athene ya Klasiki, na kwa upana zaidi miji ya Kigiriki ya zamani, ilikuwa imeundwa kwa misingi ya mifumo na mienendo ya kiume iliyozidi kuimarika katika kipindi hiki. Wanawake walikumbwa na ubaguzi wa kisheria wa hali ya juu, kwani hawakuruhusiwa kuwa raia wala kufurahia haki za kiraia za jiji. Pia, walihesabiwa kuwa duni mbele ya wanaume na mara zote walikuwa chini ya mamlaka ya mwanaume wa karibu katika familia—iwe ni baba, mume, au hata mwana wao.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|last=Brillet-Dubois|first=Pascale|date=2010|title=" Astyanax Et Les Orphelins De Guerre Athéniens. Critique De L'idéologie De La Cité Dans Les "Troyennes" D'euripide "|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44261048|journal=Revue des Études Grecques|volume=123|issue=1|pages=44–45|doi=10.3406/reg.2010.8001|issn=0035-2039|jstor=44261048}}</ref> Uzalishaji wa kitamaduni na kisanaa wa Athene katika kipindi hiki ulikuwa umejaa dhana za kijinsia zinazompendelea mwanamume, huku mitazamo na mawazo mbalimbali yakitumika kuhalalisha upendeleo huu. Katika karne ya 5 KK, mji huu ulikuwa unashuhudia upanuzi wa kijeshi, kitamaduni, na kisanaa, hali iliyochochea kuibuka kwa hadithi za kitaifa zilizolenga kuhalalisha upanuzi wake wa kifalme. Mfumo huu wa kifikra, ambao ulienezwa katika jamii ya Kigiriki, haukusaidia tu kuimarisha ubabe wa Athene bali pia ulisaidia kueneza utamaduni wa unyanyasaji wa kijinsia. Mchakato huu wa kimaendeleo ulihusiana kwa karibu na kuenea kwa utumwa, ambao uliongezeka sana katika kipindi cha Klasiki. ===Kuzaliwa kwa Tamthilia Klasiki=== [[Faili:Rencontre_entre_Electre_et_Oreste_sur_le_tombeau_de_leur_père_Agamemnon_-_Musée_du_Louvre_AGER_MNB_906.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Mkutano kati ya Electra na Orestes kwenye kaburi la baba yao Agamemnon - Louvre, 450-400 BC.]] Sambamba na maendeleo haya ya kisiasa na kijamii, tamthilia ya Klasiki ilianza kujitokeza kama sanaa yenye ushawishi mkubwa. Ingawa tamthilia za masikitiko zilikuwepo tangu kipindi cha kale, zama za Klasiki zilishuhudia maendeleo makubwa, kiasi cha kuonekana kana kwamba zilianza kipindi hicho. Katika mji wa Athene, waandishi watatu maarufu wa tamthilia za masikitiko—Aiskilo, Sofoklo, na Euripides—walichangia kwa kiasi kikubwa kuendeleza aina hii ya sanaa kwa ubunifu wao wa kipekee. Katika jamii ya Kidemokrasia ya Athene, tamthilia ilikuwa sanaa ya umma iliyofadhiliwa kwa sehemu kubwa na matajiri wa jiji kupitia mfumo wa kifedha wa liturujia. Ilitumika kama jukwaa la ukosoaji wa kijamii na kisiasa, ikiwa kioo kinachoakisi masuala yanayogusa jamii na siasa za jiji. Katika demokrasia ya Athene, tamthilia ilionekana kama njia muhimu ya ushiriki wa kiraia na majadiliano ya umma. Hata hivyo, pamoja na umuhimu wake wa kijamii, tamthilia bado ilikuwa chini ya mfumo dume. Wanawake hawakuruhusiwa kushiriki kama waigizaji, hivyo nafasi zao zilichezwa na wanaume, hali iliyoimarisha udhibiti wa wanaume katika maisha ya umma. Mada zilizoshughulikiwa katika tamthilia zilionyesha hofu na mkanganyiko wa jamii ya Athene kuhusu majukumu ya kijinsia. Mara nyingi, wanawake walionyeshwa kuwa hatari pale walipokiuka matarajio ya kijamii. Mfano wa wazi ni ''Medea'' ya Euripides, ambapo mhusika mkuu anapokataa nafasi yake ya kijadi kama mke na mama, matokeo yake ni maafa makubwa.<ref name=":3">{{Rejea jarida|last=Villard|first=Flavien|date=2018-11-08|title=Les Spartiates, ces femmes auxquelles le sport a ôté toute morale:Étude sur un stéréotype du théâtre athénien de la guerre du Péloponnèse|url=https://shs.cairn.info/revue-hypotheses-2018-1-page-127?lang=fr|journal=Hypothèses|language=fr|volume=21|issue=1|pages=127–136|doi=10.3917/hyp.171.0127|issn=1298-6216}}</ref> [[Faili:Pyxis01_pushkin.jpg|thumb|Maandalizi ya harusi, Sicily, 330-320 BC, Makumbusho ya Pushkin.]] Ujamaa wa Kiyunani haukuishia tu kwenye ubaguzi wa kisheria na kisiasa bali pia uliendelea katika masimulizi ya kitamaduni yaliyowaweka wanawake katika nafasi ya pili baada ya wanaume. Hadithi zilizotumika kuendeleza utambulisho wa kitaifa wa Athene mara nyingi ziliwaonyesha wanawake kama viumbe tegemezi au waathirika, zikidokeza kuwa mamlaka ya wanaume ilikuwa ya asili na ya lazima. Hii iliimarishwa zaidi na upanuzi wa utumwa, ambao ulikuwa uti wa mgongo wa uchumi wa Athene, huku ukihimiza unyonyaji mkubwa wa wanawake waliokuwa watumwa, ambao walikuwa na haki chache zaidi hata kuliko wanawake wa kawaida wa Kiyunani. Katika muktadha huu, ingawa tamthilia za Klasiki zilijaribu mara kwa mara kuhoji mamlaka, bado zilifanya kazi ndani ya mfumo wa mfumo dume. Wanawake, ingawa walipewa sauti katika tamthilia, mara chache waliwasilishwa kama watu wenye uhuru kamili nje ya udhibiti wa wanaume. Pale walipojaribu kudai uhuru, kama ilivyoonekana katika kazi za Euripides, mara nyingi walikumbwa na adhabu kali, hali iliyoonyesha hofu kubwa ya jamii ya Athene kuhusu uwezekano wa wanawake kuwa na mamlaka huru katika jamii iliyojaa hierarkia kali ya kijinsia.<ref name=":1">{{Rejea jarida|last=Bordaux|first=Lucien|date=1996|title=Quelques remarques sur Euripide, homme de théâtre dans Médée|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/palla_0031-0387_1996_num_45_1_1405|journal=Pallas. Revue d'études antiques|volume=45|issue=1|pages=170|doi=10.3406/palla.1996.1405}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} ==Vyanzo== * {{Citation |last=Chrysikou |first=Stella |title=Femmes en état de guerre : nature et condition des esclaves troyennes dans l'Hécube d'Euripide |date=2018 |work=Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Budé |issue=2 |trans-title=Women in a state of war: nature and condition of Trojan slaves in Euripides' Hecuba |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/bude_0004-5527_2018_num_1_2_7252 |place=Paris}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Croally |first=Neil T. |title=Euripidean Polemic: The Trojan Women and the Function of Tragedy |date=2008 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] (CUP) |isbn=978-0521041126 |location=Cambridge}} * {{Citation |last=Daitz |first=Stephen G. |title=Concepts of Freedom and Slavery in Euripides' Hecuba |date=1971 |journal=Hermes |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=217–226 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4475681 |jstor=4475681 }} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Hinkelman |first=Sarah Ann |url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/acprod/odb_etd/ws/send_file/send?accession=ouashonors1428872998&disposition=inline |title=Euripides' Women |date=2014 |publisher=Ohio University (thesis) |location=Athens, Ohio}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=March |first=Jennifer |url=https://mail.classics.domains.skidmore.edu/lit-campus-only/secondary/March%201990.pdf |title=Euripides the Misogynist ? |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-203-40235-1 |location=London |publication-date=1990}} * {{cite book |last1=Nails |first1=Debra |title=The people of Plato : a prosopography of Plato and other Socratics |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleofplatopro0000nail |date=2002 |publisher=Hackett Publishing Company, Inc |location=Indianapolis, IN |isbn=9781603840279}} * {{Citation |last=Raepsaet |first=Georges |title=Sentiments conjugaux à Athènes aux Ve et IVe siècles avant notre ère |date=1981 |work=L'Antiquité Classique |volume=50 |issue=1–2 |pages=677–684 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/antiq_0770-2817_1981_num_50_1_2042}} * {{Rejea kitabu |last=Tyrrell |first=William Blake |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004435353/BP000003.xml |title=Brill's Companion to Euripides |date=2020 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-26970-5 |location=Netherlands |pages=11–27 |chapter=Life of Euripides}} ==Kusoma zaidi== {{refbegin|2}} * {{cite book|last=Barrett|first=William Spencer|author-link=W. S. Barrett|title=Greek lyric, tragedy, and textual criticism collected papers|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-920357-4|editor-last=West|editor-first=M. L.}} * {{cite book |last1=Catenaccio |first1=Claire |title=Monody in Euripides: character and the liberation of form in late Greek tragedy |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=9781009300124}} * {{cite book|last=Conacher|first=D. J.|title=Euripidean Drama: Myth, Theme, and Structure|year=1967|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Croally|first=N.T.|title=Euripidean polemic: the Trojan women and the function of tragedy|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-04112-6}} * {{cite book|last=Donovan|first=Bruce E.|title=Euripides papyri|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2333.1/47d7wrtn|year=1969|publisher=American Society of Papyrologists|location=New Haven|hdl=2333.1/47d7wrtn}} * {{cite book|last=Euripides|editor-last=Segal|editor-first=Erich|title=Euripides: A Collection of Critical Essays|url=https://archive.org/details/euripidescollect0000sega|url-access=registration|year=1968|publisher=Prentice-Hall|location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ}} * {{cite book|last=Euripides|title=Hippolytos|year=1983|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0-19-814167-X|editor-first=William Spencer| editor-last=Barrett}} * {{cite book|last=Euripides|others=J. Michael Walton, introduction|year=1997|chapter=Introduction|title=Plays VI|series=Methuen Classical Greek Dramatists|location=London|publisher=Methuen|pages=[https://archive.org/details/playssix0000euri/page/ vii–xxii]|isbn=0-413-71650-3|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/playssix0000euri/page/}} * {{cite book|last=Gregory|first=Justina|title=Euripides and the instruction of the Athenians|url=https://archive.org/details/euripidesinstruc0000greg|year=1991|publisher=University of Michigan Press|location=Ann Arbor|isbn=0-472-10230-3}} * {{cite book|last=Ippolito|first=P.|year=1999|title=La vita di Euripide|location=Naples|publisher=Dipartimento di Filologia Classica dell'Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II|language=it}} * {{cite book|last=Kitto|first=H. D. F.|author-link=H. D. F. Kitto|title=Greek tragedy: a literary study|year=1959|publisher=Barnes and Noble|location=New York}} * {{cite book|last=Kovacs|first=David|title=Euripidea|year=1994|publisher=E.J. Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=90-04-09926-3}} * {{cite book|last=Lefkowitz|first=Mary R.|author-link=Mary Lefkowitz|title=The lives of the Greek poets|year=1981|publisher=Duckworth|location=London|isbn=0-7156-1721-4}} * {{cite book|last=Lucas|first=Frank Laurence|author-link=F. L. Lucas|title=Euripides and his Influence|year=2012|publisher=Barnes and Noble|location=New York|isbn=9781258337124}} * {{cite book|last=Murray|first=Gilbert|title=Euripides and His Age|year=1946|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=London|edition=2nd}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Powell|editor-first=Anton|title=Euripides, women, and sexuality|url=https://archive.org/details/euripideswomense0000unse|year=1990|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-01025-X}} * {{cite journal|last=Scullion|first=S.|year=2003|title=Euripides and Macedon, or the silence of the Frogs|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_classical-quarterly_2003-12_53_2/page/388|journal=[[Classical Quarterly]]|volume=53|issue=2|pages=389–400|doi=10.1093/cq/53.2.389}} * {{cite book|editor-last=Segal|editor-first=Charles|title=Euripides and the poetics of sorrow: art, gender, and commemoration in Alcestis, Hippolytus, and Hecuba|url=https://archive.org/details/euripidespoetics0000sega|year=1993|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham, N.C.|isbn=0-8223-1360-X}} * {{cite book|last=Sommerstein|first=Alan H.|title=Greek drama and dramatists|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=0-415-26028-0}} * {{cite book|last=Walton|first=J. Michael|year=2009|title=Euripides: Our Contemporary|url=https://archive.org/details/euripidesourcont0000walt|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-26182-2}} * {{cite book|last=Webster|first=T. B. L.|year=1967|title=The Tragedies of Euripides|url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_P4-AWM-042|location=London|publisher=Methuen}} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category|Euripides}} {{Wikisource author}} * {{Gutenberg author |id=1680}} * ''Euripides with an English translation by Arthur S. Way. D. Lit. in four volumes'', London, William Heinemann; New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, [https://archive.org/details/euripidesway01euriuoft vol. 1], [https://archive.org/details/LoebClassicalLibraryL009 vol. 2], [https://archive.org/details/euripidesway03euriuoft vol. 3], [https://archive.org/details/euripidesway04euriuoft vol. 4]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091028050514/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567264/Euripides.html Encarta's entry for Euripides] ([http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567264/Euripides.html Archived] 2009-10-31) * [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/vor?x=0&y=0&lookup=Euripides Euripides-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library] * [http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/euripides001.html Useful summaries of Euripides' life, works, and other relevant topics of interest at TheatreHistory.com.] * [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-euripides.html Fordham.edu] * {{fr}} [http://www.ac-strasbourg.fr/pedago/lettres/Victor%20Hugo/Notes/Euripide.htm AC-Strasbourg.fr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108064158/http://www.ac-strasbourg.fr/pedago/lettres/Victor%20Hugo/Notes/Euripide.htm |date=8 November 2009 }} * [http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc4.htm Imagi-nation.com] * [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0262381/ IMDBs List of movies based on Euripides plays] * [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2002/08/27/1030053055026.html?oneclick=true Staging of Euripides' fragmentary ''Hypsipyle''] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924090741/http://www.rhapsodes.fll.vt.edu/euripides.htm Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University], Euripides, Trojan Women, 740–79; read by Stephen Daitz * ''Euripidis opera omnia ex editionibus praestantissimis fideliter recusa, latina interpretatione, scholiis antiquis et eruditorum observationibus illustrata'', 9 voll., Glasguae cura et typis Andreae et Joannis M. Duncan, 1821: [https://archive.org/details/euripidouapantae01euriuoft vol. 1], [https://archive.org/details/euripidouapantae02euriuoft vol. 2], [https://archive.org/details/euripidouapantae03euriuoft vol. 3], [https://archive.org/details/euripidouapantae04euriuoft vol. 4], [https://archive.org/details/euripidouapantae05euriuoft vol. 5], [https://archive.org/details/euripidouapantae06euriuoft vol. 6], [https://archive.org/details/euripidouapantae07euriuoft vol. 7], [https://books.google.com/books?id=eBg-AAAAcAAJ vol. 8], [https://archive.org/details/euripidouapantae09euriuoft vol. 9]. * [http://euripidesscholia.org/EurSchHome.html Scholia of Euripides] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408101448/http://euripidesscholia.org/EurSchHome.html |date=8 April 2019 }}: ** ''[https://archive.org/details/scholiaineuripi00schwgoog Scholia in Euripidem]'', Eduardus Schwartz (ed.), 2 voll., Berolini tyois et impensis Georgii Reimer, 1887–91. * [https://www.academia.edu/5408593/THE_RECEPTION_OF_EURIPIDES_THE_BACCHAE_PH.D._THESIS_UNIVERSITY_OF_LONDON_LONDON_2005 A Commentary on Euripides' ''Bacchae''], [[Academia.edu]] {{BD|480 KK|406 KK}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] dzrg7us64dfo2bp4tko0d6i7szeiyrj 0 203405 1580116 1545375 2026-07-18T00:16:13Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580116 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Clitoridectomy au clitorectomy''' ni kuondolewa kwa [[upasuaji]], kupunguza, au kuondolewa kwa sehemu ya kisimi. Hutumika mara chache kama njia ya [[matibabu]], kama vile wakati saratani imetokea ndani au kuenea kwenye kisimi. Kwa kawaida, uondoaji usio wa kimatibabu wa kisimi hufanywa wakati wa [[ukeketaji]]. <ref name=Hiort2014>{{cite book | last = Hiort | first = O. | title = Understanding differences and disorders of sex development (DSD) | url = https://archive.org/details/understandingdif0000unse_c8t2 | publisher = Karger | location = Basel| year = 2014 | isbn = 9783318025583 }}</ref> == Matumizi ya matibabu == '''Uovu''' Uondoaji wa kisimi mara nyingi hufanywa ili kuondoa seli zenye saratani au nekrosisi ya kisimi. Hii wakati mwingine hufanywa pamoja na vulvectomy kali kabisa. Upasuaji unaweza pia kuwa muhimu kutokana na matibabu ya mionzi ya matibabu kwenye eneo la pelvic. Kuondolewa kwa kisimi kunaweza kuwa kwa sababu ya ugonjwa mbaya au kiwewe. <ref>{{cite press release | title = New study shows female genital mutilation exposes women and babies to significant risk at childbirth | publisher = World Health Organization | date=2006-06-02 | url =https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr30/en/index.html| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20060602224849/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr30/en/index.html| url-status =dead| archive-date =June 2, 2006}}</ref> '''Clitoromegaly na hali zingine''' Watoto wachanga wa kike waliozaliwa na genotype 46,XX lakini wana ukubwa wa kisimi walioathiriwa na hyperplasia ya adrenali ya kuzaliwa na hutibiwa kwa upasuaji wa uke, ambayo mara nyingi hupunguza [[ukubwa]] wa kisimi bila kuondolewa kabisa. [[Ukubwa]] usio wa kawaida wa kisimi unatokana na usawa wa endokrini katika [[uterasi]]. Sababu nyingine za upasuaji huo ni pamoja na masuala yanayohusisha microphallism na wale ambao wana Müllerian agenesis. [[Matibabu]] kwa [[watoto]] yanaibua masuala ya haki za binadamu. <ref name=Hoffman2012>{{cite book | last = Hoffman | first = Barbara | title = Williams gynecology | url = https://archive.org/details/williamsgynecolo0000unse | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | year = 2012 | isbn = 9780071716727 }}</ref><ref name="HorbachBouman2015">{{cite journal|last1=Horbach|first1=Sophie E.R.|last2=Bouman|first2=Mark-Bram|last3=Smit|first3=Jan Maerten|last4=Özer|first4=Müjde|last5=Buncamper|first5=Marlon E.|last6=Mullender|first6=Margriet G.|title=Outcome of Vaginoplasty in Male-to-Female Transgenders: A Systematic Review of Surgical Techniques|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=12|issue=6|year=2015|pages=1499–1512|issn=1743-6095|doi=10.1111/jsm.12868|pmid=25817066}}</ref> == Mbinu == [[Mbinu]] za upasuaji wa clitoridectomy hutumiwa kuondoa donda ndugu vamizi linaloenea hadi kwenye kisimi. Katika [[kesi]] hizi, taratibu za kawaida za upasuaji zinafuatwa. Hii ni pamoja na tathmini na biopsy. Mambo mengine ambayo yataathiri mbinu iliyochaguliwa ni umri, hali nyingine za matibabu zilizopo, na fetma. Mambo mengine ya kuzingatia ni uwezekano wa kupanuliwa kwa huduma ya [[hospitali]] na ukuzaji wa [[maambukizo]] kwenye tovuti ya [[upasuaji]]. Upasuaji unaendelea kwa kutumia anesthesia ya jumla, na kabla ya vulvectomy/clitoridectomy, lymphadenectomy ya inguinal inafanywa kwanza. Upeo wa tovuti ya upasuaji huenea 1 hadi 2 cm (0.39 hadi 0.79 ndani) zaidi ya mipaka ya ugonjwa mbaya. Viwango vya juu vya limfu pia vinaweza kuhitaji kuondolewa. Ikiwa uovu upo katika misuli yoyote katika kanda, basi tishu za misuli zilizoathiriwa pia huondolewa. Katika baadhi ya matukio, daktari wa upasuaji anaweza kuhifadhi kisimi licha ya uharibifu mkubwa. [[Tishu]] za saratani huondolewa na chale hufungwa. <ref name="Gundeti2012">{{cite book |last=Gundeti |first=Mohan |title=Pediatric Robotic and Reconstructive Urology a Comprehensive Guide |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2012 |isbn=9781444335538 |location=City }}</ref> Utunzaji wa baada ya upasuaji unaweza kutumia matumizi ya [[mifereji]] ya maji ili kuruhusu tishu za kina kupona kuelekea uso. Ufuatiliaji baada ya upasuaji ni pamoja na kuvuliwa kwa kifaa cha mifereji ya maji ili kuzuia kuziba. Kukaa hospitalini kwa kawaida kunaweza kudumu hadi wiki mbili. Mahali palipofanyiwa upasuaji huachwa bila kufungwa ili kuruhusu uchunguzi wa mara kwa mara. <ref>{{cite report |date=2017-07-25 |title=I Want to Be Like Nature Made Me: Medically Unnecessary Surgeries on Intersex Children in the US |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2017/07/25/i-want-be-nature-made-me/medically-unnecessary-surgeries-intersex-children-us |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=2021-12-17 |archive-date=2017-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005133541/https://www.hrw.org/report/2017/07/25/i-want-be-nature-made-me/medically-unnecessary-surgeries-intersex-children-us |url-status=live }}</ref> Matatizo yanaweza kujumuisha maendeleo ya lymphedema; kutoondoa mshipa wa saphenous wakati wa upasuaji kunaweza kusaidia kuzuia hili. Katika baadhi ya matukio, mkusanyiko wa kiowevu unaweza kupunguzwa kupitia mbinu kama vile kuinua mguu, [[dawa]] ya diuretiki, na kuvaa soksi za mgandamizo. Katika kisimi kwa watoto wachanga walio na kisimi, kisimi mara nyingi hupunguzwa badala ya kuondolewa. [[Daktari]] wa upasuaji hukata [[shimoni]] la phallus iliyoinuliwa na kushona glans na mishipa iliyohifadhiwa kwenye kisiki. Katika [[upasuaji]] usio wa kawaida unaoitwa kupungua kwa kisimi, daktari mpasuaji huficha kishindo cha kisimi chini ya mkunjo wa ngozi hivyo ni glans pekee inayobaki kuonekana. <ref name="Fausto-Sterling">{{cite book|last1=Fausto-Sterling|first1=Anne|title=Sexing the body : gender politics and the construction of sexuality|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780465077137|url-access=registration|date=2000|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-465-07714-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780465077137/page/48 48]|edition=1. ed., [Nachdr.]}}</ref> == Jamii na Utamaduni == '''Mkuu''' Ingawa usomi mwingi wa kifeministi umeelezea kisimi kama zoea linalolenga kudhibiti ujinsia wa [[wanawake]], kuibuka kwa kihistoria kwa mila hiyo katika [[tamaduni]] za kale za Uropa na Mashariki ya Kati kunaweza pia kuwa kulitokana na mawazo kuhusu jinsi uke wa kike unafaa kuonekana na ulindaji mipaka kati ya jinsia moja. <ref>{{cite journal|author=Duffy, John|author-link=John Duffy (medical historian)|doi=10.1001/jama.1963.63710030028012|date=October 19, 1963|title=Masturbation and Clitoridectomy: A Nineteenth-Century View|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_jama_1963-10-19_186_3/page/246|journal=JAMA|volume=186|issue=3|pages=246–248|pmid=14057114}}</ref> Katika karne ya [[kumi na saba]], wataalam wa anatomia walibaki wakiwa wamegawanyika kuhusu ikiwa kisimi kilikuwa kiungo cha kawaida cha mwanamke, huku wengine wakibishana kwamba kilikuwa ni hali isiyo ya kawaida katika ukuaji wa mwanamke na, ikiwa ni kikubwa vya kutosha kuonekana, lazima kiondolewe wakati wa kuzaliwa. Katika karne ya [[19]], upasuaji wa kisimi ulifikiriwa na wengine kuzuia upigaji [[punyeto]] wa kike; hadi mwishoni mwa karne ya [[19]], kupiga punyeto kulifikiriwa na wengi kuwa jambo lisilofaa au lisilo la kiadili. Isaac Baker Brown ([[1812]]–[[1873]]), daktari wa magonjwa ya wanawake Mwingereza ambaye alikuwa rais wa Jumuiya ya Kimatibabu ya London aliamini kwamba "kuwashwa kwa kisimi kusikokuwa asili" kulisababisha kifafa, mshtuko wa moyo, na wazimu, na alifanya [[kazi]] "kuiondoa kila alipopata fursa ya kufanya hivyo", kulingana na hati yake ya kifo katika gazeti la Medical Times na Gazette. Peter Lewis Allen anaandika kwamba maoni ya Brown yalisababisha hasira, na alikufa bila senti baada ya kufukuzwa kutoka kwa Jumuiya ya Wazazi. <ref>[[Peter Lewis Allen|Allen, Peter Lewis]]. ''The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present''. University of Chicago Press, 2000, [[iarchive:wagesofsinsexdis00alle/page/106|p. 106]]. * For the obituary, see J.F.C. [https://books.google.com/books?id=gZ4EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA155 "Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223171914/https://books.google.com/books?id=gZ4EAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=2023-12-23}}, ''Medical Times and Gazette'', 8 February 1873. * Also see Brown, Isaac Baker. ''On the Curability of Certain Forms of Insanity, Epilepsy, Catalepsy, and Hysteria in Females''. Robert Hardwicke, 1866.</ref> Mara kwa mara, katika dawa za [[Marekani]] na Kiingereza za karne ya [[kumi na tisa]], tohara ilifanywa kama [[tiba]] ya wazimu. Wengine waliamini kwamba matatizo ya kiakili na kihisia-moyo yalihusiana na viungo vya [[uzazi]] vya mwanamke na kwamba kuondoa kisimi kungeponya [[ugonjwa]] huo wa [[neva]]. Matibabu haya yalikomeshwa mwaka wa [[1867]]. <ref>{{Cite journal | last = Atoki | first = Morayo | s2cid = 144198914 | title = Should female circumcision continue to be banned? | journal = [[Feminist Legal Studies]] | volume = 3 | issue = 2 | page = 229 | doi = 10.1007/BF01104114 | date = August 1995 | postscript =; Access provided by the University of Pittsburgh.}}</ref> Aesthetics inaweza kuamua kanuni za kisimi. Ukosefu wa [[utata]] wa [[viungo]] vya uzazi huonekana kuwa muhimu katika ugawaji wa jinsia kwa watoto wachanga na kwa hiyo kama sehemu ya [[siri]] ya [[mtoto]] ni ya kawaida, lakini kile kinachochukuliwa kuwa kisichoeleweka au cha kawaida kinaweza kutofautiana kutoka kwa mtu hadi [[mtu]]. <ref name = "Kessler">{{cite book|last1=Kessler|first1=Suzanne J.|title=Lessons from the intersexed|url=https://archive.org/details/lessonsfrominter0000kess|date=2000|publisher=Rutgers Univ. Press|location=New Brunswick, NJ [u.a.]|isbn=978-0813525297|page=[https://archive.org/details/lessonsfrominter0000kess/page/43 43]|edition=2. Paperback printing.}}</ref><ref name = "Rodriguez">{{cite book|last1=Rodriguez|first1=Sarah|title=Female Circumcision and Clitoridectomy in the United States: A History of Medical Treatment|date=2014|publisher=University of Rochester Press}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] [[Jamii:Tiba]] l706zko4juh5ojzj9kfohr87kctxwfd 0 203433 1580265 1512625 2026-07-18T02:02:58Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580265 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Fur Dixon'''ni [[mwimbaji]], [[mtunzi wa nyimbo]], mpiga besi, mpiga [[gitaa]] na [[mwanamuziki]] wa *rock 'n' roll* kutoka [[Marekani]].<ref>{{cite book|last =Porter|first =Dick|title=The Cramps: A Short History of Rock 'n' roll Psychosis|url =https://archive.org/details/crampsshorthisto0000port|date=2007|publisher=Plexus|location=England|isbn=978-0-85965-398-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/crampsshorthisto0000port/page/111 111]–115}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://dangerousminds.net/comments/whats_inside_a_girl_an_interview_with_former_cramps_member_fur_dixon|title=What's inside a girl: An interview with former Cramps member Fur Dixon|last=Krombholz|first=Izzi|date=2016-08-04|website=Dangerous Minds|publisher=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806051000/https://dangerousminds.net/comments/whats_inside_a_girl_an_interview_with_former_cramps_member_fur_dixon|archive-date= 6 August 2016|access-date=2016-08-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Izzi Krombholz |title=WHAT'S INSIDE A GIRL: AN INTERVIEW WITH FORMER CRAMPS MEMBER FUR DIXON </ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} {{BD||}} [[Jamii:Waimbaji wa Marekani]] s6afsode17srfz74kek2mlhr9z27sec 0 203488 1580113 1405633 2026-07-18T00:13:58Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580113 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Angelo - Epistole, 1980 - 4934015.tif |thumb|[[Kitabu]] cha ''Nyaraka'' za Angelo Klareno.]] '''Waklareno''' walikuwa [[watawa]] wa [[shirika]] la [[Ndugu Wadogo]] ambao katika [[Karne za Kati]] walipigania kushika [[kanuni]] iliyoandikwa na [[Fransisko wa Asizi]] bila kujali [[ufafanuzi]] wake. ==Historia== [[Wafransisko]] wa namna hiyo walijulikana kwanza kama "Watu wa Kiroho" kwa sababu walitaka kufuata kanuni hiyo "kadiri ya [[Roho Mtakatifu]]" tu. Hao ndugu walishikilia [[Ufukara wa hiari|ufukara]] kiasi cha kushindana na [[viongozi]] wa shirika na wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]]<ref name=Donovan>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01484b.htm Donovan, Stephen. "Angelo Clareno da Cingoli." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 9 Jun. 2015</ref>. Hatimaye mambo yakawa magumu kiasi kwamba suala hilo likawa zito kwa [[Kanisa]] lote. Ni kwamba, wakati wa [[Mtaguso wa pili wa Lyon]], baadhi ya ndugu hao walijiandaa kukataa maagizo waliyoambiwa watapewa kinyume cha haki. Upinzani wao ukalipuka hasa baada ya [[Papa Nikola III]] ([[1277]]-[[1280]]) kutoa hati nyingine juu ya kanuni ([[1279]]) ili kuwaondolea Ndugu Wadogo wasiwasi wowote kuhusu namna ya kuitekeleza, pamoja na kuwatetea dhidi ya maadui wa nje. Hati hiyo inafuata kabisa msimamo wa [[Bonaventura wa Bagnoregio]] kuhusu matumizi ya kifukara kweli: Ndugu Wadogo hawana [[haki]] ya kutumia vitu, ila wanaruhusiwa kuvitumia kadiri ya ufukara na uduni. Ingawa hati hiyo ilitungwa kwa [[busara]] sana, baada ya [[kamati]] kabambe kuiandaa kwa miezi miwili, utekelezaji wake ukaja kusababisha mabishano makubwa kwa miaka mingi, kuanzia [[Ufaransa Kusini]] na [[Italia ya Kati]]. Mwakilishi bora wa msimamo mkali ni [[Petro wa Yohane Olivi]] ([[1248]]-[[1298]]), aliyeunganisha pande hizo mbili tofauti: wa kwanza ulitegemea ujuzi mkubwa ukaathiri zaidi [[Kanisa]] kwa ufundishaji, uchungaji na uanzishaji wa jumuia za waamini zilizowaunga mkono; wa pili ulitegemea zaidi kumbukumbu chungu za wenzi wa [[Fransisko wa Asizi]] na matabiri juu ya [[dhuluma]] utawani ukaishia kuathiri shirika (hata kwa [[utunzi]] wa [[vitabu]] muhimu, hasa cha [[Ubertino wa Casale]] +1329), lakini pia kufanya [[umisionari]] mkubwa hadi [[India]] na kuuchochea kama sehemu ya uaminifu wao kwa kanuni. Mabishano yalichangiwa na Mtumishi mkuu kukosekana muda mrefu au kulemewa na [[Jukumu|majukumu]] mengine kutoka kwa [[Papa]]. [[Viongozi]] waliofuatana katika ngazi mbalimbali, mara walijaribu kukomesha vikali msimamo mkali, mara waliuunga mkono. Mapapa kadhaa walitumia nguvu, isipokuwa [[Papa Selestini V]] ([[1294]]), aliyetazamwa kuwa “Papa wa kimalaika” atakayeanzisha Kanisa la Kiroho. Yeye aliwaruhusu waliotaka wajitenge na “jumuia” (walivyojiita umati wa ndugu waliopenda maendeleo) wakaishi [[upwekeni]] wakifuata kanuni na wasia bila ya kujali matamko ya Kanisa. Ilikuwa mara ya kwanza kwa shirika kugawanyika. Alipojiuzulu, mwandamizi wake [[Papa Bonifasi VIII]] ([[1295]]-[[1303]]) alifuta mara maamuzi yake yote, na katika miezi michache iliyofuata aliwaagiza hao [[Wafransisko Waselestini]] warudi shirikani, akamuondoa [[Madaraka|madarakani]] Mtumishi mkuu aliyewatetea, akamweka mwingine kinyume chao, akawakatalia wasikate [[rufaa]] kwake dhidi ya dhuluma. Viongozi wao, [[Liberato wa Fossombrone]] (+[[1307]]) na [[Anjelo Klareno]] (+[[1337]]), walikimbilia [[Ugiriki]] wasije wakafungwa tena (waliwahi kukaa [[gereza|gerezani]] zaidi ya miaka 10). Hivyo jina la ndugu “wa Kiroho” likawa na maana mpya baadhi yao walipopinga uongozi wa Kanisa, wakitangaza ubatili wa kujiuzulu kwa Selestini V na wa kuchaguliwa Bonifasi VIII; halafu wakadai Mapapa waliotoa matamko juu ya kanuni kuwa wazushi. Kinyume na mtangulizi wake, [[Papa Klemensi V]] (1305-[[1314]]) alipenda kusikiliza wote, halafu akatoa ([[1312]]) tamko jipya juu ya kanuni ili kuondoa wasiwasi hasa kwa kubainisha amri za kanuni na kiasi ambacho zinawabana Ndugu Wadogo. Ingawa hakukubali msimamo wa ndugu “wa Kiroho” kuhusu [[mamlaka]] ya Kanisa juu ya kanuni, aliwaweka chini ya [[ulinzi]] wake; viongozi waliowadhulumu waliondolewa, na makosa dhidi ya ufukara yalirekebishwa ili kukwepa farakano. Lakini ikawa bure. Mara baada ya kuchaguliwa, [[Papa Yohane XXII]] ([[1316]]-[[1334]]), akisukumwa na Mtumishi mkuu [[Mikaeli wa Cesena]] ([[1316]]-[[1328]]), alifululiza kutoa amri zilizolenga kukomesha ndugu “wa Kiroho”, mpaka 4 kati yao walichomwa moto sokoni. Hapo uasi wa wengi ukawa wazi usijali kutengwa na Kanisa wala kuhukumiwa [[adhabu ya kifo]]. Mwaka [[1323]] Papa, akiendelea na [[vita]] vyake, alitoa hati ya kulaani dhana ya Ndugu Wadogo wote (iliyokubaliwa na mkutano mkuu [[1322]]) kuwa Kristo na [[Mitume wa Yesu|mitume]] hawakumiliki chochote wala binafsi wala kwa pamoja. Badala ya kukubali tamko hilo, Mtumishi mkuu na wanashirika karibu wote walilikataa hata kumtangaza Yohane XXII kuwa [[mzushi]]. [[Mfalme]] mkuu wa [[Ujerumani]], ili apate nguvu dhidi ya Papa, akawapokea Ndugu Wadogo chini ya ulinzi wake akafanya mmojawao atangazwe kinyume cha sheria kuwa ni Papa badala ya Yohane XXII (bado hai). Baadaye kidogo uasi huo ukaisha, lakini matokeo ya kwazo kubwa hivi yalichangia sana kudidimia kwa shirika. Hasa Waklareno wakaendelea hivyo katika [[Italia ya Kati]] zaidi ya miaka mia mpaka [[Yohane wa Capestrano]] na [[Yakobo wa Marka]] walipowapatanisha na [[Kanisa]] ([[1430]] hivi), hata wakarudi chini ya Mtumishi wa shirika lote (1473) wakiwa na Makamu maalumu wa kwao <ref name="dip">Clément Schmitt, DIP, vol. II (1975), col. 1114.</ref>. Uamuzi huo wa [[Papa Sixtus IV|Papa Sisto IV]] ulitekelezwa miaka michache tu, halafu Waklareno walirudi chini ya maaskofu wa majimbo. Ni [[Papa Pius V]], kwa [[hati]] ''Beatus Christus salvatoris'' ya tarehe [[23 Januari]] [[1568]], aliyefaulu kuwaunganisha kweli na [[Waoservanti]]. <ref>Clément Schmitt, DIP, vol. II (1975), col. 1115.</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== * Guerrino Pelliccia e Giancarlo Rocca (curr.), ''Dizionario degli Istituti di Perfezione'' (DIP), 10 voll., Edizioni paoline, Milano 1974-2003. {{it}} *{{cite book|last=Keen|title=The Pelican History of Medieval Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UcMxAAAAMAAJ|year=1969|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=9780140210859}} *{{cite book|author=Angelus (Clarenus)|translator=David Burr |translator2=Emmett Randolph Daniel |title=Angelo Clareno: A Chronicle Or History of the Seven Tribulations of the Order of Brothers Minor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tg0mAQAAIAAJ|year=2005|publisher=Franciscan Institute Publications|location=St. Bonaventure, NY USA|isbn=978-1-57659-198-7}} *{{cite book|last=Burr|first=David|title=Spiritual Franciscans: From Protest to Persecution in the Century After Saint Francis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HKw3QDsgz30C|year=2010|publisher=Penn State Press|location=University Park PA USA|isbn=978-0-271-04138-4}} *{{cite book|last=Douie|first=Decima Langworthy |title=The Nature and the Effect of the Heresy of the Fraticelli|url=https://archive.org/details/natureeffectofhe00doui|url-access=registration|year=1932|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester England UK|id=GGKEY:85K67SXS83A}} *{{cite book|editor=Duba, William and Christopher David Schabel|title=Gerald Odonis, Doctor Moralis and Franciscan Minister General: Studies in Honour of L. M. de Rijk|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZZSFIWK-DwC&pg=PA222|year=2009|publisher=Brill|location=New York/Leiden|isbn=978-90-04-17850-2}} *{{cite journal|last1=Ehrle|first1=Franz|author-link=Franz Ehrle|title=Die Spiritualen, ihre Verhaltniss zum Franciscanerorden und zu den Fraticellen|journal=Archiv für Literatur- und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters|date=1886|volume=2|pages=108–336|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CcEsAAAAIAAJ&q=editions:Cifd9Jszt-UC}} (in German and Latin) *{{cite book|last=Havely|first=Nick|title=Dante and the Franciscans: Poverty and the Papacy in the 'Commedia'|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vhg8aMXYn5oC&pg=PA44|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-83305-9}} *{{cite book |title=The Popes at Avignon, 1305-1378 |url=https://archive.org/details/popesatavignon130000guil |first=Guillaume |last=Mollat |publisher=Harper & Rowe |year=1965 }} *{{cite book|last=Muzzey|first=David Saville|title=The Spiritual Franciscans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn8XAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA48|year=1907|publisher=Columbia university.|location=New York}} *{{cite book|editor=Ginther, James R. |title=The Westminster Handbook to Medieval Theology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n2WnNX13tsYC&pg=PA1|year=2009|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22397-7}} *{{cite book|last=Hughes|first=Philip|title=History of the Church: Volume 3: The Revolt Against The Church: Aquinas To Luther|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2nvpmOLdLwC&pg=PA155|year=1979|publisher=Sheed and Ward/A&C Black|location=London|isbn=978-0-7220-7983-6|pages=125–187|chapter=Chapter II, part 2 and part 3}} *{{cite book|last=Mäkinen|first=Virpi|title=Property Rights in the Late Medieval Discussion on Franciscan Poverty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TN1TgndAxSUC&pg=PA153|year=2001|publisher=Peeters Publishers|location=Leuven/Louvain|isbn=978-90-429-0940-3}} *Piron, S., ''Le mouvement clandestin des dissidents franciscains au milieu du XIVe siècle'', Oliviana, 3, 2009, on-line http://oliviana.revues.org/index337.html *{{cite book|editor=Robson, Michael and Jens Röhrkasten|title=Franciscan Organisation in the Mendicant Context: Formal and Informal Structures of the Friars' Lives and Ministry in the Middle Ages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4lL7eIVa2osC&pg=PA353|year=2010|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|location=Münster|isbn=978-3-643-10820-3}} [especially the article by M. Brunner, pp.&nbsp;353–375] *{{cite book|last=Scalisi|first=Gabriella|title=L'idea di chiesa: negli spirituali e nei fraticelli|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WXgsAQAAMAAJ|series=Studi e testi francescani, v. 52 |year=1973|publisher=L.I.E.F.|location=Roma|language=it}} *{{cite book|last=Tierney|first=Brian|title=Origins of papal infallibility, 1150-1350: 1150 – 1350 ; a study on the concepts of infallibility, sovereignty and tradition in the Middle Ages|url=https://archive.org/details/originsofpapalin0000tier|url-access=registration|year=1972|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|id=GGKEY:UTAT6JZ4N46}} {{mbegu-katoliki}} [[Category:Wafransisko]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Kanisa]] hcgt6csmo4dohoin3shr65ej9douj37 0 204494 1580182 1411377 2026-07-18T00:59:08Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580182 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Aphra Behn''' (/ˈæfrə bɛn/;[a] alibatizwa [[14 Desemba]] [[1640]] – [[16 Aprili]] [[1689]]) alikuwa mwandishi wa [[tamthilia]], mshairi, [[mwandishi]] wa nathari na mtafsiri wa [[Uingereza]] kutoka enzi ya Marejesho. Kama mmoja wa [[wanawake]] wa kwanza wa Kiingereza kupata riziki yake kwa uandishi wake, alivunja vizuizi vya kitamaduni na akawa mfano wa kifasihi kwa vizazi vya baadaye vya [[Mwandishi|waandishi]] wa kike. Akichipuka kutoka ubaridi, alipata umaarufu wa Charles II, ambaye alimwajiri kama jasusi huko Antwerp. Aliporudi [[London]] na pengine akakaa kwa muda mfupi katika gereza la wadeni, alianza kuandika kwa ajili ya jukwaa. Alikuwa mshiriki wa kikundi cha washairi na wafuasi wa uhuru maarufu kama vile John Wilmot, Lord Rochester. Behn aliandika chini ya jina la kificho la kimapenzi Astrea. Wakati wa nyakati za kisiasa zenye misukosuko za Mgogoro wa Kutengwa, aliandika epilogi na prologi ambazo zilimletea matatizo ya kisheria; baada ya hapo alijitolea zaidi katika uandishi wa aina za nathari na tafsiri. Akiwa mfuasi thabiti wa nasaba ya Stuart, Behn alikataa mwaliko kutoka kwa Askofu Burnet wa kuandika shairi la kumkaribisha mfalme mpya William III. Alikufa muda mfupi baadaye.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aphra Behn (1640–1689)|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/behn_aphra.shtml|website=BBC|access-date=19 April 2017}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Britland |first=Karen |date=2 January 2021 |title=Aphra Behn's first marriage? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0268117X.2019.1693420 |journal=The Seventeenth Century |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=33–53 |doi=10.1080/0268117X.2019.1693420 |s2cid=214340536 |issn=0268-117X}}</ref> Anakumbukwa katika [[kitabu]] cha Virginia Woolf "A Room of One's Own": "Wanawake wote kwa pamoja wanapaswa kuruhusu maua yaanguke juu ya kaburi la Aphra Behn ambalo, kwa kashfa kubwa lakini kwa kufaa kwa kiasi, liko katika Westminster Abbey, kwani ni yeye aliyewapatia haki ya kusema mawazo yao." Kaburi lake halijumuishwi katika Kona ya [[Washairi]] bali liko katika Cloister ya Mashariki karibu na ngazi za kanisa.<ref>{{Cite book |title = A Room of One's Own|last = Woolf|first = Virginia |publisher = Harcourt Brace |year = 1929 |oclc = 326933 |location = New York |pages = 69}}</ref> Kazi zake zinazojulikana zaidi ni "''Oroonoko: au, Mtumwa wa Kifalme''", ambayo wakati mwingine inaelezewa kama riwaya ya mapema, na tamthilia "The Rover".<ref name="Brit">{{cite encyclopedia |url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/58760/Aphra-Behn |title = Aphra Behn |encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date = 30 October 2015}}</ref> Taarifa kuhusu maisha ya Behn ni chache, hasa zinazohusu miaka yake ya mapema. Hii inaweza kuwa kutokana na kuficha kwa makusudi kwa upande wa Behn. Toleo moja la maisha ya Behn linasema kwamba alizaliwa na kinyozi aitwaye John Amis na mke wake Amy; mara kwa mara anatajwa kama Aphra Amis Behn. Hadithi nyingine inasema Behn alizaliwa na wanandoa waliotajwa Cooper. Kitabu cha "The Histories and Novels of the Late Ingenious Mrs. Behn" ([[1696]]) kinasema kwamba Behn alizaliwa na Bartholomew Johnson, kinyozi, na Elizabeth Denham, mlezi wa kunyonyesha. Kanali Thomas Colepeper, mtu pekee aliyedai kumudu kumjua akiwa mtoto, aliandika katika "Adversaria" kwamba alizaliwa huko "''Sturry au Canterbury''" kwa Bwana Johnson na kwamba alikuwa na dada aitwaye Frances. [[Mwandishi]] mwingine wa wakati huo, Anne Finch, aliandika kwamba Behn alizaliwa huko Wye katika Kent, akiwa "''Binti wa Kinyozi''". Katika baadhi ya [[akaunti]], wasifu wa baba yake unafanana na Eaffrey Johnson. Ingawa hakujulikana mengi kuhusu [[utoto]] wake wa mapema, mmoja wa waandishi wa wasifu wake, Janet Todd, anaamini kwamba malezi ya kidini ya kawaida wakati huo yangeweza kuwa na ushawishi mkubwa katika kazi zake nyingi.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Behn|first=Aphra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W3t6AmCVomAC|title=The Rover: The Feigned Courtesans; The Lucky Chance; The Emperor of the Moon|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283451-5|language=en}}</ref> Alisema kuwa, katika maandishi yote ya Behn, uzoefu wake kanisani haukuwa wa shauku ya kidini, bali badala yake ulikuwa nafasi za yeye kuchunguza tamaa zake za kingono, tamaa ambazo baadaye zitaonyeshwa kupitia tamthilia zake. Katika moja ya [[tamthilia]] zake za mwisho aliandika, "Nimekuwa kwenye Chapel; na nimeona warembo wengi sana, idadi ya Plumeys, sikuweza kujua ni nani ningetazama zaidi...".<ref name="Foundation">{{cite web |url = http://www.poetryfoundation.org/bio/aphra-behn|title = Aphra Behn|last = Stiebel|first = Arlene|publisher = Poetry Foundation|access-date = 30 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Todd|first=Janet|title=The Secret Life of Aphra Behn|url=https://archive.org/details/secretlifeofaphr0000todd|publisher=Andre Deutsch Limited|year=1996|isbn=0-8135-2455-5|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/secretlifeofaphr0000todd/page/19 19]–20|language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Britland |first=Karen |date=4 December 2019 |title=Aphra Behn's first marriage? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0268117x.2019.1693420 |journal=The Seventeenth Century |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=33–53 |doi=10.1080/0268117x.2019.1693420 |s2cid=214340536 |issn=0268-117X}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references />{{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1640]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1689]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] 0v1x0w2t9jdovonllfz3twagpkls268 0 204645 1580114 1498088 2026-07-18T00:14:26Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580114 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Masomo ya jinsia''' ni taaluma shirikishi inayochunguza utambulisho wa kijinsia na uwakilishi wa kijinsia katika jamii. Asili ya masomo haya ni katika taaluma ya masomo ya wanawake, ambayo ilihusiana na wanawake, uanaharakati wa kike (feminism), jinsia, na siasa. Kwa sasa, masomo ya jinsia yanahusiana kwa karibu na masomo ya wasagaji na mashoga (queer studies) pamoja na masomo ya wanaume. Kuongezeka kwa umaarufu wa masomo haya, hasa katika vyuo vikuu vya Magharibi baada ya mwaka 1990, kulikwenda sambamba na kuongezeka kwa nadharia ya ujenzi mpya wa dhana (deconstruction).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/women-and-gender-in-early-modern-europe/86B27B08AF675395E5ADE5544AAD4CB0#overview|title=Women and Gender in Early Modern Europe|last=Wiesner-Hanks|first=Merry|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2019|isbn=9781108683524|edition=4|location=Cambridge, UK|pages=1–22|author-link=Merry Wiesner-Hanks|access-date=7 December 2021}}</ref><ref name="whitman">{{cite web|url=http://www.whitman.edu/content/genderstudies|title=Gender Studies|publisher=[[Whitman College]]|access-date=1 May 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212181127/http://www.whitman.edu/content/genderstudies|archive-date=12 December 2012}}</ref> Taaluma mbalimbali zinazochangia masomo ya jinsia ni pamoja na fasihi, isimu, jiografia ya binadamu, historia, sayansi ya siasa, akiolojia, uchumi, sosholojia, saikolojia, anthropolojia, filamu, muziki, mawasiliano ya vyombo vya habari, maendeleo ya binadamu, sheria, afya ya jamii, na tiba. Masomo ya jinsia pia yanachunguza jinsi rangi, kabila, eneo, tabaka la kijamii, utaifa, na ulemavu vinavyoingiliana na dhana za jinsia na ujinsia. Katika masomo haya, neno "jinsia" mara nyingi hutumika kurejelea ujenzi wa kijamii na kitamaduni wa hali ya kiume na ya kike, badala ya kuangazia vipengele vya kibaiolojia vya jinsia ya kiume au ya kike. Hata hivyo, mtazamo huu haukubaliki na wanazuoni wote wa masomo ya jinsia..<ref name="gottshall02">{{cite journal|last=Gottschall|first=Marilyn|year=2002|title=The Ethical Implications of the Deconstruction of Gender|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1466463|journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Religion]]|volume=70|issue=2|pages=279–99|doi=10.1093/jaar/70.2.279|jstor=1466463}}</ref> Jinsia ni dhana muhimu katika taaluma mbalimbali kama nadharia ya fasihi, masomo ya maigizo, nadharia ya filamu, nadharia ya utendaji, historia ya sanaa ya kisasa, anthropolojia, sosholojia, isimu ya kijamii, na saikolojia. Kwenye siasa, jinsia inaweza kuchukuliwa kama wazo msingi linalotumiwa na wanasiasa ili kujielekeza kwenye masuala mbalimbali. Masomo ya jinsia pia yanajitegemea kama taaluma, kwa kutumia mbinu na mitazamo kutoka katika taaluma mbalimbali. Taaluma nyingi zimeanza kuona jinsia kama kitendo au utendaji, dhana inayojulikana kama "utendaji wa jinsia" (gender performativity). Nadharia ya kike ya saikolojia ya uchambuzi wa kinafsia, iliyoelezewa hasa na Julia Kristeva na Bracha L. Ettinger, na iliyoathiriwa na Sigmund Freud, Jacques Lacan, pamoja na nadharia ya mahusiano ya kiobjekti (object relations theory), imekuwa na ushawishi mkubwa katika masomo ya jinsia.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender and Media: Representing, Producing, Consuming|url=https://archive.org/details/gendermediarepre0000krij|last1=Krijnen|first1=Tonny|last2=van Bauwel|first2=Sofie|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2015|isbn=978-0-415-69540-4|location=New York}}</ref><ref name="Race, Ethnicity, Gender & Class">Healey, J. F. (2003). ''Race, Ethnicity, Gender and Class: The Sociology of Group Conflict and Change''.</ref><ref name="indiana">{{cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~gender/|title=Department of Gender Studies|publisher=[[Indiana University]] (IU Bloomington)|access-date=1 May 2012|archive-date=10 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910173314/http://www.indiana.edu/~gender/|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Athari == '''Nadharia ya Saikolojia ya Uchambuzi (Psychoanalytic Theory) katika Masomo ya Jinsia''' Taaluma ya masomo ya jinsia imeathiriwa kwa kiasi kikubwa na wanadharia kadhaa wa saikolojia ya uchambuzi, wakiwemo Sigmund Freud, Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva, na Bracha L. Ettinger. Kila mmoja kati yao ana mtazamo wake juu ya jinsia.<ref>Salime, Zakia. ''Between Feminism and Islam: Human Rights and Sharia Law in Morocco''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011.</ref> Katika mfumo wa Freud, wanawake huonekana kama waliokatwa (mutilated) na wanapaswa kujifunza kukubali ukosefu wao wa uume, ambao Freud aliuona kama "ulemavu". Kwa upande mwingine, Jacques Lacan hupanga dhana za kike na za kiume kulingana na miundo tofauti ya fahamu isiyotambuliwa. Wanaume na wanawake hushiriki katika uundaji wa kijinsia wa "phallic", ambapo upande wa kike wa sexuation (hali ya kijinsia) si kinyume wala mfanano wa ule wa kiume, bali ni wa nyongeza (supplementary). Lacan pia anatumia dhana ya sexuation, inayodai kwamba uundaji wa majukumu ya kijinsia hutokea katika utotoni kupitia mchakato wa kijamii na kisaikolojia, kinyume na mtazamo kuwa utambulisho wa kijinsia ni wa asili au wa kibaiolojia. Julia Kristeva anasisitiza kuwa tamaduni za mfumo dume, kama vile watu binafsi, hulazimika kuondoa na kukataa kipengele cha kike na cha mama ili ziweze kuwepo. Bracha L. Ettinger alileta mabadiliko katika uchambuzi wa saikolojia ya kisasa kwa dhana yake ya Matrixial (mfumo wa mama na wa upendo wa awali), akibadilisha mtazamo wa mhusika wa kibinadamu kwa kuzingatia uhusiano wa kina wa mtu na mama yake tangu enzi za ujauzito.<ref>{{cite book|title=Art in the Time-Space of Memory and Migration: Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud and Bracha L. Ettinger in the Freud Museum|last=Pollock|first=Griselda|publisher=Wild Pansy Press & Freud Museum|year=2013|location=Leeds, London|author-link=Griselda Pollock}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Aesthetics, Ethics and Trauma in the Cinema of Pedro Almodovar|url=https://archive.org/details/aestheticsethics0000guti|last=Gutierrez-Albilla|first=Julian|publisher=Edinburgh UP|year=2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Antigone's Sisters: On the Matrix of Love|last=Škof|first=Lenart|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Inside the Visible|url=https://archive.org/details/insidevisibleell0000unse|publisher=MIT Press|year=1996|editor-last=de Zegher|editor-first=Catherine}}</ref> === Nadharia ya Saikolojia ya Uchambuzi katika Uanaharakati wa Kike === Wanadharia wa kike kama Juliet Mitchell, Nancy Chodorow, Jessica Benjamin, Jane Gallop, Bracha L. Ettinger, Shoshana Felman, Griselda Pollock, Luce Irigaray, na Jane Flax walitengeneza nadharia ya saikolojia ya uchambuzi ya kike. Wanaamini kuwa saikolojia ya uchambuzi ni muhimu kwa harakati za wanawake, lakini inapaswa kukosolewa na kurekebishwa ili kuondoa athari za mfumo dume. Shulamith Firestone, katika kitabu chake The Dialectic of Sex, anadai kuwa Freud alikuwa sahihi karibu kabisa, isipokuwa kwamba kila mahali aliposema "uume", alipaswa kusema "nguvu". Wakosoaji kama Elizabeth Grosz wanamlaumu Lacan kwa kuendeleza mtazamo wa kibaguzi wa jinsia katika saikolojia ya uchambuzi. Lakini wanazuoni kama Judith Butler, Bracha L. Ettinger, na Jane Gallop wameutumia mtazamo wa Lacan kwa njia mpya ili kuendeleza masomo ya jinsia. Judith Butler ana wasiwasi juu ya mtazamo wa saikolojia ya uchambuzi unaodai kuwa tofauti za kijinsia ni jambo lisilopingika, huku ukiyatafsiri majaribio ya kuhoji ukweli huu kuwa ni upotovu wa kisaikolojia. === Nadharia ya Fasihi na Masomo ya Jinsia === Ufeministi wa kifaransa wenye mwelekeo wa kisaikolojia ulishughulikia nadharia za fasihi na sanaa za maonyesho. Urithi wa Virginia Woolf na mwito wa Adrienne Rich kuhusu wanawake kurekebisha maandiko ya fasihi na historia umechochea kizazi cha waandishi wa kike kutoa maandiko yao wenyewe. Griselda Pollock na wanaharakati wengine wa kike wamechambua mitholojia, ushairi, fasihi, na sanaa kutoka kwa mtazamo wa jinsia. == Marejeo == {{Reflist|30em}} [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] 0i1a5j5ul5uibhrm0bgno4a43czccw2 0 204797 1580185 1411559 2026-07-18T01:01:35Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580185 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Christabel Harriette Pankhurst DBE''' (/ˈpæŋkhərst/; [[22 Septemba]] [[1880]] – [[13 Februari]] [[1958]]) alikuwa mwanaharakati wa haki ya wanawake kupiga kura wa Uingereza aliyezaliwa Manchester, England. Mwanzilishi mwenza wa Jumuiya ya [[Wanawake]] ya Kijamii na Kisiasa (WSPU), aliongoza vitendo vyake vya kijeshi kutoka uhamishoni huko Ufaransa kuanzia [[1912]] hadi [[1913]]. Mnamo [[1914]], aliunga mkono vita dhidi ya Ujerumani. Baada ya vita, alihamia [[Marekani]], ambapo alifanya kazi kama mwinjilisti wa harakati ya Second Adventist. Christabel Pankhurst alikuwa binti ya kiongozi wa [[harakati]] ya haki ya wanawake kupiga kura Emmeline Pankhurst na msoshalisti wa itikadi kali Richard Pankhurst na dada ya Sylvia na Adela Pankhurst. Baba yake alikuwa wakili wa mahakama na mama yake alikuwa na duka dogo. Christabel alimsaidia mama yake, ambaye alifanya kazi kama Msajili wa Kuzaliwa na Vifo huko Manchester. Licha ya matatizo ya kifedha, familia yake ilikuwa imehimizwa kila mara na imani yao thabiti katika kujitolea kwao kwa mambo badala ya starehe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Purvis |first1=June |title=Christabel Pankhurst: A Biography |date=18 January 2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-24664-4 |page=xxvi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VitEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR26 |language=en}}</ref> Nancy Ellen Rupprecht aliandika, "Alikuwa karibu kielelezo cha kitabu cha mtoto wa kwanza aliyezaliwa katika familia ya tabaka la kati. Katika utoto pamoja na utu uzima, alikuwa mrembo, mwenye [[akili]], mwenye [[neema]], mwenye kujiamini, mwenye haiba, na charisma." Christabel alifurahia uhusiano wa pekee na mama yake na baba yake, ambao walimpa jina lake baada ya "Christabel", shairi la Samuel Taylor Coleridge ("Mwanamke mrembo Christabel / Ambaye baba yake anampenda sana"). [[Kifo]] cha mama yake mnamo [[1928]] kilikuwa na athari kubwa kwa Christabel. Pankhurst alijifunza kusoma nyumbani peke yake kabla ya kwenda shule. Yeye na dada zake wawili walihudhuria Shule ya Upili ya Wasichana ya Manchester. Alipata digrii ya sheria kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha [[Manchester]], na akapokea heshima katika mtihani wake wa LL.B. lakini, kama mwanamke, hakuruhusiwa kutekeleza sheria. Baadaye Pankhurst alihamia Geneva kuishi na rafiki wa [[familia]], lakini, baba yake alipokufa mnamo [[1898]], alirudi nyumbani kumsaidia mama yake kulea [[watoto]] wengine.<ref name=Gale>{{cite web|last=Hillberg|first=Isabelle|title=Pankhurst, Christabel Hariette (1880–1958)|url=http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/suic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Reference&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=SUIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CA148364172&mode=view|publisher=Detroit:Gale|access-date=6 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Gale two">{{cite web|title=Christabel Pankhurst|url=http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Reference&disableHighlighting=false&prodId=WHIC&action=e&windowstate=normal&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CK1616000037&mode=view|publisher=Gale|access-date=17 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Rise up, women! The Remarkable Lives of the Suffragettes|url=https://archive.org/details/riseupwomenremar00unse|last=Atkinson|first=Diane|publisher=Bloomsbury|year=2018|isbn=9781408844045|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/riseupwomenremar00unse/page/436 436]|oclc=1016848621}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=3 January 1913|title=Christmas in Paris|page=178|work=The Suffragette}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Great Scourge and How to End It |last=Pankhurst |first=Christabel |publisher=Lincoln's Inn House |location=Kingsway |year=1913|url=https://archive.org/details/b28093318/mode/2up|access-date=20 September 2022}}</ref><ref name='McPherson & McPherson'>{{cite book| last =McPherson| first =Angela| author2 =McPherson, Susan| title =Mosley's Old Suffragette – A Biography of Norah Elam| year =2011| publisher =Lulu.com| url =http://www.oldsuffragette.co.uk| isbn =978-1-4466-9967-6| url-status =dead| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120113154415/http://www.oldsuffragette.co.uk/| archive-date =13 January 2012| df =dmy-all}}</ref> Mnamo [[1905]], Christabel Pankhurst alikatiza mkutano wa Chama cha Liberal kwa kupiga kelele akidai haki ya [[wanawake]] kupiga kura. Alikamatwa na, pamoja na mwanaharakati mwenzake wa haki ya kupiga kura Annie Kenney, walienda [[gerezani]] badala ya kulipa faini kama adhabu kwa kelele zao. Kesi yao ilipata umakini mkubwa wa vyombo vya habari na safu za WSPU ziliongezeka kufuatia kesi yao. Emmeline Pankhurst alianza kuchukua hatua za kijeshi zaidi kwa ajili ya haki ya wanawake kupiga kura baada ya kukamatwa kwa binti yake na yeye mwenyewe alifungwa [[gerezani]] mara nyingi kwa ajili ya kanuni zake.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/women/millicent-fawcett-statue-parliament-square-london-caroline-criado-perez/ |title=Millicent Fawcett statue unveiling: the women and men whose names will be on the plinth |date=24 April 2018 |publisher=iNews |access-date=2018-04-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/pankhurst-dame-christabel-1880-1958 |title=PANKHURST, Emmeline (1858-1928) & PANKHURST, Dame Christabel (1880-1958) |publisher=English Heritage |date=1908-12-21 |access-date=2018-04-26}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references />{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1880]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1958]] [[Jamii:wanaharakati wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] c2rxqvqld0cunckv8o6kc56y4g3fm9x 2 204843 1579970 1564523 2026-07-17T17:25:51Z ~2026-40118-33 91004 1579970 wikitext text/x-wiki Michael Alacoque Michael Alacoque '''( 마이클 알라코크 ~ in Korean Hangul )''' is a Tanzanian-Korean entrepreneur, pharmacist, actor, fashion model, and creative media personality based in Dar es Salaam. He is recognized for his growing influence in business, fashion, entertainment, and digital branding. Born on August 6, in Sumbawanga, Michael Alacoque developed an early interest in entrepreneurship, creativity, and public communication. Over the years, he expanded his work across multiple industries, combining healthcare, fashion, media, and business innovation. '''Early life and education''' Michael Alacoque was born in Sumbawanga, Tanzania, where he spent his early years developing interests in entrepreneurship, fashion, media, and the creative arts. His upbringing contributed to his interest in leadership, personal development, and cross-cultural engagement. Michael Alacoque later relocated to Seoul, South Korea, where he continued his academic and professional development. He studied at Seoul National University, He expanded his international exposure and strengthened his interest in global business, fashion, media, and cultural exchange. '''Career and religion''' '''Spiritual Patronage and Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus''' Michael Alacoque considers Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque to be his spiritual patron and maternal guide in his journey of faith. he has embraced her spiritual legacy as a profound source of inspiration and direction in his life. Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, the seventeenth century French nun renowned for promoting devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, occupies a special place in Michael’s spiritual identity. Through her writings, witness, and unwavering dedication to Christ, she helped deepen the Church’s understanding of God’s infinite love and mercy revealed through the Sacred Heart of Jesus. Her life of prayer, humility, sacrifice, and trust in God continues to inspire millions of Catholics throughout the world. For Michael, Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque is more than a historical saint; she is a spiritual mother whose example encourages him to pursue a life rooted in faith, compassion, perseverance, and service. He regards her as a constant intercessor before God and a guiding presence in his personal and professional journey. Michael’s devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus is closely connected to the spirituality of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque. He believes that the Sacred Heart represents Christ’s unconditional love for humanity a love that heals, restores, forgives, and transforms lives. Inspired by this message, he seeks to cultivate a life centered on prayer, integrity, charity, and trust in divine providence. Throughout his life, Michael has looked to Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque as a model of spiritual courage and fidelity. Her example reminds him to remain steadfast during challenges, faithful in times of uncertainty, and grateful for God’s blessings. Her witness continues to shape his understanding of Christian discipleship and his commitment to living according to Gospel values. Through his devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the spiritual patronage of Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, Michael continues to pursue a life dedicated to faith, personal growth, service, and the pursuit of excellence. He regards her enduring legacy as a source of inspiration and a reminder that true success is ultimately measured not only by achievement, but by one’s love for God and service to humanity. 9eo2r22i38swb30pergaqeae728l9sm 0 204909 1580215 1408516 2026-07-18T01:23:21Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580215 wikitext text/x-wiki '''April Stevens''' (alizaliwa kama '''Caroline Vincinette LoTempio'''; [[29 Aprili]], [[1929]] – amefariki [[17 Aprili]], [[2023]]) alikuwa [[mwimbaji]] wa [[Marekani]] aliyeshinda Tuzo ya Grammy katika muziki wa [[pop]] wa jadi, anayejulikana zaidi kwa ushirikiano wake na ndugu yake mdogo, Nino Tempo, kama Nino Tempo & April Stevens.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Music world mourns loss of Falls native and Grammy winner April Stevens |url=https://news.yahoo.com/music-world-mourns-loss-falls-112000689.html |access-date=2023-04-24 |website=Yahoo News |date=April 24, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Hit Records: 1950–1975 |url=https://archive.org/details/hitrecords1950190000lone |first=David |last=Lonergan |year=2004 |page=[https://archive.org/details/hitrecords1950190000lone/page/104 104] |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0810851290}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nino Tempo and April Stevens |url=http://www.ninoandapril.com/fifties.html |access-date=2023-04-24 |website=www.ninoandapril.com}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} {{BD|1929|2023}} [[Jamii:Waimbaji wa Marekani]] bqhwe7qn3qjhuq6t19f9pv7hha92m0g 0 204937 1580130 1547889 2026-07-18T00:25:35Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580130 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Valeria Flores''' (pia anaitwa '''val flores'''; alizaliwa [[12 Januari]] [[1973]]) ni [[mwandishi]], mwalimu na mtetezi wa wasagaji wa [[Argentina]]. <ref name=":3">{{cite book |title=una lengua cosida de relámpagos|last=flores|first=val|publisher=hekht|year=2019|isbn=978-987-4954-05-3}}</ref> Amejitolea kwa nadharia ya kitambo na ufeministi wa jinsia moja. Anaandika insha za kinadharia zinazojulikana na uandishi wa ushairi, na ushairi. Miongoni mwa vitabu vyake vilivyochapishwa ni interruqciones. ''Ensayos de poética activist, Deslenguada''. ''Desbordes de una proletaria del lenguaje''<ref>{{cite news |title=Lengua larga|url=https://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/suplementos/soy/1-1892-2011-03-11.html|access-date=14 April 2021}}</ref> na ''El sótano de San Telmo''. Una barricada proletaria para el deseo lésbico en los 70. Yeye pia hufanya maonyesho na warsha kama aina za uingiliaji wa kisiasa, urembo na ufundishaji.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://17edu.org/val-flores/|title=val flores}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://editorialmadreselva.com.ar/book-author/valeria-flores/|title=Valeria Flores – Madreselva|first=Valeria|last=Flores}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Performance de arte y política Tarde de sexo (en) público en un museo de La Plata|url=https://www.clarin.com/cultura/sexo-publico-museo-plata_0_B93PDFIed.html|last=Patricia Kolesnicov|date=5 July 2019|access-date=14 April 2021}}</ref> == Wasifu == Mzaliwa wa Buenos Aires, akiwa na umri wa miaka mitatu alihamia [[Neuquén]] na familia yake. Huko, alifanya kazi kama mwalimu wa msingi katika shule za umma katika jiji la Neuquén kwa miaka 15. Yeye ni Mwalimu wa Elimu ya Msingi, na alianza kazi kadhaa za chuo kikuu ambazo "aliziacha", kwa hivyo mafunzo yake kama mwandishi wa kiakili na wa kinadharia yanatokana na mazoezi ya kujifundisha. Anaishi katika jiji la Buenos Aires. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://herder.com.mx/es/autores-writers/valeria-flores|title=Valeria Flores &#124; Editorial Herder MX|accessdate=2025-03-10|archive-date=2025-03-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250327230315/https://herder.com.mx/es/autores-writers/valeria-flores|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news |title=valeria flores: "Pienso lesbiana como un espacio epistemológico y de producción teórica"|url=https://latinta.com.ar/2019/06/valeria-flores-pienso-lesbiana-como-un-espacio-epistemologico-y-de-produccion-teorica/|last=Jorge Díaz y Francisca Palma|date=28 June 2019|access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal|access-date=13 April 2021|last=Alvarado|date=2019|doi=10.12957/childphilo.2019.38630|first=Mariana|periodical=Childhood & Philosophy, Vol. 15, E38630|title=Pedagogías cuir y feminismos rapsódicos en/desde valeria flores|volume=15 |pages=1–15 |s2cid=242328824 |url=https://www.redalyc.org/jatsRepo/5120/512059810021/html/index.html|hdl=11336/121322|hdl-access=free}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref name=":2">{{cite news |title=Alteraciones del pulso de la vida: val flores y la pregunta por el sexo en el espacio público educativo|url=https://ffyh.unc.edu.ar/alfilo/alteraciones-del-pulso-de-la-vida-val-flores-y-la-pregunta-por-el-sexo-en-el-espacio-publico-educativo/|last=Enrico|first=Juliana|access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref> Alikuwa mwanzilishi mwenza wa kikundi cha wanawake cha La Revuelta mnamo [[2001]], na mnamo 2004 aliondoka kwenye kikundi hicho kwa sababu ya tofauti za kibinafsi na kisiasa. Mwaka huo, aliunda Fugitivas del Desierto – lesbianas feministas, shirika la wasagaji ambalo lilitekeleza uingiliaji wa kisiasa, urembo, na kinadharia huko Neuquén, Ajentina (2004–2008). Pamoja na mshairi na mwanaharakati wa wasagaji, Macky Corbalán, kati ya 2014 na [[2015]], alichapisha jarida la wasagaji na wanawake ''"La Sociedad de las Extranas"'', likiwa na mzunguko wa kila mwezi. Kichwa hiki kinatokana na dondoo kutoka kwa Virginia Woolf: "na sisi, ambao tutasalia wageni, tutajaribu", kutoka kwa kitabu Three Guineas.<ref>{{cite news |title=Graciela Alonso: maestra feminista inspiradora|url=https://vaconfirma.com.ar/?articulos_seccion_11564/id_10853/graciela-alonso-maestra-feminista-inspiradora-|date=16 March 2020|access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|access-date=13 April 2021|last=Gutiérrez|date=2017|first=María Laura|periodical=Tesis de la Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de Buenos Aires|title=Imágenes de lo posible. Intervenciones y visibilidades feministas en las prácticas artísticas en Argentina (1986–2013).|url=https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/bitstream/handle/11336/82843/CONICET_Digital_Nro.0a500501-05ad-4131-97fe-9b2270c185c3_A.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y|archive-date=2024-05-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512115358/https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/bitstream/handle/11336/82843/CONICET_Digital_Nro.0a500501-05ad-4131-97fe-9b2270c185c3_A.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y|url-status=dead}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite book |title=VVAA. Itinerarios de la transgresión. Políticas, sujetos y experiencias.|last=ANASTASÍA, P. y BOCCARDI, F.|publisher=Comunicarte|pages=213–231|year=2012}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite news |title=LAS "FUGITIVAS DEL DESIERTO"|url=http://www1.rionegro.com.ar/diario/debates/2006/11/19/4195.php|last=Burton|first=Gerardo|date=19 November 2006|access-date=14 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.rimaweb.com.ar/|title=RIMA web|website=RIMA web|accessdate=2025-03-10|archive-date=2025-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250319101537/https://www.rimaweb.com.ar/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mnamo [[2009]] aliunda blogi ya kibinafsi "maandishi ya uzushi" ambayo anachapisha maandishi yake ya kinadharia, ya ushairi na ya kibinafsi. Mnamo mwaka wa [[2011]], huko Buenos Aires, alikuwa sehemu ya shirika la Majadiliano muhimu ya Wanaharakati wa Wasagaji. Mwaka huo huo alianzisha hifadhi ya kidijitali ya uharakati wa wasagaji wa Argentina, Potencia Tortillera (2011–2015), ambayo inalenga kurejesha kumbukumbu ya kuwepo kwa wasagaji wa ndani na uanaharakati. Mnamo 2012, alishiriki kama mratibu wa ''I Celebración de las Amantes''. ''Jornadas de orgullo y disidencia lesbiana'', huko [[Córdoba]].<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://escritoshereticos.blogspot.com/|title=escritos herèticos}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=MOVIMIENTOS.Potencia Tortillera, archivo del activismo lésbico|url=http://www.laizquierdadiario.com/Potencia-Tortillera-archivo-del-activismo-lesbico|last=Peralta|first=María Luisa|date=12 November 2014|access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://www.ciacentro.org.ar/agentes_2014#2014_1727|title=Agentes 2014 &#124; Centro de Investigaciones Artísticas|website=www.ciacentro.org.ar|accessdate=2025-03-10|archive-date=2023-02-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204155714/http://ciacentro.org.ar/agentes_2014#2014_1727|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.rimaweb.com.ar/articulos/2011/%E2%80%9Cla-celebracion-de-las-amantes%E2%80%9D-primera-comunicacion/ |title="La celebración de las amantes" Jornadas de orgullo y disidencia lesbiana |accessdate=2025-03-10 |archive-date=2021-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414033922/http://www.rimaweb.com.ar/articulos/2011/%e2%80%9cla-celebracion-de-las-amantes%e2%80%9d-primera-comunicacion/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Mnamo 2013, pamoja na Macky Corbalán, aliunda shirika huru la uchapishaji La Mondonga Dark, mradi ambao ulitaka kusambaza sauti ambazo hazijachapishwa na za majaribio katika uwanja wa fasihi. Shirika la uchapishaji lilikoma kuwepo wakati Macky Corbalán alipoaga dunia mwaka wa 2014. <ref>{{cite news |title=Vísceras de lenguaje|url=https://www.lmneuquen.com/visceras-lenguaje-n170802|date=6 December 2012|access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref> Mnamo Agosti 2013, pamoja na Noe Gall na wanaharakati wengine wa wasagaji, aliunda na kusambaza Tangazo la Wasagaji Wanaopendelea Jinsia Wanaopendelea Wafanyabiashara ya Ngono, ili kukabiliana na maendeleo ya kupinga ufeministi na kuharamishwa kwa wafanyabiashara ya ngono kutokana na sheria za kupinga biashara haramu. Kwa sasa, Flores anazalisha kazi ya mwanaharakati wa kiakili. <ref>{{cite news |title=Entre la extranjería y la solidaridad|url=https://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/suplementos/las12/13-8303-2013-09-13.html|last=Lacombe|first=Andrea|date=13 September 2013|access-date=14 April 2021}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Mnamo 2021, Flores alichapisha ''Romper el corazón del mundo''. Modos fugitivos de hacer teoría.<ref name=":4">{{Rejea jarida |last=Cordone |first=Gabriela |date=2022 |title=Review of Val flores: Romper el corazón del mundo. Modos fugitivos de hacer teoría. |url=https://revistascientificas.us.es/index.php/PH/article/download/20793/19878 |journal=Philologia Hispalensis |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=197–200|doi=10.12795/PH.2022.v36.i02.11 |s2cid=254618467 |doi-access=free }}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1973]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Argentina]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Argentina]] [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] 6ygjun7q0nkqb3py5kc3ka9fl0ij9d8 0 205017 1580091 1494516 2026-07-18T00:00:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580091 wikitext text/x-wiki {{WLR 2025}} {{Uislamu}} '''Ijazah''' (kwa [[Kiarabu]]: الإِجازَة, "ruhusa", "idhini", "leseni"; wingi: ijazahs au ijazat) ni leseni inayompa mtu mamlaka ya kuendeleza usambazaji wa maandiko fulani au mada fulani, inayotolewa na mtu ambaye tayari anamiliki mamlaka hayo. Inahusishwa sana na usambazaji wa maarifa ya kidini katika [[Uislamu]].<ref name="EI2">{{Cite encyclopedia|author=Vajda, G., Goldziher, I. na Bonebakker, S.A.|title= Id̲j̲āza | year= 2012 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam| edition=2nd|publisher=Brill |editor=P. Bearman |editor2=Th. Bianquis |editor3=C.E. Bosworth |editor4=E. van Donzel |editor5=W.P. Heinrichs|doi= 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3485 }}</ref> Leseni hii kwa kawaida hufafanua kuwa mwanafunzi amepokea maarifa haya moja kwa moja kutoka kwa mtoaji wa ijazah kupitia mafundisho ya mdomo ya ana kwa ana, ingawa sharti hili lililegezwa kadri ya muda.<ref name=EI2/> Ijazah inayotoa mlolongo wa watoa ruhusa waliothibitishwa hadi kwa mwandishi wa awali mara nyingi iliambatana na maandiko ya hadithi, fiqhi na tafsiri; lakini pia ilionekana katika kazi za tasaufi, historia, [[isimu]] na [[fasihi]].<ref name=EI2/> Ingawa ijazah inahusishwa zaidi na Uislamu wa [[Wasuni|Kisunni]], dhana hii pia inapatikana katika mapokeo ya hadithi za [[Washia|Mashia]] wa Twaareshi.<ref name=EI2/> George Makdisi, profesa wa masomo ya Mashariki, alipendekeza kwamba ijazah ndiyo chimbuko la shahada za vyuo vikuu pamoja na shahada ya uzamivu. Profesa wa Kiarabu, Alfred Guillaume (SOAS); Profesa wa Sosholojia, Syed Farid al-Attas (Chuo Kikuu cha Taifa cha Singapore)<ref name="Attas">{{cite journal |last1=Al-Attas |first1=Syed Farid |author1-link=Syed Farid al-Attas |title=From Jāmi' ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |date=1 Januari 2006 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355 |issn=0011-3921 |quote=Katika miaka ya 1930, mwanazuoni mashuhuri wa Mashariki Alfred Guillaume aliona mfanano mkubwa kati ya taasisi za elimu ya juu za Kiislamu na zile za Kikristo za Kizungu. Mfano alioutoa ni ijazah, aliyotambua kuwa inakaribiana na licentia docendi ya Zama za Kati, mtangulizi wa shahada ya kisasa ya chuo kikuu.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 }}</ref> na Profesa wa Masomo ya Mashariki ya Kati, Devin J. Stewart (Chuo Kikuu cha Emory) wanakubaliana kuwa kuna mfanano kati ya ijazah na shahada ya chuo kikuu.<ref name="stewart">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Devin J. Stewart|editor=Josef W. Meri|encyclopedia=[[Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia]]|title=Degrees, or Ijazah|date=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135455965|pages=201–203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|quote=Leseni ya kufundisha sheria na kutoa fatwa [...] ni aina ya ijazah inayofanana zaidi na shahada ya chuo kikuu ya Zama za Kati ya Ulaya [...] Tofauti kuu kati ya hizi mbili ni kwamba mamlaka ya kutoa hutolewa na profesa binafsi katika Uislamu, ilhali katika chuo kikuu hutolewa na taasisi ya pamoja. Licha ya tofauti hii, Makdisi amelinganisha ijazat al-ifta' wa'l-tadris na licentia docendi ya Kilatini ya Zama za Kati na kupendekeza kuwa ilihudumu kama mfano wa shahada hiyo.|author-link=Devin J. Stewart}}</ref> Hata hivyo, Toby Huff na wengine wanapinga nadharia ya Makdisi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Huff|first=Toby E.|title=The rise of early modern science: Islam, China, and the West|url=https://archive.org/details/riseofearlymoder0000huff_y8w0|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|isbn=978-0521529945|page=[https://archive.org/details/riseofearlymoder0000huff_y8w0/page/155 155]|edition=2. ed., repr.|author-link=Toby Huff|quote=Ni wazi kuwa hakuna sawa na shahada ya kwanza ya chuo, licentia docendi, au shahada za juu zilizowahi kutokea katika madrasa za Kiislamu za zama za kati au za mwanzo za kisasa.}}</ref> Devin J. Stewart anabainisha tofauti katika mamlaka ya kutoa ijazah (profesa binafsi katika Uislamu na taasisi ya pamoja kwa upande wa chuo kikuu).<ref name="stewart" /> ==Maelezo== [[File:Ijazah3.jpg|thumb|left|Ijazah inayothibitisha ujuzi katika [[kaligrafia]], 1206 [[Kalenda ya Kiislamu|BH]]/1791 [[BK]].]] Katika makala yenye kichwa ''Traditionalism in Islam: An Essay in Interpretation'', profesa wa [[Chuo Kikuu cha Harvard]], William A. Graham<ref>Graham, William A. (Winter 1993), "Traditionalism in Islam: An Essay in Interpretation", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 23 (3): 495–522, doi:10.2307/206100, JSTOR 206100</ref>, anaelezea mfumo wa ijazah kama ifuatavyo: Mfumo wa msingi wa "safari ya kutafuta elimu" ulioibuka mapema katika usomi wa Hadithi ulihusisha kusafiri kwa wataalamu mahususi (shaykhs), hasa wale wazee na maarufu zaidi wa wakati huo, ili kusikiliza hadithi zao moja kwa moja kutoka kwao na kupata ruhusa au "idhini" (ijazah) ya kuzisambaza kwa majina yao. Mfumo huu wa ijazah wa kuthibitishwa kibinafsi badala ya kitaasisi umetumika si tu kwa Hadithi, bali pia kwa usambazaji wa maandiko ya aina yoyote—kuanzia historia, sheria au isimu hadi fasihi, tasaufi, au teolojia. Isnadi ya maandiko marefu vilevile kama ile ya hadithi fupi inapaswa kuonyesha usambazaji wa mdomo, uso kwa uso, kati ya mwalimu na mwanafunzi kupitia ijazah ya mwalimu, ambayo ndiyo inayothibitisha maandiko yaliyoandikwa. Katika ijazah ya maandishi ya rasmi, mwalimu anayetoa cheti kwa kawaida hujumuisha isnad inayoonyesha mlolongo wa walimu wake wa kielimu hadi kwa Mtume kupitia Masahaba, shaykh mashuhuri wa baadaye, au mwandishi wa kitabu maalum. == Mfano wa Ijazah ya Quran == [[File:Raad Mohammad Al Kurdi.png|thumb|201x201px|Ra'ad bin Mohammed Al-Kurdi]] Kwa mfano, msomaji mashuhuri wa Quran katika enzi zetu za sasa: Sheikh Ra'ad bin Mohammad Al-Kurdi, kutoka kwa mwalimu wake Sheikh Sherzad Abdulrahman bin Tahir, na Ijazah yake ni kama ifuatavyo: Mfano ufuatao wa Ijazah ya Quran unaonyesha mnyororo wa usomaji wa Quran ([[Hafs|Qi'raa ya Hafs]]) kuanzia enzi ya sasa hadi kufikia kwa mtume [[Muhammad]]. {| class="wikitable" |+ Quran Ijazah |- ! Kiwango !! Wasomaji Quran maarufu |- | 30 || [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCTH6OW7ZlH7LfKJtcWMOGAg Ra'ad bin Mohammed Al Kurdi] |- | 29 || [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCwr65AzVIEytxiQGSFEG6ww Sherzad Abdulrahman bin Tahir] |- | 28 || [[:ar:بكري الطرابيشي|Bakri bin Abdul Majeed bin Bakri bin Ahmed Al-Tarabishi Al-Dimashqi]] |- | 27 || [https://islamsyria.com/site/show_cvs/71 Mohammed Salim bin Ahmed bin Mohammed Ali bin Mohammed al-Husseini Al-Dimashqi] {{Wayback|url=https://islamsyria.com/site/show_cvs/71 |date=20220419192459 }} |- | 26 || [[:ar:أحمد المرزوقي المالكي|Abu Al-Fawz Ahmed bin Ramadan bin Mansour bin Mohammed Al-Marzouki Al-Husni al-Malki Al-sanbati Al-Qayumi Al-Masri]] |- | 25 || [[:ar:إبراهيم العبيدي|Ibrahim Al-Obeidi Al-Hassni al-Maliki al-Azhari of Moroccan origin and Egyptian citizen]] |- | 24 || Abi al-Latif Abdulrahman bin Abdullah bin Hassan Bin Omar al-Ajhouri al-Maliki al-Azhari |- | 23 || [https://www.ketabonline.com/ar/books/44350/read?page=43&part=1 Shihab al-Din Abu al-Samah Ahmed bin Ahmed Al-Baqri Al-Shafi'i Al-Azhari al-Masri] |- | 22 || [[:ar:محمد بن قاسم البقري|Shams al-Din Muhammad Bin Qasim bin Ismail Al-Baqri al-Kabir Al-Shenawi Al-Qahiri Al-Shafi'i Al-Azhari]] |- | 21 || [https://tarajm.com/people/25200 Zainuddin Abdul Rahman bin Shehada Al-Yemeni Al-Shafi'i al-Masri] {{Wayback|url=https://tarajm.com/people/25200 |date=20250312061313 }} |- | 20 || [https://tarajm.com/people/78071 Noor al-Din Ali bin Mohammed bin Ali bin Khalil bin Ghanem Al-khazarji Al-Saadi Al-Abadi Al-Maqdisi] {{Wayback|url=https://tarajm.com/people/78071 |date=20250312135141 }} |- | 19 || Shams al-Din Abu and Abu al-Fath Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Ahmed Bin Makhlouf bin Ghali bin Abdul Al-Zaher al-samdisi al-Masri |- | 18 || [https://al-maktaba.org/book/31616/7403 Shihab al-Din Abu al-Abbas Ahmad ibn Asad-Din ibn Abdul Wahid bin Ahmad Al-Amyoti Al-Iskandari Al-Qaihri Al-Shafi'i] |- | 17 || [[Ibn al-Jazari|Abu al-Khayr Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Yusuf al-Jazari]] |- | 16 || [https://islamweb.net/ar/library/index.php?page=bookcontents&idfrom=16&idto=38&bk_no=70&ID=18 Taqi al-Din Abu Muhammad Abd al-Rahman bin Ahmed bin Ali bin Al-Mubarak bin Ma'ale al-Baghdadi Al-Masri Al-Shafi'i] |- | 15 || [https://islamweb.net/ar/library/index.php?page=bookcontents&ID=6069&idfrom=0&idto=0&flag=1&bk_no=60&ayano=0&surano=0&bookhad=0 Taqi al-Din Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ahmed bin Abdul Khaliq bin Ali Bin Salem Bin Maki al-Masri al-Shafi'i] |- | 14 || [https://fatwa.islamweb.net/ar/library/index.php?page=bookcontents&flag=1&bk_no=231&ID=182 Kamal al-Din Abu al Hassan Ali ibn Abi Al-fuwares Shuja bin Salem Bin Ali bin Musa Bin Hassan bin Touq bin Sanad bin Ali bin al-Fadl bin Ali bin Abdulrahman bin Ali bin Musa bin Isa bin Musa bin Muhammad Bin Ali bin Abdullah bin Abbas bin Abdul Muttalib bin Hashim al-Hashimi al-Abbasi al-Masri al-Shafi'i] |- | 13 || [https://islamweb.net/ar/library/index.php?page=bookcontents&ID=5509&idfrom=0&idto=0&flag=1&bk_no=60&ayano=0&surano=0&bookhad=0 Abu Al-Qasim Al-Qasim bin Fayrah bin Khalaf bin Ahmed Al-Raini Al-Andalusi Al-Shatibi] |- | 12 || [https://al-maktaba.org/book/11790/1226 Abu al-Hassan Ali bin Mohammed bin Ali bin Hathil Al-Balansi] |- | 11 || [https://al-maktaba.org/author/2310 Abu Dawood Suleiman ibn Abu Al-Qasim Najah al-Umawi Al-Andalusi, sire of the Emir of Al-Andalus Al-muayyad Billah Ibn al-Mustansir] |- | 10 || [[al-Dani|Abū ʿAmr ad-Dānī, known in his time as Ibn al-Ṣayrafī]] |- | 9 || [https://al-maktaba.org/book/31912/18549 Abi-Al-Hassan Tahir bin Abdul Moneim bin Obaidullah bin Ghalboun bin Al-Mubarak Al-Halabi] |- | 8 || [[:ar:محمد بن صالح الهاشمي|Abu Al-Hasan Ali bin Muhammad Bin Saleh Bin Dawood Al-Hashimi al-Ansari al-Basri Al-Darir]] |- | 7 || [[Al-Ashnani|Abi Al-Abbas Ahmad bin Sahl bin Al-Fairzan Al-ashnani al-Baghdadi]] |- | 6 || [[Obaid bin Al-Saba|Abi Mohammed Obaid Bin Al-Sabah bin Sabeeh Al-Nahashali]] |- | 5 || [[Hafs|Abū ʽAmr Ḥafṣ ibn Sulaymān ibn al-Mughīrah ibn Abi Dawud al-Asadī al-Kūfī]] |- | 4 || [[Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud]] |- | 3 || [[Abu Abd al-Rahman Abd Allah ibn Habib al-Sulami|Abu 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami]] |- | 2 || [[Uthman ibn Affan]], [[Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib]], [[Zayd bin Thabit]], [[Ubayy ibn Ka'b]], [[Abdullah ibn Masud]] |- | 1 || [[Muhammad|Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Hāshim]] |} ==Marejeo== {{marejeo}} {{mbegu-Islam}} [[Jamii:Uislamu]] [[Jamii:misahafu]] 37h46jzvpx2mgry09bnyna72i7sjpyx 0 205187 1580181 1525597 2026-07-18T00:58:38Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580181 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Sheila Rowbotham''' FRSA (alizaliwa [[27 Februari]] [[1943]]) ni mwananadharia na mwanahistoria wa Kifeministi wa Kisoshalisti kutoka Uingereza. Ni mwandishi wa vitabu vingi mashuhuri katika nyanja ya masomo ya wanawake, vikiwemo ''Hidden from History'' ([[1973]]), ''Beyond the Fragments'' ([[1979]]), ''A Century of Women'' (1997), na ''Threads Through Time'' ([[1999]]), pamoja na kitabu cha kumbukumbu cha mwaka 2021 ''Daring to Hope: My Life in the [[1970|1970s]]''. Tangu mwaka [[2010]], amekuwa akiishi Bristol.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rowbotham |first=Sheila |author-link=Sheila Rowbotham |year=1995 |chapter=Retrieval and Renewal |editor1-last=Callari |editor1-first=Antonio |editor2-last=Cullenberg |editor2-first=Stephen |editor3-last=Biewener |editor3-first=Carole |title=Marxism in the Postmodern Age: Confronting the New World Order |url=https://archive.org/details/marxisminpostmod0000unse |location=New York |publisher=Guildford Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/marxisminpostmod0000unse/page/71 71] |isbn=978-0-89862-424-3}}</ref> Rowbotham alizaliwa tarehe [[27 Februari]] [[1943]] mjini Leeds (ambayo kwa sasa ipo ndani ya West Yorkshire). Alikuwa binti wa muuzaji wa kampuni ya uhandisi na mfanyakazi wa ofisi. Tangu utotoni, alivutiwa sana na historia. Ameandika kuwa historia ya kisiasa ya jadi “haikumvutia,” lakini alimshukuru Olga Wilkinson, mmoja wa walimu wake, kwa kumtia moyo katika historia ya jamii kwa kumwonyesha kuwa historia "ilikuwa ya sasa, si tu ya vitabu vya kiada vya historia."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kinsman |first=Gary |year=2009 |title=The Politics of Revolution: Learning from Autonomist Marxism |url=https://uppingtheanti.org/journal/article/01-the-politics-of-revolution/ |journal=Upping the Anti |issue=1 |access-date=14 December 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Brock |first=Deborah |author-link=Deborah R. Brock |title='Workers of the World Caress': An Interview with Gary Kinsman on Gay and Lesbian Organizing in the 1970's Toronto Left |url=http://www.yorku.ca/lefthist/online/brock_kinsman.html |work=Left History |access-date=14 December 2019}}</ref> Rowbotham alisoma katika Chuo cha St Hilda’s cha Chuo Kikuu cha [[Oxford]], kisha akaendelea katika Chuo Kikuu cha London. Alianza kazi yake kama mwalimu katika shule za sekondari za umma na [[taasisi]] za elimu ya juu au elimu ya watu wazima. Akiwa St Hilda’s College, aliona mtaala wa masomo yenye msisitizo mkubwa kwenye historia ya kisiasa haukuwa na mvuto kwake. Amejielezea wakati huo alipokuwa akisoma St Hilda’s kuwa hakuwa "mfuasi wa mrengo wa kushoto hata kidogo" bali alikuwa "aina ya hippy wa kimistiko." Hata hivyo, [[muda]] si mrefu alianza kuwasiliana na wanaharakati wa mrengo wa kushoto, wakiwemo wanafunzi wenzake wa Oxford kama Gareth Stedman Jones, ambaye baadaye alikuja kuwa mwanahistoria mashuhuri.<ref name=Jacobin>{{cite web |url=https://jacobinmag.com/2020/06/sheila-rowbotham-gabriel-winant-british-socialist-feminism |title=Sheila Rowbotham on E.&nbsp;P. Thompson, Feminism, and the 1960s |last=Press |first=Alex N.|author2=Gabriel Winant |date=29 June 2020|website=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]]|access-date=30 June 2020}}</ref> Rowbotham pia alikutana na E. P. Thompson na Dorothy Thompson baada ya mwalimu wake kupendekeza kuwa awatembelee kutokana na shauku yao juu ya harakati za Wafanyakazi na Chartism. Alisoma rasimu ya kitabu ''The Making of the English Working Class'' cha E. P. Thompson, ambacho amekielezea kuwa "tofauti na vitabu vyote vya historia alivyowahi kusoma." Kupitia ushiriki wake katika Kampeni ya Kupinga Silaha za Nyuklia na miduara mbalimbali ya kisoshalisti, ikiwemo tawi la vijana la Chama cha Labour, yaani ''Young Socialists'', Rowbotham alijifunza mawazo ya Karl Marx. Hata hivyo, alikatishwa tamaa na siasa za vyama, hivyo akajitosa katika kampeni mbalimbali za mrengo wa kushoto, ikiwa ni pamoja na kuandika kwa gazeti la kisiasa la mrengo mkali, ''Black Dwarf'', ambapo pia alijiunga na jopo lake la wahariri.<ref>{{Rejea habari |last=Cadwalladr |first=Carole|author-link=Carole Cadwalladr |date=7 December 2008 |title=It's been a long journey - and we're not there yet |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/dec/07/women-equality-rights-feminism-sexism-women-s-liberation-conference |access-date=16 May 2022}}</ref> == Maisha == Katika miaka ya [[1960]], Rowbotham pamoja na Sally Alexander na Anna Davin walikuwa miongoni mwa waanzilishi na [[viongozi]] wa harakati ya History Workshop iliyohusishwa na Chuo cha Ruskin. Harakati ya History Workshop ilitaka kuandika "historia kutoka chini" kwa kuzingatia uzoefu wa watu wa kawaida kwa kuunganisha [[tamaduni]] ya Wamarxisti ya kuandika historia na tamaduni ya harakati ya wafanyakazi. Kuelekea mwisho wa miaka ya [[1960]], Rowbotham alijihusisha na harakati ya ukombozi wa wanawake inayokua (pia inajulikana kama ufeministi wa wimbi la pili); mnamo [[1969]], alichapisha kijitabu chake "''Women's Liberation and the New Politics,''" ambacho kilisema kuwa nadharia ya Ujamaa inahitaji kuzingatia ukandamizaji wa [[wanawake]] katika suala la kitamaduni pamoja na kiuchumi. Alihusika sana katika mkutano wa "Beyond the Fragments" (hatimaye kitabu), ambao ulijaribu kuunganisha mikondo ya ujamaa wa kidemokrasia na ujamaa wa [[kifeministi]] nchini [[Uingereza]]. Pia alikuwa mmoja wa waandaaji wa Mkutano wa Kitaifa wa Ukombozi wa Wanawake mnamo [[1970]], ambao uliweka madai yanayohusiana na masuala kama vile malipo sawa, [[elimu]] na [[uzazi]] wa mpango bila [[malipo]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Last year's shortlist|accessdate=26 July 2011|publisher=[[University of Edinburgh]]|url=http://www.ed.ac.uk/about/people/tait-black/shortlist-2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.bl.uk/americas/2012/04/sheila-rowbotham-writer-in-residence-from-whitman-to-the-wire.html|title=Sheila Rowbotham, Writer in Residence: From Whitman to The Wire|website=Americas and Oceania Collections blog|publisher=British Library|date=17 April 2012|access-date=29 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2021/nov/29/daring-to-hope-by-sheila-rowbotham-review-on-the-frontline-of-70s-feminism|title=Daring to Hope by Sheila Rowbotham review – on the frontline of 70s feminism|first=Yvonne|last=Roberts|newspaper=The Guardian|date=29 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=UniversityofBristol /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://epigram.org.uk/in-person-graduations-return-to-university-of-bristol-after-two-years/|title=First in-person graduation to be held at Bristol University since 2020|first=Holly|last=Beaumont|website=Epigram|date=7 April 2022|access-date=29 March 2024}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references />{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1943]] [[Jamii:waandishi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] 5vrxxk9f55vvfeoe9fhgf8md95de94x 0 205194 1580214 1571277 2026-07-18T01:22:48Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580214 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Sandra G. Harding''' ([[Machi 29]], [[1935]] – [[Machi 5]], [[2025]]) alikuwa [[mwanafalsafa]] wa Marekani aliyebobea katika nadharia za uanaharakati wa wanawake (feminist theory) na ukoloni mamboleo (postcolonial theory), epistemolojia, mbinu za utafiti, na falsafa ya sayansi. Alihudumu kama Mkurugenzi wa Kituo cha UCLA cha Utafiti wa Wanawake kati ya 1996 na 2000, na alikuwa mhariri mwenza wa ''Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society'' kati ya [[2000]] na [[2005]]. Mpaka kifo chake, alikuwa Profesa Mashuhuri Mstaafu wa Elimu na Masomo ya Jinsia katika UCLA, pamoja na Profesa Mshirika Mashuhuri wa [[Falsafa]] katika Chuo Kikuu cha Jimbo la [[Michigan]]. Mwaka [[2013]], alitunukiwa Tuzo ya John Desmond Bernal na Jumuiya ya Masomo ya Kijamii ya [[Sayansi]] (4S).<ref name=":0">{{Rejea tovuti|title=Sandra G. Harding papers 1971 – 2016|url=https://www.riamco.org/render?eadid=US-RPB-ms2017.002&view=title|access-date=10 April 2024|website=Rhode Island Archival and Manuscript Collections Online |publisher=Brown University Archives and Manuscripts}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti | url=https://gender.ucla.edu/person/sandra-harding/ | title=Sandra Harding | website=UCLA College of Gender Studies | access-date=10 April 2024 | archive-date=2024-09-19 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240919071301/https://gender.ucla.edu/person/sandra-harding/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> == Elimu na Kazi == Sandra Harding alipata shahada yake ya kwanza kutoka Chuo cha Douglass cha Chuo Kikuu cha Rutgers mwaka 1956. Baada ya miaka 12 akifanya kazi kama mtafiti wa sheria, mhariri, na mwalimu wa hisabati kwa wanafunzi wa darasa la tano huko New York City na Poughkeepsie, alirejea shule ya wahitimu na kupata shahada ya udaktari kutoka Idara ya Falsafa ya Chuo Kikuu cha New York mwaka [[1973]].<ref>{{Rejea tovuti | url=http://www.philosophy.msu.edu/people/faculty/sandraharding/ | title=Sandra Harding | website=Michigan State University Department of Philosophy | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706194226/http://www.philosophy.msu.edu/people/faculty/sandraharding/ | archive-date=2018-07-06 | accessdate=2025-03-14 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000102819 |title=World science report |date=1996 |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=10 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000188333 |title=WOrld Social Science Report: Knowledge Divides |isbn=978-92-3-104131-0 |date=2010 |publisher=UNESCO |editor-first=Françoise |editor-last=Caillods |chapter=Standpoint Methodologies and Epistemologies: a Logic of Scientific Inquiry for People |pages=173–175}}</ref> Kazi yake ya kwanza ya kufundisha katika chuo kikuu ilikuwa katika Kituo cha Allen cha Chuo Kikuu cha Jimbo la [[New York]] huko Albany, ambacho kilikuwa chuo cha majaribio cha sayansi za kijamii kilichofutwa ufadhili wake na serikali ya New York mwaka 1976. Baadaye, alijiunga na Idara ya Falsafa ya Chuo Kikuu cha Delaware, akipata pia nafasi ya kufundisha katika Programu ya Masomo ya Wanawake. Alipandishwa cheo kuwa Profesa Mshiriki mwaka [[1979]] na Profesa Kamili mwaka [[1986]]. Kuanzia mwaka 1981 hadi alipoondoka Delaware mwaka [[1996]], alikuwa pia na cheo cha pamoja katika Idara ya Sosholojia. Aidha, alihudumu kama Mkurugenzi wa Programu ya Masomo ya Wanawake katika Chuo Kikuu cha Delaware kati ya 1985–1991 na 1992–1993.<ref name="nemecek_1997">{{cite journal |last1=Nemecek |first1=S. |title=The Furor over Feminist Science |journal=Scientific American |date=January 1997 |volume=276 |issue=62 |pages=99–100 |jstor=24993570 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24993570}}</ref><ref name="Steiner">{{citation|last=Steiner|first=Linda|title=Philosophical profiles in the theory of communication|pages=261–289|year=2014|postscript=.|editor-last=Hannan|editor-first=Jason|contribution=Sandra Harding: the less false accounts of feminist standpoint epistemology|location=New York|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=9781433126345|author-link=Linda Steiner}}</ref> Kuanzia mwaka [[1994]] hadi [[1996]], Harding alikuwa Profesa Msaidizi wa Falsafa na Masomo ya Wanawake katika UCLA kwa muda wa nusu muda. Mwaka 1996, aliteuliwa kuwa Mkurugenzi wa Kituo cha UCLA cha Utafiti wa Wanawake, nafasi aliyoshikilia hadi mwaka 2000. Wakati huo huo, tangu 1996, alikuwa Profesa katika Idara ya Wahitimu ya Elimu na Idara ya Masomo ya Jinsia ya UCLA. Mwaka 2012, aliteuliwa kuwa Profesa Mashuhuri wa Elimu na Masomo ya Jinsia. Kati ya mwaka [[2000]] na [[2005]], pia alikuwa mhariri mwenza wa jarida ''Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society.''<ref name="sullivan_1996">{{cite journal |last=Sullivan |first=M.C. |date=1996 |title=A Mathematician Reads ''Social Text'' |journal=[[Notices of the American Mathematical Society|AMS Notices]] |volume=43 |issue=10 |pages=1127–1131 |url=https://www.ams.org/journals/notices/199610/comm-sullivan.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Mary |last=Gray |chapter=Gender and mathematics: Mythology and Misogyny |editor-link=Gila Hanna |editor-first=Gila |editor-last=Hanna |title=Towards Gender Equity in Mathematics Education: An ICMI Study |series=New ICMI Study Series |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |date=1996 |volume=3 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-306-47205-8_3 |pages=27–38 |doi=10.1007/0-306-47205-8_3 |isbn=978-0-7923-3921-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Lenore |last=Blum |chapter=AWM's first twenty years: The presidents' perspectives |editor-first1=Bettye Anne |editor-last1=Case |editor-first2=Anne M. |editor-last2=Leggett |title=[[Complexities: Women in Mathematics]] |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2005 |pages=94–95 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=926YDwAAQBAJ&dq=AWM%27s+first+twenty+years%3A+The+presidents%27+perspectives&pg=PA80 |isbn=9780691171098}}</ref> Harding alishika nafasi za Profesa Mtembeleaji katika Chuo Kikuu cha Amsterdam ([[1987]]), Chuo Kikuu cha Costa Rica ([[1990]]), Taasisi ya Shirikisho la Teknolojia ya Uswisi Zurich (ETH) ([[1987]]), na Taasisi ya Teknolojia ya Asia, Bangkok (1994). Mwaka 2011, aliteuliwa kuwa Profesa Mshiriki Mashuhuri katika Idara ya Falsafa ya Chuo Kikuu cha Jimbo la Michigan, East Lansing.<ref>{{Rejea kitabu |last=Fagan |first=Garrett G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sIYpx9mzd4gC |title=Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public |date=2006 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-30592-1 |pages=338 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Gross">{{cite book |last1=Gross |first1=Paul |first2=Norman |last2=Levitt |title=Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science |url=https://archive.org/details/highersuperstiti00gros |location=Baltimore, Md. |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |date=1994 |isbn=9780801857072}}</ref><ref name="Hart">{{cite book |last=Hart|first=Roger|chapter=The Flight From Reason: Higher Superstition and the Refutation of Science Studies |title=Science Wars |url=https://archive.org/details/sciencewars0000unse|editor-first=Andrew |editor-last=Ross |location=Durham, N.C. |publisher=Duke University Press |date=1996 |isbn=9780822318712}}</ref> Aidha, alikuwa mshauri kwa mashirika kadhaa ya Umoja wa Mataifa, ikiwa ni pamoja na Tume ya Umoja wa Mataifa ya Sayansi na Teknolojia kwa Maendeleo, Shirika la Afya la Amerika ya Kusini (PAHO), UNESCO, na Mfuko wa Maendeleo wa Umoja wa Mataifa kwa Wanawake (UNIFEM). Alialikwa kuhariri sura katika ''World Science Report 1996'' ya [[UNESCO]] kuhusu "''The Gender Dimension of Science and Technology''", ambayo ilikuwa mara ya kwanza kwa masuala ya kijinsia katika sayansi na teknolojia kujadiliwa katika kiwango cha kimataifa. Pia, alialikwa kuchangia sura katika ''World Social Science Report 2010'' ya UNESCO kuhusu "Standpoint Methodologies and Epistemologies: a Logic of Scientific Inquiry for People".<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ann Hibner |last=Koblitz |title=A historian looks at gender and science |journal=International Journal of Science Education |volume=9 |issue=3 |date=1987 |pages=399–407 |doi=10.1080/0950069870090318}}</ref> Harding alihudumu katika bodi za wahariri za majarida mengi katika nyanja za falsafa, masomo ya wanawake, masomo ya sayansi, mbinu za utafiti wa kijamii, na falsafa ya Kiafrika. Mwaka [[2007]], Phi Beta Kappa ilimchagua kuwa mhadhiri wa kitaifa. Amehudhuria zaidi ya vyuo vikuu, kongamano, na mikutano 300 Amerika Kaskazini, Amerika ya Kati, Ulaya, Afrika, na Asia. Vitabu vyake, insha, na sura za vitabu vimetafsiriwa katika lugha kadhaa na kuchapishwa tena katika mamia ya antholojia.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |last=Sell |first=Laura |date=2025-03-12 |title=Farewell to Sandra Harding |url=https://dukeupress.wordpress.com/2025/03/12/farewell-to-sandra-g-harding/ |access-date=2025-03-13 |website=Duke University Press News |language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references />{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1935]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2025]] [[Jamii:wanaharakati wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] by99vrspa5w0mcdcxlrbetprt5rr18s 0 205233 1580026 1519339 2026-07-17T23:11:38Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580026 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Margaret Moran Cho''' (alizaliwa [[5 Desemba]] [[1968]])<ref>{{cite book|author=Dong, Lan|page=[https://archive.org/details/asianamericancul0000unse/page/224 224]|title=Asian American Culture: From Anime to Tiger Moms|url=https://archive.org/details/asianamericancul0000unse|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2016|isbn= 978-1-440-82921-5}}</ref>ni mcheshi wa stand-up wa [[Marekani]], [[mwigizaji]] na [[mwanamuziki]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Pakhomov|first=Oleg|page=108|publisher=Springer|year=2017|title=Self-Referentiality of Cognition and (De)Formation of Ethnic Boundaries: A Comparative Study on Korean Diaspora in Russia, China, the United States and Japan|isbn= 978-9-811-05505-8}}</ref>Anajulikana kwa komedi, vichekesho vya stand-up, ambavyo anapinga matatizo ya kijamii na kisiasa, hasa kuhusu rangi na mwelekeo wa kijinsia. Alijulikana baada ya kuigiza katika sitcom ya American Broadcasting Company|ABC ,''All-American Girl (TV series)'' mwaka (1994–95) na akaendelea kuwa mcheshi maarufu wa stand-up katika miaka iliyofuata. Kama mwigizaji, ameigiza katika nafasi kama Charlene Lee katika ''It's My Party (film)'' na [[John Travolta]]'s [[FBI]] mwenzake katika filamu ya vitendo ''Face/Off.'' Cho alikuwa sehemu ya wahusika katika mfululizo wa TV ''Drop Dead Diva'' kwenye Lifetime Television, ambapo alionekana kama Teri Lee, msaidizi wa kisheria. Kwa uigizaji wake wa Kim Jong-il kwenye ''30 Rock'', aliteuliwa kwa Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series mwaka 2012. Mnamo 2022, Cho alicheza pamoja katika filamu ''Fire Island'', ambayo inatambulisha uzoefu wa LGBT wa Wamarekani wa Asia katika kijiji cha mashoga cha Fire Island kilichopo kwenye Pwani ya Kusini ya Long Island. Pia amejaribu katika mitindo na muziki na ana laini yake mwenyewe ya mavazi. Cho pia amekuwa akifanya juhudi mara kwa mara kutetea haki za LGBT na ameshinda tuzo kwa juhudi zake za kibinadamu kwa niaba ya wanawake, Wamarekani wa Asia, na jamii ya LGBT. ==Maisha ya Awali na Elimu== Cho alizaliwa katika San Francisco mnamo Desemba 5, 1968, katika familia ya asili ya Kikoreya. Babu yake kwa upande wa baba, Myung-sook Cho, aliye kuwa mchungaji [[Mkristo]], alifanya kazi kwa Wajapani kama msimamizi wa kituo cha reli wakati wa kudhibitiwa kwa Korea na Japan. Wakati Japan ilipojiondoa kutoka Korea mwishoni mwa Vita vya Pili vya Dunia, alitukanwa kama msaliti na utawala wa Kikomunisti wa Korea Kaskazini na kulazimika kuhamia na familia yake, pamoja na mtoto wake, baba yake Cho, Seung-hoon Cho, kwenda Korea Kusini.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/fyr12.socst.us.1950pres.hurresc/a-hurried-escape/ |title=A Hurried Escape {{!}} Finding Your Roots|website=PBS Learning Media|publisher=[[Public Broadcasting System|PBS]]}}</ref>Wakati wa Vita vya Korean, Myung-sook aliongoza yatima katika [[Seoul]]. Kulingana na Margaret mwenyewe, alikulia katika kanisa. Alihimizwa katika jirani yenye mchanganyiko wa rangi karibu na sehemu ya Ocean Beach ya San Francisco,<ref name=childhood>{{cite web|url=https://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2013/02/05/grammy-nominee-margaret-cho-recalls-san-francisco-childhood/|publisher=[[KPIX-TV|CBS Local San Francisco]] |date=February 5, 2013|title=Grammy Nominee Margaret Cho Recalls San Francisco Childhood|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200503084210/https://sanfrancisco.cbslocal.com/2013/02/05/grammy-nominee-margaret-cho-recalls-san-francisco-childhood/|archive-date=May 3, 2020}}</ref>ambayo aliielezea kama jamii ya "wazee Hippy|hippies, walikua wavutaji madawa, wale waliokosa mwelekeo kutoka miaka ya 1960, drag queens, Wachiina na Wakorea. Kusema ilikuwa ni mchanganyiko wa tamaduni – hiyo ni kidogo tu. Ilikuwa ni kipindi cha kuchanganya, kuelimisha, na cha ajabu."<ref name=officialbio>{{cite web |url=http://www.margaretcho.com/content/bio/ |title=Bio| website=Margaret Cho official site| access-date=September 20, 2008| url-status=live| archive-date=April 9, 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409075155/http://margaretcho.com/bio/}}</ref>Vanparents wa Cho, Young-Hie na Seung-Hoon Cho,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.filmreference.com/film/43/Margaret-Cho.html |title=Margaret Cho Biography |access-date=December 29, 2007 |work=FilmReference.com }}</ref>Walikuwa wakifanya biashara ya Paperback Traffic, duka la vitabu lililokuwa kwenye Mtaa wa Polk karibu na Mtaa wa [[California]] huko San Francisco. Baba yake anaandika vitabu vya vichekesho na pia ana safu ya magazeti huko Seoul, [[Korea Kusini]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1800247891/bio |title=Margaret Cho Biography |publisher=Yahoo! Movies }}</ref>Shuleni, Cho alidhihakiwa, akisema kwamba "Niliumizwa kwa sababu nilikuwa tofauti na hivyo kushiriki uzoefu wangu wa kupigwa, kuchukiwa, kuitwa mnene, shoga, mgeni, mlevi, mzembe, mchafu na mpuuzi, lakini bado nikibaki kuwa sionekani kunaponya, na inaponya wengine wanaposikia – wale wanaoteseka sasa hivi."<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/margaret-cho/it-gets-better_2_b_1294023.html|title=It Gets Better: How I Overcame Bullying|website=[[HuffPost]]|date=February 22, 2012|access-date=March 27, 2016}}</ref> ==Kazi== ===1992–95: Uchekeshaji wa awali na ''All-American Girl''=== Baada ya kufanya maonyesho kadhaa katika klabu karibu na duka la vitabu la wazazi wake, Cho alianza kazi ya stand-up comedy na alitumia miaka kadhaa kuendeleza vipaji vyake katika vilabu. Kazi ya Cho ilianza kuendelea baada ya kuonekana kwenye runinga na vyuo vikuu. Mnamo 1992, alionekana katika mfululizo wa "The Golden Palace," uliohusiana na "Golden Girls," katika nafasi ndogo. Mnamo 1993, Cho alishinda American Comedy Award kwa Mchekeshaji Bora wa Kike.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://theenvelope.latimes.com/search/env-past-winners-search,0,1243372,results.formprofile?Query=margaret+cho&selectsearch=pastwinners&target=article&Lib=turbine_cdb_lib%3Aresult_doc_id+result_doc_rank+document_id+cdb_num+cdb_01_txt+cdb_02_txt+cdb_03_txt+cdb_04_txt+cdb_01_num&SortBy=COMPOSITE_RANK+desc&PageSize=10&Page=1&MinCoarseRank=500&QueryType=CONCEPT&x=0&y=0 | author = TheEnvelope.com | title = Margaret Cho search results | work=Los Angeles Times}}</ref>Mnamo 2010, kwenye ''The View (U.S. TV series)'', Cho alijadili wasiwasi wake kuhusu kufanya kazi kwenye ''The Golden Palace'' na alishukuru mpenzi marehemu Rue McClanahan kwa msaada wake katika mazoezi. Alifanikiwa pia kupata nafasi maarufu kama mchekeshaji wa ufunguzi kwa Jerry Seinfeld]]; wakati huu, alionekana kwenye kipindi maalum cha Bob Hope na pia alikuwa mgeni wa mara kwa mara kwenye ''The Arsenio Hall Show.''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101218213525/http://www.alternet.org/media/148482/comedienne_margaret_cho%3A_watching_the_brady_bunch_made_me_realize_i_wasn%27t_white_%28video%29/ Alternet.org video]</ref> <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131205161624/http://www.makers.com/margaret-cho Margaret Cho] Video produced by ''[[Makers: Women Who Make America]]''</ref> <ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160322143438/http://indieminded.com/2013/11/margaret-cho-the-wilbur-theatre-boston-ma-november-6-2013/ Margaret Cho Wilbur Theatre in Boston, MA review and photos by Jen Vesp]</ref> <ref>[https://meaww.com/margaret-cho-interview-donald-trump Interview with MEAWW]</ref> == Marejeo == {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waigizaji filamu wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] p94dx9gqundd5664cv16lm06jphuacj 0 205426 1580189 1465905 2026-07-18T01:04:03Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580189 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Helen Mangwende''' alikuwa kiongozi katika Vilabu vya Wanawake wakati wa karne ya 20. Mangwende aliwahamasisha wanawake wengi wa Kiafrika wakati wa utawala wa wachache weupe. Uundaji wake wa Shirikisho la Vilabu vya Wanawake wa Kiafrika (FAWC) uliwapa wanawake wa Kiafrika fursa ambazo hazingekuwepo kupitia elimu ya kawaida ya kikoloni ya nyumbani. Juhudi za Mangwende ziliwaonyesha wanawake wa Kiafrika na wa kikoloni kwamba wangeweza kufanya kazi pamoja kusaidiana. == Muktadha wa kihistoria == Kile kinachoitwa sasa [[Zimbabwe]] kiliwahi kuitwa kwa majina mengine kadhaa. Haya ni pamoja na [[Southern Rhodesia]], [[Rhodesia]], na Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Southern Rhodesia ndilo jina la kwanza lililotumika kwa koloni hiyo. Jina Rhodesia linatokana na mkoloni mashuhuri aitwaye [[Cecil Rhodes|Cecil John Rhodes]]. [[Northern Rhodesia]] ilikuwa jimbo tofauti la kikoloni. Southern Rhodesia ilikuwa koloni la Uingereza ambalo lilijiendesha kwa wachache weupe. Kama koloni nyingi za Kiafrika, ilitawaliwa kwa muda mrefu lakini tofauti na nchi nyingi za Kiafrika, haikupata uhuru wa kweli kwa muda mrefu. Kwa sehemu kubwa ya karne ya 20, nchi hiyo ilitawaliwa na wachache weupe.<ref name="Tawse-Jollie 1927 Southern Rhodesia">{{cite journal |last1=Tawse-Jollie |first1=Ethel |title=Southern Rhodesia: A White Man's Country in the Tropics |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_geographical-review_1927-01_17_1/page/n101 |journal=Geographical Review |date=1927 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=89–106 |doi=10.2307/208135 |jstor=208135 |bibcode=1927GeoRv..17...89T }}</ref> Wakati Waingereza walipojaribu kurekebisha hili baadaye, walikumbana na upinzani. Hii ilikuwa wakati [[Rhodesia]] ilipoanzishwa mwaka 1965. Southern Rhodesia ilikuwepo kuanzia 1923-1965 na kwa muda mfupi mwaka 1979-1980. Kwa kuwa Helen Mangwende alifariki mwaka 1955, aliishi kwa sehemu kubwa ya kuwepo kwa Southern Rhodesia. Jambo kuu lililomathiri yeye na maisha ya wengi katika eneo hilo lilikuwa utawala wa wachache weupe. Walowezi weupe walikuwa wa kawaida na Southern Rhodesia ilitumika kama mahali pa kilimo cha mazao ya magharibi na pamba.<ref name="Tawse-Jollie 1927 Southern Rhodesia"/> Hii ilikuwa kwa sababu eneo hilo lilikuwa na mwinuko mzuri. Helen Mangwende aliishi katika mji mdogo ambao ulikuwa na mazingira ya kilimo. Southern Rhodesia iligongwa vibaya na mfadhaiko mkuu wa miaka ya 1930 lakini ilirudi kwenye wimbi la Vita vya Kidunia vya pili kwa sababu ya uzalishaji wao wa kilimo kwa kulisha Washirika.{{citation needed|date=Mei 2024}} Hii ilifanya koloni hiyo kuwa na utajiri wa kiasi lakini kwa watu wa juu tu. Wamiliki wa mashamba weupe walipata pesa nyingi na wakati baadhi ya pesa hizo zilitumika kwa miundombinu, pesa nyingi zilipelekwa kwa koloni jirani ambazo zilikuwa zikikumbana na shida za kifedha. Walowezi hawa weupe walikuwa muhimu sana kwa Mangwende kwa sababu aliunda uhusiano mkati kati yake na wanawake weupe waliokuwa wakiishi katika eneo hilo.<ref name="Kaler 1999 Visions of Domesticity"/> Kufanya hivi alitumia uelewa wake wa maisha ya nyumbani na jinsi alivyotaka kufundisha watu. Hii hatimaye ilipelekea kuanzishwa kwa FAWC ambayo inasimama kwa Shirikisho la Vilabu vya Wanawake wa Kiafrika.<ref name="Kaler 1999 Visions of Domesticity"/> Vilabu hivi viliendesha kazi kwa kufundisha mwakilishi kutoka eneo fulani na mwakilishi huyo angejaribu kufundisha watu wa jamii yao kuhusu maisha ya nyumbani na usafi.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Hii baadaye ikawa urithi wa Helen Mangwende. == Maisha ya mapema == Ingawa sehemu kubwa ya maisha ya mapema ya Helen Mangwende haijulikani, kuna mambo machache ambayo yanaweza kufahamika. Southern Rhodesia imejikuta ikiitwa kwa majina mengi katika karne ya 20 lakini Mangwende alizaliwa zaidi ya Southern Rhodesia. Hii inaweza kudhaniwa kwa sababu anaonekana akiwa na umri mdogo katika filamu aliyoonekana.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Filamu hii ilitolewa mwaka 1949 na kama alikuwa na umri mdogo wakati huo, labda alizaliwa katika enzi ya 1923-1955. Labda alizaliwa katika mji wa Murehwa.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> [[Murewa|Murehwa]] ni mji mdogo wa vijijini/[[wilaya]] nchini Zimbabwe ambayo inajulikana kwa milima yake maarufu na kilimo. Mlima maarufu zaidi kati ya hao unaitwa Nyaungwe Hill. Wakati fulani, alipata elimu fulani. Elimu hii ingekuwa imejikita zaidi katika maisha ya nyumbani na usafi.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Inawezekana sana kwamba alienda shule ya Misheni ya Kiprotestanti kwani zilikuwa za kawaida wakati huo. Hii inaweza kudhaniwa kwa sababu anaendelea kufundisha wanawake wengi wa eneo hilo kuhusu maisha ya nyumbani wakati bado akiwa na umri mdogo. Maisha ya mapema ya Helen Mengwende hayajulikani sana na sehemu kubwa ya habari inayopatikana huanza baada ya kuolewa na Chief Mangwende akiwa na umri wa miaka 18. Hakuna tarehe halisi ya wakati alipoolewa. Inaonekana kuwa haiwezekani kujua umri wake wakati wowote alipoonekana. Kitu kimoja cha hakika ni kwamba chini ya utawala wa kikoloni maisha yake kama mtoto lazima yalikuwa magumu. Katika mapema ya karne ya ishirini, koloni hiyo ilikuwa imejaa walowezi weupe na ilikuwa mahali pazuri kwa mazao ya magharibi na pia pamba.<ref name="Tawse-Jollie 1927 Southern Rhodesia"/> Walowezi hawa weupe walipatiwa haki na serikali ya kikoloni na kwa sababu hiyo, idadi kubwa ya watu weusi waliangukia katika umaskini.<ref name="Tawse-Jollie 1927 Southern Rhodesia"/> == Mambo mashuhuri == === FAWC === Helen Mangwende alifanya juhudi kubwa za kuanzisha njia ya wanawake wa Kiafrika kujifunza ujuzi wa nyumbani na ufundi wa nyumbani. Helen Mangwende aliolewa na Chief Munhuwepayi Mangwende akiwa na umri wa miaka 18.<ref name="Kaler 1999 Visions of Domesticity">{{cite journal |last1=Kaler |first1=Amy |title=Visions of Domesticity in the African Women's Homecraft Movement in Rhodesia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-science-history_fall-1999_23_3/page/n7 |journal=Social Science History |date=1999 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=269–309 |doi=10.1017/s0145553200018101 |pmid=22416325 }}</ref> Alikuwa mwalimu wa vijijini kutoka Murehwa.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi">{{cite AV media |title=The Wives of Nendi |type=Film short |date=1949 |url=http://www.colonialfilm.org.uk/node/312 |people=Peet, Stephen (Director); Mangwende, Mai (Writer) |id={{IMDb title|qid=Q128600988|title=tt4433416}} }}</ref> Mwaka 1950, Helen Mangwende aliunda FAWC (Shirikisho la Vilabu vya Wanawake wa Kiafrika).<ref name="Kaler 1999 Visions of Domesticity"/> Mangwende alikasirishwa na hali ambayo ukoloni uliwaweka watoto na wanawake, na hii ilipelekea kuanzishwa kwa FAWC.<ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Huff |first1=Barbara Jean |title=Christian women's organizations in Zimbabwe : facilitating women's participation in development through advocacy and education |date=1996 |page=161 |publisher=University of Massachusetts Amherst |oclc=982385201 |doi=10.7275/m635-qa37 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Alisaidia kuanzisha FAWC na kuanzisha vilabu vingine vya wanawake, ikiwa ni pamoja na Klabu ya Mrewa Bantu, ambayo ilikuwa na wanachama zaidi ya 700 mwaka 1950.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Mwaka 1953, Helen Mangwende pia alienda kwenye Ziara ya Kifalme na kukutana na Malkia Elizabeth. Princess Margaret alisaidia kufadhili msingi wa Klabu ya Mrewa wakati wa kukaa kwake huko Ulaya baada ya Ziara ya Kifalme.<ref name="Barnes Virgin Territory">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Teresa Ann |chapter=Virgin Territory?: Travel and Migration by African Women in Twentieth-Century Southern Africa |pages=[https://archive.org/details/womeninafricanco0000unse/page/164 164]–190 |editor1-last=Geiger |editor1-first=Susan |editor2-last=Allman |editor2-first=Jean |editor3-last=Musisi |editor3-first=Nakanyike |title=Women in African Colonial Histories |url=https://archive.org/details/womeninafricanco0000unse |date=2002 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-21507-9 |oclc=1205417717 |hdl=2027/heb04111.0001.001 }}</ref> Mangwende alifanya kazi na wanawake weupe wa kikoloni ambao pia waliendesha vilabu hivyo. Mangwende alijua kwamba mafanikio ya vilabu yalitegemea msaada mkubwa wa wanawake weupe. Waangalizi wakati huo walimwona kama mtu aliyejaza pengo kati ya rangi.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Mangwende aliamini kwamba elimu na mafunzo ya ujuzi yalipaswa kuletwa kwa wanawake na watoto wa Kiafrika ambao walihitaji badala ya kusafiri kwenda shule.<ref name="Huff 1996 p163">{{cite thesis |last1=Huff |first1=Barbara Jean |title=Christian women's organizations in Zimbabwe : facilitating women's participation in development through advocacy and education |date=1996 |page=163 |publisher=University of Massachusetts Amherst |oclc=982385201 |doi=10.7275/m635-qa37 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Aliamini kwamba kufundisha na kuwafundisha wanawake wa Kiafrika kuhusu ujuzi wa nyumbani kunaweza kuboresha maisha ya vijiji vyao kwa ujumla.<ref name="Huff 1996 p163"/> Mangwende alilenga aina mbalimbali za elimu ya kijinsia au ya nyumbani na ujenzi wa ujuzi kupitia kazi yake na vilabu vya wanawake na miradi ya ziada. Mangwende alifundisha kwanza ujuzi wa usafi na upishi ili kusaidia kupunguza kiwango cha vifo vya watoto katika vijiji alivyozuru na kuunda njia bora ya maisha.<ref name="Law Making Marmalade">{{cite journal |last1=Law |first1=Kate |title=Making Marmalade and Imperial Mentalities: the case of a Colonial wife |journal=African Research & Documentation |date=2010 |volume=113 |pages=19–25 |id={{ProQuest|847687649}} |doi=10.1017/S0305862X00019592 }}</ref> Wakati Mangwende alitaka fursa kwa wanawake wa Kiafrika, mamlaka za kikoloni zilitaka kufanya wake wa wasomi na wakulima wakali wa maadili ya kikoloni.<ref name="Musisi Colonial and Missionary Education"/> Hii ilipatikana kwa kupunguza elimu kwa mafunzo ya ujuzi na ujuzi wa kimsingi wa kusoma na kuandika. Wakati wa enzi za ukoloni, elimu mara nyingi ilitumika kusambaza tamaduni kuu na dini ya Ukristo huku ikikandamiza mila za kienyeji.<ref name="Musisi Colonial and Missionary Education">{{cite book |doi=10.36019/9780813571119-010 |chapter=Colonial and Missionary Education: Women and Domesticity in Uganda, 1900-1945 |title=African Encounters with Domesticity |date=1992 |last1=Musisi |first1=Nakanyike B. |pages=172–194 |isbn=978-0-8135-7111-9 }}</ref> Hii ilikuwa na athari kubwa kwa jamii zilizokoloniwa, ambazo zililazimika kukubali maadili ya wakoloni. Mamlaka za kikoloni zilimarisha udhibiti wao na kuendeleza ukosefu wa usawa wa kijinsia ndani ya mfumo wa elimu, ikionyesha itikadi pana za kikoloni.<ref name="Musisi Colonial and Missionary Education"/> === Kuonekana kwenye filamu ya Wives of Nendi === Mwaka 1949, Helen Mangwende aliigiza na kusaidia kuandika filamu maarufu, ''The Wives of Nendi''.<ref name="Kaler 1999 Visions of Domesticity"/> Mwongozaji wa The Wives of Nendi alibainisha kuwa Mangwende alihusika karibu kila sehemu ya mchakato wa uandishi wa filamu.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Katika filamu hiyo, Mangwende alicheza kama mtu wa kike aliyejifunza na kutoa mapendekezo kuhusu usimamizi wa nyumba katika kijiji chake.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Helen Mangwende alicheza kama Mai Mangwende katika The Wives of Nendi. Klabu yake ya wanawake inafundisha mke wa kwanza wa Nendi jinsi ya kusafisha nyumba zao na jinsi ya kupika. Mke wa kwanza wa Nendi hapendi kufuata mapendekezo ya klabu hadi Mangwende anapomfundisha ujuzi huo. Baada ya Mangwende kuwafundisha wake wa Nendi ujuzi wa ufundi wa nyumbani, wanakuwa wapishi na wafundi bora wa nyumbani katika kijiji.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Filamu hiyo ilionyesha mafunzo na elimu ambayo wanachama wa FAWC wangepitia. Wakati wa moja ya matukio, wanawake kadhaa walisema kwamba Mangwende aliboresha maisha yao kwa kuwafundisha jinsi ya kusafisha nyumba zao.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Kumekuwa na majadiliano na mabishano kuhusu filamu hiyo kuhusu uungwaji mkono wa maadili ya kikoloni.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Baadhi ya watayarishaji na watazamaji wa Ulaya waliamini kwamba filamu hiyo ilionyesha utangazaji wa tamaduni za Magharibi na mafanikio ya ukoloni.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> Kwa upande mwingine, wanawake wengi wa Kiafrika walifasiri filamu hiyo kuonyesha nguvu ya wanawake katika kuunda jamii yenye nguvu, ikiunga mkono maadili ya Kiafrika badala ya ya kikoloni.<ref name="The Wives of Nendi"/> == Urithi == Helen Mangwende aligusa maisha ya Waafrika wengi. Vitendo vyake vinadhaminiwa nchini Zimbabwe kwenye Siku ya Helen Mangwende mnamo Machi 14.<ref name="Kaler 1999 Visions of Domesticity"/> Vilabu vingi vya wanawake viliweka maadili yao na kanuni kwa kufuata zile za Mangwende, hata baada ya kufa kwake mwaka 1955.<ref name="Barnes Virgin Territory"/> Mangwende anajulikana kama aliyekaribia sana [[Yesu|Kristo]] mwenyewe, kupitia maadili yake "safi" kama kiongozi wa vilabu vya wanawake.<ref name="Kaler 1999 Visions of Domesticity"/> Mangwende anachukuliwa kuwa Mama wa Ufundi wa Nyumbani kwa kuunda njia za wanawake wa Kiafrika kujifunza jinsi ya kusafisha na kupika kwa njia inayounga mkono maadili yao.<ref name="Kaler 1999 Visions of Domesticity"/> Helen Mangwende aliunda njia ambapo wanawake wa Ulaya na Kiafrika walifanya kazi pamoja kupitia vilabu vya wanawake na sanaa ya ufundi wa nyumbani. Kitendo hiki cha rangi zote mbili kufanya kazi pamoja kwa njia hii hakikuonekana kabla katika Zimbabwe ya kikoloni.<ref name="Law Making Marmalade"/> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Zimbabwe]] fgtn8y9f0pyr1yg485jk2vd833l5wfb 0 205509 1580264 1511323 2026-07-18T02:02:33Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580264 wikitext text/x-wiki [[image:Eddy Merckx en 1971.jpg|thumb|Eddy Merckx mwaka [[1971]].]] '''Édouard Louis Joseph, Baron Merckx''' (maarufu kama '''Eddy Merckx'''; alizaliwa [[Meensel-Kiezegem]], [[Brabant]], [[17 Juni]] [[1945]]) ni [[Baisikeli|mwendeshabaiskeli]] mstaafu wa [[Ubelgiji]] ambaye alishinda mara nyingi kuliko wote. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo == {{div col|colwidth=60em}} === Kwa Kiingereza === * ''The Champion Eddy Merckx'' by Claude le Boul in 1987, Ludion, 71 p. (Collected paintings; English, Dutch, French) * ''Eddy Merckx: The Greatest Cyclist of the 20th Century'' by Rik Vanwalleghem and Steven Hawkins in 1996, [[VeloPress]], 216 p. (English) {{ISBN|9781884737725}} * {{cite book |last1=Thorne |first1=Brian |last2=Lambers |first2=Elke |title=Person-Centred Therapy: A European Perspective |date=1998 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-0-7619-5155-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QnHGmdUOg0MC}} * {{cite book |last1=Liggett |first1=Phil |last2=Raia |first2=James |last3=Lewis |first3=Sammarye |title=Tour de France For Dummies |date=27 May 2005 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-7645-8449-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HeBJN_cysjoC}} * {{cite book |last1=Foot |first1=John |title=Pedalare! Pedalare! |date=3 May 2011 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-4088-1755-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eGBRfzR_onUC}} * {{cite book |last1=Heijmans |first1=Jeroen |last2=Mallon |first2=Bill |title=Historical Dictionary of Cycling |date=9 September 2011 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7369-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nrdfuueq2CcC}} * {{cite book |last1=Friebe |first1=Daniel |title=Eddy Merckx: The Cannibal |date=2012 |publisher=Ebury Press |isbn=978-0-09-194314-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nOUq4U_NkGsC}} * ''Eddy Merckx 525'' by Frederik Backelandt & Karl Vannieuwkerke in 2012, Kannibaal, 224 p. (English, Dutch) {{ISBN|9781934030899}} * {{cite book |last1=Nauright |first1=John |last2=Parrish |first2=Charles |title=Sports Around the World: History, Culture, and Practice |date=2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-300-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkLYDgTnMxEC}} * {{cite book |last1=Fotheringham |first1=William |author-link=William Fotheringham |title=Merckx: Half Man, Half Bike |date=2012 |publisher=Yellow Jersey Press |isbn=978-0-224-09195-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZvum2iHSB4C}} * {{cite book |last1=Fotheringham |first1=William |author-link=William Fotheringham |title=Half Man, Half Bike: The Life of Eddy Merckx, Cycling's Greatest Champion |date=1 April 2013 |publisher=Chicago Review Press |isbn=978-1-61374-729-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYcme7KBAHsC}} * {{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Richard |last2=Benson |first2=Daniel |others=Foreword by Robert Penn |title=The racing bicycle : design, function, speed |url=https://archive.org/details/racingbicycledes0000unse |date=2013 |publisher=Universe |location=New York |isbn=9780789324658}} * ''Merckx 69: Celebrating the World's Greatest Cyclist in his Finest Year'' by Tonny Strouken and Jan Maes in 2015, Bloomsbury Publishing 180 p. (English, Dutch, French) {{ISBN|9781472910646}} * ''The Dream of Eddy Merckx'' by Freddy Merckx in 2019, Sportliteratuur Uitgeverij, 56 p. (English, Dutch, French) {{ISBN|9781513646121}} * ''De Rivals of Merckx'' by Filip Osselaer in 2019, Borgerhoff & Lamberigts, 208 p. (English, Dutch, French) {{ISBN|9789089319852}} * ''1969 – The Year of Eddy Merckx'' by Johny Vansevenant in 2019, [[Lannoo]], 432 p. (English, Dutch, French) {{ISBN|9789401462860}}<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |date=24 December 2022 |title="1969 - The Year of Eddy Merckx" in English at last! |url=https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/en/2019/12/24/_1969-the-year-of-eddy-merckx-in-english-at-last/ |website=[[Sporza]]}}</ref> === Kwa lugha nyingine === * ''Eddy Merckx'' by Louis Clicteur & Lucien Berghmans in 1967, 164 p. (Dutch) * ''Mijn Wegjournaal'' by Louis Clicteur in 1971, 176 p. (Dutch) * ''Eddy Merckx Story'' by Jan Cornand in 1978, 111 p. (Dutch) * ''Eddy Merckx – Mijn Levensverhaal'' by Robert Janssens in 1989, 208 p. (Dutch) {{ISBN|9789028914650}} * ''Eddy Merckx – De Mens achter de Kannibaal'' by Rik Vanwalleghem in 1993, 216 p. (Dutch, French) {{ISBN|9789073322059}} * ''Spraakmakende biografie van Eddy Merckx'' by Philippe Brunel in 2005, 192 p. (Dutch) * ''De Mannen achter Merckx : het Verhaal van Faema en Molteni'' by Patrick Cornillie and Johny Vansevenant in 2006, 304 p. (Dutch, French) {{ISBN|90-77562-28-1}} * ''Fietspassie/La Passion du Vélo'' by Toon Claes&nbsp;and Eddy Merckx in 2008, 196 p. (Dutch, French) {{ISBN|9789086792047}} * ''De Zomer van '69, hoe Merckx won van Armstrong'' by Patrick Cornillie in 2009, 343 p. (Dutch) {{ISBN|9789086792023}} * ''Merckxissimo'' by Karl Vannieuwkerke & Stephan Vanfleteren in 2009, 144 p. (Dutch, French) {{ISBN|978 90 8138 940 2}} * ''Eddy Merckx en Ik – Herinneringen aan de Kannibaal'' by Stefaan Van Laere in 2010, 184 p. (Dutch) * ''Eddy Merckx – Getuigenissen van Jan Wauters'' by Jan Wauters in 2010, 176 p. (Dutch) {{ISBN|9789089311450}} * ''Mannen tegen Merckx – van Van Looy tot Maertens'' by Johny Vansevenant in 2012 (Dutch) {{ISBN|9789491376214}} * ''Eddy Merckx – Een leven'' by Daniel Friebe in 2013, 272 p. (Dutch) {{ISBN|9789401404471}} * ''Eddy Merckx – De biografie'' by Johny Vansevenant in 2015, 400 p. (Dutch, French) {{ISBN|9789492081513}} * ''Eddy! Eddy! Eddy! De Tour in België'' by Geert de Vriese in 2019, 256 p. (Dutch) {{ISBN|9789089247308}} * ''50 jaar Merckx – Jubileum van een Tourlegende'' by Tonny Strouken in 2020, 140 p. (Dutch, French) {{ISBN|9789059247314}} * ''L'Irrésistible Ascension d'un Jeune Champion'' by Pierre Thonon in 1968, 170 p. (French) * ''Merckx ou la Rage de Vaincre'' by Léon Zitrone in 1969, 208 p. (French) ASIN B0061R9A8O * ''Qui êtes-vous Eddy Merckx?'' by Marc Jeuniau in 1969, 112 p. (French) ASIN B008AWK3MK * ''Du Maillot Arc en Ciel au Maillot Jaune'' by Pierre Thonon in 1970, 167 p. (French) * ''Le Phénomène Eddy Merckx et ses Rivaux'' by François Terbeen in 1971, 185 p. (French) ASIN B003WRURD8 * ''Face à Face avec Eddy Merckx'' by Marc Jeuniau in 1971, 111 p. (French) * ''Mes Carnets de Route en 1971'' by Marc Jeuniau in 1971, 159 p. (French) * ''Plus d'un Tour dans Mon Sac: Mes Carnets de Route 1972'' by Marc Jeuniau in 1972, 158 p. (French) * ''Eddy Merckx cet Inconnu''&nbsp;by Roger Bastide in 1972, 124 p. (French) * ''Les Exploits Fabuleux d'Eddy Merckx'' by Yves Duval and Christian Lippens in 1973, 48 p. (Comic book in French) * ''Mes 50 Victoires en 1973: Mes carnets de route 1973'' by René Jacobs in 1973, 159 p. (French) * ''Merckx / Ocana : Duel au Sommet'' by François Terbeen in 1974, 217 p. (French) * ''Coureur Cycliste: Un Homme et son Métier'' by Eddy Merckx and Pierre Chany in 1974, 248 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782221231975}} * ''Ma Chasse aux Maillots Rose, Jaune, Arc-en-Ciel: Mes Carnets de route 1974'' by Eddy Merckx, Marc Jeuniau, Pierre Depré in 1974, 158 p. (French) ASIN B0014MKH4C * ''Le Livre d'Or de Eddy Merckx'' by Georges Pagnoud in 1976, 111 p. (French) {{ISBN|978-2263000218}} * ''Eddy Merckx l'Homme du Défi'' by Marc Jeuniau in 1977, 220 p. (French) {{ISBN|2801600911}} * ''La Roue de la Fortune, du Champion à l'Homme d'Affaires'' by Joël Godaert in 1989, 208 p. (French) {{ISBN|2 7130 1006 3}} * ''Eddy Merckx, l'Épopée'' by Théo Mathy in 1999, 159 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782507000455}} * ''Merckx Intime'' by Philippe Brunel in 2002, 159 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782702132289}} * ''Eddy Merckx, Ma Véritable Histoire'' by Stéphane Thirion in 2006, 200 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782930359595}} * ''Eddy Merckx, les Tours de France d'un Champion Unique'' by Théo Mathy in 2008, 200 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782507000455}} * ''Tour 75 : Le Rêve du Cannibale'' by Laurent Watiez in 2010, 103 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782916655208}} * ''Dans l'Ombre d'Eddy Merckx – Les Hommes qui ont Couru contre le Cannibale'' by Johny Vansevenant in 2012, 384 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782507050849}} * {{cite book |last1=Cazeneuve |first1=Thierry |last2=Chany |first2=Pierre |title=La fabuleuse histoire du Tour de France |trans-title=The Story of the Tour de France |date=2011 |publisher=La Martinière |location=Paris |isbn=9782732447926 |edition=Nouv. éd. |language=fr}} * ''Coup de Foudre dans l'Aubisque: Eddy Merckx dans la Légende''&nbsp;by Bertrand Lucq in 2015, 136 p. (French) {{ISBN|2758800454}} * ''Eddy : Ma Saison des Classiques en Version 1973'' by François Paoletti in 2015, 212 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782940585038}} * ''Eddy Merckx, c’est Beaucoup plus qu’Eddy Merckx'' by Christophe Penot in 2015, 48 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782844211262}} * ''Sur les Traces d'Eddy Merckx'' by Jean-Louis Lahaye and ean-Louis Lahaye in 2016, 250 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782507053420}} * ''La Fabuleuse Carrière d'Eddy Merckx en un Survol'' by Michel Crepel in 2016, 202 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782334149334}} * ''Eddy Été 69'' by Jean-Paul Vespini in 2019, 191 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782970132912}} * ''On m'Appelait le Cannibale'' by Stéphane Thirion in 2019, 255 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782875573919}} * ''Eddy Merckx : Analyse d'une Légende'' by Jean Cléder in 2019, 224 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782372541183}} * ''Merckx-Ocana: Le Bel Ete 1971'' by Pascal Sergent in 2021, 153 p. (French) {{ISBN|9782490997046}} * ''E non Chiamatemi (più) Cannibale. Vita e Imprese di Eddy Merckx'' by Angelo De Lorenzi in 2003, 153 p. (Italian) {{ISBN|9788888551210}} * ''Il Sessantotto a Pedali. Al Giro con Eddy Merckx'' by Francesco Ricci in 2008, 151 p. (Italian) {{ISBN|9788860410825}} * ''Fausto Coppi Eddy Merckx. Due campionissimi a confronto'' by Luciano Boccaccini in 2011, 112 p. (Italian) {{ISBN|9788875494353}} * ''Chiedimi chi Era Merckx. Le Stagioni di Eddy dall'Esordio al Congedo'' by Porreca G. Paolo in 2013, 237 p. (Italian) {{ISBN|9788867760206}} * ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=bZmfjwEACAAJ Merckx, il Figlio del Tuono]'' (Merckx, the Son of Thunder) by Claudio Gregori in 2016, 570 p. (Italian) {{ISBN|9788898876587}} * ''Gimondi & Merckx. La Sfida'' by Giorgio Martino in 2019, 159 p. (Italian) {{ISBN|9788898970469}} * ''Eddy Merckx'' by Helmer Boelsen in 1973, 128 p. (German) {{ISBN|9783767900134}} * ''Die Nacht, in der Ich Eddy Merckx Bezwang'' by Marc Locatelli in 2019, 48 p. (German) {{ISBN|9783037311936}} {{div col end}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Eddy Merckx}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Merckx, Eddy}} [[Category:waliozaliwa 1945]] [[Category:watu walio hai]] [[Category:waendeshabaiskeli wa Ubelgiji]] 6x4nmuv3pyn7wletjffnnp7btliqzrh 0 205545 1580043 1513640 2026-07-17T23:24:31Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580043 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} '''Henri Lefebvre''' (/ləˈfɛvrə/ lə-FEV-rə; [[Kifaransa]]: [ɑ̃ʁi ləfɛvʁ]; [[16 Juni]] [[1901]] – [[29 Juni]] [[1991]]) alikuwa [[mwanafalsafa]] na [[mwanasosholojia]] wa [[Kifaransa]] mwenye msimamo wa Kimaksi, anayejulikana zaidi kwa kukuza ukosoaji wa maisha ya kila siku, kuanzisha dhana za ''haki ya jiji'' na ''uzalishaji wa anga ya kijamii'', pamoja na [[kazi]] zake juu ya ''dijalejitia ya kimateryali'', ''utengaji'' (alienation), na ukosoaji wake wa ''Ustalinisti'', ''Uwepo'' (existentialism), na ''Ustrukturalisti''. Katika kazi yake yenye tija kubwa, Lefebvre aliandika zaidi ya vitabu sitini na makala mia tatu. Alianzisha au kushiriki katika kuanzisha majarida kadhaa ya kitaaluma kama vile ''Philosophies, La Revue Marxiste, Arguments, Socialisme ou Barbarie'', na ''Espaces et Sociétés''.<ref>{{cite book | author=Shields, Rob | title=Lefebvre Love and Struggle | url=https://archive.org/details/lefebvrelovestru0000shie | publisher=Routledge | year=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-09370-5}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea kitabu|title=Encyclopedia of the City|last=Caves|first=R. W.|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=9780415252256|pages=427}}</ref> == Wasifu == Lefebvre alizaliwa huko Hagetmau, Landes, Ufaransa. Alisoma falsafa katika Chuo Kikuu cha [[Paris]] (''Sorbonne'') na kuhitimu mwaka wa 1920. Kufikia mwaka [[1924]], alikuwa akifanya kazi na Paul Nizan, Norbert Guterman, Georges Friedmann, Georges Politzer, na Pierre Morhange katika kikundi cha ''Philosophies'', ambacho kililenga ''mapinduzi ya kifalsafa''. Harakati hii iliwakutanisha na makundi mengine kama ''Wasurrealisti'', ''Wadadaisti'', na mengineyo, kabla ya kuelekea kwenye Chama cha Kikomunisti cha Ufaransa (''PCF''). Lefebvre alijiunga na PCF mwaka [[1928]] na akawa mmoja wa wanamawazo mashuhuri wa Kimaksi wa Kifaransa katika robo ya pili ya karne ya 20, kabla ya kujiunga na upinzani wa [[Kifaransa]] dhidi ya Wanazi. Kuanzia mwaka [[1944]] hadi [[1949]], alihudumu kama mkurugenzi wa ''Radiodiffusion Française'', shirika la utangazaji la Kifaransa lililopo Toulouse. Miongoni mwa kazi zake mashuhuri ni [[maandiko]] yenye ushawishi mkubwa yanayopinga Ustalinisti, ikiwemo kitabu chake ''Dialectical Materialism'' ([[1940]]). Miaka saba baadaye, Lefebvre alichapisha juzuu lake la kwanza la ''The Critique of Everyday Life''.<ref>[http://www.ihtp.cnrs.fr/Trebitsch/pref_lefebvre1_MT.html Michel Trebitsch: ''Introduction to Critique of Everyday Life'', Vol. 1] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608040420/http://www.ihtp.cnrs.fr/Trebitsch/pref_lefebvre1_MT.html |date=8 June 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.notbored.org/lefebvre-interview.html|title=Lefebvre on the Situationists: AnInterview|access-date=17 May 2016}}</ref> Kazi zake za awali juu ya mbinu zilipongezwa na hata kuazimwa na mwanafalsafa Jean-Paul Sartre katika ''Critique of Dialectical Reason'' ([[1960]]). Katika kipindi cha miaka thelathini akiwa ndani ya PCF, Lefebvre aliteuliwa kuchapisha makala kali dhidi ya [[wanafalsafa]] waliopinga itikadi za chama hicho, hasa ''Wexistenshali'' kama Sartre na mwenzake wa zamani Nizan. Hata hivyo, alijiondoa kwa makusudi kutoka kwenye chama hicho mwishoni mwa miaka ya [[1950]] kutokana na misimamo yake yenye mtazamo huru wa nadharia na siasa. Baada ya kuondoka PCF, alibadilika kutoka kuwa mwanamawazo mkuu wa chama hicho hadi kuwa mmoja wa wakosoaji wake wakubwa, akipinga siasa zake (''mfano, kutotoa msimamo kuhusu Algeria'') na msimamo wake wa kiitikadi (''hasa msimamo wa kuendelea kutetea baadhi ya fikra za Ustalinisti''). Aidha, alikuwa mkosoaji mkubwa wa ''Ustrukturalisti'', hasa [[kazi]] za mwanafalsafa Louis Althusser.<ref>[http://www.radicalphilosophy.com/default.asp?channel_id=2191&editorial_id=9838 Radical Philosophy obituary, Spring 1992] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030626092609/http://www.radicalphilosophy.com/default.asp?channel_id=2191&editorial_id=9838 |date=26 June 2003 }}</ref> Mnamo [[1961]], Lefebvre alikua profesa wa sosholojia katika Chuo Kikuu cha Strasbourg, kabla ya kujiunga na kitivo cha chuo kipya huko [[Nanterre]] mnamo [[1965]]. Alikuwa mmoja wa maprofesa walioheshimiwa sana, na alichangia kwa kiasi kikubwa uchambuzi wa mgomo wa wanafunzi wa Mei [[1968]].<ref>Henri Lefebvre and Leszek Kołakowski. ''Evolution or Revolution''; F. Elders (ed.), ''Reflexive Water: The Basic Concerns of Mankind'', London: Souvenir. pp. 199–267. {{ISBN|0-285-64742-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ihtp.cnrs.fr/Trebitsch/pref_lefebvre3_MT.html|title=Préface de : Henri Lefebvre, Critique of Everyday Life. Volume III. (1981)|access-date=17 May 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608022258/http://www.ihtp.cnrs.fr/Trebitsch/pref_lefebvre3_MT.html|archive-date=8 June 2016}}</ref><ref>[[Vincent Cespedes]], [[May 68, Philosophy is in the Street!]] (Larousse, Paris, 2008).{{page needed|date=September 2016}}</ref> Lefebvre alianzisha dhana ya ''haki ya jiji'' katika kitabu chake cha mwaka [[1968]] ''Le Droit à la Ville'' (kilichochapishwa kabla ya maandamano ya Mei 1968 ambayo yalifanyika katika miji mingi ya Ufaransa). Baada ya kuchapishwa kwa [[kitabu]] hiki, aliandika kazi kadhaa zenye ushawishi kuhusu miji, upangaji wa miji (''urbanism''), na anga ya kijamii, ikiwa ni pamoja na ''The Production of Space'' ([[1974]]), ambacho kimekuwa moja ya maandiko yenye ushawishi mkubwa katika nadharia za mijini.<ref>[http://faculty.washington.edu/mpurcell/geojournal.pdf Mark Purcell, Excavating Lefebvre: The right to the city and its urban politics of the inhabitant], GeoJournal 58: 99–108, 2002.</ref><ref>[http://www.reclaiming-spaces.org/crisis/archives/266 "Right to the City" as a response to the crisis: "Convergence" or divergence of urban social movements?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310001029/http://www.reclaiming-spaces.org/crisis/archives/266 |date=10 March 2012 }}, Knut Unger, ''Reclaiming Spaces''</ref><ref>[http://www.radicalphilosophy.com/default.asp?channel_id=2191&editorial_id=9838 Radical Philosophy obituary, 1991] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030626092609/http://www.radicalphilosophy.com/default.asp?channel_id=2191&editorial_id=9838 |date=26 June 2003 }}</ref> Kufikia miaka ya [[1970]], Lefebvre pia alikuwa ameandika maandiko ya kwanza ya ukosoaji wa ''Post-structuralism'', hasa akimkosoa Michel Foucault. Katika miaka iliyofuata, alihusika na kundi la wahariri wa ''Arguments'', jarida la ''New Left'' ambalo lilichangia kuwawezesha wananchi wa [[Ufaransa]] kufahamu ''urekebishaji wa kisiasa'' (revisionism) wa [[Ulaya]] ya Kati.<ref>{{cite book | author=Gombin, Richard | title=The Origins of Modern Leftism | url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_P8-ADQ-024 |publisher=Penguin | year=1971 | isbn=978-0-14-021846-6}}, p40</ref><ref>{{cite book | author=Lefebvre, Henri | title=The Critique of Everyday Life |publisher=Verso |year=1947 | isbn=978-1844671946}}, p40</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Lefebvre, Henri |author2=Regular, Catherine | title=Rhythmanalysis|publisher=Continuum |year=2004 | isbn=978-0826472991}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ihtp.cnrs.fr/Trebitsch/pref_lefebvre1_MT.html|title=Préface à : Henri Lefebvre, Critique of Everyday Life. Volume I. Introduction|access-date=17 May 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160608040420/http://www.ihtp.cnrs.fr/Trebitsch/pref_lefebvre1_MT.html|archive-date=8 June 2016}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references />{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1901]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1991]] [[Jamii:Feminism and Folklore 2025 in Tanzania]] lmb83sn79d62j0pxbfdc29b5qpaoq9m 0 206410 1580226 1525689 2026-07-18T01:32:40Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580226 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Shoghí Effendi '''(1896 au 1897 – Novemba 4, 1957) alikuwa Mlinzi wa [[Baha'i|Dini ya Bahá'í]] kutoka 1922 hadi kifo chake mwaka wa 1957.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=314}} Kama mjukuu na mrithi wa [[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]], alipewa jukumu la kuongoza maendeleo ya Imani ya Kibahá'í, likiwemo kuunda muundo wake wa kiutawala wa kimataifa na kutekeleza mfululizo wa mipango ya ufundishaji ambayo iliongoza upanuzi wa dini hiyo katika nchi kadhaa mpya. Kama mfasiri aliyeidhinishwa wa Maandiko ya Kibahá'í tafsiri zake za Maandiko yalizoandikwa na watendaji wakuu wa Imani hii, zilitoa umoja wa ufahamu kuhusu mafundisho muhimu ya Imani na kuwalinda wafuasi wake dhidi ya mgawanyiko. Baada ya kifo chake mwaka wa 1957, uongozi ulishikiliwa na Mikono wa Imani, na mwaka wa 1963 Wabahá'í wa ulimwengu walichagua Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu, taasisi ambayo ilikuwa imeelezewa na kupangwa na Baháʼu’lláh.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=13}} Effendi, Afnán, alizaliwa kama Shoghí Rabbání huko ʻAkká (Acre) ambako alitumia maisha yake ya awali,{{sfn|Momen|2011}} lakini baadaye aliendelea kusoma katika [[Haifa]] na [[Beirut]], akipata digrii ya sanaa kutoka Chuo cha Waprotestanti cha Syria mwaka 1918 na kisha kumhudumia ʻAbdu'l-Bahá kama katibu na mfasiri. Mnamo 1920, alihudhuria Chuo cha Balliol, Oxford, ambako alisoma sayansi ya siasa na uchumi, lakini kabla ya kumaliza masomo yake alifikiwa na habari za kifo cha ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, ambazo zilimlazimu kurudi Haifa. Mara tu baada ya kurudi mwishoni mwa Desemba 1921 alijifunza kwamba katika Wosia na Agano lake ʻAbdu'l-Bahá' alikuwa amemteua kama Mlinzi wa Dini ya Kibaháʼí.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=315}} Maono ya wazi ya Shoghi Effendi kwa maendeleo ya dini ya Kibaháʼí yalirithiwa kutoka kwa ʻAbdu'l-Bahá na yalitegemea maandiko yenyewe ya Baháʼu’llah, vipengele viwili muhimu sana vya uongozi wake vililenga kujenga utawala wa dini ya Kibaha'i na kueneza imani kote duniani.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=80}} Katika miaka yake 36 kama Mlinzi, Shoghi Effendi alitafsiri na kufafanua maandiko mengi ya Bahá’u’lláh na ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, alianzisha mipango iliyoruhusu dini kusambaa kote duniani,{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=13}} na alituma barua zaidi ya 17,500. Aliendelea kuwasiliana na kufuatilia maendeleo katika jamii zote za Kibahá’i zilizopo pamoja na kufuatilia na kukabiliana na hali katika Mashariki ya Kati, ambako waumini bado walikuwa wakiteswa. Pia alianza kazi ya kuanzisha Haifa, Israeli, kama Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Kibahá’i, na akaunda Baraza la Kimataifa la Wabahá’i kumsaidia katika kazi yake, wajumbe kadhaa wakiwa ni Mikono wa Hoja. Pia alisimamia upanuzi wa jamii kutoka maeneo 1,034 mwaka 1935 hadi 2,700 mwaka 1953, na zaidi hadi maeneo 14,437 mwaka 1963. Kuanzia mwanzoni hadi mwishoni mwa uongozi wake, idadi ya jumla ya Wabahá’i duniani kote ilikua kutoka 100,000 hadi 400,000.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|p=79-84}} Shoghi Effendi alifariki dunia wakati wa ziara yake mjini London mwaka 1957, baada ya kuambukizwa homa ya Asia,{{sfn|Stockman|2022|p=115}} na amezikwa katika Makaburi ya New Southgate jijini [[London]].{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=316}} == Historia == [[Faili:Shoghi-1905.jpg|left|thumb|Shoghi kijana, {{circa|1905}}]] Alizaliwa ʻAkká katika Acre Sanjak ya Milki ya Ottoman mnamo 1896 au 1897, Shoghi Effendi alikuwa na uhusiano na [[Báb]] kupitia baba yake, Mírzá Hádí Shírází, na uhusiano na [[Baháʼu'lláh]] kupitia mama yake, Ḍíyáʼíyyih Khánum, binti mkubwa wa [[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]].{{sfn|Stockman|2022|uk=105}} ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, ambaye alitoa mafunzo mengi ya awali, alimuathiri sana Shoghi Effendi tangu mwanzo wa maisha yake. Shoghi Effendi alijifunza sala kutoka kwa babu yake, ambaye alimhimiza aziimbe. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá pia alisisitiza kwamba watu wamuite mtoto huyo "Shoghi Effendi", ("Effendi" maana yake "Bwana"), badala ya kumuita tu "Shoghi", kama ishara ya heshima kwake.{{sfn|Bergsmo|1991}} Shoghi Effendi alipokuwa mtoto alifahamu matatizo waliyopitia Wabaháʼí huko ʻAkká, ambayo yalijumuisha mashambulizi kutoka kwa Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí dhidi ya ʻAbdu’l-Bahá. Mírzá Muhammad-ʻAlí, ambaye alikuwa kaka wa kambo wa ʻAbdu’l-Bahá, na ambaye alihuzunishwa na uteuzi wa ʻAbdu’l-Bahá kama mrithi wa Baháʼu’lláh, alianza kupanga njama za kumchafulia jina kwa kumlaumu kwa uongo kuwa yeye ndio chanzo cha ghasia huko Syria ya Ottoman. Matatizo ambayo yalisababishwa na hili katika jamii ya Wabaháʼí yalihisiwa hata mbali kama Iran na kwingineko.{{sfn|Stockman|2022|p=79}} Akiwa kijana mdogo, alijua kuhusu nia ya Sultan Abdul Hamid II (alitawala 1876–1909) ya kumfukuza ʻAbdu'l-Bahá hadi kwenye jangwa la [[Afrika Kaskazini]], ambako alitarajiwa kuangamia.{{sfn|Bergsmo|1991}} === Barua kutoka kwa ʻAbdu'l-Bahá === Akiwa mjukuu wa kwanza wa ʻAbdu'l-Bahá na mwana wa kwanza wa binti mkubwa wa ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Ḍíyáʼíyyih Khánum, Shoghi Effendi alikuwa na uhusiano maalum na babu yake. Zia Baghdadi, mbaháʼí wa wakati huo, anasimulia kwamba wakati Shoghi Effendi alikuwa na umri wa miaka mitano tu, alimshawishi babu yake aandike waraka kwa ajili yake, ambapo ʻAbdu'l-Bahá alifanya hivyo: <blockquote>Yeye ni Mungu! Ee Shoghi Wangu, sina muda wa kuongea, niache peke yangu! Umesema niandike, nimeandika. Nini kingine kinapaswa kufanywa? Sasa sio wakati wako wa kusoma na kuandika. Ni wakati wa kurukaruka huku ukiimba Ee Mungu Wangu! Kwa hivyo, kariri sala za Uzuri Ulio Barikiwa na uzisome ili niweze kusikia. Kwa sababu hakuna muda wa kitu kingine chochote.{{sfn|Rabbani|2000|p=8}}</blockquote>Shoghi Effendi kisha alianza kukariri sala kadhaa, na kuzisema kwa sauti kubwa kadiri alivyoweza. Hii iliwafanya wanafamilia kumuomba ʻAbdu'l-Bahá amnyamazishe, ombi ambalo inaonekana alilikataa.{{sfn|Rabbani|2000|p=8}} === Elimu === Elimu ya awali ya Shoghi Effendi ilifanyika nyumbani pamoja na watoto wengine wa nyumba hiyo, na ilisimamiwa na walimu binafsi waliomfundisha [[Kiarabu]], [[Kifarsi]], [[Kifaransa]], Kiingereza, na fasihi. Kuanzia 1907 hadi 1909 alihudhuria taasisi ya Kijerumani iitwayo College des Freres, taasisi ya Kijerumani huko Haifa, ambapo alijifunza Kiarabu, [[Kituruki]], Kifaransa na Kiingereza. Mnamo 1910, wakati ambapo ʻAbdu'l-Bahá alikuwa akiishi Misri kabla ya safari za ʻAbdu'l-Bahá kwenda Magharibi, Shoghi Effendi alijiunga kwa muda mfupi na chuo cha Freres huko Ramleh. Mipango ya yeye kuandamana na babu yake katika safari zake ilivurugika wakati mamlaka ya bandari huko Naples ilipomzuia kuendelea, inasemekana kuwa ni kutokana na masuala ya afya. Aliporudi Misri baada ya Machi 1912 alipelekwa katika shule ya bweni ya Kijerumani huko Beirut, akihamishiwa Oktoba kwenye shule ya maandalizi iliyoko kwenye Chuo cha Kiprotestanti cha Syria mjini Beirut, akihitimu mwaka wa 1913. Baadaye mwaka huo Shoghi Effendi alirudi katika Chuo cha Kiprotestanti cha Syria kama mwanafunzi wa shahada ya kwanza, akipata shahada ya elimu ya sanaa mnamo 1917, lakini licha ya kujiandikisha hapo kama mwanafunzi wa shahada ya uzamili, alirejea Haifa bila kukamilisha shahada yake. Wakati wa muda wake katika Chuo cha Kiprotestanti cha Syria alitumia ziara zake nyumbani Haifa kumsaidia ʻAbdu'l-Bahá katika kutafsiri, na kuwa katibu na mtafsiri wake wa muda wote kuanzia mwishoni mwa 1918. [[Faili:Shoghi_Efandi.jpg|alt=Shoghi Effendi kabla ya 1940|right]] Katika msimu wa masika wa mwaka wa 1919, wingi wa kazi ya Shoghi Effendi kama katibu ulikuwa umeathiri afya yake, na kusababisha matukio ya mara kwa mara ya malaria. Kufikia msimu wa masika wa mwaka wa 1920, alikuwa katika hali mbaya kiafya kiasi kwamba ʻAbdu'l-Bahá alipanga kwa ajili yake apate nafuu katika sanatorium huko Paris. Baada ya afya yake kurejea, alijiandikisha katika Chuo cha Non-Collegiate Delegacy ya Balliol, Oxford, ili kuboresha ujuzi wake wa kutafsiri Kiingereza.{{sfn|Stockman|2022|p=105–106}} === Kifo cha ʻAbdu'l-Bahá === Wakati Shoghi Effendi alipokuwa akijifunza nchini Uingereza, alisikia kuhusu kifo cha ʻAbdu’l-Bahá katika saa za mapema za tarehe 28 Novemba 1921, habari ambazo zilikuja kama mshtuko mkubwa kwani hakuwa na taarifa kuwa babu yake alikuwa mgonjwa.{{sfn|Adamson|2007|p=438}} Baada ya kurejea kwake Haifa tarehe 29 Desemba 1921, maagizo ya Wosia wa ʻAbdu'l-Bahá yalitangazwa, yakieleza waziwazi kuwa Shoghi Effendi alikuwa ameteuliwe kama mrithi wa ʻAbdu'l-Bahá na Mlinzi wa dini ya Kibaháʼí.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=315}}{{sfn|Stockman|2022|p=93}} Taasisi ya Ulinzi iliundwa na Baháʼu’llah, huku ʻAbdu'l-Bahá akieleza kazi zake maalum na mamlaka katika Wosia wake, kazi mbili muhimu kuwa ni kutafsiri mafundisho ya Kibaháʼí na kuongoza jamii ya Kibaháʼí.{{sfn|Hatcher|Martin|1986|p=62}} === Maisha binafsi na ndoa === Maisha binafsi ya Shoghi Effendi yalikuwa kwa kiasi kikubwa yamefunikwa na kazi yake kama Mlinzi,{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=316}} na haikuwa hadi 1950 ambapo aliweza kupata msaada wa kikatibu aliouhitaji ili kushughulikia mawasiliano yaliyoongezeka. Kufikia wakati huo alikuwa ameanzisha ratiba iliyojaa kazi ngumu mfululizo alipokuwa Haifa, na mapumziko wakati wa kiangazi ambapo alitumia muda barani Ulaya, mwanzoni kwenye Milima ya Alps ya Uswisi, akiivuka Afrika kutoka kusini hadi kaskazini mnamo 1929 na 1940. Mnamo 1937 alimuoa Mary Maxwell, binti wa msanifu majengo wa Kanada William Sutherland Maxwell na May Maxwell, na kumpa jina Rúhíyyih Khánum. Shoghi Effendi alikutana kwa mara ya kwanza na Mary mnamo 1923 alipokwenda hija na mama yake, na ilikuwa wakati wa hija ya tatu mnamo 1937 ambapo Shoghi Effendi alimwomba mama yake idhini ya kufunga ndoa na binti yake. Ndoa ilifanyika Haifa mnamo 25 Machi 1937, katika chumba cha Bahíyyih Khánum katika Nyumba ya ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Baada ya sherehe ujumbe ulitumwa Marekani ukisema, "Tangazeni sherehe za Mabaraza harusi ya Mlinzi mpendwa. Heshima isiyo na kifani aliyopewa mjakazi wa Baháʼu'lláh Ruhiyyih Khanum Miss Mary Maxwell. Muungano wa Mashariki na Magharibi uliosemwa na Imani ya Kibaháʼí umeimarishwa. Ziaiyyih mama wa Mlinzi."{{sfn|Adamson|2009|p=19-21}} Rúhíyyih Khánum, kama alivyokuwa anajulikana tokea hapo, alikua sio tu mke wake bali pia msaidizi wake wa maisha yake yote katika kazi yake.{{sfn|Stockman|2022|p=112}} Shoghi Effendi alikuwa na uraia wa Irani (Uajemi) wakati wote wa maisha yake na kusafiri kwa pasi ya kusafiria ya Irani, ingawa hakuwahi kufika Irani.{{sfn|Momen|2011}} === Mtindo wa Uongozi === Shoghi Effendi alikuwa na umri wa miaka 24 alipochukua nafasi ya Ulinzi wa dini ya Kibaháʼí, na baada ya mapumziko mafupi ya kujiandaa kwa majukumu haya, alianza kutekeleza kazi hiyo. Akiwa na elimu ya Magharibi na mavazi ya Magharibi, mtindo wa uongozi wa Shoghi Effendi ulikuwa wa kipekee ukilinganishwa na wa babu yake [[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]]. Barua zake kwa Wabaháʼí zilisainiwa "ndugu yako wa kweli", na badala ya kuzingatia nafasi yake ya kibinafsi kama Mlinzi, mtazamo wake ulikuwa kwenye taasisi ya ulinzi. Aliweka nguvu zake katika kujenga dini hiyo ulimwenguni kote, kuweka msingi wa utawala katika Nchi Takatifu, na kutumia mawasiliano mengi kwa njia ya barua badala ya kusafiri moja kwa moja ili kutoa ushauri kwa jamii inayokua duniani. Alikuwa akitumia muda na Wabaháʼí wengi waliotembelea Haifa kwa ajili ya hija, akiwahamasisha na kuwafundisha na mara nyingi akiwatumia kama wajumbe wanaporudi kwenye jumuiya zao za nyumbani.{{sfn|Smith|2000|p=316}} === Usimamizi === Moja ya malengo makuu ya Shoghi Effendi alipokuwa Mlinzi ilikuwa kuandaa kazi ya utawala ya Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Wabaháʼí, kwa kuanzia akilenga kwenye kudumisha mawasiliano na idadi inayoongezeka ya Wabaháʼí duniani kote. Hii ilihusisha uhitaji wa msaada wa kikatibu ambao katika miaka ya mwanzo ulitoka kwa baba yake na Wabaháʼí wawili wa Kiajemi ambao walikuwa wamehudumu kama makatibu wa ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Kati ya mwishoni mwa 1924 na 1927 alipokea msaada mwanzoni kutoka kwa Daktari John Esslemont, na baaada ya kifo chake cha ghafula mwaka mmoja baadaye, kutoka kwa Ethel Rosenberg, wote wawili wakiwa Wabaháʼí kutoka Uingereza. Alisaidiwa pia katika kazi hii na ndugu zake kadhaa. Katika jaribio la kupunguza mawasiliano, Shoghi Effendi alihimiza jamii za Wabaháʼí kuchapisha na kusambaza nyaraka kwa jamii nyingine, nyaraka iliyotoka Haifa ikijumuisha taarifa kutoka kwa Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Wabaháʼí na shughuli za Wabaháʼí kote duniani, hivyo kupunguza uhitaji wa Wabaháʼí kumtumia barua kuuliza taarifa. Kama upanuzi wa Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Wabaháʼí alianzisha Ofisi ya Wabaháʼí huko [[Geneva]], inayowakilisha jamii kwenye majukwaa ya kimataifa na mikutano pamoja na mashirika ya kimataifa ambayo yalikuwa na makao makuu huko Geneva. Katika miaka ya mwanzo ya ulinzi wake, Shoghi Effendi alilenga katika kuunda na kulea Mabaraza ya Kiroho ya Kitaifa na ya Mahali kwa njia ya kuhamasisha kuenea kwa dini na kama kigezo cha uchaguzi wa Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu. Mabaraza ya Kitaifa yalichaguliwa kulingana na maagizo ya ʻAbdu'l-Bahá na kufuata taratibu zilizowekwa na Shoghi Effendi, ambaye alichukua jukumu la kufafanua mahitaji ya uchaguzi wao, kuainisha mamlaka yao, kueleza na kutathmini sheria za utendaji wao, na kusimamia utumizi wa vigezo hivi katika hali mbalimbali na mazingira ya kijamii. Mabaraza ya kwanza matatu ya Kiroho ya Kitaifa yaliundwa kwa maagizo ya Shoghi Effendi nchini Uingereza, India na Ujerumani mnamo 1923.{{sfn|Stockman|2022|pp=108–109}} Mnamo 1951 Shoghi Effendi alianza kupanua taasisi za kimataifa za Kibahá'í, kwa kuteua watu kumi na mbili kuwa Mikono wa Hoja kama ilivyopendekezwa kama moja ya majukumu yake na ʻAbdu'l-Bahá katika wosia wake. Katika mwaka huo huo alianzisha Baraza la Kimataifa la Kibahá'í, sekretarieti na chombo cha ushauri ambacho wajumbe wake mwanzoni aliwateua na baadaye walichaguliwa, na ambacho kilichukua jukumu la kuwasiliana na jamii na kushirikiana na serikali ya Israeli. Mnamo 1952 aliteua Mikono wa Hoja saba zaidi, akiongeza wengine wanane mnamo 1957. Mnamo 1954 aliomba Mikono wa Hoja kuteua watu 36 kuhudumu kwenye Bodi za Wasaidizi za bara tano ili kuwasaidia katika kazi yao. Kusudi la kuunda taasisi hizi za kimataifa lilionekana kuwa ni kutoa msaada katika kutekeleza malengo ya upanuzi wa Mpango wa Miaka Kumi [[Msalaba wa Miaka Kumi|Mjuhudi]] pamoja na maandalizi ya uchaguzi wa Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwenguni.{{sfn|Stockman|2022|pp=|p=114}} Shoghi Effendi alikuwa na mchango mkubwa katika kuendeleza Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Wabaháʼí, mwanzoni kwa kununua jumba huko Bahji, karibu na Akko (zamani ikijulikana kama Acre), ambapo Baha’u’llah aliishi hadi alipoaga dunia mwaka wa 1892, ambapo Kaburi la Baháʼu'lláh limejengwa, na kuzunguka hapo alionunua ardhi ya ziada na kuunda bustani kubwa. Alisimamia ujenzi wa jengo lenye kuba la dhahabu juu ya Kaburi la Báb, aliendeleza ardhi inayozunguka na akajenga jengo la Majalada ya Kimataifa karibu na hapo. Pia alithibitisha mipango iliyohusisha kuanzishwa kwa kituo ambacho kilitarajiwa kukua na kuwa mtandao wa majengo, bustani zilizopangwa vizuri na makaburi, na ambayo ingetambuliwa na Wabaháʼí duniani kote kama kituo cha dini ya Kibaháʼí.{{sfn|Hartz|2009|pp=|p=84}} Mnamo 1937 Shoghi Effendi alielekeza Baraza la Kiroho la Kitaifa la Wabahá’í wa Marekani na Kanada kukamilisha sehemu ya nje ya Nyumba ya Ibada ya Kibahá’í huko Wilmette, Illinois, kama moja ya malengo ya Mpango wao wa Miaka Saba.{{sfn|Stockman|2022|pp=|p=573}} Hii ilikamilika hatimaye mnamo 1943, na uzinduzi wa hekalu ulifanyika Mei 1953.{{sfn|Smith|2000|pp=|p=236}} Mnamo tarehe 23 Agosti 1955 Shoghi Effendi alitangaza kwamba Afrika ingejenga Nyumba yake ya kwanza ya Ibada, ambayo ingekaa Kampala, Uganda; hekalu liliwekwa wakfu Januari 1961.{{sfn|Stockman|2022|pp=|p=573}} === Ukuaji === Wakati wa miaka ambayo Shoghi Effendi alikuwa Mlinzi wa dini ya Kibaháʼí, idadi ya waumini iliongezeka hadi zaidi ya 400,000, na mipango aliyoiweka wakati huu ilipilitiza malengo yake. Kabla ya mpango wa kwanza kuanzishwa mwaka 1935 kulikuwa na mabaraza ya kiroho 139 duniani kote, na Wabaháʼí wakiishi katika maeneo 1,034. Idadi hizi ziliongezeka hadi mabaraza ya kiroho 670 na maeneo 2,700 kufikia mwaka wa 1953, na ilikuwa katika mwaka huo ambapo alianzisha Kampeni ya Kimataifa ya Miaka 10 yenye lengo la kueneza imani hii ulimwenguni,{{sfn|Hartz|2009|pp=83-85|p=}} ikienea sana katika sehemu za Amerika ya Kusini, Afrika kusini mwa Jangwa la Sahara, India, Asia ya Kusini-mashariki, na visiwa vya Pasifiki.{{sfn|Stockman|2022|pp=|p=507}} Ingawa Shoghi Effendi alifariki mwaka 1957, kufikia 1963 uwepo wa kijiografia wa dini ya Kibaháʼí duniani ulikuwa umeongezeka hadi maeneo 14,437,{{sfn|Hartz|2009|pp=83-85|p=}} ikiwa na mabaraza ya kitaifa 56 na mabaraza ya kiroho ya mahali 3,551.{{sfn|Stockman|2022|pp=|p=507}} === Nyingine === Katika nyanja zisizo za kidini, kabla ya [[Vita vya Pili vya Dunia]] alisaidia kazi ya mhifadhi wa misitu Richard St. Barbe Baker ya kurudisha upya misitu ya Palestina, akimtambulisha kwa viongozi wa kidini kutoka dini kuu za eneo hilo, ambao walitoa msaada kwa ajili ya urejeshaji wa misitu.{{sfn|St. Barbe Baker|1985}} == Tafsiri na maandiko == [[Faili:Handwriting_of_Shoghi_Effendi_1919-1.jpg|thumb|Moja ya barua za mwanzo za Shoghi Effendi kama mwandishi wa Abdu'l-Bahá, 1919]] Shoghi Effendi aliandika kwa kiasi kikubwa kwa Kiingereza na Kiajemi, na kama Mlinzi wa dini ya Kibaháʼí Abdu'l-Bahá alimpa jukumu la kufafanua neno la Mungu, akiwa na mamlaka ya kueleza maana na athari za maneno ya Baháʼu'lláh na ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Kwa kuwa tafsiri za Shoghi Effendi zinachukuliwa kuwa na mamlaka na zisizoweza kubadilishwa, maandiko yake yanachukuliwa kuwa ni sehemu kuu ya kuunda imani ya kisasa ya Kibaháʼí. Pia alikuwa na jukumu muhimu katika kutafsiri maandiko mengi ya [[Baháʼu'lláh]], ikiwa ni pamoja na ''Maneno Yaliyofichwa'' mwaka 1929, ''Kitáb-i-Íqán'' mwaka 1931, ''Gleanings'' mwaka 1935 na ''Epistle to the Son of the Wolf'' mwaka 1941.{{sfn|Smith|2000}} Alitafsiri pia maandiko ya kihistoria kama ''The Dawn-Breakers''.{{sfn|Smith|2000}} Umuhimu wake sio tu kama mtafsiri, bali pia kama mfasiri wa maandiko ya Kibaháʼí aliyechaguliwa na mwenye mamlaka. Tafsiri zake, kwa hivyo, ni mwongozo kwa tafsiri zote za baadaye za maandiko ya Kibaháʼí.{{sfn|Smith|2000}} Idadi kubwa ya maandiko yake yalikuwa katika mtindo wa barua kwa Wabaha'i kutoka sehemu zote za dunia. Barua hizi, ambazo 17,500 zimekusanywa hadi sasa,{{sfn|Smith|2000}} zinaaminika kuwa na jumla ya kazi 34,000 za kipekee.{{sfn|Stockman|2013|pp=3}} Zilijumuisha mawasiliano ya kawaida kuhusu masuala ya Wabaha'i duniani kote hadi barua ndefu kwa Wabaha'i wa dunia zikishughulikia mada maalum. Baadhi ya barua zake ndefu na mkusanyiko wa barua zinajumuisha ''World Order of Baháʼu'lláh'', ''Advent of Divine Justice'', na ''Promised Day is Come''.{{sfn|Smith|2000}} Barua nyingine zilijumuisha maelezo juu ya imani za Kibaháʼí, historia, maadili, kanuni, utawala na sheria. Pia aliandika maombolezo ya baadhi ya Wabaháʼí mashuhuri. Barua zake nyingi kwa watu binafsi na mabaraza zimekusanywa katika vitabu kadhaa ambavyo vinaonekana kama vyanzo muhimu vya fasihi kwa Wabaháʼí duniani kote.{{sfn|Smith|2000}} Kitabu pekee alichoandika ni ''God Passes By, (Mungu Apita)'' cha mnamo 1944 ili kuadhimisha kumbukumbu ya miaka mia moja ya dini hiyo. Kitabu hicho, ambacho kiko kwa Kiingereza, ni tafsiri ya matukio ya kihistoria ya karne ya kwanza ya Imani za Kibábí na Kibaháʼí. Toleo fupi la lugha ya Kiajemi pia liliandikwa.{{sfn|Smith|2000}} == Kifo cha ghafla == [[Faili:Shoghi_Effendi_resting_place.jpg|thumb|283x283px|Mahali pa kupumzika pa Shoghi Effendi huko London katika Makaburi ya New Southgate]] Kifo cha Shoghi Effendi kilitokea bila kutarajiwa mjini [[London]], tarehe 4 Novemba 1957, alipokuwa safarini huko [[Uingereza]] na akaambukizwa Homa ya Asia,{{sfn|NY Times|1956}} wakati wa [[janga]] ambalo liliua watu milioni mbili duniani kote, na amezikwa huko katika Makaburi ya New Southgate.{{sfn|Smith|2000}} Mke wake alituma telegrafu ifuatayo: <blockquote>Shoghi Effendi mpendwa wa mioyo yote amana takatifu walipewa waumini na Bwana amefariki ghafla mshituko wa moyo usingizini kufuatia homa ya Asia. Nawahimiza waumini wabakie imara washikamane na taasisi ya Mikono iliyolelewa kwa upendo na imara hivi karibuni iliyopewa msisitizo na Mlinzi Mpendwa. Ni umoja wa moyo na umoja wa lengo pekee vinaoweza kushuhudia uaminifu wa kweli wa Mabaraza yote ya Kitaifa kwa Mlinzi aliyefariki ambaye alijitolea kabisa kwa huduma ya Imani.</blockquote>Walengwa wa hatima ya kumrithi walitazamiwa katika maandiko ya Kibahá'í kuteuliwa kutoka mmoja hadi mwingine. Kila Mlinzi alipaswa kuteuliwa na mtangulizi wake kutoka miongoni mwa watoto wa kiume wa Baháʼu'lláh, ikiwezekana kwa kufuata urithi wa mtoto wa kwanza.{{sfn|Smith|2000|pp=169–170}} Uteuzi ulipaswa kufanywa wakati wa uhai wa Mlinzi na kuridhiwa waziwazi na kikundi cha Mikono wa Hoja.{{sfn|Smith|2000|pp=169–170}} Wakati wa kifo cha Shoghi Effendi, watoto wote wa kiume walio hai wa Baháʼu'lláh walikuwa wametangazwa Wavunjaji wa Agano ama na ʻAbdu'l-Bahá au Shoghi Effendi, wakiacha hakuna mrithi aliyekidhi vigezo aliye hai. Hii ilileta mgogoro mkubwa wa uongozi.{{sfn|Johnson|2020|p=xxx}} Mikono 27 walio hai walikusanyika katika mfululizo wa makongamano sita (au walitia saini mikataba kama hawakuwepo) kuamua jinsi ya kukipita kipindi hiki kilichokosa muongozo ulio wazi.{{sfn|Johnson|2020|pp=8–18}} Mikono wa Hoja walipiga kura kwa kukubaliana kwamba ilikuwa haiwezekani kumtambua na kumridhia mrithi halali.{{sfn|Momen|2003|loc=§G.2.e}} Walifanya tangazo tarehe 25 Novemba 1957 la kuchukua usimamizi wa Imani, wakadhibitisha kwamba Shoghi Effendi hakuacha wosia au uteuzi wa mrithi, walisema kuwa hakuna uteuzi ungeweza kufanywa, na kuchagua wanachama tisa kati yao kubaki katika Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Kibaháʼí huko Haifa kutekeleza kazi za utendaji za Mlinzi (hawa walijulikana kama Wahifadhi).{{sfn|Johnson|2020|pp=8–18}} === Uongozi wa Watunzaji === Katika ujumbe wa mwisho wa Shoghi Effendi kwa Dunia ya wabaha'i, ulioandikwa Oktoba 1957, aliwataja Mikono wa Hoja ya Mungu, "Viongozi Wakuu wa Jumuiya ya Dunia ya Baháʼu'lláh iliyo mbioni." Kufuatia kifo cha Shoghi Effendi, dini ya Kibaháʼí ilisimamiwa kwa muda na Mikono wa Hoja, ambao walichagua kati yao tisa "Watunzaji" kuhudumu Haifa kama mkuu wa Dini. Walisimamia mabadiliko ya Baraza la Kimataifa la Wabaháʼí kuwa Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu.{{sfn|Smith|2008|pp=176–177}} Utunzaji huu ulisimamia utekelezaji wa miaka ya mwisho ya maagizo ya Shoghi Effendi ya mpango wa miaka kumi (ambayo yalidumu hadi 1963) ukihitimishwa na kuhamishwa kwa uchaguzi na kuanzishwa kwa Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu, katika Kongresi ya Dunia ya Kibaha'i ya kwanza mnamo 1963. === Uchaguzi wa Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu === Mwisho wa Mpango wa Miaka Kumi mwaka wa 1963, Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu ilichaguliwa kwa mara ya kwanza. Iliruhusiwa kutoa maamuzi kuhusu mambo ambayo hayakufunuliwa waziwazi kwenye maandiko. Kama jukumu lake la kwanza la shughuli zake, Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu ilitathmini hali iliyosababishwa na ukweli kwamba Mlinzi hakuwa ameteua mrithi. Ilibaini kwamba chini ya hali zilizopo, ikizingatia vigezo vya urithi vilivyoelezwa katika ''Wosia na Agano la ʻAbdu'l-Bahá'', hapakuwa na njia halali ya kuteua Mlinzi mwingine.{{sfn|Smith|2000|pp=169–170}}{{sfn|Universal House of Justice|1996|p=14}} Kwa hivyo, ingawa ''Wosia na Agano la ʻAbdu'l-Bahá'' umeweka masharti ya mrithi wa Walinzi, Shoghi Effendi anabakia kuwa wa kwanza na wa mwisho kushikilia chombo hiki. [[Bahaʼullah|Bahá'u'lláh]] aliona hali katika Kitáb-i-Aqdas ambapo mstari wa Walinzi ungevunjika kabla ya kuanzishwa kwa Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu, na kwa muda Mikono wa Hoja ya Mungu wangezisimamia shughuli za jamii ya wabaha'i.{{sfn|Saiedi|2000|pp=276–277}} ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} == Marejeo == {{refbegin}} *{{cite book|title=Historical dictionary of the Baha'i faith|url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000adam_n6u4|last=Adamson|first=Hugh C.|date=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-5096-5|edition=2nd|series=Historical dictionaries of religions, philosophies, and movements|location=Lanham (Md.)|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000adam_n6u4/page/n123 24]}} *{{cite book|title=The A to Z of the Baháʼí Faith|url=https://archive.org/details/atozofbahaifaith0000adam|last=Adamson|first=Hugh|date=2009|publisher=The Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-81-08-6853-3|series=The A to Z Guide Series, No. 70|location=Plymouth, UK}} *{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsIQAQAAIAAJ|title=Studying the Writings of Shoghi Effendi|date=1991|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=978-0853983361|editor-last=Bergsmo|editor-first=M.|location=Oxford, UK}} *{{cite book|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/WOB/index.html|title=The World Order of Baháʼu'lláh|last=Effendi|first=Shoghi|date=1938|publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust|isbn=0-87743-231-7|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA|chapter=The Administrative Order|chapter-url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/WOB/wob-40.html#pg148}} *{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bahaiadministrat0000shog|title=Baháʼí Administration|last=Effendi|first=Shoghi|date=1974|publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust|isbn=978-0-87743-166-4|location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA}} *{{cite book|url=http://bahai-library.com/shoghieffendi_your_true_brother|title=Your True Brother: Messages to Junior Youth Written|last=Effendi|first=Shoghi|date=1 Aprili 1991|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=978-0853983248}} *{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ClaySHbUEogC|title=Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America: African Diaspora Traditions and Other American Innovations|last1=Gallagher|first1=Eugene|last2=Ashcraft|first2=William|date=2006|publisher=Greenwood|isbn=0275987175|volume=5}} *{{cite book|url=https://bahai-library.com/giachery_shoghi_effendi_recollections|title=Shoghi Effendi: Recollections|last=Giachery|first=Ugo|date=1973|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=0-85398-050-0|location=Oxford, UK}} *{{cite book|url=https://bahai-library.com/hartz_bahai_faith|title=World Religions: Baha'i Faith|last=Hartz|first=Paula|date=2009|publisher=Chelsea House Publishers|isbn=978-1-60413-104-8|edition=3rd|location=New York, NY}} *{{cite book|title=The Baha'i Faith.|last1=Hatcher|first1=William|last2=Martin|first2=Douglas|date=1986|publisher=Harper & Row|location=Australia}} *{{cite book|title=Baha'is in Exile: An Account of followers of Baha'u'llah outside the mainstream Baha'i religion|last=Johnson|first=Vernon|date=2020|publisher=RoseDog Books|isbn=978-1-6453-0574-3|location=Pittsburgh, PA}} *{{cite book|title=The Penguin Handbook of the World's Living Religions|url=https://archive.org/details/newpenguinhandbo0000unse|last=MacEoin|first=Denis|date=1997|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=0140514805|editor-last=Hinnells|editor-first=John R.|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/newpenguinhandbo0000unse/page/618 618]–643|chapter=Baha'ism}} *{{cite journal|last=Meizler|first=Michael|date=2016-08-01|title=Baha'i Sacred Architecture and the Devolution of Astronomical Significance: Case Studies from Israel and the US|url=https://scholarworks.uark.edu/etd/1627|journal=Graduate Theses and Dissertations}} *{{cite web|last=Momen|first=Moojan|date=2003|title=The Covenant and Covenant-Breaker|publisher=bahai-library.com|url=http://bahai-library.com/momen_encyclopedia_covenant|access-date=2009-01-01}} *{{cite encyclopedia|last=Momen|first=Moojan|date=4 Februari 2011|title=Shoghi Effendi|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Iranica]]|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/shoghi-effendi|access-date=22 Januari 2021}} *{{cite web|last=Rabbani|first=Ruhiyyih|date=9 Desemba 1957|title=The passing of Shoghi Effendi|url=https://www.bahai.org/documents/essays/ruhiyyih-khanum-ferraby-john/passing-shoghi-effendi}} *{{cite book|url=http://bahai-library.com/khanum_priceless_pearl|title=The Priceless Pearl|last=Rabbani|first=Ruhiyyih|date=2000|publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust|isbn=978-1-870989-91-6|edition=2nd|location=London, UK|orig-date=1st edition 1969}} *{{cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44774859|title=Logos and civilization : spirit, history, and order in the writings of Baháʼuʼlláh|last=Saiedi|first=Nader|date=2000|publisher=University Press of Maryland|isbn=1-883053-60-9|location=Bethesda, Md.|oclc=44774859}} *{{cite encyclopedia|last=Smith|first=Peter|date=2000|title=Shoghi Effendi|pages=314–318|encyclopedia=A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYfrAQAAQBAJ|publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]]|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=1-85168-184-1}} *{{cite book|title=An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoba0000smit|last=Smith|first=Peter|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-86251-6|place=Cambridge}} *{{cite book|title=Baháʼí Faith: A Guide For The Perplexed|last=Stockman|first=Robert|date=2013|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-4411-8781-9|location=New York, NY}} *{{cite book|title=The World of the Baha'i Faith|last=Stockman|first=Robert|date=2022|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon|pages=115}} *{{cite book|title=My Life, My Trees|url=https://archive.org/details/mylifemytrees0000rich|last=St. Barbe Baker|first=Richard|date=1985|publisher=Findhorn|isbn=978-0-905249-63-6|edition=2nd|location=Forres|orig-date=1970}} *{{cite book|url=http://bahai-library.com/uhj_messages_1963-86_full&chapter=2#14|title=Messages from the Universal House of Justice 1963–86|author=Universal House of Justice|date=1996|publisher=Baha'i Publishing Trust|isbn=978-0877432395|editor1-last=Marks|editor1-first=Geoffry W.}} *{{cite book|url=http://bahai-library.com/shoghieffendi_your_true_brother|title=Your True Brother: Messages to Junior Youth Written by or on Behalf of Shoghi Effendi|date=1991|publisher=George Ronald|editor-last=Weinberg|editor-first=Robert|location=Oxford|pages=8–22|access-date=2021-07-18}} *{{cite news|author=NY Times writer|date=6 Novemba 1956|url=https://nyti.ms/2GjeYzM|title=Shoghi Effendi, 61, Baha'i Faith Leader|work=The New York Times|ref={{sfnref|NY Times|1956}}}} *{{Citation|last=Heller|first=Wendy M.|title=The Covenant and Covenant-Breaking|date=2021-11-26|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429027772/chapters/10.4324/9780429027772-40|work=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|edition=1|place=London|publisher=Routledge|language=en|doi=10.4324/9780429027772-40|isbn=978-0-429-02777-2|access-date=2024-02-09}} *{{Citation|last=Nakhjavani|first=Ali|title=The Power of the Covenant|date=2006|year=2006|place=Australia|publisher=Baha'i Publications Australia|language=en}} *{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Essence_of_the_Covenant/9o5TAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0&bsq=%22Severed%20from%20the%20no%20less%20essential%20institution%22|title=The Essence of the Covenant: Features, History, and Implications|last=Vafai|first=Shahin|date=2005|publisher=Palabra Publications|isbn=978-1-890101-27-5|language=en}} *{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Shoghi_Effendi.html?id=o1lTAAAAYAAJ|title=Shoghi Effendi: The Range and Power of His Pen|last=Nak̲h̳jávání|first=Alí|date=2006|publisher=Casa Editrice Bahá'í|isbn=978-88-7214-112-0|language=en}} *{{Citation|last=Hollinger|first=Richard|title=Shoghi Effendi Rabbani|date=2021-11-26|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429027772-10|work=The World of the Bahá'í Faith|page=107|place=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-429-02777-2|access-date=2024-02-09}} {{refend}} == Mkusanyo wa ziada == * {{cite journal|last=Smith|first=Peter|date=2014-06-01|title=Shoghi Rabbani kama Katibu wa 'Abdu'l-Baha, 1918–20|url=https://intellectdiscover.com/content/journals/10.1386/bsr.20.1.39_1|journal=Baháʼí Studies Review|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=39–49|doi=10.1386/bsr.20.1.39_1|issn=1354-8697|url-access=subscription|ref=none}} * {{cite book|title=Ulimwengu wa Imani ya Bahá'í|last=Hutchison|first=Sandra Lynn|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=117–124|chapter=Sura ya 9: Maandishi ya Shoghi Effendi katika lugha ya Kiingereza|doi=10.4324/9780429027772-11|ref=none|s2cid=244687716}} * {{cite book|title=Ulimwengu wa Imani ya Bahá'í|last=Yazdani|first=Mina|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=125–133|chapter=Sura ya 10: Maandishi ya Shoghi Effendi katika lugha ya Kiajemi|doi=10.4324/9780429027772-12|ref=none|s2cid=244687006}} === Wasifu === * {{cite book|url=https://bahai-library.com/khanum_guardian_bahai_faith|title=Mlinzi wa Imani ya Baháʼí|last=Rabbani|first=Ruhiyyih|date=1988|publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust|isbn=0-900125-97-7|location=London, UK|ref=none}} * {{cite book|url=http://bahai-library.com/khanum_priceless_pearl|title=Lulu ya Thamani Isiyopimika|last=Rabbani|first=Ruhiyyih|date=2000|publisher=Baháʼí Publishing Trust|isbn=978-1-870989-91-6|edition=Toleo la 2|location=London, UK|ref=none|orig-date=Toleo la kwanza 1969}} * {{cite book|title=Ulimwengu wa Imani ya Bahá'í|last=Hollinger|first=Richard|date=2022|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=978-1-138-36772-2|editor-last=Stockman|editor-first=Robert H.|location=Oxfordshire, UK|pages=105–116|chapter=Sura ya 8: Shoghi Effendi Rabbani|doi=10.4324/9780429027772-10|ref=none|s2cid=244693548}} * {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WqVJNAAACAAJ|title=Shoghi Effendi huko Oxford|last=Khadem|first=Riaz|date=1999|publisher=George Ronald|isbn=978-0-85398-423-8|location=Oxford, UK|ref=none}} == Viungo vya nje == * {{Gutenberg author|id=8574}} * [http://info.bahai.org/guardian-of-the-bahai-faith.html Shoghi Effendi] - rasilimali kutoka bahai.org * [https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/shoghi-effendi/ Maandishi ya Shoghi Effendi] – maandishi yaliyoidhinishwa kwa Kiingereza * [http://bahai-library.com/danesh_life_shoghi_effendi Wasifu wa Shoghi Effendi] * [https://theutteranceproject.com/the-guardian/?fbclid=IwAR3es73lKe41hvCOx6oUWNtR9ziBwMMHJnytpVM0th0xCJGBPxEK0t-KvUg The Guardian: Muda wa maisha wa Shoghi Effendi ulioonyeshwa kwa picha] - Mradi wa Utterance * [https://www.bahai.org.uk/guardian-s-resting-place Mahali pa kumzika The Guardian] {{Wayback|url=https://www.bahai.org.uk/guardian-s-resting-place |date=20240221112543 }} – kutoka kwenye tovuti rasmi ya Wabahá'í wa Uingereza * [http://dbiff.com/take4/shoghi-effendi/ Filamu ya kwanza ya makala kuhusu maisha yake] * [https://bahai-library.com/faizi_meditations_november_4 Tafakari katika Usiku wa Novemba Nne] – tafakari zilizoandikwa na [[Abu'l-Qásim Faizi]] usiku wa kufariki kwa Shoghi Effendi {{Authority control}} {{BD|1896|1957}} [[Jamii:Baha'i]] 234zmoix8acsrdrw7irdy0xjy3kwfja 0 206869 1580123 1528074 2026-07-18T00:21:10Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580123 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Utawala wa Baháʼí''' ni mfumo wa asasi za kuchaguliwa na kuteuliwa kusimamia masuala ya jamii ya [[Baha'i|Kibaháʼí]]. Asasi ya juu kabisa ni Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu, inayochaguliwa kila baada ya miaka mitano.{{sfn|Smith|2000|pp=24-29|loc=''Administration''}} Baadhi ya sifa zinazotofautisha utawala wa Kibaháʼí na mifumo mingine ya utawala: wawakilishi waliochaguliwa wanapaswa kufuata dhamiri zao, badala ya kuwa na jukumu kwa maoni ya wapiga kura; kampeni za kisiasa, uteuzi na vyama vinakatazwa; na muundo na mamlaka ya asasi za kuongoza Wabaháʼí umetoka moja kwa moja kwa mwanzilishi wa dini hiyo, [[Baháʼu'lláh]]. Utawala wa Kibaha'i unaongozwa na nyaraka nne za msingi, Kitáb-i-Aqdas, Nyaraka za Mpango Mtakatifu, Waraka wa Karmeli na Wasia na Agano la ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.{{sfn|Phelps|2021|p=71}}{{sfn|Yazdani|2021|p=92}}{{sfn|Danesh|2021|p=363}} ==Tabia== ===Mashauriano=== Jambo kuu na la kipekee katika utawala wa dini ya Kibaháʼí ni mtazamo wa kufanya maamuzi kupitia mashauriano. Lengo kuu la mashauriano ni kutafuta ukweli kwa pamoja na kuchunguza uhalisia kwa njia inayodumisha umoja na makubaliano.{{sfn|Danesh|2021|pp=449-454}} [[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]] aliwahimiza wajumbe waliochaguliwa "kufanya mashauriano kwa njia ambayo hakuna nafasi ya chuki au mfarakano itakayotokea."{{sfn|Adamson|2006|p=108}} Wabaháʼí wanahimizwa kutoa maoni yao kwa uwazi na utulivu katika mashauriano, wakijitenga kutokana na fikra zao wenyewe na kusikiliza mitazamo ya wengine bila upendeleo. Baada ya mashauriano ya kina juu ya mada fulani, ikiwa uamuzi mmoja wa pamoja hautofikiwa, uamuzi unaweza kufanywa kwa kufuata kura ya wengi.{{sfn|Momen|2005}} ===Muundo=== [[File:Present-bahai-administration.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Mchoro wa mpangilio wa sasa wa utawala wa Kibaháʼí]] Utawala wa Kibaháʼí unajumuisha asasi zilizochaguliwa na kuteuliwa. Vyombo vya uongozi vinavyoundwa na wajumbe tisa huchaguliwa kila mwaka katika ngazi ya mahali (mji, kijiji) na taifa, na kila baada ya miaka mitano wajumbe wa Mabaraza ya Kiroho ya Kitaifa hukusanyika kuchagua Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu, chombo cha uongozi cha kimataifa chenye mamlaka ya kuongeza na kutekeleza sheria za Baháʼu'lláh.{{sfn|Smith|2000|pp=346–350|loc=''Universal House of Justice''}}{{sfn|Danesh|2021|pp=426-429}} Asasi zinazoteuliwa katika mpangilio wa utawala wa Kibaháʼí ni pamoja na Kituo cha Ufundishaji cha Kimataifa, Bodi za Washauri wa Bara, na Bodi za Washauri Wasaidizi.{{sfn|Danesh|2021|p=430}} Kwa vile hakuna makasisi katika Dini ya Kibahá'í, utawala wa Kibahá'í hufanya kazi kupitia aina ya serikali inayojisimamia yenyewe isiyo na mgawanyiko wa vyama vinavyokizana. Watu wanaochaguliwa kuhudumu katika taasisi za jamii ya Kibahá'í hawana mamlaka kama watu binafsi, ni chombo kilichoteuliwa tu ndicho kinachofanya maamuzi. Vivyo hivyo, watu ambao wanateuliwa kuhudumu katika nafasi za asasi pia "hawana mamlaka ya kutunga sheria, utekelezaji wa maamuzi, au mamlaka ya kimahakama", na badala yake wanatoa ushauri, faraja, na msaada kwa watu binafsi katika jamii na kwa asasi zilizochaguliwa.{{sfn|Danesh|2021|pp=426-430}} Mtu binafsi, jumuiya na asasi huchukuliwa kuwa manguli ambao wana majukumu tofauti tofauti ambayo yanasaidiana kwa pamoja katika kupiga hatua kwenye maendeleo.{{sfn|Danesh|2021|uk=433}} ===Mbinu ya uchaguzi=== [[File:Baha'i nat'l election Danang 2009.jpg|thumb|right|Wabaháʼí wa Kivietinamu wakichagua Baraza lao la Kiroho la Kitaifa huko [[Danang]], mwaka 2009.]] Mabaraza ya Kiroho ya Mahali huchaguliwa kila mwaka siku ya kwanza ya Ridván (kawaida tarehe 20 au 21 Aprili). Wajumbe tisa wa Baraza la Kiroho la Mahali huchaguliwa kwa kura ya siri bila mchakato wa kampeni au uteuzi. Kwa ujumla, Wabaháʼí wote watu wazima waliosajiliwa katika jamii wanastahili kushiriki kwenye uchaguzi na pia wanastahili kuchaguliwa. Kila mtu huandika kwenye karatasi yake ya kura majina ya watu tisa katika jamii ambao wanaona wanaonyesha vyema "sifa zinazohitajika za uaminifu usio na shaka, kujitolea bila ubinafsi, akili iliyofunzwa vyema, uwezo unaotambulika na uzoefu uliopevuka."{{sfn|Danesh|2021|pp=436-437}} Ili kuamua nani wa kumpigia kura, Wabaháʼí wanahimizwa kujifahamisha kikamilifu wao kwa wao, kubadilishana mawazo, na kujadili kwa uhuru mahitaji na sifa za huduma kwenye asasi; hata hivyo, hii inapaswa kufanywa bila hata kupendekeza watu mahususi.{{sfn|Abizadeh|2008|p=78}} Katika ngazi ya kitaifa, mchakato wa uchaguzi wa hatua mbili hutumika. Katika kila eneo la uchaguzi ndani ya nchi, waumini wa jamii huchagua kila mwaka idadi maalum ya wawakilishi, ambao wanagawanywa kwa uwiano kulingana na idadi ya watu wa kila eneo la uchaguzi, na wawakilishi hawa hukusanyika katika Mkutano wa Kitaifa ili kuchagua wajumbe wa Baraza la Kiroho la Kitaifa. Vivyo hivyo, kila baada ya miaka mitano wajumbe wa kila Baraza la Kiroho la Kitaifa hukusanyika katika Mkutano wa Kimataifa kuchagua wajumbe wa Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu.{{sfn|Danesh|2021|pp=436-437}} ===Kutokuwa wa Upande=== Shoghi Effendi alikemea vikali siasa za vyama na mbinu nyingine za kisasa zinazofanywa katika [[demokrasia]] za magharibi, kama vile [[kampeni za kisiasa]] na uteuzi. Matokeo yake:{{sfn|Abizadeh|2008}} * Uteuzi na kampeni zimepigwa marufuku. Wabaháʼí hawapaswi kujitafutia nafasi kama wagombea. * Wapiga kura wanahimizwa kutoshauriana kuhusu ufaaji wa watu fulani. * Wapiga kura wanapaswa "kubadilishana maoni... kuchangamana kwa uhuru na kujadili baina yao wenyewe mahitaji na sifa" za ujumbe katika asasi. Hata hivyo, mjadala haupaswi kuwahusu watu binafsi. * Wapiga kura wanahimizwa sana kusoma na kujadili, kwa namna ya jumla, sifa zilizoainishwa na Shoghi Effendi kuwa muhimu kwa wale wanaochaguliwa kuhudumu, bila kurejelea watu binafsi. Sifa hizo ni “uaminifu usiopingika, kujitolea bila ubinafsi, akili iliyofunzwa vyema, uwezo uliotambuliwa na uzoefu uliokomaa” na kuwa “waaminifu, wakweli, wenye uzoefu, wenye uwezo na stadi”. * Mpiga kura anapaswa kuchukua hatua "bila chembe ya shauku au ubaguzi wowote, na bila kujali masuala yoyote ya kimwili” ==Taasisi zilizochaguliwa== Wakati mwingine hurejelewa na Baháʼu'lláh kama "Watawala", Wabaháʼí huchagua wajumbe wa mabaraza ambayo yanakabidhiwa mamlaka ya jamii. Wajumbe wa mabaraza haya, wenyewe, hawana mamlaka ya kibinafsi. Hata hivyo, yanapoundwa ipasavyo, na hasa yanapoamua mambo kama chombo, mabaraza haya hutenda kama viongozi wa jamii.{{sfn|Fox|1998}} Baháʼu'lláh aliongelea Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu, pamoja na Nyumba za Haki za mahali katika kila jamii ambapo Wabaháʼí watu wazima tisa au zaidi wanaishi. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá alifunua juu ya "Sekondari", au Nyumba ya Kitaifa ya Haki katika wosia wake. Zikichukuliwa kama asasi ambazo bado zinakua, Nyumba za Haki za Kitaifa na za Mahali kwa sasa zimepewa jina la muda la "Mabaraza ya Kiroho"{{sfn|Fox|1998}} na zinatarajiwa, baada ya muda, kukomaa kuwa Nyumba za Haki zinazofanya kazi kikamilifu. Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu inachukuliwa kuwa isiyokosea kimaadili, ingawa imani hii ina maelezo madogo madogo, kwa kuwa Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu inaweza kuanzisha sheria mpya za Kibaháʼí na kufuta sheria zake yenyewe. Haitakiwi kubadilisha sheria za maandiko zilizowekwa na [[Baháʼu'lláh]] na [[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]]. Mabaraza ya Kitaifa na ya Kiroho ya Mahali yanahitaji heshima na utiifu, lakini maamuzi yake yanaweza kutenguliwa na asasi ya juu yake iliyochaguliwa. Maamuzi yote ya mabaraza haya lazima yafanywe, na yanachukuliwa kuwa halali ikiwa, na tu ikiwa chombo hicho kimeundwa ipasavyo, na kinakutana kama chombo chenye idadi ya kutosha ya washiriki waliopo. Maamuzi haya hufanywa kupitia mchakato maalum wa ushauriano. ===Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu=== [[Image:Seat of the House of Justice.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Makao ya Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu huko Haifa, [[Israeli]]]] Kila baada ya miaka mitano kuanzia 1963, wajumbe wa Mabaraza yote ya Kiroho ya Kitaifa hualikwa kupiga kura katika Mkutano wa Kimataifa katika Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Wabaháʼí huko [[Haifa]], Israeli kwa ajili ya wajumbe wa Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu.{{sfn|Smith|2021|p=138}} Hawa wajumbe hufanya kazi kama wawakilishi kwa njia inayofanana na uchaguzi wa Kitaifa wa WaBaháʼí. Wale ambao hawawezi kuhudhuria hutuma kura zao.{{sfn|Smith|2021|p=136}} Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu ni chombo kikuu cha utawala cha [[Baha'i|Dini ya Kibaháʼí]]. Maandiko ya Kibaháʼí yanathibitisha kwamba maamuzi yake ni "chanzo cha wema wote na yameepushwa na makosa yote". ===Mabaraza ya Kiroho ya Kitaifa=== Baraza la Kiroho la Kitaifa (NSA) kawaida linaashiria nchi, ingawa wakati mwingine maeneo hupewa NSA zao (km. Alaska). Wakati mwingine nchi kadhaa hukusanywa pamoja kuunda Baraza moja, kwa mfano Nchi za Baltiki, au (awali) Kanada na Marekani. Mipaka hii inategemea mamlaka ya Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu, na inaweza kubadilika; Kanada na Marekani sasa wana mabaraza yao ya kitaifa yanayojitegemea. Mabaraza haya huchaguliwa kila mwaka kupitia wawakilishi walioteuliwa kwa uchaguzi wa mahali.{{sfn|Smith|2008}} Mabaraza ya kitaifa (au mabaraza ya kikanda) huteua kamati na bodi mbalimbali kutekeleza kazi mbalimbali: Bodi za Taasisi za Kikanda, Kamati za Ufundishaji za Eneo, Wasaidizi wa Ukuaji wa Klasta, Waratibu wa Taasisi za Klasta, Waratibu wa Programu ya Uwezeshaji wa Kiroho kwa Vijana Wadogo wa Klasta, na Mratibu wa Madarasa ya Watoto wa Klasta wakiwa mifano. ===Halmshauri za Kanda za Kibaháʼí=== Halmashauri za Kikanda za Kibaháʼí (RBC) pia zimeanzishwa katika baadhi ya jumuiya kubwa za kitaifa za Kibaháʼí kama ngazi ya kati ya utawala kati ya mabaraza ya kiroho ya kitaifa na ya mihali ili kuwezesha kufanya maamuzi kwa njia iliyogatuliwa pale inapohitajika. Hii hutokea mara nyingi nchi inapokuwa kubwa sana (kwa mfano, Marekani, India na hata Tanzania). Yanashirikiana chini ya uongozi wa Baraza la Kiroho la Kitaifa na huchaguliwa na wajumbe wa Mabaraza ya Kiroho ya Mahali katika kanda zao. Majukumu yao yanatanuka na hushiriki katika shughuli za ukuaji wa jumuiya na maendeleo, na yanatoa mwongozo na muundo kwa uratibu wa jumuiya za mahali katika kanda zao.{{sfn|Smith|2008}} ===Mabaraza ya Kiroho ya Mahali=== Mabaraza ya Kiroho ya Mahali (LSA) yanawakilisha mji, jiji, au kata, na huchaguliwa kila mwaka kupitia uchaguzi wa moja kwa moja. Mabaraza ya Mahali yanasimamia maisha ya jamii ya Wabahá'í katika ngazi ya mahali, na kusimamia shughuli za jamii nzima, ikiwemo kuratibu Karamu ya Siku Kumi na Tisa, maadhimisho ya siku takatifu, huduma za mazishi, ushauri wa ndoa na kazi nyingine nyingi, ingawa kwa kawaida hizi hufanywa kupitia kamati zilizoteuliwa.{{sfn|Smith|2008}} ==Taasisi za kuteuliwa== Baháʼu'lláh huwataja "wasomi" miongoni mwa watu wake. Majukumu ya mkono huu awali yalitekelezwa na Mikono wa Hoja wa Mungu walioteuliwa na Baháʼu'lláh, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, na Shoghi Effendi. Ilipobainika kuwa hakuna "Mikono" zaidi wangeweza kuteuliwa, Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu iliunda Asasi ya Washauri kutekeleza majukumu yao. Wajumbe walioteuliwa hufanya kama watu binafsi na jukumu lao kubwa ni la kutia moyo na kushauri. Majukumu yao yamegawanywa katika makundi mawili makuu ya ulinzi na uenezaji wa Dini ya Kibaháʼí.{{sfn|Smith|2008|pp=181-182}} ===Washauri wa Kimataifa=== Washauri wa Kimataifa ni watu tisa walioteuliwa katika Kituo cha Ufundishaji cha Kimataifa, ambacho ni chombo kinachosaidia moja kwa moja Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu katika Kituo cha Ulimwengu cha Wabaháʼí. Wanawashauri Wabaháʼí katika kiwango cha kimataifa na kuratibu juhudi za Washauri wa Bara.{{sfn|Smith|2021b}} ===Washauri wa Bara=== Washauri binafsi wanapewa jukumu katika Bodi za Bara, ambapo wanashirikiana moja kwa moja na Mabaraza kadhaa ya Kiroho ya Kitaifa. Mara nyingi hufanya kazi katika uwezo wa kutoa taarifa, wakielezea maelekezo na majadiliano kutoka Kituo cha Ulimwengu na jumuiya za kitaifa. Mara nyingi hujikita kazi yao katika nchi moja au seti ya nchi ndani ya eneo lao la utendaji.{{sfn|Smith|2021b}} ===Bodi ya Washauri Wasaidizi=== Bodi ya Washauri Wasaidizi huteuliwa na Washauri wa Bara ili kuwasaidia katika maeneo madogo zaidi ya kijiografia. Hufanya kazi na Mabaraza yoyote ya Kiroho ya Mahali, Halmashauri za Kanda, na watu binafsi ndani ya maeneo yao ya utendaji. Kwa kawaida kuna washauri wasaidizi mawili katika eneo moja la kijiografia, moja aliye na jukumu la ulinzi, na mwingine la kupanua jamii, ingawa kazi hizi mara nyingi huingiliana. Washauri wote wawili huripoti kwa Bodi ya Washauri wa Bara iliyowateua, bila kujali eneo lao la utendaji.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=182}} ===Wasaidizi=== Washauri wasaidizi huteua "wasaidizi" wanaofanya kazi kwa niaba yao katika ngazi za ughani. Wasaidizi hawa mara nyingi hukutana na Mabaraza ya Kiroho ya Mahali, huzungumza kwenye matukio, na hutafutwa kwa ushauri na muumini mmoja mmoja. Wakati mwingine watakuwa na jukumu katika eneo maalum, kama vile kuangazia vijana katika jiji fulani, au wanaweza kuteuliwa kwa ujumla. Wajibu wao ni wa kubadilika kulingana na jinsi mshauri msaidizi anavyohisi inafaa.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=182}} ==Msingi wa Kihistoria== ===Wakati wa maisha ya Baháʼu'lláh=== Maelezo ya mwanzo ya usimamizi unaofanya kazi ndani ya jamii ya Wabahá'í duniani kote yanapatikana katika maandiko ya Baháʼu'lláh. Yameanzishwa kwa imani kwamba Mungu huwaongoza wanadamu kupitia watume, wengi wao wamebashiri "Ufalme wa Mbingu duniani", na imani kwamba ufunuo wa Baháʼu'lláh ni utimilifu wa unabii huo, Wabahá'í wanaona katika maandiko yake mfumo wa Mungu na wa watu. Ingawa Baháʼu'lláh alibainisha, awali, sera nyingi ambazo zingekuwa msingi wa mfumo wa kiutawala wa Kibahá'í, kitabu chake Kitáb-i-Aqdas kinatoa mwangaza wa awali thabiti wa mfumo huu: :"Bwana ameagiza kwamba katika kila mji iwepo Nyumba ya Haki ambapo watakusanyika washauri kwa idadi ya Bahá, na iwapo itazidi idadi hii haitajalisha. Wanapaswa kujiona kama wanaingia katika Mahakama ya uwepo wa Mungu, Aliyetukuka, Aliye Juu Zaidi, na kama wanamtazama Yeye Aliye Asiyeonekana. Inawapasa kuwa watu wa kuaminiwa miongoni mwa watu na kujiona kama walinzi walioteuliwa na Mungu kwa ajili ya wote wanaoishi duniani. Ni wajibu wao kushauriana na kuzingatia maslahi ya watumishi wa Mungu, kwa ajili Yake, kama wanavyozingatia maslahi yao wenyewe, na kuchagua kile kilicho bora na kinachofaa."{{sfn|Vafai|2021|p=12}} Baada ya muda, dhana hizi zilifafanuliwa awali katika maandiko ya Baháʼu'lláh, na kisha katika maandiko ya mwanawe mkubwa na mrithi wake, [[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]]. ===Utumishi wa ʻAbdu'l-Bahá=== Ni ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ambaye alibainisha majukumu tofauti ya Nyumba za Haki za Juu/Ulimwengu(dunia) dhidi ya za Mahali. Wakati wa maisha ya ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, alisimamia na kuhimiza kuanzishwa kwa mabaraza mengi ya Mahali yaliyochaguliwa, akiyaita "Mabaraza ya Kiroho". Aliandika barua nyingi za kufafanua, akitoa maelekezo kwa Mabaraza mbalimbali ya Kiroho, akiipa dunia ya Kibaháʼí msukumo. Nyaraka za Mpango Mtakatifu zina nafasi ya kipekee, na zimekuwa kwa kiwango kikubwa zikiongoza mchakato wa upangaji wa malengo wa awali wa jamii hii changa ya kiroho. Mpango huu ulifungua maeneo mapya kabisa ya kijiografia kwa Wabaháʼí, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá akihimiza Wabaháʼí kuungana na watu wa rangi na tamaduni zote. Moja ya urithi wake mkubwa kwa maendeleo ya mfumo wa utawala wa Kibaha'i, hata hivyo, ilikuwa wosia na agano lake, ambapo anaelezea taasisi kadhaa mpya. Akifafanua maoni ya Baháʼu'lláh kuhusu vizazi vyake na mamlaka, alielezea Asasi ya Ulinzi, ambayo aliiona ikifanya kazi kwa pamoja na Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu – moja ikiwa na jukumu la kutafsiri maandiko, nyingine kama mtungaji wa sheria mpya ambazo hazijashughulikiwa na maandiko yaliyopo. Kwa haya aliamuru utiifu wa Wabaháʼí. :"Tawi takatifu na changa, Mlinzi wa Dini ya Mungu, pamoja na Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu itakayochaguliwa na kuimarishwa kikamilifu, zote ziko chini ya uangalizi na ulinzi wa Uzuri wa Abhá, chini ya hifadhi na mwongozo usiokosea wa Yule Aliyeinuliwa (maisha yangu yatolewe kwa ajili yao wote wawili). Lolote watakaloamua ni la Mungu. Yeyote asiyetii yeye, wala asiyetii wao, hajamtii Mungu; yeyote anayeasi dhidi yake na dhidi yao amemuasi Mungu; yeyote anayewapinga amempinga Mungu; yeyote anayebishana nao ameshibishana na Mungu; yeyote anayebishana naye amebishana na Mungu"{{sfn|Vafai|2021|p=12}} Katika waraka huu, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá pia: * alimteua mjukuu wake Shoghi Effendi kuwa Mlinzi wa Dini ya Mungu. * aliweka vigezo vya kuteua Walinzi wa baadaye. * alifafanua upeo mpya wa asasi ya kuchaguliwa aliyoiita "Nyumba ya Haki ya Pili", ambazo za kwanza zilichaguliwa chini ya usimamizi wa Shoghi Effendi. * aliwaagiza waumini kuepuka Mvunjaji wa Agano – Wabaháʼí waliopinga mkuu wa imani na kujaribu kuunda mgawanyiko au kundi. * alibainisha baadhi ya masharti kwa ajili ya maendeleo ya baadaye ya utawala wa Wabaháʼí. * alifafanua taasisi ya Mikono wa Hoja, na kufafanua mahitaji ya uteuzi wao. === Utumishi wa Shoghi Effendi === [[File:Shoghi Effendi resting place.jpg |thumb|200px |Mahali alipopumzika Shoghi Effendi huko London katika Makaburi ya New Southgate]] Chini ya Shoghi Effendi, Dini ya Kibaháʼí ilipitia mabadiliko makubwa sana katika umbo na mchakato wake. Wakati wa kuendeleza kutoka muundo wa msingi uliowekwa na Baháʼu'lláh na ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi alianzisha kampeni kubwa-kubwa za kuimarisha utawala, alianzisha taratibu na michakato kwa vyombo vya utawala vya Kibaháʼí, aliteua Mikono wa Hoja zaidi, alihakikisha kutambulika kwa nafasi ya kisheria ya Jumuiya ya Kibaháʼí huko Haifa, lakini pia, akifanya kazi na Mabaraza ya Kiroho ya Kitaifa mapya yaliyoundwa, na serikali nyingi za kitaifa. Katika kipindi hiki, asasi za Kibaháʼí na ushirikiano kati ya asasi ulikuwa wazi zaidi, mambo mengi ya sheria ya Kibaháʼí yalielezwa, na imani ilienea sehemu nyingi za dunia. Ndoa za Kibaháʼí zilitambuliwa kuwa halali katika kanda kadhaa na Dini ya Kibaháʼí ilitambuliwa kama dini inayojitegemea na mataifa mengi na mahakama za kidini, ikijumuisha mahakama za kidini za Kiislamu huko Misri. Shoghi Effendi alielezea kifo cha ʻAbdu'l-Bahá na mwanzo wa utawala wake mwenyewe kama mwisho wa "Zama za Kishujaa" na mwanzo wa Zama ya "Uundaji" ya Dini ya Kibaháʼí. ==Mageuzi ya kisasa== Miaka mia moja baada ya kifo cha Baháʼu'lláh, Wabaháʼí waliadhimisha "mwaka mtakatifu", ambapo tafsiri kamilifu iliyoidhinishwa ya Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Kitabu Kitakatifu Zaidi) ilichapishwa, ikiambatana na utumikaji ulioongezeka wa sheria za Kibaháʼí miongoni mwa Wabaháʼí wasio Wairani na ukomavu wa Mabaraza ya Kiroho. Mnamo mwaka wa 1997, Nyumba ya Haki ya Ulimwengu ilianzisha Halmashauri za Kanda za Kibahai katika nchi mbalimbali (kwa mfano Marekani, Kanada, India, Tanzania) ili kuwepo na chombo cha kati cha utawala kati ya Mabaraza ya Kiroho ya mahali na kitaifa.{{cn|date=Julai 2023}} ==Majibu== Mwandishi wa habari na mwandishi Amanda Ripley katika kitabu chake cha 2021 ''High Conflict: why we get trapped and how we get out'', anaelezea mfumo wa uchaguzi na utawala wa Wabahá'í akisema "…kila kitu kuhusu uchaguzi huu kimeundwa kupunguza uwezekano wa migogoro mikubwa." Kwa hakika kwamba "Wabahá'í wanajaribu kuchagua watu ambao hawapendelei sifa na madaraka." na "Katika kila mkutano, wanafuata utaratibu unaoitwa 'kushauriana,' ambao umeundwa ili kuruhusu watu kusema maoni yao bila kushikilia katika ushawishi wao wenyewe." Kwa muhtasari wa Ripley "Kama wanasosholojia wangeunda dini, ingeonekana kama hii.… Kwa njia hii, uchaguzi wa KiBaha’i ume…undwa kutumia uwezo wa binadamu wa kushirikiana, badala ya kushindana."{{sfn|Ripley|2022|pp=xi, 91-5}} ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} *{{cite journal |last=Abizadeh |first=Arash |date=2008-12-01 |title=Jinsi Wapiga Kura wa Bahá'í Wanavyopaswa Kupiga Kura |url=https://journal.bahaistudies.ca/online/article/view/141 |journal=The Journal of Bahá'í Studies |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1–4 |pages=77–94 |doi=10.31581/jbs-18.1-4.3(2008) |issn=2563-755X|doi-access=free }} *{{cite book |last=Adamson |first=Hugh C. |date=2006-12-21 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Baha'i Faith |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000adam_n6u4 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6467-2 |language=sw}} *{{cite book |last=Danesh |first=Roshan |date=2021-11-26 |chapter=Sheria |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429027772/chapters/10.4324/9780429027772-35 |title=Ulimwengu wa Dini ya Bahá'í |page=363 |access-date=2023-05-29 |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |language=sw |doi=10.4324/9780429027772-35 |isbn=978-0-429-02777-2 |s2cid=244704150 }} *{{cite news |last1=Fox |first1=Laurie |date=25 Aprili 1998 |title=KWA IMANI YA BAHA'I, UCHAGUZI NI ROHO MPANGO WA KAMPENI UMEBANWA KATIKA KUPIGA KURA KWA MWILI WA UTENDAJI|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-23055057.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203064754/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-23055057.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 Februari 2018 |access-date=2 Februari 2018 |work=[[The Buffalo News]] }} *{{cite book |last=Phelps |first=Steven |date=2021-11-26 |chapter=Maandishi ya Bahá'u'lláh |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429027772/chapters/10.4324/9780429027772-7 |title=Dunia ya Imani ya Bahá'í |page=71 |access-date=2023-05-29 |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |language=en |doi=10.4324/9780429027772-7 |isbn=978-0-429-02777-2 |s2cid=244700473 }} *{{cite book |last=MacEoin |first=Denis |editor=Hinnells, John R. |year=1997 |title=Muongozo Mpya wa Dini Zinazoishi |url=https://archive.org/details/newhandbookofliv0000unse |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |isbn=0-631-18275-6}} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Mitchell |first=Glenford E. |year=2009 |encyclopedia=Mradi wa Baháʼí Encyclopedia |title=Utawala, Baháʼí |publisher=Bunge la Kiroho la Kitaifa la Wabaháʼí wa Marekani |location=Evanston, IL |url=http://www.bahai-encyclopedia-project.org/index.php?view=article&catid=36%3Aadministrationinstitutions&id=67%3Aadministration&option=com_content&Itemid=74}} *{{cite journal |last=Momen |first=Moojan |date=2005 |title=Mabadiliko ya Uhalisia: Jumuiya ya Wabahá'í na Uundaji wa Uhalisia Mpya |url=https://bahai-library.com/momen_changing_reality |journal=História Questões & Debates |volume=43 |pages=13–32 }} *{{cite book |last=Ripley |first=Amanda |title=High Conflict: Kwa nini tunanasa na jinsi tunavyotoka |url=https://archive.org/details/highconflictwhyw0000aman |publisher=Simon & Schuster |date=2022 |location=New York |pages=|isbn=9781982128579 |oclc=1259050102}} *{{cite encyclopedia |last=Smith |first=Peter |title=Ensaiklopidia Fupi ya Dini ya Baha'i |encyclopedia=|year=2000 |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85168-184-1}} *{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |title=Utangulizi wa Dini ya Baha'i |date=2008 |publisher=Chuo Kikuu cha Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-86251-6 |location=Cambridge |pages=178–9}} *{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Todd |date=2021 |chapter=Nyumba ya Haki ya Kitume ya Ulimwengu |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429027772/chapters/10.4324/9780429027772-13 |title=Ulimwengu wa Dini ya Bahá'í |pages=134–144 |access-date=2023-05-29 |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |language=en |doi=10.4324/9780429027772-13 |isbn=978-0-429-02777-2|s2cid=203614863 }} *{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Todd |date=2021b |chapter=Utawala wa Utawala wa Bahá'í |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429027772/chapters/10.4324/9780429027772-41 |title=Dunia ya Imani ya Bahá'í |page=430 |access-date=2023-05-29 |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |language=en |doi=10.4324/9780429027772-41 |isbn=978-0-429-02777-2|s2cid=244706308 }} *{{cite book |last=Vafai |first=Shahin |date=2021-11-26 |chapter=Muhtasari |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429027772/chapters/10.4324/9780429027772-3 |title=Dunia ya Imani ya Kibahá'í |pages=12 |access-date=2023-05-29 |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |language=sw |doi=10.4324/9780429027772-3 |isbn=978-0-429-02777-2 |s2cid=244703558 }} *{{cite book |last=Yazdani |first=Mina |date=2021-11-26 |title=Maandishi na Matamko ya 'Abdu'l-Bahá |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429027772/chapters/10.4324/9780429027772-9 |work=Dunia ya Imani ya Bahá'í |page=92 |access-date=2023-05-29 |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=Routledge |language=en |doi=10.4324/9780429027772-9 |isbn=978-0-429-02777-2 |s2cid=244689327 }} {{refend}} ==Marejeleo ya ziada== *{{Rejea tovuti |title=Utawala, Bahá'í |url=https://www.bahai-encyclopedia-project.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=67:administration&catid=36:administrationinstitutions |access-date=2023-05-29 |website=www.bahai-encyclopedia-project.org}} sr3aohp235vty9yqovf7eznugdlejx6 0 207034 1580071 1574280 2026-07-17T23:46:15Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580071 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Korea_(orthographic_projection).svg|thumb|Uenezi wa nasaba ya Joseon.]] '''Nasaba ya Joseon''' (pia: '''Chosun''') ilikuwa [[nasaba]] ya [[Korea]] iliyotawala miaka 505, kuanzia mwaka [[1392]] hadi [[1897]]<ref>"[[Japan–South Korea Joint History Research Project]]" https://www.jkcf.or.jp/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/3-03j.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063152/https://www.jkcf.or.jp/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/3-03j.pdf |date=May 8, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher=The Institute of Foreign Affairs and National Security (외교안보연구소) | title=Was Korea Ever a Part of China?: A Historical Review | url=https://www.ifans.go.kr/knda/com/fileupload/FileDownloadView.do?storgeId=c61b04e5-0182-4c75-ad21-828ecacfb855&uploadId=346596669843959&fileSn=1}}</ref>. Iliunga mkono [[Ukonfusio]] dhidi ya [[Ubuddha]] na [[Ukristo]]. Wafuasi wa [[dini]] hizo mbili, hasa ya pili, walidhulumiwa pengine kwa [[ukatili]] mkubwa. == Angalia pia == * [[Wafiadini wa Korea]] ==Tanbihi== {{Marejeo}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=Duus |first=Peter |title=The Abacus and the Sword: The Japanese Penetration of Korea |url=https://archive.org/details/abacusswordjapan00duus |publisher=University of California Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-520-92090-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Ebrey |first1=Patricia Buckley |last2=Walthall |first2=Ann |last3=Palais |first3=James B. |title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History |year=2006 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Press |location=Boston and New York |isbn=978-0-618-13384-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0 }}. * {{cite book |last=Kim Haboush |first=JaHyun |chapter=Contesting Chinese Time, Nationalizing Temporal Space: Temporal Inscription in Late Chosŏn Korea |pages=[https://archive.org/details/timetemporalityi0000unse_f1u8/page/n128 115]–141 |title=Time, Temporality, and Imperial Transition |url=https://archive.org/details/timetemporalityi0000unse_f1u8 |year=2005 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |location=Honolulu |editor-last=Lynn A. Struve |isbn=978-0-8248-2827-1}}. * {{cite book |last=Kim |first=Jinwung |title=A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofkoreafr0000kimj |year=2012 |location=New York |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-00024-8}} * {{cite book |last=Larsen |first=Kirk W. |title=Tradition, Treaties, and Trade: Qing Imperialism and Chosŏn Korea, 1850–1910 |url=https://archive.org/details/traditiontreatie0000lars |year=2008 |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=978-0-674-02807-4}}. * {{cite book |last1=Walker |first1=Hugh D. |editor1-last=Jo |editor1-first=Yung-hwan |title=Korea's Response to the West |date=1971 |publisher=The Korea Research and Publications, Inc. |pages=1–14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EQBFAAAAIAAJ |chapter=The Weight of Tradition: Preliminary Observations on Korea's Intellectual Response |access-date=February 7, 2024 |archive-date=May 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508063702/https://books.google.com/books?id=EQBFAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Peter H. |last2=de Bary |first2=William Theodore |title=Sources of Korean Tradition, ''Volume I:'' From Early Times Through the Sixteenth Century |year=1997 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-10567-5}}. * {{cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=Ming-te |title=Li Hung-chang's Suzerain Policy toward Korea, 1882–1894 |journal=Chinese Studies in History |date=December 8, 2014 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=69–96 |doi=10.2753/CSH0009-4633240469}}. {{refend}} == Marejeo mengine == {{refbegin}} * ''A Cultural History of Modern Korea'', Wannae Joe, ed. with intro. by Hongkyu A. Choe, Elizabeth, N.Y., and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 2000. {{ISBN?}} * ''An Introduction to Korean Culture'', ed. Koo & Nahm, Elizabeth NJ, and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 1998. 2nd ed. {{ISBN?}} * ''Noon Eu Ro Bo Neun Han Gook Yuk Sa #7'' by Jang Pyung Soon. Copyright 1998 Joong Ang Gyo Yook Yun Goo Won, Ltd, pp.&nbsp;46–47. * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23718933 Alston, Dane. 2008. "Emperor and Emissary: The Hongwu Emperor, Kwŏn Kŭn, and the Poetry of Late Fourteenth Century Diplomacy". ''Korean Studies'' 32. University of Hawai'i Press: 104–147.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922070606/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23718933 |date=September 22, 2018 }} * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257 Kye, Seung B.. 2010. "Huddling Under the Imperial Umbrella: A Korean Approach to Ming China in the Early 1500s". The Journal of ''Korean Studies'' 15 (1). University of Washington Center for Korea Studies: 41–66.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922065137/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41490257 |date=September 22, 2018 }} * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41485331 Robinson, David M.. 2004. "Disturbing Images: Rebellion, Usurpation, and Rulership in Early Sixteenth-century East Asia" – "Korean Writings on Emperor Wuzong". ''The Journal of Korean Studies'' 9 (1). University of Washington Center for Korea Studies: 97–127.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922070641/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41485331 |date=September 22, 2018 }} * [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23720024 Robinson, Kenneth R. 1992. "From Raiders to Traders: Border Security and Border Control in Early Chosŏn, 1392–1450". ''Korean Studies'' 16. University of Hawai'i Press: 94–115.] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922065059/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23720024 |date=September 22, 2018 }} * Ji-Young Lee. 2020. "The Founding of the Korean Chosŏn Dynasty, 1392". in ''[[doi:10.1017/9781108807401|East Asia in the World: Twelve Events That Shaped the Modern International Order]]''. Cambridge University Press. * {{cite book |last1=Hatada |first1=Takashi |last2=Smith |first2=Warren W. Jr. |last3=Hazard |first3=Benjamin H. |title=A History of Korea |title-link=A History of Korea (Hatada book) |year=1969 |publisher=ABC-Clio |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-0-87436-064-6}}. * {{cite book |last=Nahm |first=Andrew C. |title=Korea: Tradition & Transformation: A History of the Korean People |url=https://archive.org/details/koreatraditiontr0000nahm |year=1988 |publisher=Hollym |location=Elizabeth, N.J. |isbn=978-0-930878-56-6}}. * {{cite book |last=Zhao |first=Quansheng |chapter=China and the Korean peace process |pages=[https://archive.org/details/koreanpeaceproce0000unse/page/n109 98]–118 |title=The Korean Peace Process and the Four Powers |url=https://archive.org/details/koreanpeaceproce0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Hampshire |editor=Tae-Hwan Kwak |editor2=Seung-Ho Joo |isbn=978-0-7546-3653-3}}. {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|Joseon Dynasty}} * {{Rejea kitabu |author=[[:ja:三谷博|三谷博]] |date=January 2016 |title=グローバル化への対応－中・日・韓三国の分岐－ |publisher=[[:ja:統計研究会|統計研究会]]『学際』第1号 |url=http://www.isr.or.jp/TokeiKen/pdf/gakusai/1_05.pdf |ref=三谷 |access-date=July 28, 2021 |archive-date=December 25, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225214545/http://www.isr.or.jp/TokeiKen/pdf/gakusai/1_05.pdf |url-status=dead}} * {{Rejea kitabu |author=[[:ja:原田環|原田環]] |date=June 2005 |title=東アジアの国際関係とその近代化－朝鮮と－ |publisher=[[Japan–South Korea Joint History Research Project]]報告書（第1期） |url=http://www.jkcf.or.jp/history_arch/first/3/02-0j_harada_j.pdf |ref={{Harvid|原田|2005}} |access-date=July 28, 2021 |archive-date=September 10, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910140201/http://www.jkcf.or.jp/history_arch/first/3/02-0j_harada_j.pdf |url-status=dead}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928110202/http://www.instrok.org/instrok/lesson1/page01.html?thisChar=4 Cultural Values of the Choson Dynasty] – from Instrok.org, created by the [[East Rock Institute]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150510203519/http://www.sungjinyang.com/history/hermit.html "Click into the Hermit Kingdom" (Written by Yang Sung-jin and published by Dongbang Media in Seoul, South Korea) – 100 articles in English on the Joseon dynasty] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050207052645/http://royalcity.or.kr/ Korean royal family website] – currently available only in Korean. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050313144134/http://myhome.shinbiro.com/~mss1/choson.html Choson dynasty] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050113191703/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501120024.html "Japanese Document Sheds New Light on Korean Queen's Murder"] – Ohmynews.com's uncovered document about murder of Queen Minbi * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060202204421/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200601/200601270013.html "E-Annals Bring Chosun History to Everyman"], ''The Chosun Ilbo'', January 27, 2006. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080604062746/http://www.bennettsfineart.com/lee%20dynasty.htm "Korean Lee (Yi) Dynasty Granite Sculptures"] {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Korea]] mwmnwjabsdik5zgkd1l00iah7la4c0o 0 207148 1579989 1527902 2026-07-17T18:43:00Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579989 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Acts-2.jpg|thumb|[[Mitume wa Yesu]] wakimpokea Roho Mtakatifu siku ya [[Pentekoste]] kadiri ya [[Matendo ya Mitume]]. [[Montanus]] alidai kumpata vilevile.]] '''Umontani''' ulikuwa aina ya [[Ukristo]] iliyopewa [[jina]] la [[mwanzilishi]] wake , [[Montanus]] <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|date=2014-01-07|first=Jim|last=Laing|title=5 Things to Know About Montanism|url=https://transformedblog.westernseminary.edu/2014/01/07/5-things-to-know-about-montanism/|access-date=2020-09-15|website=Transformed|language=en-US|archive-date=16 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916222045/https://transformedblog.westernseminary.edu/2014/01/07/5-things-to-know-about-montanism/}}</ref>, mtu wa [[Frigia]] (leo nchini [[Uturuki]])<ref>Speros Vryonis, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=wBpIAAAAMAAJ The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor: And the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh Through the Fifteenth Century]'', (Berkeley: University of California, 1971), p. 36</ref> wa [[karne ya 2]]. Huyo alijidai kumpata [[Roho Mtakatifu]] kama [[nabii]], lakini [[Kanisa Katoliki]] kwa jumla lilimuona yeye na wafuasi wake kama [[Uzushi|wazushi]] <ref name=":0">{{Rejea tovuti|title=Montanism|url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/resource/55975/montanism|access-date=2020-09-15|website=Catholic News Agency|language=en|archive-date=2021-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217204531/https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/resource/55975/montanism|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Rejea tovuti|title=Montanism|url=https://www.theopedia.com/montanism|access-date=2020-09-15|website=www.theopedia.com}}</ref>. Hata hivyo Umontani ulienea hata [[Ulaya]] na [[Afrika Kaskazini]] na kudumu kwa namna moja au nyingine katika [[karne]] zilizofuata <ref name=":2">{{Rejea jarida|last=Bradshaw|first=Robert I.|title=Montanism: Heresy or Healthy Revival?|url=https://earlychurch.org.uk/article_montanism.html|journal=Early Christianity|language=en-GB}}</ref>. ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{Citation |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.v.XLI.html |type=Letter |number=xli |title=To Marcella |last=Jerome |editor-last=Schaff |publisher=CCEL |year=385}} * {{Citation |last=Labriolle |first=Pierre |author-link=Pierre de Labriolle |title=La Crise Montaniste |year=1913|place=Paris |publisher=Leroux |language=fr}}. *{{cite book |first=Samuel N. C. |last=Lieu |title=Manichaeism in Mesopotamia and the Roman East |edition=2nd |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=1999}} * {{cite journal | last = Mitchell | first = Stephen | title = An Apostle to Ankara from the New Jerusalem: Montanists and Jews in Late Roman Asia Minor | journal = Scripta Classica Israelica | volume = 24 | pages = 207–223 | date = 2005}} * {{Citation |last=Pelikan |first=Jaroslav |year=1956 |title=Montanism and Its Trinitarian Significance |publisher=Cambridge University Press |journal=Church History |volume=25 |number=2 |pages=99–109 |doi=10.2307/3161195|jstor=3161195 |s2cid=162580581 }}. * {{Citation |last=Tabbernee |first=William |title=Prophets and Gravestones: An Imaginative History of Montanists and Other Early Christians |place=Peabody, MA |publisher=Hendrickson |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-56563-937-9}}. * {{Citation |first=Christine |last=Trevett |title=Montanism: Gender, Authority and the New Prophecy |isbn=0-521-41182-3 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996}} * {{Citation |editor-first=Peter |editor-last=Thonemann |title=Roman Phrygia: Culture and Society |isbn=978-1-107-03128-9 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013}} ==Marejeo mengine== * Groh, Dennis E. 1985. "Utterance and exegesis: Biblical interpretation in the Montanist crisis," in Groh and Jewett, ''The Living Text'' (New York) pp 73–95. * Heine, R.E., 1987 "The Role of the Gospel of John in the Montanist controversy," in ''Second Century'' v. 6, pp 1–18. * Heine, R.E., 1989. "The Gospel of John and the Montanist debate at Rome," in ''Studia Patristica'' 21, pp 95–100. * {{Citation |last=Metzger |first=Bruce |title=The Canon of the New Testament. Its Origin, Development, and Significance |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1987 |pages=99–106 |isbn=0-19826954-4}}. * {{Citation |last=McGowan |first=Andrew B |title=Tertullian and the 'Heretical' Origins of the 'Orthodox' Trinity |journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies |volume=14 |issue=4 |year=2006 |pages=437–57 |doi=10.1353/earl.2007.0005|s2cid=170419082 }}. * {{Citation |last=Pelikan |first=Jaroslav |title=The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Christian Doctrine |volume=I ''The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition, 100–600'' |place=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1977}}. * {{Citation |last=Tabbernee |first=William |year=1997 |title=Montanist Inscriptions and Testimonia: Epigraphic Sources Illustrating the History of Montanism |series=Patristic Monograph Series |number=16 |publisher=Mercer University Press |place=Georgia}}. * {{Citation |last=Hirschmann |first=Vera-Elisabeth |year=2005 |title=Horrenda Secta. Untersuchungen zum fruеhchristlichen Montanismus und seinen Verbindungen zur paganen Religion Phrygiens |place=Stuttgart |publisher=Franz Steiner |language=de}} * {{Citation |last=Butler |first=Rex |title=The New Prophecy and "New Visions": Evidence of Montanism in The Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas |place=Washington, DC |publisher=The Catholic University of America Press |year=2006}}. ==Viungo vya nje== * {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Montanism |volume=18 |short=x}} * {{Citation |url=http://danielrjennings.org/AncientReferencesToMontanism.html |title=Ancient & Medieval References To Montanism |last=Jennings |first=Daniel R}}. An extensive listing of references by 67 ancient and medieval writers to the Montanists. * {{Citation | url = http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/montanism.php | publisher = Early Church | place = UK | title = Montanism}}. Extensive bibliography and on-line articles. {{mbegu-Ukristo}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Kanisa]] o303j8ix4edu7ci5cf64j1cav5y2k4y 0 207772 1579984 1527890 2026-07-17T18:32:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579984 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Umesh Damdor Valjee''', MBE (alizaliwa [[Durban]], [[Natal]] [[30 Septemba]] [[1969]]) ni mzaliwa wa [[Afrika Kusini]] mpiga [[kriketi]] kiziwi wa [[Uingereza]]. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.crichq.com/#players/1087500/statistics/career|title=CricHQ - Umesh Valjee career|website=CricHQ|language=en|access-date=2017-04-25|archive-date=2018-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527120725/https://www.crichq.com/#players/1087500/statistics/career|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://cricketarchive.com/Players/64/64703/64703.html|title=The Home of CricketArchive|website=cricketarchive.com|access-date=2017-04-26}}</ref> Ndiye mtumiaji wa ''British Sign Language (BSL)''. Umesh ni mpigaji wa kulia na ana kasi ya wastani ya mkono wa kulia mara kwa mara. <ref name="bio">{{cite web | url=https://cricketarchive.com/Archive/Players/64/64703/64703.html | title=Players &ndash; Umesh Valjee | publisher=cricketarchive.com. CricketArchive | accessdate=29 February 2012}}</ref> Valjee aliingia katika kriketi ya kitaaluma baada ya kusajiliwa kwa Baraza la Michezo la Viziwi la [[Uingereza]] mwaka [[1989]]. Ndiye mchezaji wa kriketi kiziwi aliyetumikia kwa muda mrefu zaidi wa Uingereza, na anavaa nambari ya shati sawa (Na. 1) kama Tom Armitage—mchezaji wa kwanza wa Uingereza aliyecheza mechi nyingi.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/535158.html | title=The captain who paved the way with signs | publisher=espncricinfo.com. [[ESPNcricinfo]] | date=17 October 2011 | accessdate=29 February 2012 | author=Ugra, Sharda}}</ref> Valjee ni nahodha wa zamani wa timu ya kriketi ya viziwi ya Uingereza, na alitunukiwa tuzo ya Mchezaji Kriketi wa Walemavu wa Mwaka wa Uingereza mwaka [[2011]]. <ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.ecb.co.uk/development/disability-cricket/disability-cricket-news/valjee-hails-crowning-moment,317075,EN.html | title=Valjee hails crowning moment | accessdate=29 February 2012 | publisher=ecb.co.uk [[England and Wales Cricket Board]]}}</ref> Pia alitunukiwa ''Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (MBE)'' katika orodha ya Heshima za Mwaka Mpya 2011 kwa huduma kwa michezo ya walemavu. <ref>{{cite web |title=Umesh Valjee rewarded with MBE |url=http://club-cricket.co.uk/news/details/49 |website=club-cricket.co.uk |accessdate=2025-06-14 |archive-date=2025-02-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250221204440/https://club-cricket.co.uk/news/details/49 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Alikuwa mmoja wa wakimbiza mwenge katika [[Michezo ya Olimpiki]] ya [[Majira ya joto]] ya mwaka [[2012]] huko [[London]]. <ref>{{cite news |title=Olympic Torch: Day 69 |url=https://www.itv.com/news/london/2012-07-18/olympic-torch-day-69 |work=ITV News |date=18 July 2012 |language=en}}</ref> Valjee aliigiza Jamil katika mfululizo wa [[BBC]] "Switch" (2001-2006), ambao ulihusisha waigizaji wasaini viziwi. <ref>{{cite web |title=Umesh Valjee |url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1867979/ |website=IMDb}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1969]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Wiki4Inclusion Campaign in Tanzania Phase 2]] j9h3j6nf0wpwmjhei71zjf7s73gf4jl 4 208508 1579957 1579930 2026-07-17T13:49:14Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 CAQI Bot updated with page views column 1579957 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-07-17) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 61 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 72 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-07-17)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 602 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2781 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 273 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1023 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.10 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 482 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 325 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 398 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 247 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 491 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 414 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 215 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 755 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 165 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 672 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 276 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 145 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 502 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 351 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 235 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 148 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 168 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 300 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 320 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1226 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 147 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 307 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 457 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 355 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 301 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 283 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 241 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 193 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 196 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 114 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 327 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 491 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 408 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 208 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 183 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 385 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 141 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 65 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 426 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 116 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 100 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 407 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 112 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 124 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 116 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 120 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 172 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 320 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 103 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 184 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.25 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 147 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 208 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.02 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 20 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 21 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 4 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 21 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 9 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 8 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34967 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 26788 || ↓ -11.7% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.3 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 155.7 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2781 || ↓ -1.3% |- | 2 || [[Cabo Verde]] || 1226 || ↓ -2.1% |- | 3 || [[Marekani]] || 1071 || ↓ -19.8% |- | 4 || [[Australia]] || 755 || ↑ +101.9% |- | 5 || [[Kenya]] || 694 || ↓ -3.7% |- | 6 || [[Ufaransa]] || 672 || ↓ -5.6% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 587 || ↓ -15.4% |- | 8 || [[Uingereza]] || 502 || ↓ -13.1% |- | 9 || [[Kanada]] || 486 || ↑ +26.9% |- | 10 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 482 || ↓ -13.9% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 595 || 43.0% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 359 || 25.9% |- | 3 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 130 || 9.4% |- | 4 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 125 || 9.0% |- | 5 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 7 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.6% |- | 8 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 9 || [[User:Kisare|Kisare]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 10 || [[User:CSGinger14|CSGinger14]] || 6 || 0.4% |- |} 0rseuib1hlq43c5f1z2kzt9uam657pj 1579958 1579957 2026-07-17T13:51:42Z Gayle-Bot 78697 Sasisha Takwimu za mradi 1579958 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-07-17) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 61 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 72 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-07-17)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 602 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2781 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 273 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1023 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.10 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 482 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 325 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 398 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 247 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 491 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 414 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 215 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 755 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 165 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 672 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 276 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 145 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 502 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 351 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 235 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 148 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 168 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 300 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 320 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1226 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 147 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 307 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 457 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 355 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 301 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 283 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 241 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 193 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 196 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 114 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 327 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 491 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 408 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 208 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 183 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 385 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 141 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 180 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 65 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 426 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 116 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 100 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 407 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 112 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 124 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 116 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 120 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 172 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 320 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 103 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 184 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.25 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 147 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 98 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 208 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.02 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 20 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 34 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 21 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 4 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 21 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 9 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 8 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34967 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 27366 || ↓ -12.6% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.3 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 159.1 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2781 || ↓ -1.3% |- | 2 || [[Cabo Verde]] || 1226 || ↓ -2.1% |- | 3 || [[Marekani]] || 1071 || ↓ -19.8% |- | 4 || [[Australia]] || 755 || ↑ +101.9% |- | 5 || [[Kenya]] || 694 || ↓ -3.7% |- | 6 || [[Ufaransa]] || 672 || ↓ -5.6% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 587 || ↓ -15.4% |- | 8 || [[Uingereza]] || 502 || ↓ -13.1% |- | 9 || [[Kanada]] || 486 || ↑ +26.9% |- | 10 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 482 || ↓ -13.9% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 595 || 43.0% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 359 || 25.9% |- | 3 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 130 || 9.4% |- | 4 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 125 || 9.0% |- | 5 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 7 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.6% |- | 8 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 9 || [[User:Kisare|Kisare]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 10 || [[User:CSGinger14|CSGinger14]] || 6 || 0.4% |- |} kftgxfji79c3maydfvptp0ssqaov51z 1579995 1579958 2026-07-17T19:18:30Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 CAQI Bot updated with page views column 1579995 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-07-17) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 61 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 72 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-07-17)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 587 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 694 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2781 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 270 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1071 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 961 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.10 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 482 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 317 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 387 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 247 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 482 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 414 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 211 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 755 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 159 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 672 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 270 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 145 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 502 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 351 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 226 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 147 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 166 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 296 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 304 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 163 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1226 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 147 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 297 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 445 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 346 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 301 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 275 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 241 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 192 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 192 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 93 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 114 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 327 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 486 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 408 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 204 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 381 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 178 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 62 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 426 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 282 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 114 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 100 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 407 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 112 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 119 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 116 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 119 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 94 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 169 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 314 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 184 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 49 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.25 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 147 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 37 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 207 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.02 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 20 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 12 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 21 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 4 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 21 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 76 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 16 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 9 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 16 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 8 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 21 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34967 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 27366 || ↓ -12.6% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.3 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 159.1 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2781 || ↓ -1.3% |- | 2 || [[Cabo Verde]] || 1226 || ↓ -2.1% |- | 3 || [[Marekani]] || 1071 || ↓ -19.8% |- | 4 || [[Australia]] || 755 || ↑ +101.9% |- | 5 || [[Kenya]] || 694 || ↓ -3.7% |- | 6 || [[Ufaransa]] || 672 || ↓ -5.6% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 587 || ↓ -15.4% |- | 8 || [[Uingereza]] || 502 || ↓ -13.1% |- | 9 || [[Kanada]] || 486 || ↑ +26.9% |- | 10 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 482 || ↓ -13.9% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 595 || 43.0% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 359 || 25.9% |- | 3 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 130 || 9.4% |- | 4 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 125 || 9.0% |- | 5 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 7 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.6% |- | 8 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 9 || [[User:Kisare|Kisare]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 10 || [[User:CSGinger14|CSGinger14]] || 6 || 0.4% |- |} bzxuhdcbosk0o8jntkxk2e3gv3t8g15 1579996 1579995 2026-07-17T19:19:29Z Gayle-Bot 78697 Sasisha Takwimu za mradi 1579996 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-07-17) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 61 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 72 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-07-17)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 587 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 694 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2781 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 270 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1071 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 961 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.10 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 482 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 317 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 387 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 247 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 482 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 414 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 211 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 755 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 159 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 672 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 270 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 145 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 502 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 351 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 226 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 147 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 111 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 166 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 296 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 304 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 163 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1226 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 147 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 297 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 445 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 346 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 301 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 275 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 241 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 192 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 192 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 93 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 114 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 327 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 486 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 408 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 204 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 381 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 77 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 178 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 62 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 426 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 282 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 114 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 100 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 407 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 112 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 38 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 119 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 95 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 87 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 142 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 84 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 116 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 119 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 154 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 94 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 43 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 134 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 169 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 70 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 85 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 108 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 314 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 99 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 184 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 49 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 69 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.25 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 147 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 37 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 207 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.02 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 20 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 12 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 21 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 4 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 21 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 76 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 16 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 9 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 16 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 8 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 21 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34967 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 27366 || ↓ -12.6% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.3 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 159.1 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2781 || ↓ -1.3% |- | 2 || [[Cabo Verde]] || 1226 || ↓ -2.1% |- | 3 || [[Marekani]] || 1071 || ↓ -19.8% |- | 4 || [[Australia]] || 755 || ↑ +101.9% |- | 5 || [[Kenya]] || 694 || ↓ -3.7% |- | 6 || [[Ufaransa]] || 672 || ↓ -5.6% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 587 || ↓ -15.4% |- | 8 || [[Uingereza]] || 502 || ↓ -13.1% |- | 9 || [[Kanada]] || 486 || ↑ +26.9% |- | 10 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 482 || ↓ -13.9% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 595 || 43.0% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 359 || 25.9% |- | 3 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 129 || 9.3% |- | 4 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 125 || 9.0% |- | 5 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 7 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.6% |- | 8 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 9 || [[User:Kisare|Kisare]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 10 || [[User:CSGinger14|CSGinger14]] || 6 || 0.4% |- |} i6k78pplg3u0fbupqfkq8n3jidp1diy 1580275 1579996 2026-07-18T02:49:14Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 CAQI Bot updated with page views column 1580275 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-07-18) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 61 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 72 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-07-18)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 536 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 673 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2679 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 262 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1011 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 946 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.10 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 467 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 310 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 367 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 238 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 476 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 402 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 168 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 720 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 128 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 652 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 482 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 216 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 155 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 107 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 296 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 301 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1133 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 138 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 293 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 441 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 298 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 270 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 229 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 174 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 160 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 89 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 313 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 470 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 397 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 191 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 378 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 170 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 352 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 94 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 391 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 65 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 14 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 75 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 90 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 143 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 90 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 164 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 303 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 52 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 37 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.25 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 93 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 110 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 204 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 49 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.02 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 8 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 18 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 3 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 9 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 23 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 16 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 4 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 20 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 37 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 19 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34967 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 27366 || ↓ -12.6% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.3 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 159.1 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2781 || ↓ -1.3% |- | 2 || [[Cabo Verde]] || 1226 || ↓ -2.1% |- | 3 || [[Marekani]] || 1071 || ↓ -19.8% |- | 4 || [[Australia]] || 755 || ↑ +101.9% |- | 5 || [[Kenya]] || 694 || ↓ -3.7% |- | 6 || [[Ufaransa]] || 672 || ↓ -5.6% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 587 || ↓ -15.4% |- | 8 || [[Uingereza]] || 502 || ↓ -13.1% |- | 9 || [[Kanada]] || 486 || ↑ +26.9% |- | 10 || [[Afrika Kusini]] || 482 || ↓ -13.9% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 595 || 43.0% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 359 || 25.9% |- | 3 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 129 || 9.3% |- | 4 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 125 || 9.0% |- | 5 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 7 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.6% |- | 8 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 9 || [[User:Kisare|Kisare]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 10 || [[User:CSGinger14|CSGinger14]] || 6 || 0.4% |- |} 4netkci8hyhaxv60nd4xkte1bov66di 1580276 1580275 2026-07-18T02:56:19Z Gayle-Bot 78697 Sasisha Takwimu za mradi 1580276 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-07-18) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 61 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 72 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-07-18)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 536 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 673 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2679 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 262 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1011 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 946 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.10 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 467 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 310 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 367 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 238 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 476 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 402 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 168 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 720 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 128 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 652 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 482 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 216 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 155 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 107 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 296 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 301 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1133 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 138 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 293 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 441 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 298 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 270 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 229 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 174 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 160 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 89 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 313 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 470 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 397 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 191 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 378 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 170 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 352 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 94 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 391 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 65 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 14 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 75 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 90 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 143 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 90 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 104 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 164 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 303 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 52 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 37 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.25 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 93 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 110 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 204 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 49 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.02 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 8 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 18 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 3 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 9 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 23 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 16 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 4 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 20 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 37 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 19 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34970 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 25887 || ↓ -15.2% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.3 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 150.5 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2679 || ↓ -5.4% |- | 2 || [[Cabo Verde]] || 1133 || ↓ -15.8% |- | 3 || [[Marekani]] || 1011 || ↓ -24.3% |- | 4 || [[Australia]] || 720 || ↑ +90.5% |- | 5 || [[Kenya]] || 673 || ↓ -6.3% |- | 6 || [[Ufaransa]] || 652 || ↑ +32.8% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 536 || ↓ -21.2% |- | 8 || [[Uingereza]] || 482 || ↑ +1.0% |- | 9 || [[Urusi]] || 476 || ↓ -36.6% |- | 10 || [[Kanada]] || 470 || ↑ +19.3% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 595 || 42.9% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 359 || 25.9% |- | 3 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 131 || 9.5% |- | 4 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 125 || 9.0% |- | 5 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 7 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.6% |- | 8 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 9 || [[User:Kisare|Kisare]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 10 || [[User:CSGinger14|CSGinger14]] || 6 || 0.4% |- |} tmlqk8rm778gdjxsc5l96dsmcfsd3ye 1580292 1580276 2026-07-18T08:01:20Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 CAQI Bot updated with page views column 1580292 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-07-18) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 61 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 72 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-07-18)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 536 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 673 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2679 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 262 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1011 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 946 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.10 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 467 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 310 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 367 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 238 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 476 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 402 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 168 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 720 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 652 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 482 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 216 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 155 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 107 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 296 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 301 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1133 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 138 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 293 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 441 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 298 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 270 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 229 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 174 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 160 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 89 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 313 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 470 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 191 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 378 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 170 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 352 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 94 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 391 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 65 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 14 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 75 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 90 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 86 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 164 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 303 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 52 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 37 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 93 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 110 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 204 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 49 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.02 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 8 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 3 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 9 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 23 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 16 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 4 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 20 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 37 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 19 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34970 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 25887 || ↓ -15.2% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.3 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 150.5 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2679 || ↓ -5.4% |- | 2 || [[Cabo Verde]] || 1133 || ↓ -15.8% |- | 3 || [[Marekani]] || 1011 || ↓ -24.3% |- | 4 || [[Australia]] || 720 || ↑ +90.5% |- | 5 || [[Kenya]] || 673 || ↓ -6.3% |- | 6 || [[Ufaransa]] || 652 || ↑ +32.8% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 536 || ↓ -21.2% |- | 8 || [[Uingereza]] || 482 || ↑ +1.0% |- | 9 || [[Urusi]] || 476 || ↓ -36.6% |- | 10 || [[Kanada]] || 470 || ↑ +19.3% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 595 || 42.9% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 359 || 25.9% |- | 3 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 131 || 9.5% |- | 4 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 125 || 9.0% |- | 5 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 7 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.6% |- | 8 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 9 || [[User:Kisare|Kisare]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 10 || [[User:CSGinger14|CSGinger14]] || 6 || 0.4% |- |} 0ijlj6q1iev5umltg6kub5f11tkq1vs 1580293 1580292 2026-07-18T08:01:57Z Gayle-Bot 78697 Sasisha Takwimu za mradi 1580293 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Redirect|WP:Mradi/Nchi|maelezo kuhusu nchi|nchi}} {{Kigezo:Mradi/Nchi}} == Yaliyomo == <div style="margin: 1em 0; background-color:#E0F8E0; border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; padding: 12px 16px; border-radius: 2px; border-left: 5px solid #a2a9b1; line-height: 1.6;"> Kuna mradi mpya wa kujadili majina ya makala za nchi katika Kiswahili. Ili kushiriki, angalia [[WP:Mradi wa Nchi/Majina ya Nchi]]. [[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|<div style="display: inline; font-family: 'Georgia', serif; color: #4A90E2;">'''<i>Gayle157^2.0</i>'''</div>]] ([[Mtumiaji:Gayle157|Mtumiaji]]) 13:46, 14 Mei 2026 (UTC) </div> == Mwongozo == ===Sanduku/Jedwali la taarifa=== '''Sanduku la taarifa''' kwa kawaida huonekana kando ya makala katika mwonekano wa [[kompyuta]], ilhali katika mwonekano wa simu huenda likaonekana baada ya aya ya kwanza ya utangulizi. Hutoa muhtasari mfupi wa mambo muhimu kuhusu nchi na husaidia wasomaji kuelewa kwa haraka taarifa muhimu zaidi. Katika [[Wikipedia ya Kiswahili]], sanduku la taarifa la kawaida linalotumiwa kwa makala za nchi ni '''<nowiki>{{Jedwali la nchi}}</nowiki>'''. Ni muhimu kujumuisha [[tarehe]] na marejeo kwa data zote za kihalisi ili masasisho yaweze kufanywa kwa urahisi na kwa usahihi. Sanduku la taarifa linapaswa kuwa na angalau vigezo 20 pale inapowezekana. ===Utangulizi=== {{Main|Wikipedia:Sehemu ya Utangulizi}} Sehemu hii hutoa muhtasari wa jumla wa nchi na kufupisha mambo makuu yanayoshughulikiwa katika makala. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu zifuatazo: ====Aya ya Utangulizi==== Hii ndiyo aya ya kwanza ya makala. Inapaswa kuwa na maelezo muhimu zaidi, kama vile [[jina rasmi]], nchi jirani, idadi ya watu, ukubwa wa eneo la [[jiografia|kijiografia]], jiji kubwa zaidi, [[mji mkuu]], na [[lugha rasmi]]. Huenda pia ikajumuisha maelezo mafupi kuhusu kile ambacho nchi hiyo inajulikana nacho. Aya ya mwanzo inapaswa kuwa wazi, rahisi, na iliyoandikwa vizuri, na kwa kawaida inapaswa kuwa na ukubwa wa takribani baiti 500 hadi 800. Mfano: </br> {{Blockquote| '''Kanada''', ni [[nchi]] iliyoko katika [[Amerika ya Kaskazini]]. Inapakana na [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]] mashariki, [[Bahari ya Pasifiki]] magharibi, [[Bahari ya Aktiki]] kaskazini, na [[Marekani]] bara kusini. Kanada ina idadi ya wakazi takriban milioni 41 mwaka 2025 na kuwa ya 37 duniani kwa idadi ya watu, huku ikiwa na eneo la pili kubwa zaidi duniani baada ya [[Urusi]]. Mji mkuu ni [[Ottawa]], na jiji kubwa zaidi ni [[Toronto]], likifuatiwa na [[Montreal]] na [[Vancouver]]. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kiingereza]] na [[Kifaransa]], na Kanada inajulikana kwa msitu na maziwa yake mengi, mfumo wa [[siasa|kisiasa]] wa [[demokrasia|kidemokrasia]] wa kifederali, utofauti wa [[Utamaduni|kitamaduni]], viwango vya juu vya maisha, na kuwa miongoni mwa mataifa tajiri na yenye ushawishi mkubwa duniani.}} ====Aya zinazofuata==== Aya hizi zinapaswa kuendelea kufupisha nchi kwa kuzungumzia kwa ufupi mada kama [[historia]], [[jiografia]], [[uchumi]], [[siasa]], na maendeleo ya sasa. Zinapaswa kubaki fupi na zenye taarifa muhimu, bila kuwa ndefu kupita kiasi. Kwa hakika, kunapaswa kuwa na angalau aya mbili na zisizozidi nne katika sehemu ya utangulizi ili kudumisha usomaji rahisi na kuboresha urambazaji. Hakuna picha zinazopaswa kuwekwa katika sehemu hii. ===Mwili=== Hii ndiyo sehemu kuu ya makala na ina taarifa za kina kuhusu nchi. Kwa kawaida hugawanywa katika sehemu kuu zilizopangwa kwa mpangilio wa kimantiki. Mwili unapaswa kuwa na maudhui ya kutosha ili kuwa na manufaa, lakini haupaswi kuwa mrefu kupita kiasi au kumchosha msomaji. Picha zinazohusiana zinaweza kuongezwa katika kila sehemu ili kuboresha uwazi na uwasilishaji. ====Asili ya jina==== Sehemu hii inaeleza chanzo na maana ya jina la nchi. ====Historia==== Hii kwa kawaida ndiyo sehemu kuu ya kwanza ya mwili na inashughulikia matukio makuu ya kihistoria ya nchi. Inaweza kugawanywa katika sehemu ndogo kama vile historia ya awali, historia ya mwanzo, kipindi cha ukoloni, uhuru, na kuundwa kwa taifa la kisasa. ====Jiografia==== Sehemu hii ina taarifa kuhusu sifa za kijiografia za nchi, ikiwa ni pamoja na [[topografia]], [[hali ya hewa]], mifumo ya maji, maeneo asilia, na sifa nyingine za kijiografia. Husaidia wasomaji kuelewa mahali nchi ilipo na mazingira yake ya asili. ====Demografia==== Sehemu hii inawasilisha taarifa za kitakwimu kuhusu idadi ya watu. Huenda ikajumuisha [[Kabila]], [[dini]], [[lugha]], usambazaji wa watu, miji, na data nyingine zinazohusiana. ====Uchumi==== Sehemu hii inaeleza hali ya kiuchumi ya nchi, katika historia na wakati wa sasa. Huenda ikahusu [[Pato la taifa]] (GDP), ukuaji wa uchumi, ajira, [[umaskini]], [[viwanda]], [[biashara]], na vyanzo vikuu vya mapato. ====Serikali na siasa==== Sehemu hii inaeleza mfumo wa sasa wa kisiasa na muundo wa serikali ya nchi. Huenda pia ikajadili aina za awali za serikali, historia ya kisiasa, na changamoto kuu za kisiasa. ====Utamaduni==== Sehemu hii inashughulikia maisha ya kitamaduni ya nchi, ikijumuisha [[mila]], [[chakula|vyakula]], [[muziki]], [[fasihi]], [[sanaa]], [[dini]], na alama za kitaifa. ====Tazama pia==== Sehemu hii ina viungo vya makala zinazohusiana na mada husika. ====Marejeo==== Sehemu hii inaorodhesha vyanzo vilivyotumiwa katika makala. Huenda ikajumuisha nukuu za marejeo, bibliografia, na usomaji zaidi inapofaa. ====Viungo vya nje==== Sehemu hii hutoa viungo vya tovuti rasmi na nyenzo nyingine za nje zilizoaminika zinazohusiana na nchi hiyo. == Makala == {{Chati ya duara | caption= CAQI (2026-07-18) | label1 = Makala Bora | value1 = 7 | color1= green | label2 = Makala Nzuri | value2 = 9 | color2= yellow | label3 = Makala Msingi | value3 = 61 | color3= orange | label4 = Makala ya Chini | value4 = 72 | color4= lightblue | label5 = Mbegu | value5 = 26 | color5= red }} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nchi ! CAQI (2026-07-18)<br /> ! Mitazamo (siku 30)<br /> |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:green" | Makala Bora |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] | 9.56 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 536 |- | [[Kenya]] | 9.44 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 673 |- | [[Tanzania]] | 9.17 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 2679 |- | [[Ghana]] | 8.93 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 262 |- | [[Marekani]] | 8.76 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1011 |- | [[Jumuiya ya Afrika Mashariki|EAC]] | 8.25 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 946 |- | [[Afrika Kusini]] | 8.10 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 467 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:yellow" | Makala Nzuri |- | [[Hispania]] | 7.84 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 310 |- | [[Irani]] | 7.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 367 |- | [[Ethiopia]] | 7.58 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 238 |- | [[Urusi]] | 7.54 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 476 |- | [[Burundi]] | 7.36 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 402 |- | [[Sudan Kusini]] | 7.28 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 137 |- | [[Nigeria]] | 7.26 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 168 |- | [[Australia]] | 7.15 | style="background-color:#228B22; color:white" | 720 |- | [[Somalia]] | 7.09 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:orange" | Makala Msingi |- | [[Senegal]] | 6.90 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Ufaransa]] | 6.68 | style="background-color:#3CB371; color:white" | 652 |- | [[Italia]] | 6.23 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 255 |- | [[Falme za Kiarabu]] | 6.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Laos]] | 5.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Uingereza]] | 5.93 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 482 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China]] | 5.59 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Rwanda]] | 5.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 216 |- | [[Korea Kaskazini]] | 5.44 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 139 |- | [[Mali]] | 5.42 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Korea Kusini]] | 5.34 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 155 |- | [[Ufini]] | 5.20 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 107 |- | [[Uswisi]] | 5.17 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 296 |- | [[Israeli]] | 5.15 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 301 |- | [[Ufalme wa Muungano]] | 5.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 152 |- | [[Cabo Verde]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#006400; color:white" | 1133 |- | [[Zambia]] | 4.89 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 138 |- | [[Ujerumani]] | 4.83 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 293 |- | [[Niger]] | 4.79 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Misri]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 441 |- | [[Uganda]] | 4.78 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 332 |- | [[Afghanistan]] | 4.70 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 58 |- | [[Shelisheli]] | 4.68 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 298 |- | [[Japani]] | 4.66 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 270 |- | [[San Marino]] | 4.63 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Chad]] | 4.59 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 45 |- | [[Austria]] | 4.49 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 229 |- | [[Kamerun]] | 4.47 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 50 |- | [[Vatikani]] | 4.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 174 |- | [[Gine Bisau]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Ukraini]] | 4.41 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 160 |- | [[Sudan]] | 4.39 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 89 |- | [[Uswidi]] | 4.30 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Uholanzi]] | 4.26 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 313 |- | [[Kanada]] | 4.17 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 470 |- | [[Kamboja]] | 4.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Moroko]] | 4.13 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Uhindi]] | 4.08 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 191 |- | [[Malawi]] | 4.05 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 175 |- | [[Pakistani]] | 3.98 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Ubelgiji]] | 3.92 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 378 |- | [[Udeni]] | 3.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Burkina Faso]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 74 |- | [[Madagaska]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Ugiriki]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 170 |- | [[Vietnam]] | 3.84 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 57 |- | [[Bulgaria]] | 3.82 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 59 |- | [[Ureno]] | 3.79 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 352 |- | [[Isilandi]] | 3.77 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Msumbiji]] | 3.76 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 267 |- | [[Aljeria]] | 3.73 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 54 |- | [[Kazakhstan]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 42 |- | [[Malta]] | 3.65 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Indonesia]] | 3.64 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 109 |- | [[Singapuri]] | 3.63 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 94 |- | [[Uturuki]] | 3.62 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 391 |- | [[Papua Guinea Mpya]] | 3.61 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 26 |- | [[Eritrea]] | 3.60 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Uthai]] | 3.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Angola]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Hong Kong]] | 3.52 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 65 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:lightblue" | Makala ya Chini |- | [[Bhutan]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 33 |- | [[Fiji]] | 3.46 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 28 |- | [[Ufalme wa Udeni]] | 3.44 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 14 |- | [[Palestina]] | 3.43 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 130 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Afrika ya Kati]] | 3.38 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 113 |- | [[Syria]] | 3.35 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Latvia]] | 3.30 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Myanmar]] | 3.23 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Botswana]] | 3.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Komori]] | 3.20 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 92 |- | [[Liberia]] | 3.16 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 61 |- | [[Eswatini]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 136 |- | [[Morisi]] | 3.11 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Jibuti]] | 3.09 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 75 |- | [[Omani]] | 3.04 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 63 |- | [[Polandi]] | 3.03 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Zimbabwe]] | 3.02 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 118 |- | [[Kosovo]] | 2.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Benin]] | 2.93 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 30 |- | [[Brunei]] | 2.92 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 79 |- | [[Qatar]] | 2.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 90 |- | [[Jamhuri ya Kongo]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Saudia]] | 2.90 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 86 |- | [[Gine ya Ikweta]] | 2.89 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Lesotho]] | 2.88 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 73 |- | [[Nyuzilandi]] | 2.86 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Hungaria]] | 2.84 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Sierra Leone]] | 2.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 36 |- | [[Eire]] | 2.80 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Liechtenstein]] | 2.78 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Gabon]] | 2.74 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Azerbaijan]] | 2.69 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Kroatia]] | 2.68 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 101 |- | [[Slovenia]] | 2.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Namibia]] | 2.65 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 164 |- | [[Tunisia]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 68 |- | [[Ufilipino]] | 2.64 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 80 |- | [[Kodivaa]] | 2.60 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 102 |- | [[Jamhuri ya China]] | 2.54 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 48 |- | [[Moldova]] | 2.52 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Bahrain]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 47 |- | [[Norwei]] | 2.51 | style="background-color:#90EE90; color:black" | 303 |- | [[Luxemburg]] | 2.49 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Masedonia Kaskazini]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 22 |- | [[Yordani]] | 2.48 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 82 |- | [[Mongolia]] | 2.42 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 96 |- | [[Belarus]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Serbia]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 52 |- | [[Turkmenistan]] | 2.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 37 |- | [[Gambia]] | 2.39 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Iraki]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 179 |- | [[Nepal]] | 2.37 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Timor ya Mashariki]] | 2.34 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 24 |- | [[Tuvalu]] | 2.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Sri Lanka]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 56 |- | [[Yemen]] | 2.32 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 67 |- | [[Andorra]] | 2.30 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 25 |- | [[Kirgizia]] | 2.26 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Romania]] | 2.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Sao Tome na Principe]] | 2.23 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 66 |- | [[Bangladesh]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 40 |- | [[Bosnia na Herzegovina]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 144 |- | [[Libya]] | 2.22 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 93 |- | [[Armenia]] | 2.19 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 39 |- | [[Welisi]] | 2.14 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 35 |- | [[Ucheki]] | 2.11 | style="background-color:#FFA500; color:black" | 110 |- | [[Sahara ya Magharibi]] | 2.10 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 64 |- | [[Uzbekistan]] | 2.09 | style="background-color:#C8E6C9; color:black" | 204 |- | [[Kuwait]] | 2.07 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 46 |- | [[Malaysia]] | 2.06 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 49 |- | [[Kupro]] | 2.04 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Maldivi]] | 2.02 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 15 |- | colspan="3" style="background-color:red" | Mbegu |- | [[Visiwa vya Cook]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 8 |- | [[Montenegro]] | 1.99 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 29 |- | [[Nauru]] | 1.98 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Ossetia Kusini]] | 1.97 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 3 |- | [[Vanuatu]] | 1.96 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 17 |- | [[Togo]] | 1.95 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 41 |- | [[Albania]] | 1.92 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Mauritania]] | 1.91 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 71 |- | [[Samoa]] | 1.82 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Georgia]] | 1.72 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 44 |- | [[Polynesia ya Kifaransa]] | 1.71 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 9 |- | [[Lituanya]] | 1.69 | style="background-color:#FF4444; color:white" | 55 |- | [[Gine]] | 1.67 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 23 |- | [[Niue]] | 1.66 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 16 |- | [[Abkhazia]] | 1.58 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 4 |- | [[Tajikistan]] | 1.55 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Palau]] | 1.53 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 20 |- | [[Visiwa vya Solomon]] | 1.51 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 0 |- | [[Gibraltar]] | 1.41 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 32 |- | [[Estonia]] | 1.40 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 31 |- | [[Kiribati]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 27 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana ya Kaskazini]] | 1.38 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Samoa ya Marekani]] | 1.36 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 13 |- | [[Slovakia]] | 1.33 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 37 |- | [[Visiwa vya Mariana]] | 1.25 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 5 |- | [[Tonga]] | 1.11 | style="background-color:#8B0000; color:white" | 19 |} ==Takwimu== ===Takwimu za Jumla=== {| class="wikitable" ! Vipimo !! Jumla !! Mabadiliko |- | Jumla ya Makala || 172 || — |- | Jumla ya Hariri (siku zote) || 34971 || — |- | Jumla ya Mitazamo (siku 30) || 25887 || ↓ -15.2% |- | Wastani wa Hariri kwa Makala || 203.3 || — |- | Wastani wa Mitazamo kwa Makala || 150.5 || — |} ===Makala 10 Zilizotazamwa Zaidi (siku 30)=== {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Nafasi !! Makala !! Mitazamo !! Mabadiliko |- | 1 || [[Tanzania]] || 2679 || ↓ -5.4% |- | 2 || [[Cabo Verde]] || 1133 || ↓ -15.8% |- | 3 || [[Marekani]] || 1011 || ↓ -24.3% |- | 4 || [[Australia]] || 720 || ↑ +90.5% |- | 5 || [[Kenya]] || 673 || ↓ -6.3% |- | 6 || [[Ufaransa]] || 652 || ↑ +32.8% |- | 7 || [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] || 536 || ↓ -21.2% |- | 8 || [[Uingereza]] || 482 || ↑ +1.0% |- | 9 || [[Urusi]] || 476 || ↓ -36.6% |- | 10 || [[Kanada]] || 470 || ↑ +19.3% |- |} ====Wahariri==== Wahariri kuu wa Mradi wa Nchi wa Wikipedia (siku 365) {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Namba !! Jina !! Hariri !! Asilimia |- | 1 || [[User:Gayle157|Gayle157]] || 595 || 42.9% |- | 2 || [[User:Gayle-Bot|Gayle-Bot]] || 359 || 25.9% |- | 3 || [[User:InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] || 131 || 9.5% |- | 4 || [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] || 125 || 9.0% |- | 5 || [[User:~2025-60637-6|~2025-60637-6]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 6 || [[User:~2025-61248-5|~2025-61248-5]] || 12 || 0.9% |- | 7 || [[User:That Js Not Dead|That Js Not Dead]] || 8 || 0.6% |- | 8 || [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 9 || [[User:Kisare|Kisare]] || 6 || 0.4% |- | 10 || [[User:CSGinger14|CSGinger14]] || 6 || 0.4% |- |} rut0whfw1xuqswpxxod929cnk466wo3 0 208783 1580220 1444246 2026-07-18T01:27:37Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580220 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Abu Bakr al-Siddiq''' (pia alijulikana kama '''Edward Doulan''') alikuwa msomi wa [[Kiislamu]] kutoka mji wa [[Timbuktu]] ([[Mali]]). Akiwa kijana wa miaka ishirini na kitu alitekwa na kufanywa mtumwa katika mji wa [[Tarafa ya Bouna|Bouna (wilaya)|Bouna]] (ulio katika eneo la leo la [[Kodivaa]]). Aliandika wasifu wake binafsi, yaani simulizi ya maisha yake akiwa [[Utumwa|mtumwa]], kwa lugha ya [[Kiarabu]]. Nakala mbili (moja ikiwa [[Jamaika]] na nyingine karibu na [[London]]) zilitafsiriwa kwa [[Kiingereza]] na kuchapishwa mwaka [[1834]]. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq alikuwa mtoto wa mfanyabiashara maarufu na msafiri, ambaye alienda Bouna kutafuta [[dhahabu]]. Abu Bakr alielekezwa katika masomo ya Kiislamu mjini Jenne baada ya kifo cha baba yake huko Bouna alipokuwa safarini. Baadaye alisafiri kwenda kuzuru kaburi la baba yake akiwa na mwalimu wake. Walipokuwa wakiishi huko, [[vita]] vilizuka; Adrinka, Sultani wa [[Bondoukou (mji)|Bondoukou]], alimuua Sultani wa [[Banda Besar]] na kupanua vita hadi Bouna, ambapo jeshi lake liliteka mji huo. Kwenye machafuko hayo, Abu Bakr alikamatwa na kufanywa mtumwa. Alipewa mzigo mkubwa kubeba hadi pwani ya [[Atlantiki]], ambako aliuzwa kwa watu wa [[Ukristo|Kikristo]], na baada ya safari ya miezi mitatu baharini, walifika Jamaika. Barua mbili zilizoandikwa mwishoni mwa simulizi yake zinaeleza kuwa alikuja kuachiwa huru na mmiliki wake, Alexander Anderson, na hapo ndipo alipatiwa jina lake la Kiingereza kama Edward Doulan.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Rienner Anthology of African Literature |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781626375833 |editor1-first=Anthonia C. |editor1-last=Kalu |isbn=9781626375833 |publisher=Lynn Rienner |location=Boulder |year=2007 |chapter=The African Travels of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781626375833/page/200 200]-205}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Five Classic Muslim Slave Narratives |editor1-first=Muhammad A. |editor1-last=Al-Ahari |series=American Islamic Heritage Series |publisher=Magribine Press |year=2006 |location=Chicago |isbn=9781463593278 |pages=201-207 |chapter='Abu Bekr Sheriff of Timbuktoo; Written in Jamaica 1834}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Mali]] [[Jamii:Utumwa]] [[Jamii:AWC Zanzibar]] g47b7w6scqa5kzqr66qh11tnorej3m5 0 211310 1580198 1454632 2026-07-18T01:13:35Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580198 wikitext text/x-wiki Makabila ya [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] ni zaidi ya 200, yakigawanyika katika makundi makuu ya lugha: [[Wabantu]], [[Waniloti]], [[Wakushi]], na [[Wapygmy]]. Baadhi ya makabila maarufu ni: * [[Wakongo]] – jamii ya magharibi, huzungumza [[Kikongo]], wanajulikana kwa historia ya [[Ufalme wa Kongo]] na tamaduni za ibada za jadi. * [[Walangala]] – jamii ya kati, huzungumza [[Kilingala]], wanajulikana kwa muziki wa [[Soukous]] na tamaduni za mijini. * [[Wakatanga]] – jamii ya kusini mashariki, huzungumza [[Kitetela]] na [[Kibemba]], wanajulikana kwa utajiri wa madini na tamaduni za kilimo. * [[Wakuba]] – jamii ya mashariki, huzungumza [[Kikuba]], wanajulikana kwa sanaa ya ufinyanzi na ibada za mizimu. * [[Wakusu]] – jamii ya milimani ya mashariki, huzungumza [[Kikusu]], wanajulikana kwa kilimo cha kahawa na tamaduni za kijamaa. * [[Wapygmy]] – jamii ya misitu ya mvua, huishi kwa uwindaji na ukusanyaji wa matunda, wanajulikana kwa tamaduni za kuishi kwa ushirikiano wa kijiji. Lugha rasmi ni [[Kifaransa]], lakini lugha za kitaifa kama [[Kiswahili]], [[Kilingala]], [[Kikongo]], na [[Kiluba]] hutumika sana katika maisha ya kila siku.<ref>{{cite book |last=Turner |first=Thomas |title=The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality |url=https://archive.org/details/congowarsconflic00turn_0 |year=2007 |publisher=Zed Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo |website=Ethnologue |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/CD |access-date=5 Agosti 2025}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{marejeo}} {{Africa in topic|Makabila ya}} {{mbegu-utamaduni}} [[Jamii:Makabila ya Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] [[Jamii:Afrocrowd 2025]] ng8v1pr99fksdbx0bj9mugcf5f5unpi 0 211758 1580209 1459034 2026-07-18T01:19:41Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580209 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ugali & Sukuma Wiki.jpg|thumb|300px|Mfano wa Chakula cha asili]] '''Chakula cha asili''' ni jina litumiwalo kumaanisha [[chakula]] ambacho hakijatengenezwa kwa njia ya [[usindikaji]]. Katika baadhi ya nchi kama [[Uingereza]], neno "asili" hufafanuliwa na kudhibitiwa,<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=https://www.5aldia.org/datos/60/PDF_4_5106.pdf|title=Criteria for use of the terms Fresh, Pure, Natural etc. in food labeling|publisher=[[Food Standards Agency]]|date=1 December 2002|access-date=27 February 2021|archive-date=8 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608020839/https://www.5aldia.org/datos/60/PDF_4_5106.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> wakati kwa nchi nyingine, kama vile [[Marekani]], neno hilo halitumiki kwenye lebo za vyakula, ingawa kuna udhibiti wa USDA wa uwekaji lebo za kikaboni. Neno hili linadhaniwa kuelezea vyakula vilivyo na viambata ambavyo ni asili ya chakula ambacho hakijachakatwa.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last1=Meier|first1=Brian P.|last2=Dillard|first2=Amanda J.|last3=Lappas|first3=Courtney M.|date=2019|title=Naturally better? A review of the natural-is-better bias|url=https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1098&context=psyfac|journal=Social and Personality Psychology Compass|language=en|volume=13|issue=8|pages=e12494|doi=10.1111/spc3.12494|s2cid=201321386 |issn=1751-9004|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="baggini2004">{{cite book|last=Baggini|first=Julian|title=Making Sense: Philosophy Behind the Headlines|url=https://archive.org/details/makingsensephilo0000bagg|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-280506-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/makingsensephilo0000bagg/page/181 181]–182|author-link=Julian Baggini}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} [[Jamii:Wiki Loves STEAMIA 2025]] [[Jamii:Chakula cha Kiafrika]] [[Jamii:Vyakula vya asili Tanzania]] [[Jamii:chakula]] ie3dxhjtgw8u3vhal5utw0kqldn9h2e 0 212251 1580158 1575255 2026-07-18T00:41:22Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580158 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Zara_Yaqob.jpg|thumb|Zara Yakub alivyochorwa kabla ya [[karne ya 18]].]] '''Zara Yakubu''' ([[1399]] – [[26 Agosti]] [[1468]]) alikuwa [[Negus Negesti]] wa [[Ethiopia]] kwa [[jina rasmi]] ''Konstantino I'' kwa zaidi ya miaka 34 hadi [[kifo]] chake. Ndiye [[Kiongozi|mtawala]] bora wa nchi hiyo tangu wakati wa [[Ezana]] hadi [[Menelik II]]. ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|35em}} *{{Rejea kitabu |title=The Abyssinians |last=Buxon |first=David |year=1970 |publisher=Praeger |location=New York |pages=48ff}} *{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of Eritrea |url=https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000conn |last1=Connel |first1=Dan |last2=Killion |first2=Tom |year=2011 |publisher=The Scarecrow |isbn=978-081085952-4}} *{{cite thesis |type=Ph.D. thesis |title=The Oromo of Ethiopia, 1500–1850: with special emphasis on the Gibe region |last=Hassen |first=Mohammed |year=1983 |publisher=University of London |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |page=22 |access-date=25 March 2020 |archive-date=13 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213003344/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |url-status=live}} *{{Rejea kitabu |title=Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia |last=Henze |first=Paul B. |year=2000 |publisher=Palgrave |location=New York |page=68 |isbn=1-85065-522-7}} *{{cite book |chapter=Crusading threats? Ethiopian-Egyptian relations in the 1440s |last=Krebs |first=Verena |year=2019 |title=Croisades en Afriqe |publisher=Presses universitaires du Midi |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/39048155 |pages=245–274 |isbn=978-281070557-3 |ref=none |access-date=12 May 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308201752/https://www.academia.edu/39048155 |url-status=live}} *{{Rejea kitabu |title=The Ethiopians: A History |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell |location=Oxford |page=85}} *{{Rejea kitabu |title=The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles |last=Pankhurst |first=Richard K. P. |year=1967 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Addis Ababa |page=32}} *{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Zare'a Ya'eqob, c. 1399 to 1468, Orthodox, Ethiopia |last=Selassie |first=Tsehai Berhane |encyclopedia=The Encyclopaedia Africana Dictionary of African Biography |editor-last=Ofosu-Appiah |editor-first=L. H. |publisher=Reference Publications |location=New York |via=Dictionary of African Christian Biography |url=http://www.dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/zarea_yaeqob.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806234930/http://www.dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/zarea_yaeqob.html |date=1977 |archive-date=6 August 2016}} *{{Rejea kitabu |title=The Realm of Prester John |edition=paperback |last=Silverberg |first=Robert |year=1996 |author-link=Robert Silverberg |publisher=[[Ohio University Press]] |page=189 |isbn=1-84212-409-9}} *{{Rejea kitabu |title=Church and State in Ethiopia |url=https://archive.org/details/churchstateineth0000tadd |last=Tamrat |first=Taddesse |year=1972 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |page=[https://archive.org/details/churchstateineth0000tadd/page/222 222] |isbn=0-19-821671-8 |ref={{harvid|Taddesse Tamrat|1972}}}} *{{Rejea kitabu |title=The Ethiopians: An Introduction to the Country and People |edition=second |last=Ullendorff |first=Edward |orig-year=1960 |year=1965 |author-link=Edward Ullendorff |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London |page=69 |oclc=174435 |isbn=}} {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://tezeta.org/16/the-chronicle-of-the-emperor-zara-yaqob-1434-1468 ''The Chronicle of the Emperor Zara Yaqob'', translated by Richard Pankhurst] [https://web.archive.org/web/20060224211057/http://tezeta.org/16/the-chronicle-of-the-emperor-zara-yaqob-1434-1468 Archive.org mirror] {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} {{BD|1399|1468}} [[Jamii:mashemasi]] [[Jamii:wafalme wa Ethiopia]] fyxbavbtf5sfsrzepx36xxiql1rksgj 0 215686 1580225 1578203 2026-07-18T01:32:07Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 4 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580225 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Investiturewoodcut.png|thumb|[[Mfalme]] wa [[Enzi ya kati|karne za kati]] akisimika askofu kwa kumkabidhi [[Kifaa|vifaa]] vya [[cheo]] chake, [[kazi]] ya Philip Van Ness Myers, [[1905]].]] '''Mgogoro wa Usimikaji''' (kwa [[Kiingereza]]: ''Investiture Controversy'' or ''Contest'') ulikuwa mgongano wa [[mamlaka|kimamlaka]] wa miaka 50 ([[1076]]-[[1122]]) kati ya [[Kiongozi|viongozi]] wa [[Kanisa Katoliki]] na wa [[Dola Takatifu la Kiroma]] kuhusu nani awe na [[haki]] ya kuchagua na kusimika [[Askofu|maaskofu]], [[abati|maabati]] na hata [[Papa|Mapapa]]. Wahusika wakuu walikuwa [[Papa Gregori VII]] na [[Heinrich IV wa Ujerumani|Henri IV wa Ujerumani]]. Katikati, miaka [[1103]]-[[1107]] mgongano kama huo ulitokea pia kati ya [[Papa Paskali II]] na mfalme [[Henri I wa Uingereza]]. Hatimaye ilikubalika kwamba uteuzi ufanywe na [[Kanisa]], ila askofu atapaswa kula [[kiapo]] cha [[uaminifu]] kwa mfalme. ==Upande wa Papa== Gregori VII, baada ya kuishi kama [[mmonaki]] wa [[Wabenedikto|Kibenedikto]] na kuchangia sana [[urekebisho]] wa Kanisa kama [[kardinali]] na [[balozi wa Papa]], alipochaguliwa mwenyewe kuwa Papa alipigania kwa [[nguvu]] zote [[utakatifu]] wa [[Kuhani|ukuhani]] na [[uhuru]] wa Kanisa Katoliki dhidi ya mamlaka ya [[serikali]], akifungua njia kwa Mapapa waliofuata. Ni kwamba wakati huohuo Henri IV aliwahi kumsimika askofu mmoja nchini [[Ujerumani]] kufuatana na [[desturi]] ya huko. Kumbe Papa aliona haki yake ya kuteua maaskofu imeingiliwa, hivyo akatafuta na kupata tamko la wakubwa wa Kanisa huko [[Italia]], kuwa washauri wa mfalme watengwe na Kanisa. Mfalme alikasirika akaita maaskofu wa Ujerumani waliamua Papa huyo asiwe Papa tena. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/henry4-to-g7a.html |title=Nakala iliyohifadhiwa |accessdate=2021-10-22 |archivedate=2014-11-12 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141112003454/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/henry4-to-g7a.html }}</ref> Wakati Gregori VII aliposikia hayo alimtenga Heinrich IV na Kanisa, alitangaza kuwa hakuwa mfalme tena akafuta viapo ambavyo watu walikuwa wamemwapia mfalme. Kutengwa kwa mfalme kulisababisha [[hisia]] kali huko Ujerumani na Italia. [[Baba]] wa mfalme, [[Heinrich III wa Ujerumani|Henri III]] aliwahi kuwaondoa [[madaraka|madarakani]] Mapapa watatu, lakini wakati Heinrich IV alipojaribu kuiga mfano huo, hakuungwa mkono na watu. Hali ikawa mbaya sana kwa mfalme. Papa alipiga marufuku askofu au [[Upadri|padre]] yeyote kumruhusu katika [[ibada]] au kumhudumia kwa namna yoyote. Ilibainika kuwa ilibidi apate [[msamaha]] kutoka kwa Papa. Mwanzoni alijaribu kufanya hivyo kwa kutuma [[balozi]]. Baada ya Papa kumkataa balozi huyo, mfalme alikwenda Italia mwenyewe. [[File:Hugo-v-cluny_heinrich-iv_mathilde-v-tuszien_cod-vat-lat-4922_1115ad.jpg|thumb|Henri IV akiwaomba [[Hugo wa Cluny]] na [[Matilde wa Canossa]] kumtetea kwa Papa.]] Alimkuta Papa huko Canossa akapiga [[goti|magoti]] mbele ya [[ngome]] Papa alipokuwa amepata ulinzi akaomba msamaha. Kwa kuonyesha [[unyenyekevu]] vile alimfanya Papa kumsamehe na kumrudisha katika [[jumuiya]] ya Kanisa. Wakubwa huko Ujerumani waliwahi kutumia nafasi ya kutengwa kwa mfalme kanisani ili kumtangaza mfalme mpinzani. Papa aliamua kumuunga mkono huyo mfalme wa upinzani akamtenga Heinrich upya mwaka [[1080]]. Lakini baada ya miezi michache yule mfalme mpinzani alifariki [[dunia]], hivyo Henri IV alianza kupigania upya kuwa mfalme. Mnamo [[1081]] alianzisha [[vita]] dhidi ya Papa Gregori VII nchini Italia. Aliitisha mkutano wa maaskofu waliomwunga mkono na mkutano huo ulitangaza kufukuzwa kwa Papa Gregori wakamchagua [[Antipapa]]. [[Jeshi]] la mfalme Heinrich liliingia [[Roma]] mnamo mwaka [[1084]], kumtangaza papa mpya aliyeweka [[taji]] la ukaizari penye [[kichwa]] cha mfalme. Hatimaye mfalme alipaswa kuondoka Roma tena, ila Papa Gregori aliaga dunia uhamishoni [[Salerno]] <ref>https://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/27400</ref>. == Upande wa mfalme == Henri IV alikuwa mfalme wa tatu wa [[nasaba ya Wasali]] waliotawala Ujerumani kutoka mwaka [[1024]] hadi [[1125]]. Wafalme hao wa Ujerumani katika [[karne ya 11]] walitawala pia [[Italia]]. Vilevile waliweza kupokea [[cheo]] cha Kaizari wa Dola Takatifu la Roma. Cheo hicho kilitolewa na Papa, hivyo mfalme Mjerumani alipaswa kufanya [[safari]] ya kwenda Roma. Wafalme hao waliamini kwamba cheo cha Kaizari kiliwafanya kuwa wakuu wa [[Ukristo|Wakristo]] wote na pia kusimamia [[uchaguzi]] wa Papa mpya. [[Imani]] hiyo iliwaingiza mara kwa mara katika fitina za ndani za Italia, maana Roma yenyewe ilikuwa mikononi mwa makundi ya [[Ukabaila|makabaila]] waliotumia ushawishi wao kupelekea wagombea kwa nafasi ya Papa mbele. Matokeo ya fitina zao yalikuwa uchaguzi wa Mapapa tofauti kwa wakati mmoja; mwaka [[1045]] uliona Mapapa watatu: [[Papa Benedikto IX|Benedikto IX]], [[Papa Silvester III|Silvester III]] na [[Papa Gregori VI]]. Ili kumaliza mgawanyiko, mfalme Henri III alivuka [[milima] ya [[Alpi]] kwenda Italia akaitia [[sinodi]] ya kanisa huko [[Sutri]] mnamo 20 Desemba 1046. Sinodi iliwandoa mapapa wote watatu na kumchagua askofu Mjerumani, Suidger wa Bamberg, ambaye alichukua jina la kipapa [[Papa Klementi II|Klementi II]]. Heinrich IV alirithi imani ya baba yake kuwa mfalme aliyebarikiwa kwa [[mafuta]] matakatifu ni [[mlinzi]] wa Kanisa lote, ilhali Mapapa waliona umuhimu kutetea [[madaraka]] yao juu ya Kanisa lote. Ugomvi ulikuwa wa lazima katika suala la kuteua na kusimika maaskofu waliokuwa pia [[Ofisa|maafisa]] wa utawala katika ufalme. Wafalme walitaka kuteua maaskofu waliosimama upande wao, ilhali Mapapa walisisitiza askofu kuwa cheo cha kidini, kwa hiyo walidai haki ya kuwateua na kuwasimika. Wakati Heinrich III alipokufa ghafla mnamo [[1056]], Heinrich IV alikuwa na [[umri]] wa miaka sita tu akatangazwa kuwa mfalme bila shida. Mama yake, [[malkia]] Agnes, alishika utawala kwa niaba yake na [[Papa Viktor II]] aliyekuwa Mjerumani aliteuliwa kama mshauri wake. Alipotimiza umri wa miaka 15, Henri alihesabika kuwa [[Watu wazima|mtu mzima]]. Aliona wakati alipokuwa mfalme mtoto, wakubwa wengine walinyanganya mali ya kifalme, hivyo alijitahidi kutawala tena yale yote yaliyowahi kuwa mali ya baba yake. Hatua alizochukua, zilisababisha upinzani kutoka kwa [[Kabila|makabila]] mbalimbali katika Ujerumani, hasa wa [[Wasaksoni]]. Katika vita vya ndani baina ya miaka 1073 hadi 1075 aliwashinda Wasaksoni. Hatimaye alijikuta katika mapambano na Papa Gregori VII. [[Papa]] huyo alichaguliwa mnamo [[1073]]. Kutokana na ugomvi wake na Kanisa mfalme alidhoofishwa na wapinzani wake katika Ujerumani na Italia walimshambulia mara kwa mara, na makundi ya maaskofu yalikutana na kutangaza tena na tena kuwa mfalme si [[Ukristo|Mkristo]] halali anayetengwa katika Kanisa, Hata hivyo, sehemu kubwa ya maaskofu wa Ujerumani walisimama upande wake wakamtetea. Mwishoni mtoto wake aliasi na kumlazimisha Henri IV kujiuzulu. Mwanawe alipanda kiti cha kifalme kwenye mwaka 1104 kwa [[jina]] la [[Heinrich V wa Ujerumani|Henri V]]. ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} ==Vyanzo== ===Vikuu=== {{Refbegin|35em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book |author=Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor |author-link=Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor |year=1076 |chapter=Henry IV.'s Answer to Gregory VII., Jan. 24, 1076 |editor-last=Henderson |editor-first=Ernest F. |title=Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/selecthistorical00hendiala |translator-last=Henderson |translator-first=Ernest F. |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |publication-date=1903 |pages=372–373 |access-date=13 October 2017 |ref={{sfnref|Henry IV|1076}} }} * {{cite book |author=Pope Gregory VII |author-link=Pope Gregory VII |year=1076 |chapter=First Deposition and Banning of Henry IV. by Gregory VII., February 22, 1076 |editor-last=Henderson |editor-first=Ernest F. |title=Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/selecthistorical00hendiala |translator-last=Henderson |translator-first=Ernest F. |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |publication-date=1903 |pages=376–377 |access-date=13 October 2017 }} *{{cite book |last1=Kohn |first1=George Childs |title=Dictionary of Wars |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofwars0000kohn |date=1999 |publisher=Facts On File, Inc. |location=New York |isbn=0-8160-3928-3 |edition=Revised }} *{{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=I.S. |title=Henry IV of Germany 1056-1106 |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0521545900 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QP8fNo5UNIYC |access-date=18 March 2020 }} * {{cite book |year=2010 |chapter=The Investiture Controversy |editor-last=Slocum |editor-first=Kenneth |title=Sources in Medieval Culture and History |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcesinmedieva0000unse |location=Boston |publisher=Prentice Hall |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sourcesinmedieva0000unse/page/170 170]–175 |isbn=978-0-13-615726-7 }} * Bettenson, Henry, and Chris Maunder, eds. (2011). ''Documents of the Christian Church''. Oxford University Press. {{Refend}} * Slocum, Kenneth, ed. (2010). ''Sources in Medieval Culture and History''. pp.&nbsp;170–175. ===Vingine=== {{Refbegin|35em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book |last=Blumenthal |first=Uta-Renate |year=1988 |title=The Investiture Controversy: Church and Monarchy from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.9783/9780812200164/html |isbn=978-0-8122-8112-5 |doi=10.9783/9780812200164 }} *{{cite journal |last=Browne |first=P.&nbsp;W. |year=1922 |title=The Pactum Callixtinum: an innovation in Papal diplomacy |journal=The Catholic Historical Review |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=180–190 |jstor=25011853 }} * {{cite book |last=Cantor |first=Norman F. |author-link=Norman Cantor |year=1958 |title=Church, Kingship, and Lay Investiture in England, 1089–1135 |url=https://archive.org/details/churchkingshipla0000cant |publisher=Princeton University Press }} * {{cite book |last=Cantor |first=Norman F. |author-link=Norman Cantor |year=1993 |title=The Civilization of the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/civilizationofmi0000cant_y5v2 |publisher=HarperCollins <!--pp. 265–76, 284–88--> }} * {{cite book |last=Cantor |first=Norman F. |year=1969 |title=Medieval History: The Life and Death of a Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalhistoryl00cant |url-access=registration |publisher=Macmilllan |isbn=9780023190704 }} * {{cite book |last=Cowdrey |first=H. E. J. |author-link=Herbert Edward John Cowdrey |year=1998 |title=Pope Gregory VII, 1073–1085 |url=https://archive.org/details/popegregoryvii100000cowd |publisher=Oxford University Press }} *{{cite book |last=Dahmus |first=Joseph |year=1969 |title=The Middle Ages, A Popular History |publisher=Doubleday and Company |location=Garden City, NY }} *{{cite book |last=Davis |first=R. H. C. |year=1966 |title=A History of Medieval Europe: From Constantine to Saint Louis |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_W8-BLU-503 |publisher=Longmans }} *{{cite book |last=Fawtier |first=Robert |year=1964 |title=The Capetian Kings of France: Monarch and Nation 987–1328 |url=https://archive.org/details/capetiankingsoff0000unse/page/n3/mode/2up |url-access=registration |translator=Lionel Butter and R. J. Adam |location=London |publisher=Macmillan }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Floto |year=1891 |title=Gregory VII |editor-last=Schaff |editor-first=Philip |editor-link=Philip Schaff |encyclopedia=Religious Encyclopedia: or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology |url=https://archive.org/details/religiousencyclo02herz |volume=2 |edition=3rd |location=New York |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls Company |pages=910–912 |access-date=13 October 2017 }} * {{cite book |last=Fuhrmann |first=Horst |year=1986 |title=Germany in the High Middle Ages c. 1050–1200 |url=https://archive.org/details/germanyinhighmid0000fuhr |translator-last=Reuter |translator-first=Timothy |translator-link=Timothy Reuter |location=Cambridge, England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |publication-date=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-31980-5 }} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Hearder |editor1-first=H. |editor2-last=Waley |editor2-first=D. P. |year=1963 |title=A Short History of Italy: From Classical Times to the Present Day |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_UH-619-473 }} * {{cite book |last=Jolly |first=Karen Louise |year=1997 |title=Tradition & Diversity: Christianity in a World Context to 1500 |url=https://archive.org/details/traditiondiversi0000joll |publisher=ME Sharpe }} *{{cite journal |last=Joranson |first=Einar |year=1948 |title=The inception of the career of the Normans in Italy – legend and history |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_speculum_1948-07_23_3/page/n5 |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=353–396 |jstor=2848427 |doi=10.2307/2848427|s2cid=162331593 }} *{{cite book |last=Jordan |first=William Chester |year=2003 |title=Europe in the High Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/europeinhighmidd00jord |url-access=registration |series=Penguin History of Europe |publisher=Viking |isbn=9780670032020 }} *{{cite book |last=Le Goff |first=Jacques |year=1964 |title=Medieval Civilization 400–1500 }} * {{cite Catholic Encyclopedia |last=Löffler |first=Klemens |wstitle=Conflict of Investitures |volume=8 |pages=84–89 |noicon=yes }} * {{cite book |last=McCarthy |first=T. J. H. |year=2014 |title=Chronicles of the Investiture Contest: Frutolf of Michelsberg and His Continuators |location=Manchester |publisher=Manchester Medieval Sources |isbn=978-0-7190-8470-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/chroniclesofinve00unse }} * {{cite book |last=Metz |first=René |year=1960 |title=What Is Canon Law? |series=[[Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Catholicism|The Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Catholicism]] |volume=80 |translator-last=Derrick |translator-first=Michael |location=New York |publisher=Hawthorn Books }} * {{cite book |year=1971 |editor-last=Morrison |editor-first=Karl F. |editor-link=Karl F. Morrison |title=The Investiture Controversy: Issues, Ideas, and Results |url=https://archive.org/details/investiturecontr00morr |publisher=Holt McDougal }} *{{cite journal |last=de Mesquita |first=Bruce Bueno |year=2000 |title=Popes, kings, and endogenous institutions: the Concordat of Worms and the origins of sovereignty |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-studies-review_summer-2000_2_2/page/93 |journal=International Studies Review |volume=2 |issue=2: Continuity and Change in the Westphalian Order |pages=93–118 |doi=10.1111/1521-9488.00206 |jstor=3186429 }} *{{cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Susan |year=1994 |title=Fiefs and Vassals, The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted |url=https://archive.org/details/fiefsvassalsmedi0000reyn |publisher=Oxford University Press }} * {{cite book |last=Rubenstein |first=Jay |author-link=Jay Rubenstein |year=2011 |title=Armies of Heaven: The First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse |url=https://archive.org/details/armiesofheavenfi00jayr |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-01929-8 }} *{{cite book |last=Strayer |first=Joseph R. |year=1959 |title=The Middle Ages, 395–1500 |url=https://archive.org/details/middleages3951500000stra |edition=4th |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts }} *{{cite book |last=Stroll |first=Mary |year=2004 |title=Calixtus II (1119–1124): A Pope Born to Rule |publisher=Brill }} * {{cite book |last=Tellenbach |first=Gerd |author-link=Gerd Tellenbach |year=1993 |title=The Western Church from the Tenth to the Early Twelfth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/churchinwesterne0000tell |publisher=Cambridge University Press }} * {{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=James Westfall |author1-link=James Westfall Thompson |last2=Johnson |first2=Edgar Nathaniel |year=1937 |title=An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300–1500|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.157348 <!-- pp. 380–90 --> }} *{{cite book |last=Thorndike |first=Lynn |year=1956 |title=The History of Medieval Europe |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmedieva00thor_2 |edition=3rd |publisher=Houghton Mifflin }} *{{cite journal |last=Zanichelli |first=Giusi |year=2006 |title=Una donna al potere |journal=Alumina |url=https://www.scrinium.org/it-it/Rassegna-Stampa |volume=15 |pages=47–51 |archive-date=2025-08-21 |access-date=2025-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250821112517/https://www.scrinium.org/it-it/Rassegna-Stampa |url-status=dead }} {{Refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== ===Muhimu zaidi=== {{Refbegin|35em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book |year=2007 |chapter=Selected Sources: Empire and Papacy |chapter-url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1l.asp |editor-last=Halsall |editor-first=Paul |title=Internet Medieval Sourcebook |location=New York |publisher=Fordham University |access-date=13 October 2017 }} * {{cite book |year=1122 |chapter=Concordat of Worms, Sept. 23, 1122 |editor-last=Henderson |editor-first=Ernest F. |title=Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/selecthistorical00hendiala |translator-last=Henderson |translator-first=Ernest F. |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |publication-date=1903 |pages=408–409 |access-date=13 October 2017 }} * {{cite book |author=Pope Gregory VII |author-link=Pope Gregory VII |year=1078 |chapter=Decree of Nov. 19th, 1078, Forbidding Lay Investiture |editor-last=Henderson |editor-first=Ernest F. |title=Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/selecthistorical00hendiala |translator-last=Henderson |translator-first=Ernest F. |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |publication-date=1903 |page=365 |access-date=13 October 2017 }} * {{cite book |author=Pope Gregory VII |author-link=Pope Gregory VII |author-mask={{long dash}} |year=1080 |chapter=Second Banning and Dethronement of Henry IV., through Gregory VII., March 7th, 1080 |editor-last=Henderson |editor-first=Ernest F. |title=Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/selecthistorical00hendiala |translator-last=Henderson |translator-first=Ernest F. |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |publication-date=1903 |pages=388–391 |access-date=13 October 2017 }} * {{cite book |author=Pope Gregory VII |author-link=Pope Gregory VII |author-mask={{long dash}} |year=1903 |chapter=The Dictate of the Pope |editor-last=Henderson |editor-first=Ernest F. |title=Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/selecthistorical00hendiala |translator-last=Henderson |translator-first=Ernest F. |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |publication-date=1903 |pages=366–367 |access-date=13 October 2017 }} {{Refend}} ===Mengine=== {{Refbegin|35em|indent=yes}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Blumenthal |first=Uta-Renate |year=2016 |title=Investiture Controversy |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Investiture-Controversy |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=13 October 2017 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=Investiture |url=http://www.bartleby.com/65/in/investit.html |encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia|The Columbia Encyclopedia]] |edition=6th |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221005510/http://www.bartleby.com/65/in/investit.html |archive-date=21 February 2009 |access-date=13 October 2017 }} * {{cite web |last=Nelson |first=Lynn H. |title=The Owl, the Cat, and the Investiture Controversy |url=http://the-orb.net/textbooks/nelson/investiture.html |work=Lectures for a Medieval Survey |publisher=On-line Reference Book for Medieval Studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215144418/http://the-orb.net/textbooks/nelson/investiture.html |archive-date=15 February 2015 |access-date=13 October 2017 }} * {{cite book |last=Schroeder |first=H. J. |year=1937 |chapter=The Ninth General Council (1123) |title=Disciplinary Decrees of the General Councils: Text, Translation, and Commentary |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/DisciplinaryCouncils |location=St. Louis, Missouri |publisher=B. Herder Book Co. |pages=177–194 |access-date=13 October 2017 }} * {{cite Catholic Encyclopedia |last=Van Hove |first=Alphonse |wstitle=Canonical Investiture |volume=8 |page=84 |noicon=yes }} {{Refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0184v2j "The Concordat of Worms"], ''[[In Our Time (radio series)|In Our Time]]'', [[BBC Radio 4]] {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Ulaya]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Ujerumani]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Kanisa]] dvbxfs4tndivhosvw84wke7d88hn2xc 0 216494 1580309 1465032 2026-07-18T08:36:52Z Germainngandu14 73636 Created by translating the page "[[:fr:Special:Redirect/revision/235475021|Mateus Kanga Londimo]]" 1580309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Mwanasiasa}} '''Mateus Kanga''' ni [[Siasa|mwanasiasa]] [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo|wa Kongo]], ambaye kwa sasa ni mwongozi wa bunge la mkoa wa [[Mkoa wa Tshopo|Tshopo]] katika [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]]. Alichukua madaraka mnamo [[Tarehe|Machi 23, 2024]], akimrithi Gilbert Bokungu. Kabla ya kuchaguliwa kwake kama Mwongozi wa Bunge, Mateus Kanga alikuwa mbunge wa muji na alihusika katika mipango mbalimbali iliyolenga maendeleo ya Mkoa wa [[Mkoa wa Tshopo|Tshopo]] . Kujitolea kwake kwa jamii ya wenyeji na uzoefu wake katika utawala wa umma kulichangia kuinuka kwake kisiasa na kuingia kwake katika uongozi wa serikali kuu ya mkoa <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Assemblée provinciale Tshopo|url=https://actualite.cd/2024/03/26/tshopo-lassemblee-provinciale-tient-son-bureau-definitif-mathieu-kanga-elu-president?|accessdate=28 décembre 2024}}</ref> . msmjutm23fcpcwpetz1asi90rgecwo7 1580330 1580309 2026-07-18T08:56:34Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580330 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mateus Kanga Londimo''' ni [[Siasa|mwanasiasa]] wa [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]], ambaye kwa sasa anahudumu kama Rais wa Bunge la [[Mkoa wa Tshopo]]. Alichukua wadhifa huo Machi 23, 2024, akimrithi Gilbert Bokungu. <ref>[https://www.radiookapi.net/2024/03/25/actualite/politique/tshopo-mateus-kanga-elu-president-du-bureau-definitif-de-lassemblee]</ref> Kabla ya kuchaguliwa kwake kama Mwongozi wa Bunge, Mateus Kanga alikuwa mbunge wa muji na alihusika katika mipango mbalimbali iliyolenga maendeleo ya Mkoa wa Tshopo. Kujitolea kwake kwa jamii ya wenyeji na uzoefu wake katika utawala wa umma kulichangia kuinuka kwake kisiasa na kuingia kwake katika uongozi wa serikali kuu ya mkoa <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Assemblée provinciale Tshopo|url=https://actualite.cd/2024/03/26/tshopo-lassemblee-provinciale-tient-son-bureau-definitif-mathieu-kanga-elu-president?|accessdate=28 décembre 2024}}</ref> . ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] pfrc7qvomdpqbmkykbcctz9kcwi602g 0 217669 1580045 1471079 2026-07-17T23:25:54Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580045 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Isola-goree-zoulikha-bouabdellah (cropped).JPG|thumb|Zoulikha Bouabdellah mnamo mwaka 2000, picha iliyopigwa na Iolanda Pensa.]] '''Zoulikha Bouabdellah''' (amezaliwa [[Moscow]], [[Urusi]], [[20 Juni]] [[1977]]) ni [[msanii]] wa kisasa mwenye asili ya [[Algeria]]. Anaishi na kufanya kazi huko [[Casablanca]] na [[Paris]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Sabrina Amrani Gallery|url=http://www.sabrinaamrani.com/the-gallery/artists/zoulikha|website=Zoulikha Bouabdellah Bio|access-date=February 22, 2018}}</ref> ==Wasifu== Akiwa ni binti wa Hassen Bouabdellah, mkurugenzi wa filamu na mwandishi na Malika Dorbani, aliyekuwa mkuu wa Jumba la Makumbusho la Kitaifa la Sanaa Nzuri la [[Algiers]], alizaliwa Urusi na kukulia Algiers. Bouabdellah alihamia [[Ufaransa]] mwaka 1993 wakati wa Vita vya Wenyewe kwa Wenyewe vya Algeria. Alisomea katika Shule Kuu ya Kitaifa ya Sanaa ya Cergy-Pontoise na kuhitimu mwaka 2002.<ref name=sabrina>{{cite web |url=http://www.sabrinaamrani.com/the-gallery/artists/zoulikha |title=Zoulikha Bouabdellah |publisher=Sabrina Amrani Gallery}}</ref> Kazi yake inachunguza mchanganyiko wa tamaduni na mchakato wa kimataifa, dini, lugha na unganisho wa karibu pamoja na hali ya wanawake. Inajumuisha usanifu wa sanamu, upigaji picha, video na michoro<ref name=sabrina/> na mara nyingi analinganisha vitu vya jadi vya dini, mfano, mazulia ya sala na alama za kisasa.<ref name="The Progress of Love">{{cite book|last1=Van Dyke|first1=Kristina|title=The Progress of Love|url=https://archive.org/details/progressoflove0000unse|date=2012|publisher=Menil Collection and Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts|location=Houston and St. Louis|isbn=978-0-300-18493-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/progressoflove0000unse/page/177 177]}}</ref> Sanaa yake imeonyeshwa katika Biennale ya Venice, kwenye Biennale ya [[Bamako]], kwenye Aichi Triennale, katika Makumbusho ya Sanaa ya Mead, katika Kituo cha Georges Pompidou, katika Makumbusho ya [[Brooklyn]], katika Tate Modern, katika Makumbusho ya Sanaa ya Mori na katika MoCADA. Kazi yake imejumuishwa katika makusanyo ikiwemo Kituo cha Georges Pompidou, Makumbusho ya Kisasa ya Sanaa ya Kiarabu na Makumbusho ya MUSAC ya Sanaa za Kisasa.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sabrina Amrani Gallery|url=http://www.sabrinaamrani.com/the-gallery/artists/zoulikha|website=Zoulikha Bouabdellah Bio|access-date=February 22, 2018}}</ref> ==Marejeo== <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1977|}} [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Algeria]] j60u4k1k8y5vp3a8lipt1ns4u2vp8c2 0 217670 1580100 1528122 2026-07-18T00:06:19Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580100 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tafsiri kompyuta}} [[File:Agile testing with business stories Ayal shimoni.png|thumb|Agile testing with business stories Ayal shimoni]] '''Uundaji wa Programu za Kompyuta kwa Njia ya Agile''' (Agile Software Development) ni mbinu za utengenezaji wa programu zinazowakilisha maadili na kanuni ambazo zilikubalika na Agile Allience, kundi la watendaji 17 wa program, mwaka 2001.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is Agile? |url=https://www.agilealliance.org/agile101/ |website=Agile Alliance |date=29 June 2015 |access-date=16 July 2024}}</ref> Kama ilivyoandikwaa katika <i>Manifesto for Agile Software Development</i>, wataalamu hao wanathamini: *Watu binafsi na mwingiliano kuhusu michakato na zana * Programu ya kufanya kazi kupitia nyaraka kamili * Ushirikiano wa wateja kuhusu mazungumzo ya mkataba * Kujibu mabadiliko kuhusu kufuata mpango Wataalamu hao wanataja msukumo kotoka kwa mbinu mpya za wakati huo ikiwa ni pamoja na '''programu kali''','''Scrum(uundaji wa prograrmu''','''njia ya uundaji wa mifumo inayobadilika''', na kuunga mkono hitaji la njia mbadala ya michakato mikubwa ya uundaji wa programu inayoendeshwa na nyarka. <ref name="LarmanGuide"> LarmanGuide </ref> Mbinu nyingi za uundaji wa programu ziliibuka kutokana na mtazamo wa Agile. Mbinu hizi zinazotegemea Agile, zinazojulikana pia kama '''"Agile"''' (kwa herufi kubwa A),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rallydev.com/blog/engineering/agile-capital-vs-agile-lowercase |title=Agile With a Capital "A" Vs. agile With a Lowercase "a" |last=Rally |date=2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105105258/https://www.rallydev.com/blog/engineering/agile-capital-vs-agile-lowercase |archive-date=5 January 2016 |url-status=unfit |access-date=9 September 2015 }}</ref> zinahusisha mahitaji, ugunduzi wa suluhisho, na uboreshaji wa suluhisho kupitia jitihada za ushirikiano wa timu zinazojipanga zenyewe (<i>self-organizing</i>) na timu zenye ujuzi mchanganyiko (<i>cross-functional</i>), pamoja na wateja au watumiaji wa mwisho.<ref name="WhatIsAgile">{{cite web|url=http://www.agilealliance.org/the-alliance/what-is-agile/|title=What is Agile Software Development?|date=8 June 2013|access-date=4 April 2015|publisher=Agile Alliance}}</ref>{{sfn|Collier|2011}} Ingawa kuna ''ushahidi wa hadithi (anecdotal evidence)'' unaoonyesha kuwa mtazamo wa Agile na mbinu zinazotegemea Agile huboresha mchakato wa uundaji wa programu, ushahidi wa kimaandishi (*empirical evidence*) ni mdogo na haujaweza kutoa hitimisho thabiti.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dybå|first1=Tore|last2=Dingsøyr|first2=Torgeir|title=Empirical studies of agile software development: A systematic review|journal=Information and Software Technology|date=1 August 2008|volume=50|issue=9–10|pages=83359}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Gwanhoo|last2=Xia|first2=Weidong|s2cid=26477249|date=2010|title=Toward Agile: An Integrated Analysis of Quantitative and Qualitative Field Data on Software Development Agility|journal=MIS Quarterly|volume=34|issue=1|pages=87–114}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kroll |first1=J. |last2=Richardson |first2=I. |last3=Prikladnicki |first3=R. |last4=Audy |first4=J. L. |date=2018 |title=Empirical evidence in follow the Sun software development: A systematic mapping study|journal=Information and Software Technology |volume=93 |pages=30–44}}</ref> ==Historia== Mbinu za '''uundaji wa programu kwa njia ya kurudiwa na kuongeza hatua kwa hatua|uundaji wa programu kwa hatua za kurudiwa na kuongeza (iterative and incremental software development)''' zinaweza kufuatiliwa hadi mwaka 1957,<ref name="craig2003">[[Gerald M. Weinberg]], kama alivyonukuliwa katika {{harvnb|Larman|Basili|2003|pp=47–56}}: "Tulikuwa tunafanya maendeleo ya kuongezea taratibu (incremental development) mapema kama mwaka 1957 huko Los Angeles, chini ya usimamizi wa Bernie Dimsdale katika [[Service Bureau Corporation|Service Bureau Corporation ya IBM]]. Alikuwa mwenzake [[John von Neumann]], hivyo labda alijifunza huko, au alidhani ni jambo la kawaida. Nakumbuka Herb Jacobs (hasa, ingawa sote tulishiriki) akitengeneza usimulizi mkubwa kwa ajili ya Motorola, ambapo mbinu iliyotumiwa ilikuwa, ninavyoweza kuona... Sisi sote, ninavyokumbuka, tuliona kwamba kufanya mradi mkubwa kwa mtindo wa waterfall lilikuwa jambo la kijinga, au angalau kutofahamu uhalisia. Nadhani maelezo ya waterfall yalitufanya kutambua kuwa tulikuwa tunafanya kitu kingine, kitu ambacho hakikuwa na jina isipokuwa 'uundaji wa programu.{{'"}}</ref> ambapo usimamizi wa mradi wa kimaendeleo (''evolutionary project management'')<ref name="EvolutionaryProjectManagement">{{cite web |url=https://www.gilb.com/Project-Management |access-date=2017-04-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327214807/http://www.gilb.com/Project-Management |title=Evolutionary Project Management (Original page, external archive) |archive-date=27 March 2016 |publisher=Gilb }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://concepts.gilb.com/tiki-page.php?pageName=Evolutionary-Project-Management |title=Evolutionary Project Management (New page) |work=graphMetrix |access-date=2017-04-30 |publisher=Gilb}}</ref> na '''uundaji wa programu unaobadilika''' <ref name="edmonds1974">{{Rejea jarida |last=Edmonds |first=E. A. |year=1974 |title=A Process for the Development of Software for Nontechnical Users as an Adaptive System |journal=General Systems |volume=19 |pages=215–18}}</ref> vilianza kujitokeza mapema katika miaka ya 1970.<ref>{{Rejea jarida|last=Gilb|first=Tom|s2cid=33902347|date=1981-04-01|title=Evolutionary development|journal=ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=17|doi=10.1145/1010865.1010868}}</ref> Katika miaka ya 1990, mbinu kadhaa za uundaji wa programu zilizokuwa ''nyepesi'' (lightweight) ziliibuka kama mwitikio dhidi ya mbinu zilizotawala wakati huo ambazo zilikuwa ''nzito'' (heavyweight) — mara nyingi zikijulikana kwa pamoja kama [[Waterfall model|'''waterfall''']] — ambazo wakosoaji walizielezea kama mbinu zenye udhibiti mwingi, zenye upangaji kupita kiasi, na zinazohusisha '''usimamizi wa karibu mno'''.<ref>{{Citation |title=Heavyweight project organizationHEAVYWEIGHT PROJECT ORGANIZATION |date=2000 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-0612-8_400 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Production and Manufacturing Management |pages=261–262 |editor-last=Swamidass |editor-first=P. M. |place=Boston, MA |publisher=Springer US |language=en |doi=10.1007/1-4020-0612-8_400 |isbn=978-1-4020-0612-8 |access-date=2022-06-22|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mbinu hizi nyepesi zilijumuisha '''rapid application development''' (RAD), kutoka 1991;<ref>{{cite book | title=Rapid Application Development | publisher=Macmillan | author=Martin, James | year=1991 | isbn=978-0-02-376775-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/rapidapplication00mart }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Inside RAD: How to Build a Fully Functional System in 90 Days or Less | url=https://archive.org/details/insideradhowtobu0000kerr | publisher=McGraw-Hill |author1=Kerr, James M. |author2=Hunter, Richard | year=1993 | page=[https://archive.org/details/insideradhowtobu0000kerr/page/3 3] | isbn=978-0-07-034223-1}}</ref> [[Unified Process|unified process]] (UP) na [[dynamic systems development method]] (DSDM), zote kutoka mwaka 1994; [[Scrum (software development)|Scrum]], kutoka 1995; Crystal Clear na [[extreme programming]] (XP), zote kutoka 1996; na [[feature-driven development]] (FDD), kutoka 1997. Ingjap mbinu hizi zilitokea kabla ya kuchapishwa kwa ''Agile Manifesto'', sasa zinajulikana kwa pamoja kama mbinu za uundaji wa programu za Agile. Tangu mwaka 1991, mabadiliko yanayofanana tayari yalikuwa yakiendelea katika '' utengenezaji wa viwandani''<ref>Iacocca Institute (1991). "21st Century Manufacturing Enterprise Strategy: An Industry Led View". Iacocca Institute, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA.</ref><ref>Presley, A., J. Mills and D. Liles (1995). "Agile Aerospace Manufacturing". Nepcon East 1995, Boston.</ref> na katika ''fikra za usimamizi''<ref>{{Rejea jarida |last=Sanchez |first=Luis |date=November 2010 |title=A Review of Agile Manufacturing Systems |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261652716 |journal=International Journal of Production Research |issue=39(16):3561-3600}}</ref> zilizotokana na '''usimamizi konda'''. Mnamo mwaka 2001, watengenezaji programu kumi na saba walikutana katika hoteli ya mapumziko huko '''Snowbird, Utah''' kujadili mbinu nyepesi za uundaji wa programu. Walikuwa '''Kent Beck''' (Extreme Programming), '''Ward Cunningham''' (Extreme Programming), '''Dave Thomas (programmer)|Dave Thomas''' ('''The Pragmatic Programmer|Pragmatic Programming''', Ruby), '''Jeff Sutherland''' (Scrum), '''Ken Schwaber''' (Scrum), '''Jim Highsmith''' (Adaptive Software Development), '''Alistair Cockburn''' (Crystal), '''Robert C. Martin''' ('''SOLID'''), '''Mike Beedle''' (Scrum), Arie van Bennekum, '''Martin Fowler (software engineer)|Martin Fowler''' ('''OOAD''' na '''UML'''), James Grenning, '''Andy Hunt (author)|Andrew Hunt''' (Pragmatic Programming, Ruby), '''Ron Jeffries''' (Extreme Programming), '''Jon Kern''', Brian Marick (Ruby, '''Test-driven development'''), na '''Stephen J. Mellor|Steve Mellor''' ('''Shlaer–Mellor method|OOA'''). Kundi hilo, The Agile Alliance, lilichapisha ''Manifesto for Agile Software Development''. Mnamo mwaka 2005, kundi lililoongozwa na Cockburn na Highsmith liliandika nyongeza ya kanuni za [[project management|usimamizi wa miradi]], iitwayo PM Declaration of Interdependence,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pmdoi.org|title=Declaration of Interdependence|last=Anderson|first=David|year=2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127094805/http://www.pmdoi.org/|archive-date=27 January 2018|url-status=dead|access-date=4 October 2018}}</ref> ili kuongoza usimamizi wa miradi ya programu kulingana na mbinu za usanidi programu za agile. Mnamo mwaka 2009, kundi lililofanya kazi na Martin liliandika upanuzi wa kanuni za [[software development|utayarishaji programu]], uitwao [[Software craftsmanship|Software Craftsmanship Manifesto]], ili kuelekeza usanidi programu katika mwelekeo wa maadili ya [[professional|kitaaluma]] na umahiri. Mnamo mwaka 2011, Agile Alliance iliunda ''Guide to Agile Practices'' (iliyobadilishwa jina kuwa ''Agile Glossary'' mwaka 2016),<ref>{{Rejea habari|url=https://www.agilealliance.org/how-you-can-help-the-agile-alliance-help-you/|title=How You Can Help Agile Alliance Help You|last=McDonald|first=Kent|date=1 November 2016|work=Agile Alliance Blog|access-date=4 July 2017}}</ref> ambacho ni mkusanyiko wa [[Open source|chanzo huria]] unaoendelea wa ufafanuzi wa vitendo, istilahi, na vipengele vya agile, pamoja na maelezo na miongozo ya uzoefu kutoka kwa jamii ya watendaji wa agile duniani kote. [[Category:Kompyuta]] [[Category:programu za kompyuta]] [[Category:Uhandisi wa programu]] j00jatf0uulhw8ne66wz851z7pwfjrt 0 218170 1580291 1501901 2026-07-18T07:28:53Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580291 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Agbowó''' ni [[jarida]] la [[fasihi]] la [[Afrika]] linalochapisha [[Shairi|mashairi]], [[riwaya]], [[insha]], [[tamthilia]] na [[sanaa ya macho]]. Jarida hilo limechapisha kazi kadhaa za fasihi na sanaa ya macho tangu lilipoanzishwa mwaka [[2017]], pamoja na jarida la kila mwaka lenye mandhari maalum. == Historia == Likianzishwa na ''Habeeb Kolade'' na ''Dolapo Amusat'' mwaka 2017, jarida hilo liliaanza kama upanuzi wa ''UItes WRITE Anthology'' (2015–2019),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-12-26 |title=Something Resembling Progress |url=https://habeebx.com/something-resembling-progress/ |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=Habeeb X |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-08-20 |title=UI LITERARY GROUP ‘UITES WRITE’ LAUNCHES FOURTH ANTHOLOGY |url=https://afaspress.com.ng/2019/08/20/ui-literary-group-uites-write-launches-fourth-anthology/ |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=AFAS PRESS |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-12-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203025224/https://afaspress.com.ng/2019/08/20/ui-literary-group-uites-write-launches-fourth-anthology/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> mkusanyiko wa fasihi iliyolenga kuchapisha insha, mashairi na hadithi fupi za wanafunzi na wahitimu wa Chuo Kikuu cha Ibadan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-16|title=INTERVIEW: How literary platforms contribute to growth of African writing — Agbowó founder|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/entertainment/artsbooks/409189-interview-how-literary-platforms-contribute-to-growth-of-african-writing-agbowo-founder.html|access-date=2021-07-07|website=[[Premium Times]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> Jarida hili linachukua jina la barabara iliyo mkabala na Chuo Kikuu cha Ibadan,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-09-02 |title=Agbowo: Ibadan community that is given life by students |url=https://tribuneonlineng.com/agbowo-ibadan-community-that-is-given-life-by-students/ |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=Tribune Online |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-06-02|title=About Agbowó|url=https://agbowo.org/about/|access-date=2021-07-07|website=Agbowó|language=en-US}}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ==Marejeo== <references /> {{Mbegu}} [[Jamii:magazeti]] [[Jamii:Sanaa ya Afrika]] 6v530yrnjhzqhu8jp3kgvh1fpd6j1o3 0 218433 1580030 1474354 2026-07-17T23:16:09Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580030 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Webensenu''' alikuwa mwana wa kifalme wa [[Misri ya Kale]] katika Nasaba ya Kumi na Nane. Alikuwa mwana wa Farao Amenhotep II na kaka wa Farao Thutmose IV. Anatazamiwa pamoja na kaka yake Nedjem kwenye statu ya Minmose, mkuu wa kazi katika Karnak. Alikufa akiwa mtoto na pengine alizikwa katika kaburi la baba yake, KV35, labda kama mumia iliyowekwa karibu na Tiye na ''the Younger Lady''. Vyombo vyake vya Canopic na ''shabti'' pia viligunduliwa kwenye kaburi hilo. Mumia yake inayowezekana bado ipo, na inaonyesha kwamba pengine alifariki akiwa na umri wa takriban miaka kumi.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw|author=Betsy Bryan|publisher=Oxford, New York|year=2000|isbn=978-0192804587|editor=Ian Shaw|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofa00shaw/page/248 248]|chapter=The 18th Dynasty before the Amarna Period}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=[[Urkunden der 18. Dynastie]], Heft 18|author=[[Wolfgang Helck]]|year=1956|location=Berlin|page=[https://archive.org/stream/urkundendesaegyp1819steiuoft#page/n5/mode/2up 1447]}}</ref><ref>{{dodson}}, pp.135, 141</ref><ref>{{dodson}}, p.141</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:watu wa Misri ya Kale]] rnctxdxcwwdz9bem2uwabr7m6zjk3y7 0 220058 1580286 1480091 2026-07-18T06:53:14Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580286 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Adaku Utah''' ni mtu wa [[Nigeria]] na [[Marekani]] wa kizazi cha sita mganga wa jadi wa Igbo, mzungumzaji, [[mwandishi]], na [[msanii]]. Kazi yake ilizingatia jinsia, haki ya uzazi, usawa wa rangi, uwezeshaji wa vijana, na harakati za haki za uponyaji kwa ajili ya mabadiliko ya kijamii.<ref name="YWCA">{{cite web |title=Adaku Utah – Keynote Bio |url=https://www.ywcamadison-racialjusticesummit.org/keynote-bios/adaku-utah |website=YWCA Madison Racial Justice Summit |access-date=22 October 2025 |archive-date=2026-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260401200525/https://www.ywcamadison-racialjusticesummit.org/keynote-bios/adaku-utah |url-status=dead }}</ref>Yeye ndiye mwanzilishi mwenza wa Harriet's Apothecary, kikundi cha uponyaji mbadala kinachoongozwa na wanawake Weusi na waganga wa ajabu.<ref name="elle">{{Cite web|last=Barber|first=Lauren|date=26 July 2017|title=Harriet's Squad: Black Women Using Ancient Healing Methods as Resistance|url=https://www.elle.com/culture/career-politics/a46954/harriets-apothecary-ancient-healing-resistance/|access-date=6 September 2020|website=ELLE|language=en-US}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa mwaka usiojulikana]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Nigeria]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Nigeria]] i1thp48dn54vpru189zlqk3yd44a1mb 0 220784 1579956 1527431 2026-07-17T13:46:22Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579956 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tsehaytu Beraki''' ([[1 Septemba]] [[1939]] – [[24 Mei]] [[2018]]) alikuwa [[mwanamuziki]], [[mshairi]] na [[mwanaharakati]] wa kisiasa kutoka nchini [[Eritrea]], aliyefahamika kwa uimbaji wake na upigaji wa krar (kinubi chenye nyuzi tano). == Maisha ya awali == Tsehaytu Beraki alizaliwa mwaka 1939 katika mji mdogo wa Quatit.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Artists & Industry|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/directory/tsehaytu-berakipe|work=Music In Africa|accessdate=2026-01-22|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Awali alidhani kuwa alizaliwa katika mji mkuu wa Eritrea, [[Asmara]], lakini kwa kweli alihamia huko alipokuwa bado mtoto mchanga. Chanzo bora kinahitajika] Ilikuwa ni mwaka 1999, aliporudi Asmara, ndipo hadithi kamili ilisimuliwa kwake na dada yake Rishan.<ref>http://www.qienit.com/love-for-one-country-is-incomparable-eritreas-tsehaytu-beraki/</ref> == Kazi == Beraki alianza kupiga krar, kinubi chenye nyuzi tano, akiwa na umri wa takribani miaka minane, na baadaye akawa akipiga katika harusi na sherehe.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=“Love for one country is Incomparable” Eritrea’s Tsehaytu Beraki – QieNit.com|url=http://www.qienit.com/love-for-one-country-is-incomparable-eritreas-tsehaytu-beraki/|accessdate=2026-01-22|language=en-US}}</ref> Vyanzo vyake vya msukumo vilikuwa [[Tsehaytu Ghergish]], [[Fana Etel]], na hasa [[Tsehaytu Zennar]], ambaye nyimbo zake zilijumuisha ''Annes Ay keremneye Wala Hankas Yekunye'' (Namhitaji mwanaume haraka iwezekanavyo, hata kama ni kilema).<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=“Love for one country is Incomparable” Eritrea’s Tsehaytu Beraki – QieNit.com|url=http://www.qienit.com/love-for-one-country-is-incomparable-eritreas-tsehaytu-beraki/|accessdate=2026-01-22|language=en-US}}</ref> Beraki aliacha shule akiwa na umri wa miaka kumi na sita, na akaifanya kupiga krar kuwa kazi yake ya kudumu.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=“Love for one country is Incomparable” Eritrea’s Tsehaytu Beraki – QieNit.com|url=http://www.qienit.com/love-for-one-country-is-incomparable-eritreas-tsehaytu-beraki/|accessdate=2026-01-22|language=en-US}}</ref> Aliandika muziki na maneno ya nyimbo zake zote mwenyewe, na watu walikuwa wakisafiri kutoka mbali kama [[Addis Ababa, Ethiopia]], ili kumrekodi.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=“Love for one country is Incomparable” Eritrea’s Tsehaytu Beraki – QieNit.com|url=http://www.qienit.com/love-for-one-country-is-incomparable-eritreas-tsehaytu-beraki/|accessdate=2026-01-22|language=en-US}}</ref> Kuanzia mwaka 1964, mashairi yake yalianza kuwa ya kisiasa zaidi, na alisema kuwa “watu walishangaa kwamba nilithubutu kuyaimba”.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=“Love for one country is Incomparable” Eritrea’s Tsehaytu Beraki – QieNit.com|url=http://www.qienit.com/love-for-one-country-is-incomparable-eritreas-tsehaytu-beraki/|accessdate=2026-01-22|language=en-US}}</ref> Kuanzia Machi 1977, alijihusisha kikamilifu katika mapambano ya uhuru wa Eritrea. Hatimaye alilazimika kuondoka nchini, akahamia [[Sudan]], na mwaka 1988 akahamia Rotterdam, Uholanzi.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Artists & Industry|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/directory/tsehaytu-beraki|work=Music In Africa|accessdate=2026-01-22|language=en}}</ref> Alirejea Asmara mwaka 1999.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=“Love for one country is Incomparable” Eritrea’s Tsehaytu Beraki – QieNit.com|url=http://www.qienit.com/love-for-one-country-is-incomparable-eritreas-tsehaytu-beraki/|accessdate=2026-01-22|language=en-US}}</ref> Mbali na krar, Beraki pia alipiga kebero na [[bass-krar]].<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Artists & Industry|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/directory/tsehaytu-beraki|work=Music In Africa|accessdate=2026-01-22|language=en}}</ref> Aliunda albamu Selam kupitia Terp Records mwaka 2004. == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1939]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2018]] [[Jamii:Wanamuziki wa Eritrea]] [[Jamii:Wanaharakati wa Eritrea]] 0trmc349beoq574kp0lnua0tj1zsaxd 0 221276 1580337 1489274 2026-07-18T09:30:08Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580337 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Amber Lulu''' ni [[mwanamuziki]] na [[mwandishi]] wa [[nyimbo]] wa [[Tanzania]], anayejulikana kwa mchango wake katika tasnia ya [[Bongo Flava]] na muziki wa Afro Pop. Amejizolea umaarufu kupitia nyimbo zinazopendwa sana na mashabiki wa muziki wa Tanzania na [[Afrika Mashariki]]. == Maisha ya awali na elimu == Amber Lulu alizaliwa na kukulia Tanzania, ambapo alipatika na kuanza kupenda muziki akiwa mdogo. Amejipatia elimu ya msingi na sekondari nchini Tanzania, na kuendeleza taaluma yake ya muziki kupitia mashirika mbalimbali ya sanaa na ushauri wa wasanii waliokuwa wakongwe.<ref>https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/amber-lulu-profile{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Amber Lulu Profile – Music in Africa</ref> == Kazi ya muziki == Amber Lulu amejikita katika kutengeneza nyimbo za Bongo Flava na Afro Pop. Ameandika na kuimba nyimbo kadhaa zenye umaarufu mkubwa, ambazo zimepokelewa vizuri na mashabiki na vyombo vya habari vya muziki. Kazi yake imechangia kukuza tasnia ya muziki wa wanawake nchini Tanzania, akichangia katika kuzalisha sauti mpya na mtindo wa kisasa wa muziki.<ref>https://www.kulturevulturez.com/tanzanian-female-artists/ Tanzanian Female Artists – Kulture Vulturez</ref> Amewahi kushirikiana na wasanii wengine wa Tanzania, na kushiriki katika matukio makubwa ya muziki ya ndani na kimataifa, ikiwemo maonyesho na tamasha. == Mchango na umaarufu == Amber Lulu ameonekana kama mfano wa mwanamuziki chipukizi wa Kitanzania, akichangia kwa: * Kuongeza umaarufu wa Bongo Flava miongoni mwa wanawake * Kushirikisha wanamuziki wachanga katika miradi ya muziki * Kuhimiza ubunifu wa muziki wa kisasa nchini Tanzania == Nyimbo maarufu == Baadhi ya nyimbo zinazomfanya kuwa maarufu ni<ref>nyimbo hizi ni mfano, zitumike kama reference pale unapoongeza vyanzo</ref>: * "Moyo Wangu" * "Iokote" * "Nipe Nusu" == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanamuziki}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Tanzania]] [[Jamii:Wanamuziki wa Tanzania]] [[Jamii:WikiGap JWK 2026]] [[Jamii:Bongo Flava]] 1ntadnd1k1yl46qhh17cg7un3scek2f 0 221345 1580157 1497440 2026-07-18T00:41:16Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580157 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sanya Richards-Ross''' (alizaliwa [[Februari 26]], [[1985]]) ni [[mwanariadha]] wa [[Marekani]] aliyestaafu, ambaye alishiriki mashindano ya kimataifa akiwakilisha Marekani katika mbio za mita 400. Mafanikio yake makuu katika mbio hizi ni pamoja na kuwa bingwa wa Olimpiki mwaka 2012, bingwa wa dunia mwaka 2009, mshindi wa medali ya shaba ya Olimpiki mwaka 2008, na mshindi wa medali ya fedha ya dunia mwaka 2005.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sanya Richards-Ross|url=https://worldathletics.org/athletes/united-states/sanya-richards-ross-14319838|website=worldathletics.org|publisher=World athletics federation}}</ref> Kwa ushindi wake wa mwaka 2012, alikua mwanamke wa pili wa Marekani kushinda mbio za mita 400 katika Michezo ya Olimpiki na mwanamke wa kwanza wa Marekani kupata mataji mengi ya kimataifa katika mbio hizi. Katika umbali huu, Richards-Ross pia alikua bingwa wa kitaifa wa Marekani mara sita (2003, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, na 2012).<ref>{{cite web|title=Long ride 'worth the wait' as Richards-Ross claims elusive gold|url=https://worldathletics.org/competitions/olympic-games/news/long-ride-worth-the-wait-as-richards-ross-cla|website=World Athletics|access-date=10 September 2021|archive-date=10 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910210655/https://worldathletics.org/competitions/olympic-games/news/long-ride-worth-the-wait-as-richards-ross-cla|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Felix takes on Richards-Ross over 400m in Eugene – IAAF Diamond League|url=https://worldathletics.org/competitions/diamond-league/news/diamond-league-eugene-2016-400m-felix-richard|website=World Athletics|access-date=10 September 2021}}</ref> == Maisha ya Awali == Richards-Ross alizaliwa Februari 26, 1985, huko Kingston, Jamaika kwa Archie na Sharon Richards. Alianza kukimbia akiwa na umri wa miaka saba na aliwakilisha shule yake ya Vaz Prep katika mashindano ya kila mwaka ya vijana. Alipokuwa na umri wa miaka kumi na miwili, familia yake ilihamia [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]], ili aweze kuhudhuria shule ya upili ya Marekani, na kuongeza nafasi zake za kupata udhamini wa riadha katika chuo kikuu cha Marekani.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chasing Grace: Kile ambacho Quarter Mile imenifundisha kuhusu Mungu na Maisha|url=https://archive.org/details/chasinggracewhat0000rich|last=Richards-Ross|first=Sanya|date=2017|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chasinggracewhat0000rich/page/41 41]}}</ref> Baadaye akawa raia wa Marekani aliyepata uraia.<ref>{{cite news|title=45 Wamarekani Waliopata uraia Waliosherehekewa katika Carnegie Corporation 4th of July Ad|url=https://www.carnegie.org/news/articles/45-naturalized-americans-celebrated-in-carnegie-corporation-4th-of-july-public-service-ad/|access-date=22 Septemba 2025|publisher=[[Carnegie Corporation of New York]]|date=July 3, 2012}}</ref> Katika St. Shule ya Upili ya Thomas Aquinas huko Fort Lauderdale, alikuwa bingwa mara tisa wa jimbo la shule ya upili ya Florida akiwa na mataji manne ya mita 100, mataji matatu ya mita 200, taji moja la mita 400 na taji moja la kuruka kwa muda mrefu.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hall of Fame|url=https://fhsaa.com/hof.aspx?hof=45|website=Chama cha Riadha cha Shule ya Upili ya Florida|access-date=6 Septemba 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Underwood|first1=Steve|title=Uzoefu wa kujifunza unamsukuma Richards kwenye ukuu|url=https://www.runnerspace.com/news.php?news_id=139971|website=RunnerSpace|access-date=8 Septemba 2021}}</ref> Mnamo Juni 20, 2002, Richards alikimbia mita 400 kwa sekunde 50.69 katika Mashindano ya Vijana ya Marekani huko Stanford Chuo Kikuu, muda wa shule ya upili wa kasi zaidi kuwahi kurekodiwa katika tukio hilo na bado upo mwaka wa 2025.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sanya Richards awafurahisha umati wa Wajamaika|url=https://worldathletics.org/news/news/sanya-richards-pleases-jamaican-crowd|website=WorldAthletics|date=17 Julai 2002|access-date=24 Juni 2025}}</ref> Alihitimu kutoka Aquinas mwaka wa 2002 akiwa na jumla ya alama 4.0 za GPA na alitajwa kuwa Mwanariadha Bora wa Mwaka wa Wasichana wa Shule ya Upili ya Kitaifa ya Gatorade na Mwanariadha Bora wa Vijana wa Mwaka wa Marekani wa Kukimbia na Kukimbia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Life 101 ... Binafsi Akizungumza: Sanya Richards-Ross|url=https://www.nova.edu/life101/guest-speakers/sanya-richards-ross.html#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20her%20selection,Prep%20Athlete%20of%20the%20Year|website=Nova Southeastern Florida University|access-date=10 Agosti 2021|archive-date=21 Januari 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121063635/https://www.nova.edu/life101/guest-speakers/sanya-richards-ross.html#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20her%20selection,Prep%20Athlete%20of%20the%20Year|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Wasifu: Sanya Richards-Ross|url=https://olympics.com/en/athletes/sanya-richards-ross|website=Olimpiki|access-date=7 Agosti 2021}}</ref> Richards-Ross alihudhuria Chuo Kikuu cha Texas, Austin kuanzia 2002 hadi 2005, akijikita katika biashara na kuigiza katika timu ya wanawake ya riadha na uwanjani.<ref>{{cite web|title=Olimpiki na Mshiriki wa zamani wa UT Sanya Richards-Ross atakuwa Spika wa Kuanza kwa Mashindano ya Spring|url=https://news.utexas.edu/2013/02/20/olympian-and-ut-ex-sanya-richards-ross-will-be-spring-commencement-speaker/|website=The University of Texas at Austin News|date=20 Februari 2013|access-date=10 Agosti 2021}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1985]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Jamaika]] 4lo3i37ogzunlxyofmf2uhmoowy035j 0 221354 1580287 1484191 2026-07-18T06:59:08Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580287 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Adasa Rawlinson Cookeygam''' (alizaliwa 1981) maarufu kama Adasa Cookeygam ni mwongozaji wa video za [[muziki]] mzaliwa wa [[Nigeria]], mpiga sinema, mkurugenzi wa kibiashara, [[mchoraji]], na mtengenezaji wa filamu.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newtelegraphng.com/adasa-cookey-10-year-journey-of-a-self-taught-music-video-director/|title=Adasa Cookey: 10-Year Journey Of A Self-Taught Music Video Director|date=August 9, 2020 |access-date=September 8, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://punchng.com/nigerian-music-videos-best-in-africa-adasa-cookey/|title=Nigerian music videos best in Africa –Adasa Cookey|date=December 1, 2019 |access-date=September 8, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.legit.ng/1235496-movie-director-adasa-cookey-saves-job-a-teller-paid-n43m-n432k.html|title=Movie director Adasa Cookey saves the job of a teller who paid him N4.3m instead of N432k |date=April 26, 2019 |access-date=September 8, 2021}}</ref>Anafanya kazi kwa Squareball Media Productions Limited ambapo yeye pia ni Afisa Mkuu Mtendaji wa kampuni hiyo, ambayo pia ni inamilikiwa na [[1da Banton]] & [[Eli Jae]]. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/directory/adasa-cookey|title=Adasa Cookey|date=September 23, 2015|access-date=September 8, 2021|archive-date=2021-09-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908160215/https://www.musicinafrica.net/directory/adasa-cookey|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1981]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Nigeria]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Nigeria]] iin906da177br9z6u7o54lxew8f9enc 0 222207 1580088 1487099 2026-07-17T23:58:35Z NickK 6535 picha 1580088 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Picha:Milko Gaydarski 1975.jpg|thumb|150px|Milko Gaydarski]] '''Milko Trilov Gaydarski''' ([[Kibulgaria]]: Милко Трилов Гайдарски; [[18 Machi]] [[1946]] – [[23 Desemba]] [[1989]]) alikuwa beki wa soka wa [[Bulgaria]] aliyecheza kwa Bulgaria katika Kombe la Dunia la FIFA mwaka 1970 na katika Michezo ya Olimpiki ya Majira ya Joto ya mwaka [[1968]] mjini Mexico City ambapo Bulgaria ilishinda medali ya fedha.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.blitz.bg/sport/article/49023|title=Висенте дел Боске става на 59 години|date=23 December 2009|publisher=Информационна агенция БЛИЦ (blitz.bg)|language=Bulgarian|accessdate=1 December 2011}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1946]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1989]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji mpira wa Bulgaria]] 8wwindczim5c3jfcd2mhem5ld6yhagx 0 223622 1580335 1491546 2026-07-18T09:13:26Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580335 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Allyson Renee Swaby''' (amezaliwa [[3 Oktoba]] [[1996]]) ni mchezaji wa mpira wa miguu wa kitaaluma anayecheza katika nafasi ya bega wa kati (centre back) kwa klabu ya Crystal Palace. Amezaliwa nchini Marekani, lakini anaiwakilisha Jamaika katika mashindano ya kimataifa.<ref>{{cite press release|title=ANGEL CITY FOOTBALL CLUB CONFIRMS SIGNING OF JAMAICAN NATIONAL TEAM CAPTAIN ALLYSON SWABY FROM AS ROMA|url=https://angelcity.com/blogs/press/angel-city-football-club-confirms-signing-of-jamaican-national-team-captain-allyson-swaby-from-as-roma|website=AngelCity.com|access-date=22 December 2021|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124233221/https://angelcity.com/blogs/press/angel-city-football-club-confirms-signing-of-jamaican-national-team-captain-allyson-swaby-from-as-roma|url-status=dead}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Allyson Swaby loaned to Paris Saint-Germain|url=https://en.psg.fr/teams/womens-team/content/allyson-swaby-loaned-to-paris-saint-germain-until-the-end-of-the-2022-2023-season|website=PSG.fr|date=30 January 2023|access-date=15 February 2023|archive-date=2023-01-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131195148/https://en.psg.fr/teams/womens-team/content/allyson-swaby-loaned-to-paris-saint-germain-until-the-end-of-the-2022-2023-season|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1996]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Wachezaji mpira wa Jamaika]] 8wg8q2ffuugfjeiddjumdb7h9xcymj0 0 224348 1580336 1493102 2026-07-18T09:26:06Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580336 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Amadou Sagna''' (alizaliwa tarehe [[10 Juni]], [[1999]]) ni mchezaji wa kulipwa wa [[Senegal]] wa [[soka]] anayekipiga kama [[mshambuliaji]] wa klabu ya [[Ufaransa]] En Avant Guingamp. == Kazi ya klabu == Mnamo 9 Julai 2019, Sagna alisaini mkataba na timu ya Ligi Kuu ya Daraja la Kwanza ya [[Ubelgiji]] ya Club Brugge KV.<ref name="Brugge">{{cite news |last1=Adewoye |first1=Gbenga |title=Senegal's Amadou Sagna joins Club Brugge |url=https://www.goal.com/en-us/news/senegals-amadou-sagna-joins-club-brugge/1dwrr6db9eeum1gk5qi9miy73i |accessdate=18 October 2020 |work=Goal.com |date=9 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Sagna joins Oostende on loan |url=https://twitter.com/ClubBrugge_en/status/1213115057376239616 |website=Club Brugge (Twitter)}}</ref> Mnamo [[22 Agosti]], [[2020]], Sagna alicheza mechi yake ya kwanza ya kitaaluma akiwa na Club NXT, timu ya akiba ya Club Brugge, katika Ligi Daraja la Kwanza B ya Ubelgiji. Alianza kikosi cha kwanza na kucheza kwa dakika 85 dhidi ya RWDM47, huku NXT wakishindwa kwa mabao 0–2. Mnamo [[26 Mei]], [[2022]], Club Brugge ilitangaza kuwa Sagna alikuwa amesaini mkataba wa kudumu na klabu ya Ligue 2, Chamois Niortais F.C. (Niort). Mnamo [[6 Julai]], 2023]], Sagna alisaini mkataba wa miaka mitatu na En Avant Guingamp (Guingamp). == Kazi ya kimataifa == Mnamo [[13 Mei]], [[2019]], ilitangazwa kuwa Sagna angekuwa sehemu ya kikosi cha mwisho cha Senegal kwa [[Kombe la Dunia]] la FIFA la U-20 la mwaka 2019.<ref>[https://www.clubbrugge.be/nl/amadou-sagna Profile] {{Wayback|url=https://www.clubbrugge.be/nl/amadou-sagna |date=20210127201855 }} at the Club Brugge website</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-cheza-mpira}} {{BD|1999|}} [[Jamii:Wachezaji mpira wa Senegal]] gt6gawarbo9zbyfk281wkfd9u8jayaz 0 226942 1580028 1506831 2026-07-17T23:14:01Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580028 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:2018_inter-Korean_summit_square.jpg|thumb|Marais wa Korea walipokutana mwaka 2018.]] '''Historia ya Korea Kaskazini''' inahusu eneo ambalo leo linaunda [[Korea Kaskazini|Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Watu wa Korea]] lakini ni sehemu ya [[historia]] pana ya [[Rasi ya Korea]], ambayo imekaliwa na [[binadamu]] kwa maelfu ya miaka. == Kipindi cha Mwanzo na Uundaji wa Awali == Mwanzo wa [[ustaarabu]] wa Korea huhusishwa kijadi na kuanzishwa kwa Gojoseon mnamo mwaka [[2333 KK]], ikifuatiwa na kuibuka kwa [[Falme Tatu za Korea]]: ''[[Goguryeo]], [[Baekje]], na [[Silla]]'' katika [[karne]] za mwanzo [[Baada ya Kristo|BK]]. Falme hizo zilishindania [[mamlaka]] hadi Silla, kwa msaada wa [[nasaba ya Tang]] ya [[Jamhuri ya Watu wa China|China]], ilipounganisha sehemu kubwa ya [[rasi]] hiyo katika [[karne ya 7]]. Katika kipindi hicho, jamii za awali zilijikita katika [[kilimo]] cha mwanzo, uundaji wa [[zana]] za [[chuma]], na [[maendeleo]] ya mifumo ya kijamii iliyochangia kuibuka kwa madola ya mwanzo na [[Utambulisho wa nchi|utambulisho]] wa kitamaduni wa Wakorea. == Nasaba za Goryeo na Joseon == Baadaye ilifuata nasaba ya [[Goryeo]] (918–1392), iliyotoa [[jina]] la kisasa la Korea, na [[nasaba ya Joseon]] (1392–1897), dola la muda mrefu lililotawaliwa kwa misingi ya [[Ukonfusio]] na kujulikana kwa mafanikio ya [[utamaduni|kitamaduni]], ikiwemo uundaji wa [[mwandiko]] wa [[Kikorea]], [[Hangul]]. Katika enzi hizo, kulikuwa na maendeleo makubwa katika nyanja za [[elimu]], [[sayansi]], na [[fasihi]], pamoja na kuimarika kwa mfumo wa [[utawala]] wa kifalme uliotegemea [[Ofisa|maafisa]] wasomi, hali iliyosaidia kuunda [[jamii]] yenye mpangilio thabiti na [[urithi]] mkubwa wa kitamaduni. == Kipindi cha Mgogoro (kabla ya Ukoloni) == Mwishoni mwa [[karne ya 19]] na mwanzoni mwa [[karne ya 20]], Korea ilikabiliwa na shinikizo kubwa kutoka kwa [[Taifa|mataifa]] ya kigeni, hasa [[Japani]]. Kipindi hicho kilishuhudia pia kuongezeka kwa ushawishi wa [[Ustaarabu wa magharibi|mataifa ya Magharibi]] na China katika [[siasa]] za ndani za Korea, hali iliyodhoofisha mamlaka ya kifalme na kusababisha mabadiliko ya kijamii na ya kiuchumi yaliyokuwa yakibadilisha muundo wa jamii ya Korea kwa kasi. == Kipindi cha Ukoloni (1910 – 1945) == Mwaka [[1910]], Korea iliunganishwa rasmi na Japani na kubaki chini ya utawala wa [[Ukoloni|kikoloni]] hadi mwisho wa [[Vita vya Pili vya Dunia]] mwaka [[1945]]. Katika kipindi hicho, sera za ukoloni zililenga kuunganisha Korea kiutawala na kiuchumi na Japani, huku pia zikidhibiti utamaduni wa wenyeji, jambo lililosababisha upinzani wa kitaifa na [[harakati]] mbalimbali za kupigania [[uhuru]] miongoni mwa Wakorea. == Kipindi cha Mgawanyiko na Vita == Kwenye mwisho wa Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia [[jeshi]] la Urusi liliwafuata Wajapani [[kaskazini]] mwa [[rasi]] na [[Wamarekani]] waliingia [[kusini]]. Hivyo baada ya kushindwa kwa Japani, rasi hiyo iligawanywa katika mstari wa [[Latitudo|latitudo]] ya 38 kuwa Korea Kaskazini iliyoungwa mkono na [[Umoja wa Kisovyeti]] na Korea Kusini iliyoungwa mkono na [[Marekani]]. Mgawanyiko huo ulisababisha [[Vita ya Korea|Vita vya Korea]] (1950–1953), [[vita]] vikali vilivyomalizika kwa makubaliano ya kusitisha mapigano badala ya [[mkataba wa amani]], na hivyo kuacha rasi hiyo ikiwa bado katika hali ya vita kisheria na kugawanyika katika mataifa mawili tofauti. Athari za vita zilikuwa kubwa, zikiathiri uchumi, [[miundombinu]], na maisha ya mamilioni ya watu katika pande zote mbili za rasi. Mwanzoni kulikuwa na majadiliano ya kuunganisha Korea tena lakini [[Vita Baridi]] ilileta uadui kati ya pande hizo mbili. Kila moja ilianzisha [[serikali]] ya pekee katika kanda la [[utawala]] wake kufuatana na [[itikadi]] yake. Warusi walitaifisha tasnia na [[ardhi]] wakaacha serikali ya [[ukomunisti|kikomunisti]] katika kaskazini na Wamarekani waliacha [[uchumi]] wa [[Ubepari|kibepari]] na serikali iliyochaguliwa katika kusini. ==Baada ya vita vya Korea== Katika vita hivyo Korea Kaskazini iliweza kudumu kwa sababu ya msaada msaada wa kijeshi wa China iliyomwaga [[askari]] [[milioni]] [[moja]] nchini. Kiongozi Mkomunisti [[Kim Il-Sung]] alishika [[mamlaka]] akatawala kama [[dikteta]] kwa [[msaada]] wa [[chama cha kikomunisti]] na [[jeshi]]. Alipokufa mwaka [[1994]] [[mwana]] wake [[Kim Jong-il]] alichukua nafasi yake hadi alipofariki tarehe [[17 Desemba]] [[2011]]. Nafasi yake ilichukuliwa na [[mtoto]] wake [[Kim Jong-un]]. Kim Il-Sung aliunda itikadi ya "Juche"; inaitwa [[falsafa]] ya kuendeleza [[Umaksi]], lakini hali halisi ni itikadi inayotakiwa kutoa msingi kwa utawala wa kidikteta. Ingawa ilidai kutafuta [[maendeleo]] ya kujitegemea, Korea Kaskazini ilikuwa nchi iliyotegemea msaada kutoka Urusi kwa [[historia]] yake yote. Baada ya mwisho wa [[Umoja wa Kisovyeti]] msaada huo ulikwisha na Korea Kaskazini iliingia katika kipindi kigumu sana ki[[uchumi]]. Leo hii nchi haiwezi kulisha watu wakeː hutegemea usaidizi wa [[vyakula]] kutoka jumuiya ya kimataifa. [[Udikteta]] katika Korea Kaskazini ni wa Kikomunisti kwa jina, lakini una [[tabia]] za ki[[dini]] ndani yake. Kim Il-Sung alitangazwa kuwa "rais wa milele"; Kim Jong-Il hakutumia [[cheo]] rasmi isipokuwa "mwenyekiti wa kamati ya utetezi wa taifa" kinachomaanisha kitu kama "mkuu wa jeshi". Katika mwaka [[2006]] Korea Kaskazini ilitekeleza [[mlipuko wa nyuklia]]. ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== *{{cite book|last=Buzo|first=Adrian|title=Politics and Leadership in North Korea: The Guerilla Dynasty|edition=2nd|year=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=Oxon|isbn=978-1-138-18737-5}} * Cha, Victor, and Ramon Pacheco Pardo. ''Korea: A New History of South and North'' (Yale UP, 2023). *{{cite book|author1=Choe Su-nam|author2=Pak Kum-il|title=DPRK: Seven Decades of Creation and Changes|url=http://www.korean-books.com.kp/en/packages/xnps/download.pg.php?492#.pdf|year=2018|publisher=[[Foreign Languages Publishing House (North Korea)|Foreign Languages Publishing House]]|location=Pyongyang|isbn=978-9946-0-1675-7}} *Cumings, Bruce, et al.. ''Inventing the Axis of Evil''. The New Press. 2004. {{ISBN|1-56584-904-3}} *{{cite book|last=French|first=Paul|title=North Korea: The Paranoid Peninsula: A Modern History|url=https://archive.org/details/northkoreaparano0000fren_o0h7|edition=2nd|year=2007|publisher=Zed Books|location=London|isbn=978-1-84277-905-7}} *{{cite book|last=Lankov|first=Andrei| author-link = Andrei Lankov|title=From Stalin to Kim Il Song: The Formation of North Korea, 1945-1960|date=2002|publisher=Hurst & Company|isbn=978-1-85065-563-3}} *{{cite book|author-mask=1|last=Lankov|first=Andrei| author-link = Andrei Lankov|title=Crisis in North Korea: The Failure of De-Stalinization, 1956|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-8248-3207-0}} *{{cite book|url=https://iusgentium.ufsc.br/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Obrigat%C3%B3rio.pdf|author-mask=1|last=Lankov|first=Andrei| author-link = Andrei Lankov|title=The Real North Korea: Life and Politics in the Failed Stalinist Utopia|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-996429-1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251020202203/https://iusgentium.ufsc.br/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Obrigat%C3%B3rio.pdf|archive-date=2025-10-20}} *–– (2020) "Trouble Brewing: The North Korean Famine of 1954–1955 and Soviet Attitudes toward North Korea." ''Journal of Cold War Studies'' 22:2 (Spring 2020) pp:3–25. [https://hdiplo.org/to/AR1020 online] *O'Hanlon, Michael; Mochizuki, Mike. ''Crisis on the Korean Peninsula''. McGraw-Hill. 2003. {{ISBN|0-07-143155-1}} *{{cite book|last=Seth|first=Michael J.|title=North Korea: A History|url=https://archive.org/details/northkoreahistor0000seth|year=2018|publisher=Palgrave|location=London|isbn=978-1-352-00218-8}} *{{cite book|last=Pescali|first=Piergiorgio|title=La nuova Corea del Nord - Come Kim Jong Un sta cambiando il Paese|year=2019|publisher=Castelvecchi|location=Rome|isbn=9788832826678}} == Viungo vya nje == * {{Commons category-inline}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081103022704/http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2004/04/16/nkorea8445.htm Speak Out About Human Rights In North Korea] (a commentary from [[Human Rights Watch]], published in ''[[The Asian Wall Street Journal]]'', 16 April 2004) * [https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0602/p07s02-woap.html "On North Korea's streets, pink and tangerine buses"], ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'', 2 June 2005 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070429161929/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=topics.home&topic_id=230972 The North Korea International Documentation Project] (Primary source documents concerning DPRK history) * [http://koreanhistory.info/NorthKoreanHistory.htm#timeline Time Line of North Korean History] {{Asia topic|Historia ya}} {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:Historia ya Asia]] [[Jamii:Korea Kaskazini]] re9e6jut75pbon4vcnqjbiwc9nybnuq 0 227009 1580222 1529927 2026-07-18T01:29:16Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580222 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi.jpg|thumb|429x429px|Taswira ya Rani Lakshmibai wa Jhansi]] '''Rani wa Jhansi''' (alizaliwa kama '''Manikarnika Tambe''', pia anajulikana kama '''Rani Lakshmibai'''; 1827–30, au 1835 – 18 Juni 1858) alikuwa mmoja wa viongozi wakuu wa [[Uasi wa India wa 1857]]. Alikuwa malkia wa dola la Jhansi kuanzia 1843 hadi 1853, na alichukua uongozi baada ya kuanza kwa mzozo ambapo alipigana vita kadhaa dhidi ya Waingereza. Maisha na matendo yake yanaenziwa nchini India ya sasa na bado ni alama muhimu ya uzalendo wa [[Uhindi|India]]. ==Maisha== Alizaliwa katika familia ya [[Wamamarathi|Kimarathi]] huko [[Varanasi]]. Manikarnika Tambe aliolewa na [[raja]] wa Jhansi, [[Gangadhar Rao]], akiwa mdogo na kuitwa jina la [[Rani]] Lakshmibai. Walipata mtoto mmoja wa kiume lakini alikufa akiwa mdogo. Wakati Gangadhar Rao akiwa karibu kufa mnamo 1853, alimchukua Damodar Rao, ambaye alikuwa ndugu yake mdogo, aliteuliwa kuwa mrithi wake. Hata hivyo, Shirika la British East India Company, ambalo wakati huo lilitawala sehemu kubwa ya India ikiwemo Jhansi, lilikataa kumtambua mrithi huyo na kuiteka Jhansi kwa kutumia sheria ya [[Doctrine of Lapse]] (sera ya [[Waingereza]] ya kunyakua majimbo ya kifalme pale ambapo mtawala hakuwa na mrithi wa kuzaliwa naye), huku wakipuuza malalamiko makali ya Rani kwa Gavana-Jenerali Lord Dalhousie. Mnamo Mei 1857, wanajeshi wa Kihindi waliokuwa Jhansi waliasi na kuwaua Waingereza wengi mjini humo; kuhusika kwa Rani katika matukio hayo bado kunajadiliwa. Alichukua uongozi wa Jhansi na kuunda jeshi ili kuzuia mashambulizi kutoka majimbo ya jirani. Ingawa hapo awali uhusiano wake na Waingereza ulikuwa wa wastani, waliamua kumchukulia kama adui: Meja Jenerali Hugh Rose alishambulia na kuiteka Jhansi mnamo Machi na Aprili 1858. Rani alitoroka akiwa juu ya farasi na kujiunga na viongozi wengine wa waasi huko [[Kalpi]], ambapo Rose aliwashinda mnamo 22 Mei. Waasi hao walikimbilia [[Gwalior Fort]], ambapo walipigana mara ya mwisho; Rani alifia hapo vitani. Baada ya uasi huo, jina na matendo ya Rani yalihusishwa sana na harakati za kizalendo nchini India. Hadithi zake, zilizochanganywa na [[imani za Kihindu]], zilipata umaarufu mkubwa. Alionekana kama shujaa mkuu wa harakati za uhuru wa India na bado anaheshimiwa hadi leo, ingawa jamii za [[Dalit]] huwa zinamtazama kwa mtazamo hasi. Rani Lakshmibai amechorwa sana kwenye sanaa, filamu, na vitabu, hasa katika shairi la mwaka 1930 "Jhansi Ki Rani" na riwaya ya Vrindavan Lal Verma ya mwaka 1946 ''Jhansi Ki Rani Lakshmibai''. ==Jisomee== {{Refbegin}} * {{cite book |last=David |first=Saul |author-link=Saul David |date=2003 |title=The Indian Mutiny: 1857 |url=https://archive.org/details/indianmutiny18570000davi |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-1410-0554-6}} * {{cite journal |last=Deshpande |first=Prachi |author-link=Prachi Deshpande |date=2008 |title=The Making of an Indian Nationalist Archive: Lakshmibai, Jhansi, and 1857 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-asian-studies_2008-08_67_3/page/854 |journal=[[The Journal of Asian Studies]] |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=855–879 |doi=10.1017/S0021911808001186}} * {{cite book |last=Jerinic |first=Maria |date=1997 |chapter=How We Lost the Empire: Retelling the Stories of the Rani of Jhansi and Queen Victoria |title=Remaking Queen Victoria |url=https://archive.org/details/remakingqueenvic0000unse |editor-last1=Homans |editor-first1=Margaret |editor-last2=Munich |editor-first2=Adrienne |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=[https://archive.org/details/remakingqueenvic0000unse/page/123 123]–139 |isbn=978-0-5215-7379-5}} * {{cite book |last=Lebra |first=Joyce |author-link=Joyce Lebra |date=1986 |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/0e84ddff-e153-48ed-be1d-8dc21e374825/content |title=The Rani of Jhansi: A Study in Female Heroism in India |publisher=[[University of Hawai'i Press]] |location=[[Honolulu]] |format=PDF |isbn=978-0-8248-0984-3}} * {{cite book |last=Lebra |first=Joyce |author-link=Joyce Lebra |date=2008 |title=Women Against the Raj: The Rani of Jhansi Regiment |publisher=[[ISEAS Publishing]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9-8123-0810-8}} * {{cite book |last=Mukherjee |first=Rudrangshu |author-link=Rudrangshu Mukherjee |date=2021 |title=A Begum and a Rani: Hazrat Mahal and Lakshmibai in 1857 |publisher=[[Penguin Random House|Penguin Random House India]] |location=[[Gurugram]] |isbn=978-0-6700-9066-2}} * {{cite book |last=Narayan |first=Badri |date=2006 |author-link=Badri Narayan (writer) |title=Women Heroes and Dalit Assertion in North India: Culture, Identity and Politics |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-8-1321-0280-9}} * {{cite book |last=Pender |first=Sebastian Raj |date=2022 |title=The 1857 Indian Uprising and the Politics of Commemoration |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-0090-5227-6}} * {{cite book |last=Roy |first=Tapti |date=1994 |title=The Politics of a Popular Uprising: Bundelkhand in 1857 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-0-1956-3612-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Roy |first=Tapti |date=2006 |title=Raj of the Rani |url=https://archive.org/details/rajofrani0000royt |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-0-1430-6221-9}} * {{cite book |last=Sharpe |first=Jenny |author-link=Jenny Sharpe |date=1993 |title=Allegories of Empire: The Figure of Woman in the Colonial Text |url=https://archive.org/details/allegoriesofempi0000shar |location=[[Minneapolis]] |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |isbn=978-0-8166-2059-3}} * {{cite book |last=Singh |first=Harleen |date=2014 |title=The Rani of Jhansi: Gender, History, and Fable in India |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1-1073-3749-7}} * {{cite book |last=Singh |first=Harleen |date=2020 |chapter=India's Rebel Queen: Rani Lakshmi Bai and the 1857 Uprising |title=Women Warriors and National Heroes: Global Histories |editor-last1=Shubert |editor-first1=Adrian |editor-last2=Cothran |editor-first2=Boyd |editor-last3=Judge |editor-first3=Joan |editor-link3=Joan Judge |pages=23–38 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-3501-2113-3}} {{Refend}} == Viungo vya nje == * {{Commons category-inline|Rani Lakshmibai}} * {{wikiquote-inline}} {{BD|1835|1858}} [[Jamii:WikiGap JWK 2026]] [[Jamii:wanasiasa wa Uhindi]] e6a3yg47bkz30ibc796h1onnd90pd95 0 227126 1580192 1548302 2026-07-18T01:04:59Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580192 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Binta Sarr Ly''' (anajulikana zaidi kama '''Binta Sarr'''; [[1954]] – 15 Septemba [[2019]]) alikuwa mwanaharakati wa haki za wanawake kutoka [[Senegal]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Géantes Invisibles / Invisible Giants |date=2020-12-06 |title=Binta Sarr: Of Solidarity and Endless Enthusiasm |url=https://www.geantesinvisibles.com/en/giant-binta-sarr/ |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=www.geantesinvisibles.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Alijulikana zaidi kwa kuanzisha shirika la Association for the Advancement of Senegalese Women (APROFES), ambalo lililenga kuimarisha nafasi ya wanawake kijamii, kiuchumi na kielimu nchini Senegal. == Maisha ya awali == Sarr alikuwa mmoja wa watoto kumi na mmoja aliyezaliwa katika familia ya poligami katika mji wa vijijini wa [[Guinguinéo]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Association for Women's Rights in Development |date=8 December 2020 |title=Binta Sarr |url=https://www.awid.org/whrd/binta-sarr |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=www.awid.org}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Ashoka (non-profit organization) |title=Binta Sarr: APROFES - Association pour la Promotion de la Femme Sénégala |url=https://www.ashoka.org/en/fellow/binta-sarr |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=www.ashoka.org |language=en}}</ref> Alitumia sehemu kubwa ya maisha yake katika eneo la [[Kaolack]]. Baba yake alikuwa mfanyabiashara aliyewahimiza watoto wake wa kike kupata elimu na kujitegemea kiuchumi na kijamii.<ref name=":1" /> Elimu yake ya awali aliipata katika Shule ya Msingi ya Kassaville, ambapo alisoma pamoja na mwandishi na mwanahabari Adama Gaye.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=EnquêtePlus |date=11 October 2016 |title=Une militante ‘’active’’ de la cause féminine |url=https://www.enqueteplus.com/content/binta-sarr-presidente-de-l%E2%80%99aprofes-une-militante-%E2%80%98%E2%80%99active%E2%80%99%E2%80%99-de-la-cause-f%C3%A9minine |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=www.enqueteplus.com}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka 1974, alijiunga na chama cha vijana kilicholenga shughuli za kitamaduni na elimu katika Guinguinéo, ambapo alishiriki katika mijadala na shughuli za kielimu. Kupitia shughuli hizo pia alikutana na mume wake wa baadaye, ingawa walifunga ndoa mwaka [[1983]].<ref name=":1" /> === Elimu === Mwaka 1978, Sarr alipata ufadhili wa masomo kujiunga na [[Chuo Kikuu cha Cheikh Anta Diop]] kusomea kemia na biolojia.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Wakati huo, chuo kilikuwa kitovu cha harakati za wanafunzi za kuhimiza demokrasia na mageuzi ya kijamii. Alijihusisha na shughuli za uanaharakati wa wanafunzi na alishiriki katika kamati za kuandaa migomo.<ref name=":1" /> == Kazi == Baada ya kuhitimu mwaka [[1982]], Sarr alirudi nyumbani kwake na kujiunga na utumishi wa umma kama mhandisi wa maji (hydraulic engineer).<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Alihudumu kwa miaka 13, akisimamia miradi ya visima, miundombinu ya barabara, madarasa na mifumo ya umwagiliaji.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2015-01-01 |title=Independent experts nominated by country party: Binta Sarr |url=https://www.unccd.int/roe/binta-sarr |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=UNCCD |language=en |archive-date=2026-01-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260115013349/https://www.unccd.int/roe/binta-sarr |url-status=dead }}</ref> Katika kazi yake ya awali, aligundua kuwa miradi ya maji ilikuwa na mafanikio zaidi pale wanawake walipohusishwa, kwa kuwa mara nyingi wao ndio waliobeba jukumu la kutafuta maji. Hii ilimshawishi kuhimiza ushirikishwaji wa wanawake katika usimamizi wa rasilimali za maji.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=décadréE |date=15 June 2018 |title=Fatou Sow et le féminisme au Sénégal |url=https://decadree.com/le_webzine/fatou-sow-et-le-feminisme-au-senegal/ |access-date=2026-01-04 |language=fr}}</ref> Mawazo haya pamoja na imani yake kwamba maendeleo endelevu yanahitaji mipango thabiti ya kijamii, yalimpelekea kuanzisha shirika la kuwawezesha wanawake.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> == APROFES == Mwaka [[1987]], Sarr alianzisha shirika la '''APROFES''' (Association pour la Promotion des Femmes Sénégalaises), linalolenga kuwapa wanawake mafunzo ya uongozi na maendeleo ya kijamii. Shirika hilo lilipanua shughuli zake kwa kutoa mafunzo ya kilimo, elimu ya afya ya uzazi na mipango ya uzazi, pamoja na huduma za kijamii vijijini.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Bosco Bazié |first=Jean |date=2022-11-02 |title=Hommage à Binta SARR LY |url=https://www.eau-vive-internationale.org/hommage-a-binta-sarr-ly/ |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=Eau Vive Internationale |language=fr}}</ref> APROFES pia ilitumia redio, maonyesho ya sanaa na midahalo ya kijamii kuelimisha jamii kuhusu changamoto mbalimbali kama vile ulevi, umaskini na mfumo wa tabaka nchini Senegal.<ref name=":0" /> Mwaka [[2000]], shirika hili lilibadilishwa kuwa taasisi isiyo ya kiserikali (NGO).<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Géantes Invisibles |date=2023-09-07 |title=Binta Sarr - Géantes Invisibles |url=https://www.geantesinvisibles.com/biographie/binta-sarr/ |access-date=2026-01-04 |website=geantesinvisibles.com |language=fr}}</ref> == Utetezi wa haki za wanawake == Sarr alihusishwa na mapambano ya usawa wa kijinsia na haki za wanawake katika Afrika. Mwaka 2000 aliandika insha kuhusu umaskini wa wanawake nchini Senegal.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |title=Le bateau ivre de la mondialisation |url=https://archive.org/details/lebateauivredela0000unse |date=2000 |publisher=Syllepse ; CADTM |isbn=978-2-913165-34-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/lebateauivredela0000unse/page/96 96]–112 |language=fr}}</ref> Mwaka [[2012]] alichangia katika utafiti wa haki za wanawake na upatikanaji wa haki kwa waathirika wa ukatili wa kijinsia kupitia Royal Tropical Institute.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2012 |title=Women in search of citizenship |url=https://www.kit.nl/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/2042_women_in_search_of_citizenship.pdf |journal=KIT Publications |volume=1 |pages=93–102}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{reflist}} {{BD|1954|2019}} [[Jamii:wanaharakati wa Senegal]] bbh9dsk4jhwx4oj3wv5831x494t0zjk 0 227661 1580358 1504430 2026-07-18T11:11:41Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580358 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Arie Esiri''' ni mtengenezaji wa filamu mzaliwa wa mji wa Warri nchini [[Nigeria]] aliyekulia [[Lagos]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=On Your Radar: Chuko Esiri|url=https://tisch.nyu.edu/grad-film/news/on-your-radar--chuko-esiri|work=tisch.nyu.edu|accessdate=2026-04-11|language=en-US}}</ref> Alisoma chuo kwanza nchini Uingereza,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=A CONVERSATION WITH ARIE & CHUKO ESIRI (EYIMOFE/THIS IS MY DESIRE)|url=https://www.hammertonail.com/interviews/arie-chuko-esiri/|work=Hammer to Nail|date=2022-04-27|accessdate=2026-04-11|language=en-US|author=Nelson Kim}}</ref> kisha akasomea filamu katika Shule ya Sanaa ya [[Chuo Kikuu cha Columbia]] nchini [[Marekani]], akahitimu mwaka [[2019]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arie Esiri|url=https://www.theblueandwhite.org/post/arie-esiri|work=The Blue and White|date=2022-03-10|accessdate=2026-04-11|language=en|author=Victor Omojola}}</ref> Ndugu hao walitengeneza filamu mbili fupi wakiwa bado masomoni katika shule ya filamu, Besida na Goose.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chuko Esiri|url=https://www.cinemahtx.org/person/chuko-esiri/|work=HCAS|date=2020-10-23|accessdate=2026-04-11|language=en-US}}</ref> Filamu yao ya kwanza, Eyimofe, ilionyeshwa kwa mara ya kwanza katika Tamasha la Filamu la Berlin mwaka [[2020]].<ref name=":0" /> Esiri anapendelea upande wa uelekezaji wa sinema.<ref name=":0" /> Kituo cha Filamu cha Siskel huko [[Chicago]] kilielezea Eyimofe kama " filamu iliyopigwa picha kwa 16 mm yenye muundo tajiri na iliyojaa roho ya uhalisia mpya...[akitoa] picha dhahiri ya maisha ya kisasa ya Lagos, ambapo muundo wake wa kijamii unanaswa katika uchangamfu na ugumu wake wote."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Siskel Film Center {{!}} Chicago's Home for Great Cinema {{!}} EYIMOFE (THIS IS MY DESIRE)|url=https://www.siskelfilmcenter.org/eyimofe-my-desire|work=www.siskelfilmcenter.org|accessdate=2026-04-11|archive-date=2026-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260420160924/https://www.siskelfilmcenter.org/eyimofe-my-desire|url-status=dead}}</ref> Aliongoza kwa pamoja toleo lijalo la Bi. Dalloway, Clarissa, litakalosambazwa na Neon, pamoja na kaka yake pacha anayeitwa Chuko Esiri.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Neon Acquires ‘Mrs. Dalloway’ Reimagining ‘Clarissa’ Starring Sophie Okonedo, David Oyelowo, India Amarteifio, Ayo Edebiri & Toheeb Jimoh|url=https://deadline.com/2026/02/clarissa-movie-acquired-neon-sophie-okonedo-david-oyelowo-1236711206/|work=Deadline|date=2026-02-06|accessdate=2026-04-11|language=en-US|author=Matt Grobar}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> [[Jamii:watengenezaji filamu wa Nigeria]] [[Jamii:Africa Film Cinema Tanzania 2026]] tr56d7gtbcbc07050xgr0rpizu0omxd 3 228310 1579951 1505442 2026-07-17T12:23:04Z Gerges 71732 Gerges alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:انس عبد الله الخفاجي]] hadi [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:انس الشهراني]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user "[[Special:CentralAuth/انس عبد الله الخفاجي|انس عبد الله الخفاجي]]" to "[[Special:CentralAuth/انس الشهراني|انس الشهراني]]" 1505442 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 14 Aprili 2026 (UTC) eq6psuiv8bqbydb7aml3omjs2udinuj 1579961 1579951 2026-07-17T15:08:19Z Dr-Taher 22446 Dr-Taher alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:انس الشهراني]] hadi [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:أنس الشهراني]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user "[[Special:CentralAuth/انس الشهراني|انس الشهراني]]" to "[[Special:CentralAuth/أنس الشهراني|أنس الشهراني]]" 1505442 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 14 Aprili 2026 (UTC) eq6psuiv8bqbydb7aml3omjs2udinuj 0 228513 1580111 1505823 2026-07-18T00:13:03Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580111 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ivan Blok''' alikuwa gavana wa Samara wakati wa Mapinduzi ya Urusi ya mwaka 1905. Muda mfupi baada ya kutoa hotuba alilalamika kuwa wananchi walimwelekezea "macho yaliyojaa chuki" licha ya yeye "kuchosha mishipa yake ya fahamu kudumisha utulivu ili watu waweze kuishi kama binadamu", aliuawa kwa bomu.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kotkin |first1=Stephen |title=Stalin: Paradoxes of Power |url=https://archive.org/details/stalin0000kotk_v8a9 |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Press |isbn=9780143127864 |page=[https://archive.org/details/stalin0000kotk_v8a9/page/74 74]}}</ref> ==Marejeo== {{mbegu-mtu}} {{reflist}} [[jamii:waliofariki 1905]] [[jamii:watu wa Urusi]] l37wvua8jts99hy7qbg4homrnqkgglr 0 228951 1580124 1530744 2026-07-18T00:21:41Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580124 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Augusta Vera Duthie''' (18 Julai 1881, Belvidere, [[Knysna]] – 8 Agosti 1963, Belvidere, Knysna) alikuwa mtaalamu wa mimea kutoka [[Afrika Kusini]] aliyefanya utafiti kuhusu mimea ya eneo la Western Cape na pia alikuwa mwalimu maarufu aliyefundisha botania ya mimea isiyo na maua (cryptogamic botany). Alikuwa mhadhiri wa kwanza wa chuo kikuu katika botania aliyepata elimu yake yote ndani ya Afrika Kusini. == Maisha ya awali na elimu == Alikuwa mmoja wa watoto watano, akizaliwa na wazazi Archibald Hamilton na Augusta Vera Duthie huko [[Knysna]], Afrika Kusini.<ref name=LadiesLab>{{cite book|last1=Creese|first1=Mary R.S.|last2=Creese|first2=Thomas M.|title=Ladies in the laboratory III South African, Australian, New Zealand, and Canadian women in science : nineteenth and early twentieth centuries : a survey of their contributions|url=https://archive.org/details/ladiesinlaborato0000cree|date=2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Lanham, Md.|isbn=9780810872899|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ladiesinlaborato0000cree/page/14 14]–17}}</ref> Alipata shahada ya B.A. kutoka Huguenot College mwaka 1901, shahada ya M.A. kutoka South African College mwaka 1910, na shahada ya uzamivu (D.Sc.) kutoka University of South Africa mwaka 1929.<ref name=BotanicalExplorersSA>{{cite book|last1=Gunn|first1=Mary|last2=Codd|first2=L. E. W.|title=Botanical Exploration Southern Africa|url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mkfdQ3l1YQUC&pg=PA142|year=1981|publisher=CRC](https://books.google.com/books?id=mkfdQ3l1YQUC&pg=PA142|year=1981|publisher=CRC) Press|isbn=978-0-86961-129-6|page=142}}</ref> == Kazi ya kitaaluma == Mwaka 1902 aliteuliwa kuwa mhadhiri wa botania katika Victoria College sasa University of Stellenbosch. Mwaka 1912 alitembelea Cambridge University ambapo alifanya kazi na Albert Seward. Mwaka 1929 alikamilisha utafiti kuhusu mimea ya eneo la Stellenbosch Flats, ambalo ni eneo la udongo wa alluvia linalozunguka chuo hicho. Baada ya kustaafu mwaka 1939, alirudi kusimamia shamba la familia yake Belvidere, ambako alifariki mwaka 1963.<ref name=LadiesLab /> Katika wosia wake, aliacha fedha kwa ajili ya St Andrew's College ili kusaidia ufadhili wa masomo (scholarships) kwa wanafunzi.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beolens, Bo.|title=The eponym dictionary of mammals|date=2009|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-0-8018-9533-3|pages=118}}</ref> == Majina ya heshima (Eponyms) == * ''Duthiastrum'' * Duthie's golden mole ''Chlorotalpa duthieae'' * ''Impatiens duthieae'' * ''Ischyrolepis duthieae'' * ''Ornithogalum duthiae'' * ''Psilocaulon duthieae'' * ''Romulea duthieae'' * ''Ruschia duthiae'' * ''Stomatium duthieae'' == Kazi kuu == {{cite book|last=Duthie|first=Augusta Vera |title=Vegetation and Flora of the Stellenbosch Flats with List of Vascular Cryptogams and Flowering Plants Found in that Area|year=1900|publisher=University of South Africa|location=Pretoria}} == Kumbukumbu == Anakumbukwa kupitia dirisha la vioo vya rangi (stained glass) lililopo katika ukuta wa kaskazini wa Kanisa la Holy Trinity huko Belvidere karibu na [[Knysna]]. Kanisa hilo lilianzishwa na babu yake, Thomas Henry Duthie. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasayansi}} {{BD|1881|1963}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Afrika Kusini]] [[Jamii:Wanabiolojia wa Afrika Kusini]] 2xv74ste45qeby3hoordm4uu0ehwe4j 0 230452 1580177 1530818 2026-07-18T00:55:32Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580177 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Baronne Almaury de Maistre''' (alizaliwa kama Henriette-Marie de Sainte-Marie; 31 Julai 1809, [[Nevers]] – 7 Juni 1875, Chaulgnes), alikuwa mtunzi wa muziki wa [[Ufaransa]]. Mwaka 1831 aliolewa na Baron Charles-Augustin Almaury de Maistre.<ref>{{cite book |title=Maurice et Eugénie de Guérin|first1=Maurice|last1=de Guérin|first2=Eugénie|last2=de Guérin|first3=Pierre|last3=Moreau|year=1965}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Eugénie de Guérin d'après des documents inédits|author=Barthès, Émile|year=1929}}</ref> Aliendesha saluni maarufu ya kijamii wakati wa miezi ya baridi.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Violent Mistique|url=https://archive.org/details/violentmystiquet0000joyc_m9o6|author=Lowrie Joyce O.|year=1974}}</ref> Alitunga etyudi (etudes) pamoja na opera iitwayo ''Les Roussalkas'', ambayo ilioneshwa kwa mara ya kwanza mjini [[Brussels]] katika Théâtre de la Monnaie tarehe 14 Machi 1870<ref>{{cite book |title=Revue et gazette musicale de Paris, Volume 37|year=1870}}</ref> na pia kuwasilishwa katika Antwerp tarehe 18 Machi 1871.<ref>{{cite book|access-date=2023-07-15|date=1884|first1=Alexandre|language=fr|last1=Dupont|publisher=Imprimerie H. Vaillant-Carmanne|title=Répertoire dramatique belge|url=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2NtEeIonpdMC&pg=PA110}}](https://books.google.com/books?id=2NtEeIonpdMC&pg=PA110}})</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki-Ulaya}} {{BD|1809|1875}} [[Jamii:Watunzi wa Ufaransa]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Ufaransa]] tt84couoam5gbpaaxgu9npx66srricr 0 232070 1580201 1533872 2026-07-18T01:15:39Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 0 sources and tagging 1 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580201 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Violet''' '''Sampa'''-'''Bredt''' (27 Oktoba 1950 – 29 Machi 2015) <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=The Zambian Christian Fratenity Bids Farewel to the Late Hon Rev Bredt Sampa – UCZ Synod|url=https://uczsynod.org/the-zambian-christian-fratenity-bids-farewel-to-the-late-hon-rev-bredt-sampa/|accessdate=2026-05-06|language=en-US}}{{Dead link|date=July 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>alikuwa [[mwanasiasa]] na kiongozi wa kidini nchini [[Zambia]], anayekumbukwa kwa mchango wake katika nyanja za kijamii na kisiasa.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Zambia : Violet Sampa-Bredt put to rest|url=https://www.lusakatimes.com/2015/04/11/violet-sampa-bredt-put-to-rest/|date=2015-04-11|accessdate=2026-05-06|language=en-GB}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1950]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2015]] [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Zambia]] 0j4rft2569o341uc752n5hb4i7muvso 0 232137 1580120 1533889 2026-07-18T00:19:29Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580120 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Andrea R. Canaan''' (alizaliwa mwaka 1950) ni mwandishi, mhadhiri, mratibu wa jamii, mshairi na mwanaharakati wa [[Marekani]] anayehusishwa na [[Black feminism|ufeministi wa wanawake Weusi]]. == Maisha ya awali na elimu == Canaan alizaliwa mwaka 1950 mjini [[New Orleans]], Louisiana. Alilelewa katika jamii iliyokuwa na mshikamano wa kiroho na uanaharakati.<ref name="This Bridge Called My Back, Fourth Edition">{{cite book|oclc=894128432|editor-last1=Moraga|editor-first1=Cherríe|editor-last2=Anzaldúa|editor-first2=Gloria|title=This Bridge Called My Back, Fourth Edition: Writings by Radical Women of Color|url=https://archive.org/details/thisbridgecalled0000unse|date=2015|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1438454382|pages=[https://archive.org/details/thisbridgecalled0000unse/page/232 232]–238, 268}}</ref> Akiwa na umri wa miaka kumi na miwili, Canaan alibakwa na mhudumu wa Kanisa la Methodist, na pia alipitia unyanyasaji kutoka kwa mshauri mwanamke katika kambi ya kanisa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Kb6s4xNytEC&q=%22Andrea+Canaan%22&pg=PA79|title=Hope in the Holler: A Womanist Theology|last=Crawford|first=Anna Elaine Brown|date=January 1, 2002|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=9780664222543|pages=79, 85|language=en}}</ref> Canaan pia ameeleza kuwa mama yake alikuwa anafahamu kuhusu unyanyasaji huo lakini hakuchukua hatua yoyote kumsaidia mtoto wake.<ref name=":0" /> Katika kazi zake, Canaan amegusia mada zinazohusiana na matumizi mabaya ya mamlaka ya kidini pamoja na utovu wa maadili wa viongozi wa dini.<ref name=":0" /> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1950|}} [[Jamii:Waandishi]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] gu0jpq8fhkd1kxovgn6l0k0lspwx2ax 0 233246 1580044 1546594 2026-07-17T23:25:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580044 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lyn-Genet Recitas''' (amezaliwa 26 Machi 1965), pia hujulikana kama '''Lyn-Genet''', ni mwandishi wa Marekani na mtu anayejitangaza kama mtaalamu wa lishe. == Kazi == Lyn-Genet alipata shahada ya kwanza na shahada ya uzamili kutoka katika taasisi isiyoidhinishwa rasmi ya elimu ya juu ya Clayton College of Natural Health. Alianza mazoezi yake ya kitaaluma katika Pwani ya Magharibi ya Marekani, na baadaye ameendesha vituo vya afya katika Jiji la New York na Westchester, New York. Ana wafanyakazi nchini Marekani na Canada, na hutoa huduma kwa wateja wake katika Hastings-on-Hudson, New York na Houston, Texas. == Vitabu == * {{cite book|last1=Recitas|first1=Lyn-Genet|title=The Plan|url=https://archive.org/details/planeliminatesur0000reci|date=January 1, 2013|publisher=Grand Central Publishing|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-4555-1548-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/planeliminatesur0000reci/page/300 301]|edition=First}} * {{cite book|last1=Recitas|first1=Lyn-Genet|title=The Plan Cookbook|url=https://archive.org/details/plancookbookmore0000lyng|date=December 30, 2014|publisher=Grand Central Publishing|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-1-4555-5653-3|pages=213|edition=First}} == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} == Viungo vya nje == * [[http://lyngenet.com/](http://lyngenet.com/){{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Tovuti rasmi] {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1965|}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Marekani]] dnu8xe9k0s01y1u9jupk02ps97j9kcx 0 234217 1580274 1564423 2026-07-18T02:29:59Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580274 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Wanda Ferro''' (alizaliwa [[Catanzaro]], 24 Machi 1968) ni mwanasiasa wa [[Italia]] wa chama cha [[Brothers of Italy]] (Fratelli d'Italia) ambaye anahudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Italia (Camera dei Deputati). Tangu mwaka 2022, amekuwa akihudumu kama Naibu Waziri (Undersecretary) katika Wizara ya Mambo ya Ndani ya Italia. == Wasifu == Ferro alizaliwa katika mkoa wa [[Calabria]]. Alihitimu shahada ya fasihi na falsafa katika Chuo Kikuu cha Messina. Alianza harakati zake za kisiasa tangu ujana wake ndani ya harakati za vijana wa mrengo wa kulia. == Kazi ya kisiasa == Ferro ana uzoefu mkubwa katika uongozi wa serikali za mitaa na kitaifa: * **Rais wa Mkoa wa Catanzaro:** Alihudumu kama Rais wa [[Mkoa wa Catanzaro]] kuanzia mwaka 2008 hadi 2014, akiwa mwanamke wa kwanza kushika nafasi hiyo katika mkoa huo. * **Uchaguzi wa Calabria 2014:** Alikuwa mgombea wa muungano wa mrengo wa kulia kwa ajili ya nafasi ya Rais wa Mkoa wa Calabria.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lacnews24.it/politica/elezioni-regionali-chi-la-candidata-del-centrodestra-wanda-ferro_4736/|title=Elezioni regionali: chi è la candidata del centrodestra Wanda Ferro|work=LaC News24|date=29 October 2014|language=it|accessdate=2026-05-13|archive-date=2024-08-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240812133302/https://www.lacnews24.it/politica/elezioni-regionali-chi-la-candidata-del-centrodestra-wanda-ferro_4736/|url-status=dead}}</ref> * **Bunge la Italia:** Alichaguliwa bungeni kwa mara ya kwanza katika Uchaguzi mkuu wa Italia wa 2018 akiwakilisha jimbo la Vibo Valentia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.strettoweb.com/2018/03/calabria-wanda-ferro-eletta-camera-deputati-vibo-valentia/668361/|title=Calabria: eletta alla Camera la candidata di Fratelli d'Italia Wanda Ferro|work=StrettoWeb|date=6 March 2018|language=it|accessdate=2026-05-13|archive-date=2025-02-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250220092343/https://www.strettoweb.com/2018/03/calabria-wanda-ferro-eletta-camera-deputati-vibo-valentia/668361/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Alichaguliwa tena kwa kura nyingi katika uchaguzi wa mwaka 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lacnews24.it/politica/politiche-eletta-wanda-ferro-fdi-nel-collegio-uninominale-camera-catanzaro_160179/|title=Politiche, eletta Wanda Ferro (Fdi) nel collegio uninominale Camera Catanzaro|work=LaC News24|date=26 September 2022|language=it}}</ref> Mnamo tarehe 2 Novemba 2022, aliteuliwa kuwa Naibu Waziri katika Wizara ya Mambo ya Ndani chini ya serikali ya [[Giorgia Meloni]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilvibonese.it/politica/276303-ferro-sottosegretario-interno-fratelli-ditalia-vibo/|title=Wanda Ferro sottosegretario all'Interno, Fratelli d'Italia Vibo: «Giusto riconoscimento»|work=Il Vibonese|date=1 November 2022|language=it}}</ref> Katika nafasi hii, amekuwa akijishughulisha na masuala ya usalama wa raia na uratibu wa serikali za mitaa. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Italia]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Italia]] {{BD|1968||Ferro, Wanda}} c7t8dp5pnqbpvymi6u1wi8rqb1tnl5h 0 234910 1580284 1543241 2026-07-18T05:34:43Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580284 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Zomahoun Idossou Rufin''' (amezaliwa 15 Juni 1964), anayejulikana pia kama Zomahon (ゾマホン), ni [[mwanadiplomasia]] na mtu maarufu wa [[Benin]] anayeishi Japan. Yeye ni raia wa Benin anayefanya kazi kama “foreign personality” nchini Japan, akiwa pia katika nafasi za uwakilishi wa kidiplomasia na shughuli za vyombo vya habari (gaijin tarento). Kwa sasa ni Balozi wa Jamhuri ya Benin nchini Japan. Pia aliwahi kuwa Mshauri Maalum wa Rais wa Benin Thomas Boni Yayi.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Profile|url=https://www.zomahoun.com/en/profile/|work=ZOMAHOUN.com|accessdate=2026-05-14|language=en|archive-date=2024-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007140131/https://www.zomahoun.com/en/profile/|url-status=dead}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1964]] lpgpkveq8sldl3rbes3ycu4xdqv0vk3 0 237125 1580141 1564477 2026-07-18T00:31:35Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580141 wikitext text/x-wiki '''R. Begum''' ni mwanasiasa wa [[Bangladesh]] kutoka chama cha Awami League (Bangladesh Awami League) na alikuwa mbunge wa jimbo la Mymensingh-3. == Kazi == Begum alichaguliwa kuwa mbunge wa jimbo la Mymensingh-3 kama mgombea wa chama cha Bangladesh Awami League mnamo mwaka 1992, kupitia uchaguzi mdogo uliofanyika kufuatia kifo cha mbunge aliyekuwa madarakani, Nazrul Islam.<ref name="Hakim1994">{{cite journal |last=Hakim |first=Muhammad A. |date=August 1994 |title=The Mirpur Parliamentary by-Election in Bangladesh |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_asian-survey_1994-08_34_8/page/740 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=34 |issue=8 |page=741 |doi=10.2307/2645261 |jstor=2645261}}</ref><ref name="Akhter2001">{{cite book |last=Akhter |first=Muhammad Yeahia |year=2001 |title=Electoral Corruption in Bangladesh |url=https://archive.org/details/electoralcorrupt0000akha |publisher=Ashgate |page=[https://archive.org/details/electoralcorrupt0000akha/page/243 243] |isbn=0-7546-1628-2}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} {{BD|1950||Begum, R.}} [[Jamii:Wanasiasa wa Bangladesh]] [[Jamii:Watu wa Bangladesh]] ji2g0utbrw4nx15ofan1mvkg4f4uw3r 0 237658 1580077 1548457 2026-07-17T23:50:44Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580077 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ali Amini''' (j12 Septemba 1905&ndash;12 Desemba 1992) alikuwa mwanasiasa wa [[Iran]] ambaye alikuwa [[Waziri Mkuu wa Iran]] kuanzia mwaka 1961 hadi 1962. Alishika nyadhifa mbalimbali za uwaziri katika baraza la mawaziri wakati wa miaka ya 1950, na alihudumu kama mbunge kati ya mwaka 1947 na 1949. Amini alichukuliwa sana na wengi kama "mshirika wa karibu wa Marekani"<ref>{{cite book|editor-first1=P.|editor-last1=Avery|editor-first2=William|editor-last2=Bayne Fisher|editor-first3=G. R. G.|editor-last3=Hambly|editor-first4=C.|editor-last4=Melville|year=1990|title=The Cambridge History of Iran|volume=7|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521200950|page=275}}</ref> na "mwanamageuzi mwenye mtazamo wa kiliberali na anayeiunga mkono Marekani".<ref>{{cite book|author=Parvin Paydar| title=Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-Century Iran|url=https://archive.org/details/womenpoliticalpr0000paid|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/womenpoliticalpr0000paid/page/139 139]|year=1995|isbn=978-0-521-59572-8}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1905|1992}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Iran]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Iran]] awajpse589zzqz7gjb3fwpzl3lyp4hp 0 237694 1580260 1574181 2026-07-18T01:59:33Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580260 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mohammad-Ali Angaji''' alikuwa Mwanasayansi wa Kiislamu wa Shi, kiongozi wa kidini na mwanasiasa wa [[Irani|Iran]]. Akiwa mwanachama mwaminifu wa chama cha [[National Front (Iran)|National Front]], alihudumu kama mbunge wakati wa [[Bunge la 17 la Iran|kipindi cha 17 cha Bunge]] (Majlis)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gasiorowski|first1=Mark J.|last2=Byrne|first2=Malcolm|year=2004|title=Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_0815630182|isbn=0815630182|publisher=Syracuse University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_0815630182/page/14 14]}}</ref> na aligombea katika [[Uchaguzi wa Bunge wa Iran wa 1954|uchaguzi wa mwaka 1954]] mjini Tehran.<ref>{{cite book |author=Houchang E. Chehabi|title=Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism: The Liberation Movement of Iran Under the Shah and Khomeini|url=https://archive.org/details/iranianpoliticsr0000cheh_d7e9|publisher=I.B.Tauris|pages=[https://archive.org/details/iranianpoliticsr0000cheh_d7e9/page/134 134]–135|date=1990|isbn=1850431981}}</ref> Mnamo mwaka 1979, alichaguliwa kuwa miongoni mwa wajumbe 73 wa [[Baraza la Wataalamu wa Katiba]] (Assembly of Experts for Constitution). == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD||}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Iran]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Iran]] 1cpc9o07z1hnahyt3g35m87p9pps4g1 0 237706 1580240 1548532 2026-07-18T01:41:35Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580240 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Hamid Ashraf''' (31 Desemba 1946 – 29 Juni 1976) alikuwa mmoja wa wanachama wa mwanzo na baadaye kiongozi wa [[Shirika la Wanamgambo wa Fedai wa Watu wa Iran]] (Organization of Iranian People's Fedai Guerrillas - OIPFG) ambalo liliendesha vita vya wanamgambo dhidi ya utawala wa zamani wa [[Nasaba ya Pahlavi]] nchini [[Iran]] kuanzia tarehe 8 Februari 1971 hadi tarehe 11 Februari 1979, pale [[Shah]] alipoanguka. Hamid Ashraf alichangia kwa kiasi kikubwa katika kuliimarisha shirika la OIPFG kama jumuiya ya kijeshi yenye silaha iliyopinga utawala wa Shah.<ref name="Milani">{{cite book|first=Abbas|last=Milani|title=Eminent Persians: The Men and Women Who Made Modern Iran, 1941–1979|url=https://archive.org/details/eminentpersiansm0002mila|publisher=Syracuse University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8156-0907-0}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1946|1976}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Iran]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Iran]] epoyulpsvuqavolcdaen06peiq035z8 0 237759 1580250 1548684 2026-07-18T01:52:13Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580250 wikitext text/x-wiki '''John Marshall Alexander Jr.''' (9 Juni 1929 – 25 Desemba 1954),<ref name="Larkin50s">{{cite book|title=[[Encyclopedia of Popular Music|The Virgin Encyclopedia of 50s Music]]|editor=[[Colin Larkin (writer)|Colin Larkin]]|publisher=[[Virgin Books]]|date=2002|edition=Third|isbn=1-85227-937-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781852279370/page/7 7]}}</ref> anayejulikana kwa jina la kisanii '''Johnny Ace''', alikuwa mwimbaji wa [[Marekani]] wa [[rhythm and blues|rhythm and blues (R&B)]]. Alikuwa na mfululizo wa nyimbo zilizofanikiwa katikati ya miaka ya 1950. Alijitokeza kama mmoja wa wasanii muhimu katika muziki wa R&B wa baada ya vita na kupata umaarufu kupitia nyimbo kama “My Song”, “Cross My Heart” na “Pledging My Love”. Mtindo wake wa uimbaji wa polepole na wa kimahaba ulimfanya awe maarufu sana, hasa katika redio za R&B na mashine za muziki (jukeboxes). Katika kilele cha kazi yake, alifanya ziara nyingi za muziki na alionekana kama mmoja wa wasanii chipukizi wenye matumaini makubwa katika aina hiyo ya muziki. Alifariki siku ya Krismasi mwaka 1954 baada ya kujipiga risasi kwa bahati mbaya nyuma ya jukwaa huko Houston, Texas akiwa na umri wa miaka 25. Licha ya kifo chake cha mapema, bado anahesabiwa kama mhusika muhimu katika historia ya awali ya R&B, na wasanii waliomfuata waliendelea kurekodi nyimbo zake na kumtaja kama chanzo cha msukumo. “Pledging My Love”, iliyotayarishwa na Johnny Otis na kumhusisha Otis kwenye vibraphone, ikawa wimbo mkubwa baada ya kifo chake (posthumous hit) na imeimbwa tena na wasanii wengi katika mitindo tofauti ya muziki. == Maisha na kazi == John Alexander alizaliwa huko [[Memphis, Tennessee]], akiwa mtoto wa Leslie Newsome na mchungaji John Marshall Alexander.<ref>{{cite web|url=[https://doi.org/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1803036](https://doi.org/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1803036) |title=Ace, Johnny |last=Salem |first=James M. |website=American National Biography |year=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1803036 |access-date=22 Agosti 2022}}</ref> Alianza kupata umaarufu kupitia sauti yake laini na nyimbo za mapenzi zilizovutia wasikilizaji wa redio na vilabu vya muziki vya wakati huo. Kazi yake ilikua haraka kabla ya kifo chake cha ghafla mwaka 1954, ambacho kilikatisha moja ya taaluma zenye ahadi kubwa katika muziki wa R&B wa miaka ya 1950. == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1929|1954}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Marekani]] t1tb0dz3n1djdv2eu5moqxjiljp5dyc 0 237769 1580288 1550120 2026-07-18T07:03:32Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580288 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Adib Boroumand''' (au Adīb Borūmand) (11 Juni 1924 – 13 Machi 2017) alikuwa mshairi, mwanasiasa, na mwanasheria (akili) wa [[Irani|Iran]]. Alikuwa mkuu wa baraza la uongozi na mwenyekiti wa baraza kuu<ref>[http://jebhe.net/بیانیه-جبهه-ملی-ایران-در-مورد-ترمیم-هیت.htm بیانیه جبهه ملی ایران در مورد ترمیم هیت] {{Wayback|url=http://jebhe.net/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%87-%D8%AC%D8%A8%D9%87%D9%87-%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF-%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%85-%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%AA.htm |date=20170820000712 }} jebhe.net (kwa Kiajemi)</ref> la chama cha [[National Front (Iran)|National Front of Iran]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adibboroumand.com/|title=اشعار ادیب برومند - شعر، غزل و قصيده شاعر ملی ایران|work=اشعار اديب برومند - شعر، غزل و قصيده|accessdate=7 July 2015|archive-date=2015-07-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707154046/http://www.adibboroumand.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Anafahamika zaidi kama [[Washairi wa kitaifa|mshairi wa kitaifa]] wa [[Iran]].{{ref|a}} == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1924|2017}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Iran]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Iran]] bbaryvfbyq9nnt6lujq46kbudq0utmu 0 237885 1580129 1548871 2026-07-18T00:24:47Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580129 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mousa Nasiroghli (Khiabani)''' (1947 – 8 Februari 1982) alikuwa kiongozi wa kisiasa wa upinzani nchini [[Irani|Iran]], mwanachama mwandamizi wa chama cha [[Wamojahedin wa Watu wa Iran]] (MEK), na kamanda wa tawi lake la kijeshi kuanzia mwaka 1979 hadi 1982 alipouawa vitani.<ref>{{cite book|title=Political Handbook of the World 2015|chapter=Iran|publisher=CQ Press|year=2015|author1=Tom Lansford|isbn=978-1483371559|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhandboo0000unse_f0m6}}</ref> Khiabani amewahi kuelezewa kama "mkono wa kulia wa [[Massoud Rajavi]]"<ref name="rii"/> na "mkuu wa pili kwa mamlaka".<ref>{{cite book|last=Paydar|first=Parvin| title=Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-Century Iran|url=https://archive.org/details/womenpoliticalpr0000paid|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/womenpoliticalpr0000paid/page/248 248]|year=1995|isbn=978-0-521-59572-8}}</ref> Kulingana na mwanahistoria [[Ervand Abrahamian]], akishirikiana na Rajavi, Khiabani alihudumu kama msemaji wa shirika hilo baada ya mwaka 1979 na alichukuliwa kuwa sawa na Rajavi na watu wa nje, licha ya ukweli kwamba wanachama wa ndani wa MEK walijua kuwa Rajavi ndiye aliyekuwa kiongozi mkuu zaidi.<ref name="rii">{{citation|author=Ervand Abrahamian|title=Radical Islam: the Iranian Mojahedin|publisher=I.B.Tauris|date=1989|isbn=9781850430773|volume=3|series=Society and culture in the modern Middle East|pages=172}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1947|1982}} [[Jamii:Watu wa Iran]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Iran]] 8xp2k8tk01yzy88memq1m7bzshbvjcq 0 238187 1580202 1570653 2026-07-18T01:16:31Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580202 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Donté K. Hayes''' (alizaliwa [[1975]], [[Baltimore, Maryland]]) ni msanii wa [[Marekani]] anayejulikana kwa uchongaji wake wa kauri.<ref name="Maake Magazine">{{cite web |title=Donté K Hayes |url=https://www.maakemagazine.com/donte-k-hayes |website=Maake Magazine |access-date=4 December 2022}}</ref> Alisoma katika Chuo kikuu cha Kennesaw State na Chuo Kikuu cha Iowa. Mwaka [[2019]], Hayes alitajwa kuwa msanii anayechipukia wa jarida la Ceramics Monthly<ref name="Ceramics Monthly">{{cite web |title=2019 Emerging Artist: Donté K. Hayes |url=https://ceramicartsnetwork.org/ceramics-monthly/ceramics-monthly-article/2019-Emerging-Artist-Dont%C3%A9-K-Hayes-217088 |website=Ceramics Monthly |access-date=4 December 2022 |language=en |archive-date=2022-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204012206/https://ceramicartsnetwork.org/ceramics-monthly/ceramics-monthly-article/2019-Emerging-Artist-Dont%C3%A9-K-Hayes-217088 |url-status=dead }}</ref>. Mwaka huo huo, alishinda tuzo ya ''1858 Prize for Contemporary Southern Art'' kutoka Makumbusho ya Sanaa ya Gibbes<ref name="Gibbes Museum of Art">{{cite web |last1=Hiester |first1=Becca |title=Society 1858 Celebrates Donté K. Hayes as Winner of Prize for Contemporary Southern Art |url=https://www.gibbesmuseum.org/news/society-1858-celebrates-donte-k-hayes-as-winner-of-prize-for-contemporary-southern-art/ |website=Gibbes Museum of Art |access-date=4 December 2022 |language=en |date=21 February 2020}}</ref>. Kazi yake iko katika mkusanyo wa Museum of Fine Arts,[[ Houston]].<ref name="MFAH">{{cite web |title=Donté K. Hayes |url=https://emuseum.mfah.org/people/45799/donte-k-hayes/objects |website=The MFAH Collections |access-date=4 December 2022}}</ref> Kipande chake, ''Initiate'', kilinunuliwa na Makumbusho ya Sanaa ya Amerika ya Smithsonian kama sehemu ya Kampeni ya Maadhimisho ya Miaka 50 ya Renwick Gallery.<ref name="Savig">{{cite book |last1=Savig |first1=Mary |last2=Atkinson |first2=Nora |last3=Montiel |first3=Anya |title=This Present Moment: Crafting a Better World |url=https://archive.org/details/thispresentmomen0000unse |date=2022 |publisher=Smithsonian American Art Museum |location=Washington, DC |isbn=9781913875268 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thispresentmomen0000unse/page/228 228]-238}}</ref><ref name="Smithsonian American Art Museum">{{cite web |title=Donté K. Hayes |url=https://americanart.si.edu/artist/donte-k-hayes-32113 |website=Smithsonian American Art Museum |access-date=4 December 2022}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wachongaji wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1975]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] gxfsppbm69hstwz0jc3kqnz4si2nhe3 0 238231 1580072 1549565 2026-07-17T23:46:56Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580072 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Emily Gertrude Thomson''' ([[1850]] – [[1929]]) alikuwa [[msanii]] na [[mchoraji]] picha nchini [[Uingereza]].<ref name="CWood">{{cite book|author=Christopher Wood|publisher=Antique Collectors' Club|year=1978|title=The Dictionary of Victorian Painters |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofvict00wood|isbn=0-902028-72-3}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wachoraji wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1850]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1929]] l3dh589696vs1m97w9l6oj3v7yrjorg 0 238418 1580170 1549864 2026-07-18T00:50:18Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580170 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox musical artist 2 | jina = Aswad | picha = Aswad.jpg | maelezo = Aswad mnamo mwaka 2002 | landscape = yes | background = group_or_band | jina la kuzaliwa = | jina lingine = | tarehe ya kuzaliwa = | mahali pa kuzaliwa = [[London]], Uingereza | tarehe ya kufa = | mahali pa kufa = | ala = Sauti, ngoma, gitaa la besi, vinanda | aina = [[Reggae]], [[reggae fusion]], [[Contemporary R&B|R&B ya sasa]], [[muziki wa soul|soul]] | miaka ya kazi = 1975–sasa | studio = [[Island Records|Island]], Grove, [[Sony Music|CBS (UK)]], Simba Mesa, [[Ark 21 Records|Ark 21]], PROTV | ameshirikiana na = [[Burning Spear]], [[Sting (mwanamuziki)|Sting]], [[Cliff Richard]], [[Dennis Brown]] | tovuti = {{Official website|https://officialaswad.co.uk/}} | wanachama wa sasa = Tony "Gad" Robinson | wanachama wa zamani = * [[Brinsley Forde]] * [[Drummie Zeb|Angus "Drummie Zeb" Gaye]] (marehemu) * Donald Griffiths * Courtney Hemmings * George Oban }} '''Aswad''' ni kundi la muziki wa [[reggae]] kutoka nchini [[Uingereza]], linalojulikana zaidi kwa kuingiza vionjo vya [[Contemporary R&B|R&B ya sasa]] na [[muziki wa soul|soul]] ndani ya miondoko yao ya reggae.<ref>{{cite news|title= Reggae—brit Style|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=14 July 1985|url= https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-07-14-ca-6321-story.html|access-date=30 December 2010|first=Don|last=Snowden}}</ref> Wamekuwa wakitumbuiza tangu katikati ya miaka ya 1970 na wametoa albamu 21 katika historia yao. Nyimbo zao zilizovuma sana kwenye chati za muziki za Uingereza (UK Singles Chart) ni pamoja na ule ulioshika nafasi ya kwanza wa "[[Don't Turn Around]]" (1988) na "[[Shine (wimbo wa Aswad)|Shine]]" (1994). Neno "Aswad" linatokana na [[Lugha ya Kiarabu|Kiarabu]] lenye maana ya "[[nyeusi]]". Kundi hili limeteuliwa mara tatu katika Tuzo za [[Grammy Award|Grammy]].<ref>{{Cite web |first= |title=Aswad |url=https://www.grammy.com/artists/aswad/8285 |access-date=6 March 2022 |website=www.grammy.com}}</ref> == Historia == Wanachama wa Aswad ni Waingereza wenye asili ya wahamiaji kutoka visiwa vya [[Karibi]]. Walisoma katika shule za John Kelly na [[Holland Park School]]. Aswad iliasisiwa mnamo mwaka 1975 katika eneo la [[Ladbroke Grove]] magharibi mwa jiji la [[London]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/drummie-zeb-obituary-vm7wgvkph|title=Drummie Zeb obituary|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220905033049/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/drummie-zeb-obituary-vm7wgvkph|archive-date=5 September 2022|url-status=live|work=[[The Times]]|date=5 September 2022|access-date=5 September 2022}}</ref> Wanachama waanzilishi wa Aswad walikuwa mwimbaji na mpiga gitaa [[Brinsley Forde|Brinsley "Chaka B" Forde]], mpiga ngoma na mwimbaji [[Drummie Zeb|Angus "Drummie Zeb" Gaye]], mpiga gitaa mkuu Donald "Dee" Griffiths, mpiga besi George "Ras" Oban, na mpiga vinanda Courtney "Khaki" Hemmings.<ref name="Moskowitz">{{cite book|author=Moskowitz, David V.|year=2006|title=Caribbean Popular Music: an Encyclopedia of Reggae, Mento, Ska, Rock Steady, and Dancehall|publisher=Greenwood Press|page=16|ISBN=0-313-33158-8}}</ref> Aswad walikuwa bendi ya wasindikizaji katika albamu ya jukwaani ya [[Burning Spear]] ya mwaka 1977 iliyoitwa ''[[Live (albamu ya Burning Spear)|Live]]'', iliyorekodiwa katika ukumbi wa Rainbow Theatre jijini London. Wasanii wengine walioshiriki ni pamoja na [[Vin Gordon]] na [[Karl Pitterson]].<ref name="Larkin">{{cite book|author=Larkin, Colin|year=1998|title=The Virgin Encyclopedia of Reggae|url=https://archive.org/details/virginencycloped0000unse_v4f7|publisher=Virgin Books|ISBN=0-7535-0242-9}}</ref> Hapo awali, bendi hiyo ilitengeneza muziki wa miondoko ya [[roots reggae]], ambapo wanachama walichangia utunzi wa nyimbo mmoja mmoja huku Forde akiwa mtunzi mkuu. Hata hivyo, muundo wa bendi ulianza kubadilika haraka. Muda mfupi baada ya kutoa albamu yao ya kwanza iliyobeba jina la kundi mwaka 1976, Hemmings aliondoka na nafasi yake kuchukuliwa na Tony "Gad" Robinson. Hii ilikuwa mara ya pekee katika historia ya bendi ambapo mwanachama anayeondoka alitafutiwa mbadala rasmi rasmi. Kundi lilitoa albamu yao ya pili ya studio, ''Hulet'', mnamo 1978, kabla ya George Oban (ambaye baadaye alipigia bendi za [[Burning Spear]] na [[African Headcharge]]) kuondoka mnamo 1979. Baada ya Oban kuondoka, Robinson alichukua jukumu la upigaji besi huku akiendelea na vinanda. Mwaka uliofuata Griffiths naye aliondoka, na kumwacha Forde kama mpiga gitaa pekee wa kundi.<ref name="Moskowitz"/> Katika kipindi hiki cha mapema, Aswad walikuwa tofauti sana na bendi za reggae za Jamaika kwa sababu walitunga nyimbo zilizogusa moja kwa moja maisha na misukosuko ya vijana weusi wanaokua nchini Uingereza;<ref name="Moskowitz"/> nyimbo kama "Three Babylon", "It's Not Our Wish", "Natural Progression", "Ghetto in the Sky", pamoja na wimbo wa ala wenye vionjo vikali vya [[jazz]] uitwao "Warrior Charge", ambao bado unapigwa sana na mifumo ya sauti za roots reggae duniani kote. Bendi iliendelea kutengeneza muziki wa roots reggae na dub, na mnamo 1985 walitoa albamu ya ''[[Jah Shaka]] Meets Aswad in [[Addis Ababa]] Studio.'' Baada ya muundo wa kundi kutulia na kubaki kama utatu wa Forde, Gaye, na Robinson, Aswad ilianza kufuata mtindo wa reggae wa kibiashara zaidi, jambo lililowafanya wapate mashabiki wengi zaidi kupitia albamu ya ''New Chapter'' (1981). Walifuatisha mafanikio hayo kwa kutoa albamu ya dub ya mseto mzima wa albamu hiyo iliyoitwa ''[[A New Chapter of Dub]]'' chini ya utayarishaji wa Michael Reuben Campbell. Clifton "Bigga" Morrison kutoka bendi ya [[Prince Far I]] iitwayo The Arabs, alipiga besi kwenye baadhi ya nyimbo. Albamu ya ''Not Satisfied'' ilikuwa albamu ya roots-reggae ya London iliyotoka mnamo 1982. Mnamo Agosti 1983, Aswad walitumbuiza live katika bustani za Meanwhile Gardens siku ya Jumapili ya tamasha la [[Notting Hill Carnival]]; albamu iliyotokana na onyesho hilo, ''Live and Direct'', ni kumbukumbu safi ya tukio hilo ambapo walipiga dub live. Wimbo wao wa "Love Fire" ulipata umaarufu mkubwa baada ya kutumika kama mdundo wa nyuma ([[riddim]]) katika wimbo maarufu wa [[Dennis Brown]] uitwao "Promised Land". Miongoni mwa nyimbo kubwa za Aswad zilizovuma ni "[[Don't Turn Around]]", ulioshika namba 1 nchini Uingereza mwaka 1988,<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums">{{cite book|first=David|last=Roberts|year=2006|title=British Hit Singles & Albums|edition=19th|publisher=Guinness World Records Limited|location=London|isbn=1-904994-10-5|page=32}}</ref> ambao hapo awali ulirekodiwa na [[Tina Turner]] kama wimbo wa upande wa pili (B-side) wa wimbo wake wa "[[Typical Male]]". Walifuatia na wimbo mwingine ulioshika nafasi ya 11 wa "Give a Little Love",<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/> pamoja na toleo la reggae la wimbo wa "[[Best of My Love (wimbo wa Eagles)|Best of My Love]]" uliowahi kutengenezwa na bendi ya [[The Eagles]]. Mnamo 1989, walichangia wimbo wa "Set Them Free" kwenye albamu ya hisani ya [[Greenpeace]] iitwayo ''Rainbow Warriors''. Katika mwaka huo huo, walitumbuiza pamoja na [[Cliff Richard]] katika wimbo "Share a Dream" kwenye Uwanja wa [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]] kama sehemu ya tamasha la *The Event* (16 na 17 Juni 1989). Wimbo wao uliofuata wa "[[Shine (wimbo wa Aswad)|Shine]]" ulitoka mwaka 1994 na ulivuma sana sehemu kubwa ya Ulaya. Wimbo mwingine wa kuvutia ulikuwa ni ule wa marudio wa mwaka 1998 wa wimbo wa bendi ya [[The Police]] uitwao "[[Invisible Sun]]", waliomshirikisha [[Sting (mwanamuziki)|Sting]]. Bendi hii pia inashikilia rekodi ya kipekee ya kuwa bendi iliyowahi kupiga muziki na kila mwanachama wa zamani wa kundi la kwanza la [[The Wailers (1963-1974 band)|The Wailers]]. Aswad wamefanya ziara nyingi duniani, wakitumbuiza maeneo mbalimbali kuanzia ukumbi wa [[Royal Albert Hall]] jijini London na tamasha la [[Reggae Sunsplash]] kule [[Montego Bay]], hadi matamasha ya Afrika Magharibi, [[Israel]], na Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aswadband.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100303171956/http://www.aswadband.com/biography.html|url-status=usurped|title=Aswad Band &#124; Ads Company|archive-date=3 March 2010}}</ref> Aswad ilikumbana na mabadiliko ya kwanza ya wanachama baada ya miaka kumi na sita mnamo mwaka 1996, wakati Forde alipoondoka kwenye bendi kwa sababu za kiroho, na kumwacha Gaye kama mwanachama mwanzilishi pekee aliyebaki. Waliobaki waliamua kutotafuta mbadala, na hivyo Aswad ikawa kundi la watu wawili; Gaye na Robinson. Isipokuwa muungano wao wa muda mfupi na Forde mnamo 2009 kwa ajili ya kusherehekea miaka 50 ya studio ya Island Records,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20090517/ent/ent5.html|first=Davina|last=Morris|title=Aswad reunites for Island's 50th anniversary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104132451/http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20090517/ent/ent5.html|archive-date=4 January 2012|work=[[The Gleaner]]|date=17 May 2009}}</ref> muundo wa kundi ulibaki hivyo hadi kifo cha Angus "Drummie Zeb" Gaye mnamo tarehe 2 Septemba 2022, akiwa na umri wa miaka 62.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Drummie Zeb, lead singer of UK reggae band Aswad, dies aged 62|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2022/sep/02/drummie-zeb-lead-singer-of-uk-reggae-band-aswad-dies-ages-62|access-date=2 September 2022|first=Geneva|last=Abdul|date=2 September 2022|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Albamu yao ya mwisho kabisa ya studio hadi sasa ilitoka mnamo 2009 ikiitwa ''City Lock''. Walitoa pia nyimbo za "What Is Love?" na "Do That Thing" katika mwaka huo huo.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aswadband.com/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100228194836/http://www.aswadband.com/index.html|url-status=usurped|title=Aswad Band &#124; Ads Company|archive-date=28 February 2010}}</ref> Aswad walifanya ziara nchini Uingereza katika msimu wa kuchipua wa mwaka 2025, ikiwa ni pamoja na kutumbuiza kwenye tamasha la Lambeth Country Show, hoteli za Butlins, tamasha la Bournemouth's Reggae Weekender, na kutumbuiza pamoja na Ali Campbell wa bendi ya [[UB40]] kwenye Kasri la Colchester.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialaswad.co.uk/events/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250323230920/https://www.officialaswad.co.uk/events/|url-status=live|title=Aswad Events|archive-date=23 March 2025}}</ref> == Wanachama == ;Wanachama wa sasa * Tony "Gad" Robinson - gitaa la besi, vinanda, sauti <small>(1976–sasa)</small> ;Wanachama wa zamani * [[Brinsley Forde|Brinsley "Dan" Forde]] – sauti, gitaa kuu na gitaa la mdundo <small>(1975–1996, 2009)</small> * [[Drummie Zeb|Angus "Drummie Zeb" Gaye]] – sauti, ngoma <small>(1975–2022; kifo chake)</small> * Donald "Dee" Griffiths – gitaa kuu <small>(1975–1980)</small> * Courtney "Khaki" Hemmings – vinanda <small>(1975–1976)</small> * George "Ras" Oban – gitaa la besi <small>(1975–1979)</small> ;Wanamuziki wa ziada {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} * Stanley Andrew – gitaa kuu, gitaa la mdundo, gitaa la acoustic, sauti * Clifton "Bigga" Morrison – sauti, vinanda, melodica * Martin "Tatta" Augustine – gitaa kuu * [[John Kpiaye]] – magitaa * Jimmy "Senyah" Haynes – gitaa kuu, gitaa la acoustic * Michael "Bammie" Rose – saxophone * Vin "Trommie" Gordon – trombone * Eddie "Tan Tan" Thornton – trumpet * Carlton "Bubblers" Ogilvie – vinanda * Jimmy "J-Slice" Neath – trumpet {{col-2}} * Paul Garred – magitaa * Michael Martin – vinanda * Patrick Tenyue – trumpet * Henry 'Buttons' Tenyue – trombone * Brian Edwards – saxophone * Trevor “T-BoNe” Jones – trombone * Perry "Lion" Melius – ngoma * Kenrick Rowe – ngoma * Paul Slowley – ngoma {{col-end}} == Kazi za Utayarishaji == * Remix ya [[Ace of Base]] ya wimbo "[[Don't Turn Around]]" (Ulioshika nafasi ya 5 Uingereza) * [[Vanessa Mae]] – "Classical Gas" (Nafasi ya 41 Uingereza)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/31101/vanessa-mae/|title=VANESSA-MAE &#124; full Official Chart History &#124; Official Charts Company|website=Officialcharts.com}}</ref> * [[Janet Kay]] – "Missing You" == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} == Viungo vya Nje == * {{Commonscatinline}} * [{{discogs artist|Aswad}} Aswad kwenye mtandao wa Discogs] * {{imdb name|1379188}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Aswad (Band)}} [[Jamii:Wanamuziki wa Uingereza]] pn8mmb68kb8cvrttzrasi3pvjy0b99p 0 238483 1580199 1550221 2026-07-18T01:14:45Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580199 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox musical artist 2 | jina = Chaka Demus & Pliers | picha = {{multiple image | footer = | width = | image1 = Chaka Demus, 2009 (cropped).jpg | width1 = 160 | alt1 = | image2 = Pliers (Everton Bonner), 2009.JPG | width2 = 156 | alt2 = | align = center | border = none }} | maelezo = Chaka Demus (kushoto) na Pliers (kulia) mnamo mwaka 2009 | background = group_or_band | asili = [[Kingston, Jamaika|Kingston]], Jamaika | aina = [[Reggae]], [[dancehall]] | miaka ya kazi = 1991–sasa | studio = [[Greensleeves Records|Greensleeves]], [[Ras Records|RAS]], [[Island Records|Island]], Explorer | washiriki wa sasa = *[[Chaka Demus]]<br />*[[Pliers (mwimbaji)|Pliers]] }} '''Chaka Demus & Pliers''' ni kundi la wanamuziki wawili wa [[reggae]] kutoka nchini Jamaika linaloundwa na [[Deejay (Jamaika)|deejay]] [[Chaka Demus]] (jina halisi John Taylor) na mwimbaji [[Pliers (mwimbaji)|Pliers]] (jina halisi Everton Bonner). Wanajulikana zaidi duniani kwa nyimbo zao zilizovuma sana za "[[Tease Me (wimbo wa Chaka Demus & Pliers)|Tease Me]]" na "[[Murder She Wrote]]". Kama kundi, walipata mafanikio makubwa zaidi ya kibiashara kwa mashabiki wa muziki wa pop baada ya kuanza ushirikiano wao mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1990 kuliko mafanikio waliyopata kila mmoja alipokuwa akifanya kazi peke yake hapo awali.<ref name="Music">{{cite book | first= Paul | last= Du Noyer | year= 2003 | title= The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music | url= https://archive.org/details/musicfromrockpop0000duno | edition= 1st | publisher= Flame Tree Publishing | location= Fulham, London | isbn= 1-904041-96-5 | page= [https://archive.org/details/musicfromrockpop0000duno/page/361 361]}}</ref> == Kazi ya kimuziki == Wasanii hawa wawili walikuwa tayari wamesha jizolea umaarufu kila mmoja peke yake walipoungana mnamo mwaka 1991 baada ya kutumbuiza pamoja jijini Miami, Marekani. Hapo awali Pliers alikuwa akifanya kazi pia kama kundi la watu wawili akishirikiana na msanii [[Pinchers]].<ref name="Thompson">Thompson, Dave (2002) ''Reggae & Caribbean Music'', Backbeat Books, {{ISBN|0-87930-655-6}}, pp. 94–96</ref> Wimbo wao wa kwanza wa pamoja uliovuma ulikuwa "Gal Wine", uliorekodiwa chini ya mtayarishaji [[Ossie Hibbert]].<ref name="Thompson" /> Baadaye waliendelea kufanya kazi na mfululizo wa watayarishaji nguli wakiwemo [[Ranking Joe]], [[Jah Screw]], [[King Jammy|Prince Jammy]], na [[Mafia & Fluxy]], ambapo nyimbo zao nyingi zilizofanikiwa zilijumuishwa kwenye albamu yao ya kwanza ya ''Gal Wine'' (1992).<ref name="Thompson" /> Walitumbuiza kwenye tamasha kubwa la [[Reggae Sunsplash]] mnamo mwaka 1992, na mwaka uliofuata walipata mafanikio makubwa ya kimataifa kupitia wimbo "[[Tease Me (wimbo wa Chaka Demus & Pliers)|Tease Me]]". Wimbo huo ulikaa kwenye chati za [[UK Singles Chart]] nchini Uingereza kwa muda wa miezi mitatu mfululizo mwaka 1993, ukishika nafasi ya 3 mwezi Julai.<ref name="Hamilton">Hamilton, Davina (2015) "[http://www.voice-online.co.uk/article/chaka-demus-pliers-reggaes-pioneering-pair Chaka Demus & Pliers: Reggae's pioneering pair]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}", ''The Voice'', 30 May 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2016</ref><ref>Moskowitz, David V. (2005) ''Caribbean Popular Music'', Greenwood Press, {{ISBN|978-0313331589}}, p. 53</ref> Walifuatia mafanikio hayo kwa kurudia wimbo wa [[Curtis Mayfield]] wa "[[She Don't Let Nobody]]" pamoja na kurudia wimbo wa kundi la Top Notes uitwao "[[Twist and Shout]]" (wakiwa wamemshirikisha [[Jack Radics]]). Wimbo huo wa "Twist and Shout" ulishika nafasi ya kwanza kwenye chati za Uingereza mwanzoni mwa mwaka 1994, na kuwafanya kuwa wasanii wa kwanza kutoka Jamaika kushika nafasi ya kwanza kwenye chati hizo ndani ya kipindi cha miaka 8,<ref name="Thompson" /> na kuwa wasanii wa kwanza kupata nyimbo tatu mfululizo zilizoshika nafasi tano za juu kwenye chati hizo.<ref name="Harris">Harris, Craig "[http://www.allmusic.com/artist/chaka-demus-pliers-mn0000161436/biography Chaka Demus & Pliers Biography]", [[Allmusic]]. Retrieved 25 April 2016</ref> Waliendelea kupata nyimbo nyingine zilizovuma Uingereza kama "I Wanna Be Your Man" (Nafasi ya 19) na "Gal Wine" (Nafasi ya 20), huku jumla ya nyimbo sita zilizovuma zikitoka kwenye albamu yao maarufu ya ''[[Tease Me (albamu)|Tease Me]]''.<ref name="Harris" /><ref name="Campbell">Campbell, Howard (2012) "[http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/entertainment/Chaka-Demus-and-Pliers---murder-they-wrote_11930150 Chaka Demus and Pliers — murder they wrote]", ''[[Jamaica Observer]]'', 11 July 2012, retrieved 2012-07-12</ref> Toleo jipya la albamu ya ''Tease Me'' nalo lilishika nafasi ya kwanza kwenye chati za albamu za Uingereza ([[UK Albums Chart]]) mwaka 1994 na kutunukiwa cheti cha dhahabu (gold certification) baada ya kuuza nakala zaidi ya 500,000.<ref name="Campbell" /> Mnamo mwaka 1996, walisaini mkataba chini ya studio ya [[Island Records]] na kutoa albamu ya ''For Every Kinda People''.<ref>Oumano. Elena (1996) "[https://books.google.com/books?id=7SsEAAAAMBAJ&dq=chaka+demus+pliers&pg=PA144 ''For Every Kinda People'']", ''[[Vibe (magazine)|Vibe]]'', November 1996, p. 144. Retrieved 25 April 2016</ref> Walitumbuiza tena kwenye tamasha la Sunsplash miaka ya 2004 na 2008, na kutoa albamu ya ''Help Them Lord'' mnamo mwaka 2001.<ref name="Thompson" /> Mnamo tarehe 18 Novemba 2007, Chaka Demus & Pliers walitumbuiza wimbo wao wa "Murder She Wrote" pamoja na mwanamuziki mashuhuri [[Alicia Keys]] kwenye jukwaa la tuzo za [[American Music Awards of 2007|American Music Awards]]. Katika majira ya joto ya mwaka 2008, walitumbuiza kwenye tamasha la kila mwaka la Detroit Caribbean Festival. Albamu yao ya ''So Proud'' ilitoka rasmi tarehe 6 Oktoba 2008. Mnamo Julai 2013, walitumbuiza pia kwenye kipengele cha reggae katika utoaji wa tuzo za [[BET Awards]] wakiwa pamoja na wasanii wengine kama [[Dawn Penn]], [[Beenie Man]], na [[Elephant Man (mwanamuziki)|Elephant Man]].<ref name="Hamilton" /> == Kazi za muziki == === Albamu === *''Gal Wine Wine Wine'' (1992), [[Greensleeves Records|Greensleeves]] *''Bad Mind'' (1992), Pow Wow *''Ruff This Year'' (1992), [[Ras Records|RAS]] *''[[Tease Me (albamu)|Tease Me]]'' (1993), Mango (pia ilitoka kwa jina la ''All She Wrote'') – Nafasi ya 1 Uingereza, Nafasi ya 6 New Zealand, Nafasi ya 45 Australia. *''For Every Kinda People'' (1996), [[Island Records|Island]] *''Consciousness a Lick'' (1995), Melodie *''Dangerous'' (2000), Fuel 2000 *''Help Them Lord'' (2001), RAS *''Trouble and War'' (2003), Prestige *''Back Against the Wall'' (2005), Explorer *''Back Off the Wall'', Nocturne *''So Proud'' (2008), AGR/Universal '''Albamu za Mchanganyiko (Compilations)''' *''Gold'' (1992), Charm *''Chaka Demus & Pliers'' (1992), Charm *''Unstoppable 1986-1992'' (1996), Emporio *''Murder She Wrote'' (2000), Spectrum *''Dancehall Dons'' (2001), Recall *''Ultimate Collection'' (2002), Hip O *''Dancehall Classics'' (2004), Rhythm Club *''Run the City'' (2006), Dynamic *''On Top of the World'' (2008), Dynamic === Nyimbo zilizotambulishwa kama singo === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |- ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:2em;"| Mwaka ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:20em;"| Jina la Wimbo ! scope="col" colspan="10"| Nafasi Kwenye Chati ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:10em;"| Vyeti vya Mauzo ! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:13em;"| Albamu |- !scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[ARIA Charts|AUS]]<br><ref name="AUS">{{cite web|url=https://australian-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Chaka+Demus+%26+Pliers|title=Discography Chaka Demus & Pliers|website=australian-charts.com|publisher=Hung Medien|access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref> !scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[Ultratop|BEL<br>(Fl)]]<br/><ref name="Belgium's positions">{{cite web|url=https://www.ultratop.be/nl/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Chaka+Demus+%26+Pliers|title=Discografie Chaka Demus & Pliers|language=nl|website=ultratop.be|publisher=Hung Medien|access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref> !scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique|FRA]]<br><ref>{{cite web|url=https://lescharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Chaka+Demus+%26+Pliers|title=Discographie Chaka Demus & Pliers|language=fr|website=lescharts.com|publisher=Hung Medien|access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref> !scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[GfK Entertainment charts|GER]]<br><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.offiziellecharts.de/suche?artist_search=Chaka+Demus+%26+Pliers&do_search=do|language=de|title=Suchen nach "Chaka Demus & Pliers"|website=offiziellecharts.de|publisher=[[GfK Entertainment charts]]|access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref> !scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[Irish Singles Chart|IRE]]<br><ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615105015/http://irishcharts.ie/search/placement?page=1&search_type=artist&placement=Chaka+Demus|url=http://irishcharts.ie/search/placement?page=1&search_type=artist&placement=Chaka+Demus|url-status=live|title=Search results for "Chaka Demus"|website=irishcharts.ie|publisher=[[Irish Recorded Music Association]]|archive-date=15 June 2022|access-date=15 June 2022}}</ref> !scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[Dutch Single Top 100|NL]]<br><ref>{{cite web|url=https://dutchcharts.nl/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Chaka+Demus+%26+Pliers|title=Discografie Chaka Demus & Pliers|language=nl|website=dutchcharts.nl|publisher=Hung Medien|access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref> !scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[Official New Zealand Music Chart|NZ]]<br><ref name="NZ">{{cite web|url=https://charts.nz/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Chaka+Demus+%26+Pliers|title=Discography Chaka Demus & Pliers|website=charts.nz|publisher=Hung Medien|access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref> !scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| [[UK Singles Chart|UK]]<br><ref name="UK charts">{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/27599/chaka-demus-and-pliers/|title=Chaka Demus & Pliers - Full Official Chart History|website=officialcharts.com|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=2019-06-10}}</ref> !scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| Marekani<br>Hot 100<br><ref name="US Hot 100">{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/chaka-demus-pliers/chart-history|title=Chaka Demus & Pliers Chart History - Hot 100|website=billboard.com|publisher=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|access-date=2019-06-10|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118063724/https://www.billboard.com/music/chaka-demus-pliers|archive-date=2018-11-18}}</ref> !scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%"| Marekani<br>R&B<br><ref name="US R&B">{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/chaka-demus-pliers/chart-history/r-b-hip-hop-songs|title=Chaka Demus & Pliers Chart History - Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs|website=billboard.com|publisher=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|access-date=2019-06-10}}{{dead link|date=December 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> |- | 1992 ! scope="row"| "[[Murder She Wrote]]" <small>(Toleo la Marekani)</small> | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 57 | 39 | * [[RMNZ]]: Platinamu |align="left" rowspan="8"|''Tease Me / All She Wrote'' |- | rowspan="4"| 1993 ! scope="row"| "[[Tease Me (wimbo wa Chaka Demus & Pliers)|Tease Me]]" | 5 | 16 | 47 | 31 | 16 | 5 | 15 | 3 | — | — | *[[Australian Recording Industry Association|ARIA]]: Dhahabu<ref name="AU certs"/> *[[British Phonographic Industry|BPI]]: Dhahabu<ref name="UK certs"/> *RMNZ: Dhahabu |- ! scope="row"| "I Wanna Be Your Man" <small>(Toleo la Marekani)</small> | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 87 | |- ! scope="row"| "[[She Don't Let Nobody (But Me)#Chaka Demus & Pliers version|She Don't Let Nobody]]" | 37 | 26 | 19 | 59 | 9 | 12 | 20 | 4 | — | — | *BPI: Fedha<ref name="UK certs"/> *RMNZ: Platinamu |- ! scope="row"| "[[Twist and Shout]]" <small>(akishirikiana na Jack Radics na [[Sly and Robbie|Taxi Gang]])</small> | 13 | 7 | 23 | 32 | 9 | 8 | 2 | 1 | — | — | *ARIA: Dhahabu<ref name="AU certs"/> *BPI: Dhahabu<ref name="UK certs"/> *RMNZ: Dhahabu |- | rowspan="3"| 1994 ! scope="row"| "Murder She Wrote" <small>(Toleo la Kimataifa)</small> | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 27 | — | — | *BPI: Dhahabu<ref name="UK certs"/> |- ! scope="row"| "I Wanna Be Your Man" <small>(Toleo la Kimataifa)</small> | — | — | — | — | — | — | 30 | 19 | — | — | |- ! scope="row"| "Gal Wine" | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 20 | — | — | |- | 1996 ! scope="row"| "[[Every Kinda People]]" | — | — | — | — | — | — | 15 | 47 | — | — | |align="left"|''For Every Kinda People'' |- | 1997 ! scope="row"| "[[Every Little Thing She Does Is Magic]]" | — | — | — | — | — | — | 19 | 51 | — | — | |align="left"|''Reggatta Mondatta (A Reggae Tribute to The Police)'' |} == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Chaka Demus and Pliers}} [[Jamii:Wanamuziki wa Jamaika]] pzso16ro1wtkptlq39jj37t2iii3h04 0 239082 1580217 1551109 2026-07-18T01:25:22Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580217 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Eleanor Fortescue-Brickdale''' ([[Januari 25]], [[1872]] – [[Machi 10]], [[1945]]) alikuwa [[msanii]] wa [[Uingereza]], mtetezi wa mwisho wa Pre-Raphaelitism. Alitengeneza uchoraji kwa rangi ya mafuta na rangi za maji, vielelezo vya vitabu, na idadi ya miundo ya vioo vya rangi.<ref name="CWood">{{cite book|author=Christopher Wood|publisher=Antique Collectors' Club|year=1978|title=The Dictionary of Victorian Painters |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofvict00wood|isbn=0-902028-72-3}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wasanii wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1872]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1945]] 18hl5n172qc5picqd97bh4eqgryhi7a 3 240083 1580365 1559038 2026-07-18T11:25:11Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580365 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 30 Mei 2026 (UTC) ==Makala zako== Ndugu, hongera kwa juhudi zako. Hata hivyo naomba uangalie ninavyoboresha kurasa unazoanzisha ili ufanye vizuri zaidi. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 11:25, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) ou2gxzz8lfbdnf1daemmq87uy15ojme 1580376 1580365 2026-07-18T11:37:22Z Castro255 89781 /* Makala zako */ Jibu 1580376 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 30 Mei 2026 (UTC) ==Makala zako== Ndugu, hongera kwa juhudi zako. Hata hivyo naomba uangalie ninavyoboresha kurasa unazoanzisha ili ufanye vizuri zaidi. --'''[[Mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Riccardo Riccioni|majadiliano]])''' 11:25, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) :asante nafanyia kazi '''[[Mtumiaji:Castro255|Castro255]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Castro255#top|majadiliano]])''' 11:37, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) jrypaafvvohskbq6v9p52rqvrfxrey6 0 240142 1580029 1574200 2026-07-17T23:15:01Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 5 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580029 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox person | name = Ian Fleming | picha = Ian Fleming c. 1958 (cropped).jpg | maelezo = Fleming mnamo 1958 | tarehe ya kuzaliwa = {{birth date|1908|5|28|df=yes}} | mahali pa kuzaliwa = [[Mayfair]], London, Uingereza | tarehe ya kufa = {{death date and age|1964|8|12|1908|5|28|df=yes}} | mahali alipofia = [[Canterbury]], Kent, Uingereza | kazi maarufu = {{plainlist| * ''[[James Bond]]'' series * ''[[Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang]]'' }} | ndoa = {{marriage|[[Ann Fleming (socialite)|Ann Charteris]]|24 March 1952}} | watoto = 1 | mama = [[Evelyn St. Croix Fleming]] | baba = [[Valentine Fleming]] | ndugu = [[Peter Fleming (writer)|Peter Fleming]] (kaka)<br />[[Amaryllis Fleming]] (dada wa kambo) }} '''Ian Lancaster Fleming''' (28 Mei 1908 – 12 Agosti 1964) alikuwa mwandishi wa [[Uingereza]]. Anajulikana zaidi kwa mfululizo wake wa riwaya za kijasusi za [[James Bond]] zilizovuma baada ya [[Vita Vikuu vya Pili vya Dunia|Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia]]. Fleming alitoka katika familia tajiri iliyokuwa na uhusiano na benki ya Robert Fleming & Co. Baba yake alikuwa Mbunge wa Henley kuanzia mwaka 1910 hadi kifo chake kwenye Mapambano ya Magharibi mnamo 1917 wakati wa Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia. Alisoma katika shule za Eton, Sandhurst, na kwa muda mfupi katika Vyuo Vikuu vya Munich na Geneva kabla ya kujaribu kazi mbalimbali na hatimaye kuanza kuandika. Wakati wa Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia, Fleming alifanya kazi katika Kitengo cha Ujasusi wa Wanamaji cha Uingereza. Alihusika katika kupanga "Oparesheni Goldeneye" pamoja na kusimamia vitengo viwili vya kijasusi: 30 Assault Unit na T-Force. Uzoefu wake wa kijeshi na kazi yake ya uandishi wa habari ulimpa misingi, maelezo ya kina, na uhalisia uliosaidia kutengeneza simulizi za riwaya zake za James Bond. Fleming aliandika riwaya yake ya kwanza ya Bond, ''[[Casino Royale (novel)|Casino Royale]]'', mnamo mwaka 1952 akiwa na umri wa miaka 44. Kitabu hicho kilipata mafanikio makubwa na kuchapishwa mara tatu mfululizo ili kukidhi mahitaji. Riwaya nyingine 11 za Bond na mikusanyiko miwili ya hadithi fupi zilifuata kati ya mwaka 1953 na 1966. Hadithi hizi zinamhusu [[James Bond (literary character)|James Bond]], afisa wa Idara ya Ujasusi wa Siri (MI6) anayejulikana pia kwa namba ya siri 007, na ambaye alikuwa Kamanda wa Jeshi la Wanamaji la Akiba. Vitabu vya Bond vimo kwenye orodha ya safu za vitabu vya kubuni vilivyouzwa zaidi duniani, vikiwa vimevuka nakala milioni 100. Fleming pia aliandika kitabu cha watoto kiitwacho ''[[Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang]]'' (1964). Mnamo 2008, gazeti la ''[[The Times]]'' lilimweka Fleming katika nafasi ya 14 kwenye orodha ya "Waandishi 50 Wakuu wa Uingereza tangu mwaka 1945". Fleming alimwoa Anne Charteris baada ya Anne kupewa talaka na mume wake wa kwanza, Esmond Harmsworth, kwa sababu ya uhusiano wake wa siri na mwandishi huyo. Walipata mtoto mmoja wa kiume aitwaye Caspar. Fleming alikuwa mnywaji mkubwa wa pombe na mvutaji wa sigara uliokithiri, mambo yaliyopelekea kifo chake kutokana na matatizo ya ugonjwa wa moyo mnamo 1964 akiwa na umri wa miaka 56. Vitabu vyake viwili vya James Bond vilichapishwa baada ya kifo chake. Tangu wakati huo, waandishi wengine wameendelea kuandika riwaya za Bond. Kazi ya Fleming imetumika kutengeneza filamu mara 27, huku muhusika mkuu akichezwa na waigizaji sita tofauti kwenye mfululizo rasmi wa filamu hizo. {{TOC limit}} == Maisha ya awali == === Kuzaliwa na familia === [[File:A link to James Bond - geograph.org.uk - 1255756.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|right|alt=A discoloured brass plaque showing the names of those local men killed in the First World War|Kumbukumbu ya Vita ya Glenelg, inayonyesha jina la [[Valentine Fleming]], baba yake Ian]] Ian Lancaster Fleming alizaliwa tarehe 28 Mei 1908 huko Mayfair, [[London|London.]]<ref name="Lycett (DNB)" /><ref>{{cite book |publisher=General Register Office |location=United Kingdom |title=England and Wales Civil Registration Indexes |date=1837–1915 |volume=1a |page=420a}}</ref> Mama yake alikuwa Evelyn "Eve" Fleming na baba yake alikuwa Valentine Fleming, aliyekuwa Mbunge wa Henley tangu 1910 hadi 1917.<ref name=":0">{{Rejea tovuti |title=Fleming, Ian Lancaster, (28 May 1908 – 12 Aug. 1964), writer |url=https://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/10.1093/ww/9780199540891.001.0001/ww-9780199540884-e-56886 |access-date=3 March 2021 |website=Who's Who & Who Was Who |year=2007 |language=en |doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.u56886 |isbn=978-0-19-954089-1}}</ref><ref name="Churchill Obit" /> Fleming alikuwa mjukuu wa mfanyabiashara wa Scotland, [[Robert Fleming (financier)|Robert Fleming]], aliyeanzisha benki ya Robert Fleming & Co.<ref name="Lycett (DNB)" />{{efn|Tangu mwaka 2000, Robert Fleming & Co imekuwa sehemu ya [[JPMorgan Chase]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Griffiths |first=Katherine |title=Abbey buys Fleming Premier for £106m |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |date=15 May 2001 |page=18 |location=London}}</ref>}} Mnamo 1914, kufuatia kuanza kwa Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia, Valentine Fleming alijiunga na jeshi na kufikia cheo cha meja.<ref name="Churchill Obit" /> Aliuawa kwa mashambulizi ya mizinga ya Ujerumani huko Ufaransa tarehe 20 Mei 1917. [[Winston Churchill]] aliandika wasifu wa sifa (tanzia) uliosomwa kwenye gazeti la ''[[The Times]]''.{{sfn|Lycett|1996|p=12}} Kaka yake mkubwa, [[Peter Fleming (writer)|Peter Fleming]], alikuwa mwandishi wa safari na alioana na mwigizaji [[Celia Johnson]].<ref name="PF Obit (1971)" /> Peter alitumikia jeshi wakati wa Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia katika oparesheni za siri huko Norway na Ugiriki.<ref name="PF Obit (1971)" /> Fleming alikuwa na wadogo wawili wa kiume, Richard na Michael, waliotumikia jeshi pia, ambapo Michael alifariki kutokana na majeraha ya vita mnamo Oktoba 1940 baada ya kukamatwa Normandy.<ref>{{cite web |title=A Casualty of War |url=https://www.ianfleming.com/timeline/michael-fleming-dies/ |website=ianfleming.com |date=16 August 2016 |access-date=22 January 2021}}</ref> Alikuwa na dada wa kambo upande wa mama aliyezaliwa nje ya ndoa, mpiga selo [[Amaryllis Fleming]] (1925–1999), ambaye baba yake alikuwa msanii [[Augustus John]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Fleming |first=Fergus |title=Amaryllis Fleming |department=Obiturary |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-amaryllis-fleming-1110720.html |access-date=4 December 2011 |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |date=5 August 1999 |location=London}}</ref> === Elimu na kazi za awali === Mnamo 1914 Fleming alihudhuria Shule ya Durnford huko Dorset ambako hakufurahia maisha kutokana na chakula kibaya na manyanyaso kutoka kwa wanafunzi wenzake.{{sfn|DelFattore|1989|p=86}} [[File:Eton College quadrangle.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A building in the Tudor style with a courtyard in front|[[Eton College]], shule aliyosoma Fleming kuanzia 1921 hadi 1927]] Mwaka 1921 alijiunga na [[Eton College]]. Hakuwa na matokeo makubwa kitaaluma lakini aling'ara sana katika riadha na kushinda taji la mchezaji bora (Victor Ludorum) mara mbili kati ya 1925 na 1927.{{sfn|Macintyre|2008|p=33}} Mtindo wake wa maisha ulimfanya agongane na mkuu wa bweni lake kwa sababu ya tabia zake, mafuta ya nywele, kumiliki gari, na mahusiano na wanawake.{{sfn| DelFattore |1989|p=86}} Aliondolewa Eton mapema na kupelekwa Chuo cha Kijeshi cha Sandhurst, lakini aliondoka huko mnamo 1927 bila kupata cheo baada ya kuambukizwa ugonjwa wa kisonono.{{sfn|Macintyre|2008|p=33}} Mnamo 1927, mama yake alimhamisha katika shule binafsi huko Austria ili kujiandaa na kazi katika Wizara ya Mambo ya Nje.{{sfn|Benson|1988|p=45}} Baadaye alisoma kwa muda mfupi Munich na Geneva.<ref name="Lycett (DNB)" /> Licha ya kufaulu mtihani wa kuingia Wizara ya Mambo ya Nje, hakupata nafasi ya kazi.{{sfn|Lycett|1996|p=46}} Mnamo Oktoba 1931, kupitia ushawishi wa mama yake, alipata kazi kama mwandishi wa habari katika shirika la habari la [[Reuters]].<ref name="Lycett (DNB)" /> Mwaka 1933 alitumwa [[Moscow]] kuripoti kesi ya wahandisi sita Waingereza walioshitakiwa na serikali ya [[Josef Stalin|Stalin]].{{sfn|Benson|1988|p=46}} Alirudi London na kuacha uchumba wake na mpenzi wake Monique Panchaud baada ya mama yake kutishia kumnyima urithi wake.{{sfn|Lycett|1996|p=59}} Mnamo Oktoba 1933, aliingia kwenye masuala ya benki na udalali wa hisa lakini hakufanikiwa katika tasnia hizo.{{sfn|Lycett|1996|p=72}} Mwaka 1939, Fleming alianza uhusiano wa kimapenzi na Ann O'Neill, ambaye wakati huo alikuwa mke wa Baron O'Neill wa tatu.{{sfn|Lycett|1996|p=96}} == Mtindo na mfumo wa uandishi == Mwandishi Raymond Benson alibainisha kuwa vitabu vya Fleming vimegawanyika katika vipindi viwili. Vitabu vya kati ya 1953 na 1960 vililenga zaidi maendeleo ya wahusika na mazingira, wakati vile vya kati ya 1961 na 1966 vilibeba maelezo mengi zaidi ya picha na taswira.{{sfn|Benson|1988|pp=85, 31}} Vitabu vya mwanzo vilionyesha harakati za Vita Baridi dhidi ya shirika la Urusi la SMERSH, huku vile vya baadaye vikionyesha mapambano dhidi ya Ernst Stavro Blofeld na shirika la kigaidi la SPECTRE.{{sfn|Black|2005|p=49}} Fleming alieleza kuwa alikuwa akiandika kwa takriban saa tatu asubuhi na saa moja jioni, bila kusahihisha au kurudia kusoma alichokiandika kwa siku hiyo, mfumo uliomwezesha kuandika maneno 2,000 kwa siku.{{sfn|Faulks|Fleming|2009|p=320}} Alitumia mbinu ya kuacha maswali au matukio yenye utata mwishoni mwa kila sura (taharuki) ili kumfanya msomaji awe na hamu ya kuendelea na sura inayofuata kwa haraka.{{sfn|Benson|1988|p=85}} Pia alipenda kutumia majina ya bidhaa halisi zinazojulikana sokoni ili kuongeza uhalisia wa matukio ya kijasusi katika riwaya zake.{{sfn|Faulks|Fleming|2009|p=320}} == Mandhari kuu katika vitabu vyake == === Nafasi ya Uingereza Duniani === Vitabu vya Bond viliandikwa kipindi ambacho Dola ya Uingereza ilikuwa ikipoteza nguvu na makoloni yake duniani.{{sfn|Black|2005|p=3}} Kupitia muhusika wa James Bond, Fleming alitengeneza taswira ya kufikirika kwamba Uingereza bado ilikuwa na nguvu kubwa ya kijeshi na ujasusi duniani kuliko uhalisia ulivyokuwa. Katika riwaya ya ''You Only Live Twice'' (1964), Fleming anaonyesha wazi mtazamo huu kupitia mazungumzo kati ya Bond na mkuu wa usalama wa Japan, Tiger Tanaka, anayeilaumu Uingereza kwa kutupa himaya yake kwa mikono miwili.{{sfn|Macintyre|2008|p=113}} === Athari za Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia === Mada ya madhara ya Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia ilijitokeza sana katika vitabu vyote. Fleming alitumia ushiriki wa wahusika katika vita hiyo kutofautisha wema na uovu; maadui wengi walionyeshwa kama maofisa wa zamani wa ngazi za juu wa Chama cha Nazi cha Ujerumani au Gestapo (kama vile Drax katika Moonraker na Hammerstein katika For Your Eyes Only), jambo lililoendana na jinsi jamii ya Uingereza ilivyokuwa ikiwatazama Wajerumani katika miaka ya 1950.{{sfn|Black|2005|p=20}} == Kazi zake == {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} * '''Riwaya za James Bond''' ** [[Casino Royale (novel)|''Casino Royale'']] (1953) ** ''[[Live and Let Die (novel)|Live and Let Die]]'' (1954) ** [[Moonraker (novel)|''Moonraker'']] (1955) ** [[Diamonds Are Forever (novel)|''Diamonds Are Forever'']] (1956) ** [[From Russia, with Love (novel)|''From Russia, with Love'']] (1957) ** [[Dr. No (novel)|''Dr. No'']] (1958) ** [[Goldfinger (novel)|''Goldfinger'']] (1959) ** [[Thunderball (novel)|''Thunderball'']] (1961) ** [[The Spy Who Loved Me (novel)|''The Spy Who Loved Me'']] (1962) ** [[On Her Majesty's Secret Service (novel)|''On Her Majesty'']] (1963) ** [[You Only Live Twice (novel)|''You Only Live Twice'']] (1964) ** [[The Man with the Golden Gun (novel)|''The Man with the Golden Gun'']] (1965) {{col-break}} * '''Mikusanyiko ya Hadithi Fupi za Bond''' ** [[For Your Eyes Only (short story collection)|''For Your Eyes Only'']] (1960) ** ''[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights]]'' (1966) * '''Kazi Zingine''' ** ''[[The Diamond Smugglers]]'' (1957) ** ''[[Thrilling Cities]]'' (1963) ** ''[[Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang]]'' (1964) ** ''[[The Poppy Is Also a Flower]]'' (1966) {{col-end}} == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}<ref>{{cite ODNB |last=Lycett |first=Andrew |title=Fleming, Ian Lancaster (1908–1964) |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33168 |access-date=3 December 2011 |authorlink=Andrew Lycett |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/33168 |year=2004}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last=Duns |first=Jeremy |title=Gold Dust |journal=Kiss Kiss Bang Bang |date=Winter 2005 |issue=2 |pages=39–47 |author-link=Jeremy Duns |publisher=James Bond International Fan Club}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |last=Churchill |first=Winston |title=Valentine Fleming. An appreciation |newspaper=[[The Times]] |date=25 May 1917 |author-link=Winston Churchill |location=London |page=9}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |title=Obituary: Colonel Peter Fleming, Author and explorer |newspaper=[[The Times]] |date=20 August 1971 |location=London |page=14}}</ref> <ref>{{cite ODNB |last=Lycett |first=Andrew |title=Fleming, Ann Geraldine Mary {{bracket|other married names Ann Geraldine Mary O'Neill, Lady O'Neill; Ann Geraldine Mary Harmsworth, Viscountess Rothermere}} (1913–1981) |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/40227 |access-date=15 December 2011 |authorlink=Andrew Lycett |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/40227 |year=2004}} {{ODNBsub}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |title=James Bond, Ornithologist, 89; Fleming Adopted Name for 007 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/02/17/obituaries/james-bond-ornithologist-89-fleming-adopted-name-for-007.html |access-date=24 February 2013 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=17 February 1989 |location=New York}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite AV media |title=The Bond Correspondence |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/pip/j9eoh/ |access-date=29 July 2012 |publisher=[[BBC Radio 4]] |date=24 May 2008}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |title=The great Bond cover up |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/gallery/2008/may/07/1 |access-date=8 September 2011 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=8 May 2008 |location=London}}</ref> <ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hellman |first=Geoffrey T. |title=Bond's Creator |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/1962/04/21/1962_04_21_032_TNY_CARDS_000268062#ixzz1XRLtznvp |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |authorlink=Geoffrey T. Hellman |page=32 |date=21 April 1962}}<!-- {{subscription required}} – not. --> </ref> <ref>{{cite news |last=Macintyre |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Macintyre |title=Bond&nbsp;– the real Bond |newspaper=[[The Times]] |page=36 |location=London |date=5 April 2008 |ref=none}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |last=Cook |first=William |title=Novel man |newspaper=[[New Statesman]] |date=28 June 2004 |page=40}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last=Bergonzi |first=Bernard |title=The Case of Mr Fleming |journal=Twentieth Century |date=March 1958 |author-link=Bernard Bergonzi |page=221}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Johnson (writer) |title=Sex, Snobbery and Sadism |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/society/2007/02/1958-bond-fleming-girl-sex |journal=[[New Statesman]] |date=5 April 1958 |page=430}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |title=The Ian Fleming Collection of 19th–20th Century Source Material Concerning Western Civilization together with the Originals of the James Bond-007 Tales: a machine-readable transcription |url=http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/etexts/fleming/ |work=Lilly Library Publications Online |date=7 May 2003 |publisher=[[Lilly Library]] |access-date=14 December 2011}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |last=Sellers |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Sellers |title=The battle for the soul of Thunderball |newspaper=[[The Sunday Times]] |location=London |page=32 |date=30 December 2007}}</ref> <ref>{{cite video |year=1999 |contribution=Inside Dr. No Documentary |title=Dr. No (Ultimate Edition, 2006) |medium=DVD |publisher=[[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]]}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |title=Obituary: Mr. Ian Fleming |newspaper=[[The Times]] |location=London |date=13 August 1964 |page=12}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news |last=Hitchens |first=Christopher |title=Bottoms Up |newspaper=[[The Atlantic|The Atlantic Monthly]] |date=April 2006 |author-link=Christopher Hitchens |page=101}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last=Cork |first=John |author-link=John Cork |title=The man with the golden pen |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bookseller_2002-09-20_5044/page/20 |journal=[[The Bookseller]] |date=20 September 2002 |issue=5044 |page=20 |issn=0006-7539}}</ref> }} == Vyanzo == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Amis |first=Kingsley |author-link=Kingsley Amis |title=The James Bond Dossier |year=1966 |publisher=[[Pan Books]] |location=London |oclc=752401390 |title-link=The James Bond Dossier}} * {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Tony |author-link=Tony Bennett (sociologist) |last2=Woollacott |first2=Janet |contribution=The Moments of Bond |editor-last=Lindner |editor-first=Christoph |title=The James Bond Phenomenon: A Critical Reader |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesbondphenome0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |location=Manchester |isbn=978-0-7190-6541-5}} * {{cite book |last=Benson |first=Raymond |author-link=Raymond Benson |title=The James Bond Bedside Companion |year=1988 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Boxtree Ltd]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-85283-233-9 |title-link=The James Bond Bedside Companion}} * {{cite book |last=Black |first=Jeremy |author-link=Jeremy Black (historian) |title=The Politics of James Bond: From Fleming's Novel to the Big Screen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4-sFrU8Xw0C&q=Clarence%20Leiter&pg=PP1 |year=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |location=Lincoln, Nebraska |isbn=978-0-8032-6240-9}} * {{cite book |last=Britton |first=Wesley Alan |title=Spy Television |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rl9nk8abyWcC&q=%22casino%20royale%22%20%22barry%20nelson%22&pg=PR4 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |year=2004 |edition=2 |location=Westport, Connecticut |isbn=978-0-275-98163-1}} * {{cite book |last=Burgess |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Burgess |title=99 Novels. The Best in English Since 1939: A Personal Choice |year=1984 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster|Summit Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-671-52407-4 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/99novelsbestine00burg}} * {{cite book |last=Chancellor |first=Henry |title=James Bond: The Man and His World |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesbondmanhisw0000chan |year=2005 |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7195-6815-2}} * {{cite book |last=DelFattore |first=Joan |author-link=Joan DelFattore |contribution=Ian Fleming |editor1-first=Bernard |editor1-last=Benstock |editor1-link=Bernard Benstock |editor2-first=Thomas |editor2-last=Staley |title=British Mystery and Thriller Writers Since 1940 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflite00bern |url-access=registration |year=1989 |publisher=[[Gale (publisher)|Gale Research]] |location=Detroit |isbn=978-0-7876-3072-0}} * {{cite book |last=Eco |first=Umberto |author-link=Umberto Eco |contribution=Narrative Structures in Fleming |editor-last=Lindner |editor-first=Christoph |title=The James Bond Phenomenon: A Critical Reader |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesbondphenome0000unse |year=2003 |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |location=Manchester |isbn=978-0-7190-6541-5}} * {{cite book |last1=Faulks |first1=Sebastian |last2=Fleming |first2=Ian |authorlink1=Sebastian Faulks |year=2009 |title=Devil May Care |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-103545-1 |title-link=Devil May Care (Faulks novel)}} * {{cite book |last=Fleming |first=Ian |title=Thrilling Cities |year=1963 |publisher=[[Jonathan Cape]] |location=London |title-link=Thrilling Cities}} * {{cite book |last=Fleming |first=Ian |title=Goldfinger |url=https://archive.org/details/goldfinger0000flem_u8g6 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-102831-6}} * {{cite book |last1=Fleming |first1=Ian |last2=Welsh |first2=Louise |authorlink2=Louise Welsh |title=Live and Let Die |year=2006 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-102832-3}} * {{cite book |last1=Fleming |first1=Ian |last2=Higson |first2=Charlie |authorlink2=Charlie Higson |title=From Russia, with Love |url=https://archive.org/details/fromrussiawithlo0000flem_z7m1 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-14-102829-3}} * {{cite book |last=Gant |first=Richard |author-link=Brian Freemantle |title=Ian Fleming: Man with the Golden Pen |publisher=Mayflower-Dell |year=1966 |location=London |oclc=487676374}} * {{cite book |last=Griswold |first=John |title=Ian Fleming's James Bond: Annotations And Chronologies for Ian Fleming's Bond Stories |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uariyzldrJwC&q=Ian%20Fleming's%20James%20Bond%3A%20Annotations%20And%20Chronologies%20For%20Ian%20Fleming's%20Bond%20Stories&pg=PP1 |publisher=[[AuthorHouse]] |location=Bloomington, Indiana |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-4259-3100-1}} * {{cite book |last1=Lane |first1=Andy |last2=Simpson |authorlink1=Andy Lane |first2=Paul |year=2000 |title=The Bond Files: The Unofficial Guide to the World's Greatest Secret Agent |url=https://archive.org/details/bondfiles0000andr |publisher=[[Virgin Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7535-0490-1}} * {{cite book |last=Lindner |first=Christoph |title=The James Bond Phenomenon: A Critical Reader |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x9-1QY5boUsC&pg=PP1 |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |location=Manchester |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7190-6541-5}} * {{cite book |last=Longden |first=Sean |author-link=Sean Longden |title=T-Force: The Race for Nazi War Secrets, 1945 |url=https://archive.org/details/tforceracefornaz0000long |year=2010 |publisher=[[Constable & Robinson]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-84901-297-3}} * {{cite book |last=Lycett |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Lycett |title=Ian Fleming |url=https://archive.org/details/ianfleming0000lyce_f3b7 |year=1996 |publisher=Phoenix |location=London |isbn=978-1-85799-783-5}} * {{cite book |last=Macintyre |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Macintyre |title=For Your Eyes Only |url=https://archive.org/details/foryoureyesonlyi0000maci |year=2008 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7475-9527-4}} * {{cite book |last=Macintyre |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Macintyre |title=Operation Mincemeat: The True Spy Story That Changed the Course of World War II |url=https://archive.org/details/operationminceme0000maci |url-access=registration |year=2010 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-4088-0921-1}} * {{cite book |last=MacLean |first=Rory |author-link=Rory MacLean |title=Gift of Time |url=https://archive.org/details/giftoftime0000macl |year=2012 |publisher=[[Constable & Robinson]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-84901-857-9}} * {{cite book |last=Pearson |first=John |author-link=John Pearson (author) |title=The Life of Ian Fleming: Creator of James Bond |publisher=[[Pan Books]] |location=London |year=1967}} * {{cite book |last1=Pfeiffer |first1=Lee |last2=Worrall |first2=Dave |title=The Essential Bond |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialbondaut0000pfei_e2s2 |year=1998 |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|Boxtree Ltd]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-7522-2477-0}} * {{cite book |last=Rankin |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Rankin |title=Ian Fleming's Commandos: The Story of 30 Assault Unit in WWII |year=2011 |publisher=[[Faber and Faber]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-571-25062-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ianflemingscomma0000rank}} * {{cite book |last=Winn |first=Christopher |title=I Never Knew That About England |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_q5B1szl1KcC&pg=PP1 |year=2012 |publisher=[[Random House]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-4481-4606-2}} {{Refend}} == Jisomee == * J.C. "The Agent's Secret." ''[[The Times Literary Supplement]]'' no. 5946 (2017): 36. * Gilbert, Jon. (2023). "A Bibliography of Biographies of Ian Fleming." ''[[The Book Collector]]'' 72 no.4 (winter): 704–709. * Lett, Brian (2012). ''Ian Fleming and SOE's Operation Postmaster: The Top Secret Story Behind 007''. {{ISBN|978-1-5267-8751-4}} * Lycett, Andrew (2020). ''Ian Fleming: The Man Who Created James Bond''. Orion Publishing Group. {{ISBN|978-1-4746-1797-0}}. * {{cite journal |author-last1=Moran |author-first1=Christopher R. |author-last2=McCrisken |author-first2=Trevor |title=The secret life of Ian Fleming: spies, lies and social ties |journal=[[Contemporary British History]] |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13619462.2018.1545579 |year=2019 |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=336–356 |doi=10.1080/13619462.2018.1519431 |s2cid=150004633 |ref=none|url-access=subscription }} * Muir, P. H.(1965). "Ian Fleming: A Personal Memoir." ''[[The Book Collector]]'' 14 no. 1 (Spring): 24–33. * {{cite book |last=Shakespeare |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Shakespeare |title=Ian Fleming: The Complete Man |year=2023 |publisher=Harvill Secker |isbn=978-1-78730-241-9 |ref=none}} == Viungo vya nje == {{Sister project links|wikt=no|commons=Category:Ian Fleming|b=no|n=no|q=Ian Fleming|s=no|v=no|species=no|display=Ian Fleming}} * {{Official website|http://www.ianfleming.com/}} * {{IMDb name|id=0001220|name=Ian Fleming}} * {{FadedPage|id=Fleming, Ian|name=Ian Fleming|author=yes}} * {{UK National Archives ID}} * {{NPG name}} {{Ian Fleming|state=autocollapse}} {{James Bond books|state=autocollapse}} {{James Bond}} {{BD|1908|1964}} [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Uingereza]] 64807uhl9pll3ralxntus4p61hekuhv 0 240543 1580174 1569075 2026-07-18T00:53:17Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580174 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dolores Vallecita''' (10 Mei 1877 – 13 Januari 1925), aliyefahamika pia kama '''Dolly Vallecita Hill''', alikuwa msanii wa vaudeville wa [[Marekani]] na mkufunzi wa wanyama wa sarakasi.<ref>{{cite book |last=Slide |first=Anthony |year=2012 |title=The Encyclopedia of Vaudeville |location=Jackson |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |page=13 |isbn=978-1-617-03250-9}}</ref> == Wasifu == Dolores Vallecita alizaliwa tarehe 10 Mei 1877 huko Natchez, Mississippi, nchini Marekani, ingawa baadhi ya vyanzo vinadai kuwa alizaliwa nchini Hispania. Alipokuwa akifuga farasi wadogo wa Shetland kwa shughuli za kibiashara, alipata fursa ya kukutana na watu wa sarakasi. Vallecita alifanya kazi kama mkufunzi wa wanyama kwa Frank Bostock, na alianza kufundisha wanyama wa porini mwaka 1900. Kadiri muda ulivyopita, alipata shauku kubwa zaidi kwa wanyama hao na kuendelea kujifunza mbinu za kuwafundisha.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tait |first=Peta |date=2011 |title=Wild and Dangerous Performances: Animals, Emotions, Circus |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=110 |doi=10.1057/9780230354012 |isbn=978-0-230-35401-2}}</ref> Mwaka 1905 alifanya maonesho yake ya kwanza katika Makumbusho ya Austin & Stone huko Boston akiwa na puma wawili, [[chui]] mmoja na [[simba]] mmoja. Baadaye alihamia [[Denver]], ambako alinunua chui watano. Vallecita alipata mafanikio makubwa katika maonesho yake yaliyofanyika Luna Park huko [[Scranton, Pennsylvania]]. Hata hivyo, maonesho hayo yalizua mabishano pale Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) ya Massachusetts ilipomshutumu kwa kujitangaza kuwa mwanachama hai wa shirika hilo huku akimiliki chui wakubwa wa India.<ref>{{Rejea jarida |date=March 1920 |title=Club Membership Nearing 100,000 Mark |journal=Our Dumb Animals |publisher=Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals |volume=52 |issue=10 |page=148}}</ref> Aliwafundisha chui wake sita wa India kufanya mbinu mbalimbali kama vile kuzungusha mipira mikubwa, kutumia msumeno wa mizani (see-saw), kuendesha gurudumu la umeme, kupanga umbo la piramidi na kupiga picha wakiwa katika mikao maalumu.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gard |first=Robert Edward |date=1974 |title=Wisconsin Lore: Antics and Anecdotes of Wisconsin People and Places |url=https://archive.org/details/wisconsinlore0000unse |location=Madison, Wisconsin |publisher=Wisconsin House |page=[https://archive.org/details/wisconsinlore0000unse/page/232 232] |isbn=978-0-883-61008-4}}</ref> Katika miaka ya 1907 hadi 1908 alifanya ziara duniani kote na kutumbuiza katika miji mikubwa kama [[London]], [[Berlin]] na [[Havana]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bloomfield |first=Ron |date=2012 |title=Legendary Locals of Bay City, Michigan |location=Charleston, South Carolina |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |page=85 |isbn=978-1-467-10019-9}}</ref> Aliolewa na Arthur I. Hill, mfanyabiashara wa wanyama aliyekuwa akiishi [[New York City|New York]]. == Kifo == Dolores Vallecita alifariki tarehe 13 Januari 1925 huko [[Bay City, Michigan]]. Kifo chake kilitokana na ajali iliyotokea wakati mmoja wa chui wake alipomshambulia na kumrarua koo. Alikimbizwa katika Hospitali ya Mercy lakini alifariki muda mfupi baadaye kutokana na majeraha hayo.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |last=Rogers |first=Dave |date=17 Oktoba 2010 |title=Elm Lawn Cemetery Honors Vaudeville Figure Killed Here in 1925 by Leopard |url=http://www.mybaycity.com/scripts/p3_v2/P3V3-0200.cfm?P3_newspaperID=NewspaperID&P3_ArticleID=5314 |website=mybaycity.com |access-date=18 Januari 2025}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}} {{Mbegu-mtu}} {{BD|1877|1925}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] nab42sivetcjsp1rt4wai61dt4csz3u 0 240801 1580171 1571147 2026-07-18T00:50:48Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580171 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:The Tano River.jpg|thumb|Muonekano wa Mto Tano nchini Ghana]] '''Mto Tano''' (kwa [[Kifaransa]]: ''Rivière Tanoé'') ni [[mto]] uliopo upande wa magharibi mwa [[Afrika]], ukipita katika nchi za [[Ghana]] na Kodivaa. Mto huu una urefu wa [[kilomita]] 400 (sawa na maili 250) ukianzia karibu na mji wa Traa, uliopo pembezoni mwa mji wa [[Techiman]] ambao ni makao makuu ya Mkoa wa Bono Mashariki nchini Ghana. Kutoka hapo, unatiririka hadi kuingia kwenye rasi za Ehy, Tendo, na hatimaye rasi ya Aby nchini [[Kodivaa]] ambapo unaishia katika [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]]. Mto Tano unaunda kilomita chache za mwisho za mpaka wa kimataifa wa nchi kavu kati ya Ghana na Kodivaa.<ref name="KonaduCampbell2016">{{cite book |last1=Konadu |first1=Kwasi |last2=Campbell |first2=Clifford C. |title=The Ghana Reader |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780822359845 |date=2016 |publisher=Duke University |location=Durham. North Carolina and London, England |isbn=978-0-8223-5992-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780822359845/page/39 39]–40}}</ref><ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20140104033636/http://wrc-gh.org/en/basins/20/tano Tano Basin]. ''Water Resources Commission of Ghana''.</ref><ref>{{Rejea jarida |last=Asare‑Donkor |first=Noah Kyame |last2=Adimado |first2=Anthony Apeke |date=2016 |title=Influence of mining related activities on levels of mercury in water, sediment and fish from the Ankobra and Tano River basins in South Western Ghana |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/81847678.pdf |journal=Environmental Systems Research}}</ref> == Imani za kiasili == Kulingana na imani na utamaduni wa wenyeji wa kabila la Wabono, Mto Tano una umuhimu mkubwa sana wa kiroho. Jamii hiyo inaamini kwamba Taakora, ambaye ndiye mungu mkuu na wa juu zaidi wa Wabono hapa duniani, anaishi kwenye chanzo cha mto huu, jambo linalofanya eneo hilo kuchukuliwa kuwa takatifu.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130216063641/http://patachu.com/tano-river/ Tano River]. ''patachu.com''.</ref> == Ikolojia na uhifadhi == Mazingira yanayozunguka Mto Tano yana umuhimu mkubwa wa kiikolojia kwa utunzaji wa wanyama adimu barani [[Afrika]]. Misitu iliyopo kati ya mto huu na Rasi ya Ehy inasadikiwa kuwa makazi ya mwisho ya sokwe adimu wa aina ya "Miss Waldron's Red Colobus" (''Piliocolobus badius waldronae''), ambao ni miongoni mwa wanyama wanyonyeshaji walio hatarini zaidi kutoweka duniani.<ref>McGraw, W. Scott (2005): Update on the Search for Miss Waldron's Red Colobus Monkey. ''International Journal of Primatology'' '''26'''(3): 605–619.</ref> Katika miaka ya nyuma, eneo hili lilikabiliwa na tishio la uharibifu wa mazingira kufuatia mipango ya ukataji miti kwa ajili ya kuanzisha mashamba makubwa ya miche ya mierezi na michikichi ya mafuta.<ref>Wolzer, Chris (2008): Tanoé Swamps Forest destruction by Unilever. Version of 2008-MAY-28.</ref><ref name=":0" /> == Changamoto za mazingira == Mnamo Januari 2020, mto huu ulikabiliwa na dharura kubwa ya mazingira baada ya gari kubwa lililokuwa limebeba shehena ya Asidi ya salfuriki kupata ajali na kupinduka ndani ya Mto Tano. Tukio hilo lilisababisha uchafuzi mkubwa wa maji, ambapo tarehe 13 Januari 2020 wananchi walionyeshwa na kushauriwa kutoacha kabisa kutumia au kunywa maji ya mto huo kwa usalama wa afya zao. Hata hivyo, mamlaka za maji zilikabiliana na changamoto hiyo na kufanikiwa kusafisha mto huo hadi kurudi katika hali yake ya asili ya kiikolojia.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti |title=Poisoned Tano River Restored – GWCL |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/979917/poisoned-tano-river-restored-gwcl.html |website=Modern Ghana}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Marejeo}} [[Jamii:Mito ya Cote d'Ivoire]] [[Jamii:Mito ya Afrika]] [[Jamii:Mito ya Ghana]] [[Jamii:AWC 2026]] e2xat24ntgu36a9mlm2rixjunw9m6nz 0 240895 1580102 1573024 2026-07-18T00:07:06Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580102 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Faili:Mouth of the Lofa (2023-12-24 Sentinel-2 L2A).png|thumb|[[Mdomo wa mto]] Lofa]] '''Mto Lofa''' (pia '''Mto Loffa''') ni [[mto]] wa kimataifa uliopo upande wa [[magharibi]] mwa [[Afrika]] ambao unapita katika nchi za [[Guinea]] na [[Liberia]]. Chanzo kikuu cha maji cha mto huu kinaanzia kaskazini-mashariki mwa mji wa Macenta uliopo mashariki mwa Guinea, kisha unatiririka kuelekea upande wa kusini-magharibi kupitia kaskazini-mashariki mwa Liberia kabla ya kumwaga maji yake katika [[Bahari ya Atlantiki]].<ref name=map>(1) {{cite web|url=https://www.worldometers.info/img/maps/liberia_physical_map.gif|title=Liberia Physical Map|work=Worldometers|accessdate=24 June 2020|archive-date=24 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624034902/https://www.worldometers.info/img/maps/liberia_physical_map.gif|url-status=dead}}.<br>(2) {{cite web|url=http://ontheworldmap.com/liberia/liberia-political-map.jpg|title=Liberia Political Map|work=OnTheWorldMap|accessdate=24 June 2020|archive-date=24 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200624045824/http://ontheworldmap.com/liberia/liberia-political-map.jpg|url-status=dead}}.</ref> Mto huu una urefu wa kilomita 410 na beseni lenye ukubwa wa kilomita za mraba 10,446, ambapo unazalisha wastani wa mita za ujazo bilioni 18.63 za maji kwa mwaka.<ref name="River Basins">{{cite web|url=http://twap-rivers.org/indicators|title=River Basins|accessdate=2026-06-13|archive-date=2024-01-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117234333/http://twap-rivers.org/indicators/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Kihistoria, mto huu pia uliwahi kujulikana kwa jina la ''Little Cape Mount River''.<ref name="expl">{{cite book | title = African-American Exploration in West Africa: Four Nineteenth-century Diaries | url = https://archive.org/details/africanamericane0000unse_y0n2 |author1=Sims, James L. |author2=Seymour, George L. |author3=Anderson, Benjamin J. K. |author4=Fairhead, James | isbn = 0-253-34194-9|publisher = [[Indiana University Press]] |year = 2003 | page = [https://archive.org/details/africanamericane0000unse_y0n2/page/375 375]}}</ref> Ndani ya ardhi ya Liberia, katika Kaunti ya Lofa, Mto Lofa unapokea maji kutoka kwa tawari lake muhimu linalojulikana kama Mto Lawa.<ref name=map/> == Uchumi na ekolojia == Katika nyanja ya kiuchumi, mto huu una historia ya kuwa na maeneo ya uchimbaji wa madini, ambapo vibali kadhaa vya serikali kwa ajili ya usimamizi na uendeshaji wa machimbo ya [[almasi]] kando ya Mto Lofa vilitolewa mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1950 na mapema miaka ya 1960.<ref name="diamonds">{{cite book | title = West African Diamonds | author = Greenhalgh, Peter | isbn = 0-7190-1763-7 | pages = 72–73 | year = 1985 | publisher = Manchester University Press}}</ref> Upande wa ekolojia na utunzaji wa viumbe hai, bonde la Mto Lofa ni makazi muhimu ya asili kwa wanyama adimu wa mwituni barani [[Afrika]]. Miongoni mwa wanyama asili wanaopatikana katika mfumo wa mto huu ni pamoja na [[Kiboko Kibete|kiboko kibete]], mnyama anayevutia watafiti wengi wa wanyamapori kutokana na kuwa hatarini kutoweka duniani.<ref name="nyt">{{cite news | url = https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1912/07/14/100542377.pdf | title = At last New York has a pair of pygmy hippos | date = July 14, 1912 | accessdate = 2009-01-12 | format = PDF | work = [[The New York Times]] }}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Marejeo}} {{Mbegu-jio-Afrika}} [[Jamii:Mito ya Guinea]] [[Jamii:Mito ya Liberia]] [[Jamii:Mito ya Afrika]] [[Jamii:AWC 2026]] 20015ezjn0zlkg8m8icbo2udgf6ysll 0 241224 1580067 1575405 2026-07-17T23:43:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580067 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:The Four Horsemen (CBL WEp 0021).jpg|thumb|''Wapandafarasi wanne wa Ufunuo'', kazi ya [[Albrecht Dürer]] (1497–1498).]] '''Mwisho wa nyakati''' (au '''Nyakati za mwisho'''<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/beliefs/endtimes_1.shtml |title= BBC – Religions – Christianity: End Times |work= [[BBC Online]] |date= 2011-07-19 |access-date= 2017-11-10}}</ref>) ni zile zinazotarajiwa na waumini wa [[dini]] mbalimbali kama kikomo cha [[historia]] ya [[binadamu]] na [[ulimwengu]] wote kitakacholeta mwanzo mpya kutoka kwa [[Mwenyezi Mungu]]. Hasa [[dini za Abrahamu]] zinafundisha juu ya hali mpya<ref>{{Rejea kitabu |last=Ginzburg |first=Yitsḥaḳ |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzUrUtJmL2QC&dq=judaism+God+will+create+a+new+heaven+and+earth&pg=PA86 |title=Kabbalah and Meditation for the Nations |date=2007 |publisher=GalEinai Publication Society |isbn=978-965-7146-12-5 |language=en}}</ref> itakayofuata [[kiyama]], yaani [[ufufuko]] wa wafu. Kwa [[Wakristo]]<ref>''Familiar Stranger: An Introduction to Jesus of Nazareth'' by Michael James McClymond (2004) pp. 77–79</ref><ref>Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research by Bruce Chilton and Craig A. Evans (1998) pp. 255–257</ref><ref>An explanation of these beliefs appears on the [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c2a7.htm#668 Holy See's website]</ref> na [[Waislamu]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wSVQI3Ya2EC&q=signs+of+day+of+judgment+islam&pg=PA28|title=What Everyone Needs To Know About Islam|author=John L. Esposito|page=28|isbn=9780199794133|date=13 July 2011|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA }}</ref> tukio hilo litahusiana na [[ujio wa pili]] wa [[Yesu]] [[Masiya]]. [[Tumaini]] hilo ni tofauti na [[utabiri]] wa [[wanasayansi]]<ref>Ćirković, Milan M. "Resource letter: PEs-1: physical eschatology." American Journal of Physics 71.2 (2003): 122–133.</ref><ref>Baum, Seth D. "Is humanity doomed? Insights from astrobiology." Sustainability 2.2 (2010): 591–603.</ref> kuhusu [[uhai]] [[dunia|duniani]] kushindikana kwa sababu ya mabadiliko makubwa ya [[Jua]] miaka 6,000,000,000 ijayo <ref name="zeilik">{{Rejea kitabu |last1=Zeilik |first1=M.A. |last2=Gregory |first2=S.A.|title=Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics |edition=4th |page=322 |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |year=1998 |isbn=0-03-006228-4}}</ref> na hatimaye ulimwengu wote kufikia mwisho wake miaka 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ijayo kwa kutanuka mno na kutindikiwa [[nishati]] kadiri ya [[kanuni]] za [[mwendojoto]] <ref>God, the Science, the Evidence by Michel-Yves Bollore & Olivier Bonnassies, ISBN-13978-9998782402.</ref><ref>{{Rejea kitabu |last=Redfern |first=Martin |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm49906936 |title=The Earth: a very short introduction |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280307-8 |location=Oxford; New York |oclc=ocm49906936}}</ref>. == Tanbihi == {{Reflist}} == Vyanzo == * {{cite book |last = Carroll |first = John T. |chapter = Eschatology |editor1-last = Freedman |editor1-first = David Noel |editor2-last = Myers |editor2-first = Allen C. |title = Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |publisher = Eerdmans |year = 2000 |isbn = 978-9053565032 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA420 }} * {{cite book|last1=Dunand|first1=Françoise|first2=Christiane|last2=Zivie-Coche|author-link1=Françoise Dunand|others=Translated by David Lorton|title=Gods and Men in Egypt: 3000 BCE to 395 CE|url=https://archive.org/details/godsmeninegypt300000duna|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2004|orig-year=French edition 1991| isbn=0-8014-8853-2}} * {{cite book|last=Hornung|first=Erik|author-link=Erik Hornung|others=Translated by John Baines|title=Conceptions of God in Egypt: The One and the Many|url=https://archive.org/details/conceptionsofgod0000horn_q6b3|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1982|orig-year=German edition 1971| isbn=0-8014-1223-4}} * {{cite book|last1=Meeks|first1=Dimitri|first2=Christine|last2=Favard-Meeks|others=Translated by G. M. Goshgarian|title=Daily Life of the Egyptian Gods|url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeofegypt0000meek|publisher=Cornell University Press| year=1996|orig-year=French edition 1993 |isbn=0-8014-8248-8}} ==Marejeo mengine== * Craig C. Hill, ''In God's Time: The Bible and the Future'', Grand Rapids: Eerdmans 2002. {{ISBN|0-8028-6090-7}}. * [[Dave Hunt (Christian apologist)|Dave Hunt]], ''A Cup of Trembling'', Harvest House Publishers, Eugene, (Oregon) 1995 {{ISBN|1-56507-334-7}}. * Jonathan Menn, ''Biblical Eschatology'', Eugene, Oregon, Wipf & Stock 2013. {{ISBN|978-1-62032-579-7}}. * [[Joseph Ratzinger]]., ''Eschatology: Death and Eternal Life'', Washington D.C.: [[Catholic University of America Press]] 1985. {{ISBN|978-0-8132-1516-7}}. * Robert Sungenis, Scott Temple, David Allen Lewis, ''Shock Wave 2000!'' subtitled ''The [[Harold Camping]] 1994 Debacle'', New Leaf Press, Inc. 2004, {{ISBN|0-89221-269-1}}. * Stephen Travis, ''Christ Will Come Again: Hope for the Second Coming of Jesus'', Toronto: Clements Publishing 2004. {{ISBN|1-894667-33-6}}. * Jerry L. Walls (ed.), ''The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology'', New York: Oxford University Press 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-19-973588-4}}. == Viungo vya nje == {{Commons category|End Times}} * {{Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle= Eschatology|volume=5|prescript=}} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DyaQiI70Bqs&ab_channel=ReadytoHarvest ''Christian Eschatology Explained'' (A short primer on the main schools of Christian Eschatology)] * https://www.godthesciencetheevidence.com/ Kuhusu ulimwengu kuwa na mwanzo na mwisho kadiri ya sayansi {{mbegu-dini}} [[Jamii:Dini]] [[Jamii:Uyahudi]] [[Jamii:Ukristo]] [[Jamii:Uislamu]] 4829bs79euyy1vu359lzjljx5pjas01 3 241278 1580012 1578775 2026-07-17T21:44:42Z Epiphan Valeriani Urasa 90389 /* */ Jibu 1580012 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 20 Juni 2026 (UTC) :Thanks '''[[Mtumiaji:Epiphan Valeriani Urasa|Epiphan Valeriani Urasa]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Epiphan Valeriani Urasa#top|majadiliano]])''' 10:32, 8 Julai 2026 (UTC) :Thanks '''[[Mtumiaji:Epiphan Valeriani Urasa|Epiphan Valeriani Urasa]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Epiphan Valeriani Urasa#top|majadiliano]])''' 21:44, 17 Julai 2026 (UTC) iwx6unylx869zwba3e32vorki5m2oi3 0 241296 1580064 1579142 2026-07-17T23:40:25Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 7 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580064 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:BL_Or_485_f._102r.png|thumb|Mwanzo wa kitabu katika toleo la [[Kige'ez]] la [[karne ya 16]].]] '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni [[kitabu]] cha kale kilichoandikwa kwa [[mtindo wa kiapokalipti]]. Ingawa [[sentensi]] yake moja imenakiliwa katika [[Waraka wa Yuda]] (14-15), kitabu kizima [[Kanuni ya Biblia|hakikukubaliwa]] kama [[Neno la Mungu]] isipokuwa na [[Ukristo|Wakristo]] [[Waorthodoksi wa Mashariki]] wa [[Kanisa la Kiorthodoksi la Ethiopia]] na wa [[Kanisa la Kiorthodoksi la Eritrea]]. Kiliandikwa kwa [[Kiaramu]] au kwa [[Kiebrania]] katika [[karne ya 3 KK]] hadi [[karne ya 1 KK]]<ref>Fahlbusch, E.; Bromiley, G.W. ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity: P–Sh'' page 411, {{ISBN|0-8028-2416-1}} (2004)</ref>, ingawa kilijidai kutungwa na [[Henoko]]<ref name="Barker Lost Prophet">Barker, Margaret. (2005) [1998]. ''The Lost Prophet: The Book of Enoch and Its Influence on Christianity''. London: SPCK; Sheffield Phoenix Press. {{ISBN|978-1-905048-18-2}}</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] * [[Apokrifa]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== {{refbegin|25em|small=yes}} * {{cite book |first=Margaret |last=Barker |chapter=The Book of Enoch |title=The Older Testament: The survival of themes from the ancient royal cult in sectarian Judaism and early Christianity |orig-year=1987 |publisher=Sheffield Phoenix Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-905048-19-9}} * {{cite book |first=Gabriele |last=Boccaccini |title=Beyond the Essene Hypothesis: The Parting of the Ways between Qumran and Enochic Judaism |url=https://archive.org/details/beyondessenehypo0000bocc |place=Grand Rapids |publisher=Eerdmans |year=1998 |isbn=0-8028-4360-3}} * {{Cite journal |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |year=1968 |title=A fragment of Enoch in Syriac |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |volume=19 |number=2 |pages=626–633 |doi=10.1093/jts/XIX.2.626 |jstor=23958598}} * {{cite book |first=John J. |last=Collins |title=The Apocalyptic Imagination |url=https://archive.org/details/apocalypticimagi0000coll_f4q8 |edition=2nd |place=Grand Rapids |publisher=Eermans |year=1998 |isbn=0-8028-4371-9}} * {{cite book |first=A. |last=Dillmann |author-link=August Dillmann |year=1853 |title=Das Buch Henoch |language=de |trans-title=The Book of Enoch |place=Leipzig, DE |publisher=Vogel }} * {{cite book |first=Philip F. |last=Esler |year=2017 |title=God's Court and Courtiers in the Book of the Watchers: Re-interpreting heaven in {{nobr|1 Enoch 1-36}} |place=Eugene, OR |publisher=Cascade |isbn=978-1-62564-908-9}} * {{cite book |first=Florentino |last=Garcia-Martinez |year=1992 |title=Qumran & Apocalyptic: Studies on the Aramaic texts from Qumran |place=Leiden, NL |publisher=Brill |isbn=90-04-09586-1}} * {{cite book |editor-last1=Milik |editor-first1=Josef T. |title=The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumrân Cave 4 |others=With the collaboration of Matthew Black |date=1976 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-826161-2 |url=https://archive.org/download/MILIKEnochInAramaicQumranCave4/MILIK_Enoch-in-Aramaic-Qumran-Cave-4.pdf |language=en}} * {{cite book |first=Annette Yoshiko |last=Reed |title=Fallen Angels and the History of Judaism and Christianity: The reception of Enochic literature |url=https://archive.org/details/fallenangelshist0000reed |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-521-85378-8}} {{refend}} ==Marejeo mengine== {{refbegin|25em|small=yes}} * {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Enoch, Book of |volume=9 |pages=650–652 |first=Robert Henry |last=Charles |ref=none}} * {{cite book |editor1-first=Gabriele |editor1-last=Boccaccini |editor2-first=John J. |editor2-last=Collins |title=The Early Enoch Literature |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyenochlitera0000unse |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-04-16154-2 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |last=Dugan |first=Elena |year=2023 |title=The Apocalypse of the Birds: 1&nbsp;Enoch and the Jewish revolt against Rome |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=978-1-3995-0865-0 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |first1=Florentino |last1=Garcia-Martinez |last2=Tigchelaar |year=1999 |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition |publisher=Brill |url=http://www.filbluz.ca/resources/_The.Dead.Sea.Scrolls.Study.Edition_Martinez-Tigchelaar.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615144741/http://www.filbluz.ca/resources/_The.Dead.Sea.Scrolls.Study.Edition_Martinez-Tigchelaar.pdf |archive-date=2016-06-15 |df=dmy-all |ref=none}} * {{cite book |first=Helge S. |last=Kvanvig |title=Roots of Apocalyptic: The Mesopotamian background of the Enoch figure and of the Son of Man |url=https://archive.org/details/rootsofapocalypt0061kvan |place=Neukirchen-Vluyn |publisher=Neukirchener |year=1988 |isbn=3-7887-1248-1 |ref=none}} * {{cite Catholic Encyclopedia |wstitle=The Book of Henoch (Ethiopic) |volume= |ref=none}} * {{cite journal |last=Hernández Valencia |first=Juan S. |title=Influence of the Enochic tradition on Qumran: reception and adaptation of the Watchers and Giants as a case study |journal=Perseitas |volume=12 |date=2024 |pages=34–71 |doi=10.21501/23461780.4671 |ref=none |doi-access=free}} * {{cite book |first=Andrei A. |last=Orlov |title=The Enoch-Metatron Tradition |place=Tuebingen |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |year=2005 |isbn=3-16-148544-0 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |first1=Paolo |last1=Sacchi |first2=William J. |last2=Short |year=1996 |title=Jewish Apocalyptic and its History |place=Sheffield, UK |publisher=Academic |isbn=1-85075-585-X |ref=none}} * {{cite book |first=D. A. De |last=Sola |year=1852 |title=[[iarchive:significationofp00sola|Signification of the Proper Names occurring in the Book of Enoch: from the Hebrew and Chaldee languages]] |place=London |publisher=Isaac Frost |ref=none}} * {{cite book |first=James C. |last=Van der Kam |title=Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/enochgrowthofapo0000vand |place=Washington, DC |publisher=Catholic Biblical Association of America |year=1984 |isbn=0-915170-15-9 |ref=none}} * {{cite book |first=James C. |last=Van der Kam |title=Enoch: A man for all generations |url=https://archive.org/details/enochmanforallge0000vand |place=Columbia |publisher=University of South Carolina |year=1995 |isbn=1-57003-060-X |ref=none}} {{refend}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Wikisource|1 Enoch|Book of Enoch|has=an incomplete translation of|nocat=yes}} * [http://www.marquette.edu/maqom/ Jewish Roots of Eastern Christian Mysticism: An interdisciplinary seminar at Marquette University] * [http://www.tau.ac.il/~hacohen/Henoch/Henoch%201.html Ethiopic text online] (all 108 chapters) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181006021949/http://enoksbok.se/ Book of Enoch Interlinear] (''Including three English and two Swedish translations'') * [http://www.biblicalaudio.com/enoch.htm Book of Enoch New 2012 Translation with Audio Drama] * August Dillmann (1893). ''The Book of Enoch'' ([https://web.archive.org/web/20160811142032/http://www.filbluz.ca/resources/1Enoch_Dillmann.pdf 1Enoch]) translated from Geez, መጽሐፈ ፡ ሄኖክ ።. * [https://www.patrologia-lib.ru/apocryph/vetus/index.htm Apocryphi testamenti veteris] {{Wayback|url=https://www.patrologia-lib.ru/apocryph/vetus/index.htm |date=20260301095815 }}, access to the Ethiopic Greek, a Latin translation * [https://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/enoch/ENOCH_1.HTM BOOK OF ENOCH From-The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament R.H. Charles Oxford: The Clarendon Press] {{mbegu-Biblia}} [[Jamii:Biblia]] [[Jamii:maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] [[jamii:Apokrifa]] nmq2sdk6kdn8do4ayywx2dhih9rdfvm 0 241307 1579965 1578283 2026-07-17T16:18:18Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579965 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Angel zbejsi Adama pa Evo z paradizoma (Mala biblia z-kejpami, 1897).JPG|thumb|"Adamu na Eva wakifukuzwa paradisini" kadiri ya [[Péter Kollár]] (1897).]] '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (pia: '''Maisha ya Adamu na Eva''') ni [[kitabu]] cha [[Uyahudi|Kiyahudi]] au cha [[Ukristo|Kikristo]]<ref name="lmw05">{{cite book |author1=L. Michael White |title=From Jesus to Christianity: How Four Generations of Visionaries & Storytellers Created the New Testament and Christian Faith |date=October 25, 2005 |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=0060816104 |chapter=Chapter Fifteen: Literary Trajectories and Regional Trends}}</ref> kilichoandikwa kwa [[mtindo wa kiapokalipti]] katika [[karne ya 1]] lakini [[Kanuni ya Biblia|hakikukubaliwa]] kama [[Neno la Mungu]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] * [[Apokrifa]] == Tanbihi == {{reflist|30em}} == Marejeo == {{refbegin}} * [[Brian O. Murdoch]], ''The Apocryphal Adam and Eve in Medieval Europe: Vernacular Translations and Adaptations of the Vita Adae et Evae'', Oxford (OUP), 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-19-956414-9}}. * Marinus de Jonge, Johannes Tromp ''The Life of Adam and Eve and Related Literature'' {{ISBN|1-85075-764-X}} (1997) * Gary A. Anderson, Michael E. Stone, Johannes Tromp ''Literature on Adam and Eve: Collected Essays'' {{ISBN|90-04-11600-1}} (2000) * [[H.F.D. Sparks]] ''The Apocryphal Old Testament'' {{ISBN|0-19-826177-2}} (1984) * M.D. Johnson ''Life of Adam and Eve, a new translation and introduction'' in ed. J.H. Charlesworth ''the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha Vol 2'' {{ISBN|0-385-18813-7}} (1985) * L. Rosso Ubigli in ed. P.Sacchi ''Apocrifi dell'Antico Testamento 2'' {{ISBN|978-88-02-07606-5}} (1989) * English Translations by L.S.A. Wells from ''The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in English, Volume II Pseudepigrapha'' edited by [[R. H. Charles]], Clarendon Press, 1913. * Stone, Michael E. "The fall of Satan and Adam's penance: three notes on the 'Books of Adam and Eve.'." The Journal of Theological Studies 44, no. 1 (1993): 143+. Religion and Philosophy Collection (accessed 15 December 2017). http://link.galegroup.com.ezproxy.tntech.edu/apps/doc/A13749296/PPRP?u=tel_a_ttul&sid=PPRP&xid=1042769b. {{refend}} ===Marejeo mengine=== * {{cite book |last=de Jonge |first=Marinus |date=1997 |title=Life of Adam and Eve and Related Literature |location=Sheffield |publisher=[[Sheffield Academic Press]] |series=Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha |isbn=9781850757641}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/anderson/ Adam and Eve Archive Project] {{Wayback|url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/anderson/ |date=20160616131339 }} * ''Apocalypse of Moses'' (Greek version of the ''Life of Adam and Eve'') ** [http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/pseudepigrapha/apcmose.htm Pseudepigrapha] {{Wayback|url=http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/pseudepigrapha/apcmose.htm |date=20240116124138 }} ** [http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/apcmose.htm Christian Classics Ethereal Library: Apocalypse of Moses] ** [https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0828.htm Revelation of Moses] **[http://users.sch.gr/aiasgr/Biblos/Apokrufa_biblia_Palaias_Diathikhs/Apokalupsis_Mwusews.htm Greek text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224013951/http://users.sch.gr/aiasgr/Biblos/Apokrufa_biblia_Palaias_Diathikhs/Apokalupsis_Mwusews.htm |date=24 February 2020 }} * ''Latin Life of Adam and Eve'' ** [http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/pseudepigrapha/adamnev.htm Pseudepigrapha] ** [http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/adamnev.htm Christian Classics Ethereal Library: POT] ** [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/apo/adamnev.htm Sacred Texts: Christianity: Apocrypha] * ''Slavonic Life of Adam and Eve'' ** [http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/pseudepigrapha/slanev.htm Pseudepigrapha] ** [http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/slanev.htm Christian Classics Ethereal Library: POT] ** [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/apo/slanev.htm Sacred Texts: Christianity: Apocrypha] * ''The Georgian Book of Adam'' ** [http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/pseudepigrapha/TheBookOfAdam.htm Pseudepigrapha] * ''The Armenian Penitence of Adam'' ** [http://micro5.mscc.huji.ac.il/~armenia/website The Penitence of Adam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110134700/http://micro5.mscc.huji.ac.il/~armenia/website/ |date=10 January 2023 }}, the original Armenian text in graphic form and edited and translated into English from ''M.E. Stone, Texts and Concordances of the Armenian Adam Literature'' (Society of Biblical Literature: Early Judaism and its Literature, 12; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996) ({{ISBN|0-7885-0278-6}}). {{mbegu-kitabu}} [[Jamii:maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] [[Jamii:Uyahudi]] [[Jamii:Apokrifa]] 47q1iwxco30ateuotc3fb7i0es8733z 1580132 1579965 2026-07-18T00:27:35Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580132 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Angel zbejsi Adama pa Evo z paradizoma (Mala biblia z-kejpami, 1897).JPG|thumb|"Adamu na Eva wakifukuzwa paradisini" kadiri ya [[Péter Kollár]] (1897).]] '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (pia: '''Maisha ya Adamu na Eva''') ni [[kitabu]] cha [[Uyahudi|Kiyahudi]] au cha [[Ukristo|Kikristo]]<ref name="lmw05">{{cite book |author1=L. Michael White |title=From Jesus to Christianity: How Four Generations of Visionaries & Storytellers Created the New Testament and Christian Faith |url=https://archive.org/details/fromjesustochris0000whit |date=October 25, 2005 |publisher=HarperOne |isbn=0060816104 |chapter=Chapter Fifteen: Literary Trajectories and Regional Trends}}</ref> kilichoandikwa kwa [[mtindo wa kiapokalipti]] katika [[karne ya 1]] lakini [[Kanuni ya Biblia|hakikukubaliwa]] kama [[Neno la Mungu]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] * [[Apokrifa]] == Tanbihi == {{reflist|30em}} == Marejeo == {{refbegin}} * [[Brian O. Murdoch]], ''The Apocryphal Adam and Eve in Medieval Europe: Vernacular Translations and Adaptations of the Vita Adae et Evae'', Oxford (OUP), 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-19-956414-9}}. * Marinus de Jonge, Johannes Tromp ''The Life of Adam and Eve and Related Literature'' {{ISBN|1-85075-764-X}} (1997) * Gary A. Anderson, Michael E. Stone, Johannes Tromp ''Literature on Adam and Eve: Collected Essays'' {{ISBN|90-04-11600-1}} (2000) * [[H.F.D. Sparks]] ''The Apocryphal Old Testament'' {{ISBN|0-19-826177-2}} (1984) * M.D. Johnson ''Life of Adam and Eve, a new translation and introduction'' in ed. J.H. Charlesworth ''the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha Vol 2'' {{ISBN|0-385-18813-7}} (1985) * L. Rosso Ubigli in ed. P.Sacchi ''Apocrifi dell'Antico Testamento 2'' {{ISBN|978-88-02-07606-5}} (1989) * English Translations by L.S.A. Wells from ''The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in English, Volume II Pseudepigrapha'' edited by [[R. H. Charles]], Clarendon Press, 1913. * Stone, Michael E. "The fall of Satan and Adam's penance: three notes on the 'Books of Adam and Eve.'." The Journal of Theological Studies 44, no. 1 (1993): 143+. Religion and Philosophy Collection (accessed 15 December 2017). http://link.galegroup.com.ezproxy.tntech.edu/apps/doc/A13749296/PPRP?u=tel_a_ttul&sid=PPRP&xid=1042769b. {{refend}} ===Marejeo mengine=== * {{cite book |last=de Jonge |first=Marinus |date=1997 |title=Life of Adam and Eve and Related Literature |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofadameverel0000jong |location=Sheffield |publisher=[[Sheffield Academic Press]] |series=Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha |isbn=9781850757641}} == Viungo vya nje == * [http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/anderson/ Adam and Eve Archive Project] {{Wayback|url=http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/anderson/ |date=20160616131339 }} * ''Apocalypse of Moses'' (Greek version of the ''Life of Adam and Eve'') ** [http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/pseudepigrapha/apcmose.htm Pseudepigrapha] {{Wayback|url=http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/pseudepigrapha/apcmose.htm |date=20240116124138 }} ** [http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/apcmose.htm Christian Classics Ethereal Library: Apocalypse of Moses] ** [https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0828.htm Revelation of Moses] **[http://users.sch.gr/aiasgr/Biblos/Apokrufa_biblia_Palaias_Diathikhs/Apokalupsis_Mwusews.htm Greek text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224013951/http://users.sch.gr/aiasgr/Biblos/Apokrufa_biblia_Palaias_Diathikhs/Apokalupsis_Mwusews.htm |date=24 February 2020 }} * ''Latin Life of Adam and Eve'' ** [http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/pseudepigrapha/adamnev.htm Pseudepigrapha] ** [http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/adamnev.htm Christian Classics Ethereal Library: POT] ** [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/apo/adamnev.htm Sacred Texts: Christianity: Apocrypha] * ''Slavonic Life of Adam and Eve'' ** [http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/pseudepigrapha/slanev.htm Pseudepigrapha] ** [http://www.ccel.org/c/charles/otpseudepig/slanev.htm Christian Classics Ethereal Library: POT] ** [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/apo/slanev.htm Sacred Texts: Christianity: Apocrypha] * ''The Georgian Book of Adam'' ** [http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/pseudepigrapha/TheBookOfAdam.htm Pseudepigrapha] * ''The Armenian Penitence of Adam'' ** [http://micro5.mscc.huji.ac.il/~armenia/website The Penitence of Adam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110134700/http://micro5.mscc.huji.ac.il/~armenia/website/ |date=10 January 2023 }}, the original Armenian text in graphic form and edited and translated into English from ''M.E. Stone, Texts and Concordances of the Armenian Adam Literature'' (Society of Biblical Literature: Early Judaism and its Literature, 12; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996) ({{ISBN|0-7885-0278-6}}). {{mbegu-kitabu}} [[Jamii:maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] [[Jamii:Uyahudi]] [[Jamii:Apokrifa]] ceoav9ls6x0rgoaarex753ed2s4x21q 0 241311 1580074 1578352 2026-07-17T23:49:10Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580074 wikitext text/x-wiki '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni [[kitabu]] cha kale kilichoandikwa kwa [[mtindo wa kiapokalipti]] lakini [[Kanuni ya Biblia|hakikukubaliwa]] kama [[Neno la Mungu]]. Kiliandikwa kwa [[Kiebrania]] katika [[karne ya 7]] [[Baada ya Kristo|BK]] ingawa kinajidai kufunua maneno ya [[Zerubabeli]], aliyeishi [[karne ya 6 KK]] <ref name=stern>{{cite book|title=Rabbinic Fantasies: Imaginative Narratives from Classical Hebrew Literature |url=https://archive.org/details/rabbinicfantasie0029davi |first=Martha |last=Himmelfarb |author-link =Martha Himmelfarb |editor=David Stern and Mark Mirsky |page=67f|year=1998|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=0-300-07402-6}}</ref>. ==Tazama pia== * [[Maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] == Tanbihi == {{reflist}} == Viungo vya nje == *[https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/john-reeves/research-projects/trajectories-in-near-eastern-apocalyptic/sefer-zerubbabel/ English translation of ''SEFER ZERUBBABEL''] {{mbegu-kitabu}} [[Jamii:maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] [[Jamii:Uyahudi]] mhsiun6jp71jdkljx71hzm7i92zh9i8 0 241313 1579964 1579264 2026-07-17T16:15:40Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1579964 wikitext text/x-wiki '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni [[jiwe]]<ref name="NatGeo">{{ cite news | url=http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/series/expedition-week/4290/facts | title=The First Jesus? | publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] | access-date=5 August 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819141040/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/series/expedition-week/4290/facts | archive-date=19 August 2010 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref> lenye [[maandishi]] ya [[mtindo wa kiapokalipti]] lakini [[Kanuni ya Biblia|hakikukubaliwa]] kama [[Neno la Mungu]]. Liliandikwa kwa [[Kiebrania]] katika [[karne ya 1 KK]] au [[karne ya 1]] [[Baada ya Kristo|BK]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] == Tanbihi == {{marejeo}} == Marejeo == {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite journal |last=Atkinson |first=Kenneth |date=2018 |title=The Gabriel Revelation (Hazon Gabriel): A Reused Masseba Forgery? |journal=Qumran Chronicle |location=Moligany, Poland |publisher=The Enigma Press |issn=0867-8715 |volume=26 |number=3 |pages=113–127 |url=https://www.academia.edu/40999787 }} * {{cite book |last=Aus |first=Roger D. |chapter=Jesus as a Nazirite in Mark 14:25 par., and Joseph's reunion meal in Judaic tradition |editor-last=Evans |editor-first=Craig A. |editor-last2=Johnston |editor-first2=J.J. |title=Searching the Scriptures: Studies in Context and Intertextuality |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |series=The Library of New Testament Studies |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-567-66383-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9O-ECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 |page=81ff }} * {{cite journal |last=Bar-Asher |first=Moshe |title=On the Language of 'The Vision of Gabriel' |journal=Revue de Qumran |volume=23 |number=4 |year=2008 |pages=491–524 |jstor=24663069 }} * {{cite news |last=Bronner |first=Ethan |author-link=Ethan Bronner |date=6 July 2008 |title=Ancient Tablet Ignites Debate on Messiah and Resurrection |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/06/world/middleeast/06stone.html |access-date=29 September 2017 }} * {{cite book |last=Byun |first=Seulgi L. |title=The Influence of Post-Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic on the Translator of Septuagint Isaiah |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |series=The Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-567-67239-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpmqDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 }} * {{cite book |last=Collins |first=J.J. |chapter=Gabriel and David: Some reflections on an enigmatic text |title=Apocalypse, Prophecy, and Pseudepigraphy: On Jewish Apocalyptic Literature |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4674-4383-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdofCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 |page=127ff }} * {{cite book |last1=Dimant |first1=D. |last2=Kottsieper |first2=I. |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls in Scholarly Perspective: A History of Research |publisher=Brill |series=Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah |year=2012 |isbn=978-90-04-20806-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6AQwnnEi6wC&pg=PA239 }} * {{cite journal |last=Elgvin |first=Torleif |year=2014 |title=Eschatology and Messianism in the Gabriel Inscription |journal=Journal of the Jesus Movement in Its Jewish Setting from the First to the Seventh Century |volume=1 |pages=5–25 |url=http://www.jjmjs.org/uploads/1/1/9/0/11908749/elgvin_gabriel_inscription.pdf |access-date=29 September 2017 }} {{small|This paper reworks and combines Elgvin's prior work on the Gabriel Revelation.}} * {{cite news |first=Daniel |last=Estrin |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jerusalem-unveils-mysterious-hebrew-stone |title=Mysterious Hebrew stone displayed in Jerusalem |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=30 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503093324/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jerusalem-unveils-mysterious-hebrew-stone |archive-date=3 May 2013}}<!-- Also at http://www.daily-chronicle.com/2013/05/01/mysterious-hebrew-stone-displayed-in-jerusalem/aarmbv1/ --> * {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |author-link=Craig A. Evans |title=Jesus and the Ossuaries |publisher=Baylor University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-918954-88-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beoorz4Jk3sC&pg=PA116 }} * {{cite book |last=Gaines |first=J.M.H. |title=The Poetic Priestly Source |publisher=Augsburg Fortress, Publishers |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-5064-0046-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnHhCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 }} * {{cite journal |last=Goren |first=Yuval |year=2008 |title=Micromorphologic Examination of the 'Gabriel Revelation' Stone |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |volume=58 |number=2 |pages=220–229 |jstor=27927206}} * {{cite magazine |last=Halkin |first=Hillel |date=8 July 2008 |title=Blurry 'Vision of Gabriel' |magazine=[[The New York Sun]] |url=https://www.nysun.com/opinion/blurry-vision-of-gabriel/81384/ |access-date=14 October 2021 }} * {{cite journal |last=Hamidovic |first=David |year=2012 |title=An Eschatological Drama in Hazon Gabriel: Fantasy or Historical Background? |journal=Semitica |volume=54 |pages=233–250 |id=oai:serval.unil.ch:BIB_11BDA2887951 |issn=0373-630X }} * {{cite magazine |last=Hendel |first=Ronald |year=2009<!-- Published online in 2008 --> |title=The messiah son of Joseph: Simply sign |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/scholars-study/the-messiah-son-of-joseph/ |magazine=[[Biblical Archaeology Review]] |volume=35 |issue=1 |page=8 }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011a |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC }} [https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/063529P.front.pdf Table of contents and preface] * {{cite book |last=Henze |first=Matthias |chapter=Some Observations on the Hazon Gabriel |pages=113–29 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/download/36222284/Henze.Hazon_Gabriel.PDF |access-date=29 September 2017 |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011b |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA113 }} * {{cite book |last=Hutchinson |first=R.J. |title=Searching for Jesus: New Discoveries in the Quest for Jesus of Nazareth—and How They Confirm the Gospel Accounts |publisher=Thomas Nelson |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7180-1849-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09dhCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 }} * {{cite book |last=Jeselsohn |first=David |chapter=The Jeselsohn Stone: Discovery and Publication |pages=1–10 |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA1 }} * {{cite book |last=Justnes |first=Årstein |date=16 January 2015 |chapter=Hazon Gabriel: A Modern Forgery? |title=Material Philology in the Dead Sea Scrolls: New Approaches for New Text Editions: Proceedings of the International Conference at the University of Copenhagen, 3–5 April, 2014 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/24056084 |access-date=29 September 2017 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Also published as {{cite speech |last=Justnes |first=Årstein |date=16 January 2015 |title=Hazon Gabriel: A Modern Forgery? |event=Holy Scriptures Forum |location=Norway |publisher=University of Agder |url=http://scriptures.typepad.com/nytestamentlig-fagforum/2014/12/ |access-date=29 September 2017 |ref=none |archive-date=2023-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517055108/https://scriptures.typepad.com/nytestamentlig-fagforum/2014/12/ |url-status=dead }} <!-- earlier non-english work: Justnes, Årstein. "Gabriels åpenbaring (Hazon Gabriel)-En moderne forfalskning?" Teologisk tidsskrift 3.02 (2015): 120-130. --> * {{cite journal |last1=Justnes |first1=Årstein |last2=Rasmussen |first2=Josephine Munch |year=2020 |title=Hazon Gabriel: A Display of Negligence |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=384 |pages=69–76 |s2cid=225553689 |doi=10.1086/709464}} * {{cite journal | last=Klawans | first=Jonathan | title=Deceptive Intentions: Forgeries, Falsehoods and the Study of Ancient Judaism | journal=Jewish Quarterly Review | publisher=Project Muse | volume=108 | issue=4 | year=2018 | issn=1553-0604 | doi=10.1353/jqr.2018.0030 | pages=489–501| s2cid=165452745 | doi-access=free }} * {{cite news |last=Knohl |first=Israel |author-link=Israel Knohl |title=In three days, you shall live |work=Haaretz |date=19 April 2007 |url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.4816749 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208123626/https://www.haaretz.com/1.4816749 |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 February 2018 |access-date=7 February 2018 }} * {{cite journal |last=Knohl |first=Israel |year=2008a |title="By Three Days, Live": Messiahs, Resurrection, and Ascent to Heaven in Hazon Gabriel |journal=The Journal of Religion |publisher=University of Chicago Press |volume=88 |issue=2 |issn=0022-4189 |doi=10.1086/525562 |pages=147–158 |s2cid=170794593 }} * {{cite book |last=Knohl |first=Israel |year=<!--2011 |orig-year=-->2008b |chapter=The Gabriel Revelation and the Birth of Christianity |pages=435–476 |editor-last=Schiffman |editor-first=Lawrence H. |editor-last2=Roitman |editor-first2=Adolfo D. |editor-last3=Tzoref |editor-first3=Shani |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls and Contemporary Culture: Proceedings of the International Conference held at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem (July 6-8, 2008) |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-18593-7 |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004185937.i-770 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20080710052556/http://www.imj.org.il/DSS_conference_2008/abstracts.html#Knohl abstract] * {{cite magazine |last=Knohl |first=Israel |year=2008c |title=The Messiah son of Joseph: 'Gabriel's revelation' and the Birth of a New Messianic Model |magazine=Biblical Archaeology Review |volume=34 |number=5 |pages=58–62 |url=https://c795631.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/gabriels_revelation.pdf#page=8 |access-date=29 September 2017 |archive-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929233022/https://c795631.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/gabriels_revelation.pdf#page=8 |url-status=dead }} The translation from this document has been republished and is available online at {{cite web |last=Knohl |first=Israel |date=15 July 2008 |title='Gabriel's Revelation' Tablet Translation Now Available on Hartman Website |website=Shalom Hartman Institute |url=https://hartman.org.il/SHINews_View.asp?Article_Id=162 |access-date=31 January 2018 |archive-date=1 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201192931/https://hartman.org.il/SHINews_View.asp?Article_Id=162 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last=Knohl |first=I. |title=Messiahs and Resurrection in 'The Gabriel Revelation' |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |series=The Robert and Arlene Kogod Library of Judaic Studies |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4411-1486-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2fOBAAAQBAJ }} * {{cite book | last=Knohl | first=Israel | chapter=The Apocalyptic and Messianic Dimensions of the Gabriel Revelation in Their Historical Gontext | editor-last=Henze | editor-first=Matthias | title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation | publisher=Brill | series=Early Judaism and its literature | year=2011 | isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA39 | pages=39–60 }} * {{cite journal |last=Koller |first=Aaron |title=Book Review: Henze, Matthias, ed. Hazon Gabriel |journal=Review of Biblical Literature |year=2014 |volume=16 |pages=74–78 |url=http://fontes.lstc.edu/~rklein/Doc15/koller.pdf |access-date=29 September 2017 |archive-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929232338/http://fontes.lstc.edu/~rklein/Doc15/koller.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last=Novenson |first=M.V. |title=The Grammar of Messianism: An Ancient Jewish Political Idiom and Its Users |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-025502-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPdKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |page=176ff }}<!-- more in this source --> * {{cite book |last=O'Connell |first=J.H. |title=Jesus' Resurrection and Apparitions: A Bayesian Analysis |publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4982-2559-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aLlyDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Qimron |first1=Elisha |last2=Yuditsky |first2=Alexey (Eliyahu) |year=2009 |title=Notes on the So-called 'Vision of Gabriel' Inscription |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |volume=123 |pages=133–144 |language=he |jstor=23408340 }}. An abbreviated version{{sfn|Koller|2014}} was published as {{cite book |last1=Qimron |first1=Elisha |last2=Yuditsky |first2=Alexey (Eliyahu) |chapter=Notes on the So-Called Gabriel Vision Inscription |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA31 |pages=31–38 }} * {{cite book |last=Rendsburg |first=Gary |chapter=Hazon Gabriel: A Grammatical Sketch |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA61 |pages=61–92 }} * {{cite book | last=Septimus | first=Y. | title=On the Boundaries of Talmudic Prayer | publisher=Mohr Siebeck | series=Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism | year=2015 | isbn=978-3-16-153421-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bL0yh0aW95UC&pg=PA153 | access-date=8 February 2018 }} * {{cite journal |last=Schniedewind |first=W. M. |year=2005 |title=Prolegomena for the Sociolinguistics of Classical Hebrew |journal=Journal of Hebrew Scriptures |volume=5 |doi=10.5508/jhs.2004.v5.a6 |url=https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/jhs/index.php/jhs/article/view/5757 |issn=1203-1542 |doi-access=free }}{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book |last=Terry |first=M. |title=Reader's Guide to Judaism |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-135-94150-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw5EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA551 }} * {{cite book |last=Witherington |first=B. |title=The Indelible Image: The Theological and Ethical Thought World of the New Testament: The Collective Witness |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8308-3862-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LhmU7erHYHQC&pg=PA211 }} Republished in {{cite book |last=Witherington |first=B. |title=New Testament Theology and Ethics |publisher=InterVarsity Press |volume=2 |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-8308-9984-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwYwDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 }} * {{cite journal |last=Yardeni |first=Ada |year=2008 |title=A New Dead Sea Scroll in Stone? Bible-like Prophecy Was Mounted in a Wall 2,000 Years Ago |journal=Biblical Archaeology Review |volume=34 |number=1 |url=https://c795631.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/gabriels_revelation.pdf#page=3 |access-date=29 September 2017 |archive-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929233022/https://c795631.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/gabriels_revelation.pdf#page=3 |url-status=dead }} [https://members.bib-arch.org/biblical-archaeology-review/34/1/16 From BAR website] [https://web.archive.org/web/20130404024948/http://www.bib-arch.org/archive.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=34&Issue=1&ArticleID=16&extraID=14 HTML archive without sidebars] * {{cite journal |last1=Yardeni |first1=Ada |last2=Elizur |first2=Binyamin |year=2007 |title=A First-Century BCE Prophetic Text Written on a Stone: First Publication |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |volume=123 |pages=155–166 |language=he |jstor=23407585 }}, translated with minor additions{{sfn|Koller|2014}} in {{cite book |last1=Yardeni |first1=Ada |last2=Elizur |first2=Binyamin |chapter=A Hebrew Prophetic Text on Stone from the Early Herodian Period: A Preliminary Report |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA11 |pages=11–29 }} * {{cite journal |last=Young |first=Ian |year=2013 |title=Book Review: Hazon Gabriel: New Readings of the Gabriel Revelation |journal=Review of Biblical Literature |volume=15 |pages=211–215 |url=https://www.academia.edu/13584258 }}<!-- http://prophetess.lstc.edu/~rklein/Doc14/ianyoung.htm --> {{refend}} ===Subnotes=== {{reflist}} == Marejeo mengine == {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite book |last=Beskow |first=Per |chapter=Modern Mystifications of Jesus |editor-last=Burkett |editor-first=Delbert |title=The Blackwell Companion to Jesus |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Oxford, UK |date=26 August 2010 |pages=458–473 |isbn=978-1-4443-2794-6 |doi=10.1002/9781444327946.ch28 }} * {{cite book |last=Capes |first=David B. |chapter=’Jerusalem’ in The Gabriel Revelation and the Revelation of John |pages=173–186 |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA173 }}. An earlier draft of this chapter was published as {{cite book |last=David B. |first=Capes |date=24 January 2013 |title='Jerusalem' in The Gabriel Revelation and the Revelation of John |url=https://davidbcapes.com/articles/not-so-brief-articles/jerusalem-in-the-gabriel-revelation/ |access-date=29 September 2017 }} * {{cite web |last=Cohen-Matlofsky |first=Claude |title=Hazon Gabriel: A Social Historian's Point of View |website=The Bible and Interpretation |url=http://bibleinterp.com/opeds/coh368019.shtml |access-date=8 February 2018 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729033457/http://www.bibleinterp.com/opeds/coh368019.shtml |url-status=dead }} * {{cite conference |last=García |first=E. Macarena |year=2016 |title=Messianism and Resurrection in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature and the Dead Sea Scrolls |event=St. Andrews Symposium for Biblical and Early Christian Studies Son of God: Divine Sonship in Jewish and Christian Antiquity June 6–8, 2016 |url=https://www.academia.edu/26179848 |access-date=2026-07-04 |archivedate=2023-06-11 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611025641/https://www.academia.edu/26179848 }} * {{cite journal |last=Hamidovic |first=David |year=2009 |title=La vision de Gabriel |journal=Revue d'Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=147–168 |doi=10.3406/rhpr.2009.1389 |id=oai:serval.unil.ch:BIB_46BAAA309892 |issn=0035-2403 |language=fr}} * {{cite journal |last=Hazen |first=Craig |year=2009 |title=Gabriel's Revelation |journal=Christian Research Journal |volume=32 |number=2 |url=http://www.equip.org/article/gabriels-revelation/ |access-date=29 September 2017 }} [http://www.equip.org/PDF/JAF2322.pdf PDF] <!-- At a conference at the [[Israel Museum]] in Jerusalem between 6 and 8 July 2008, marking the 60th anniversary of the discovery of the Dead Sea scrolls, Knohl gave a paper on the tablet.{{sfn|Bronner|2008}}--> * {{cite magazine |last=Tabor |first=James |author-link=James Tabor |year=2013 |title=The 'Gabriel Stone' on Display |magazine=[[Bible History Daily]] |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/inscriptions/the-gabriel-stone-on-display/ |access-date=8 February 2018 }} * {{cite journal |last=Tripp |first=Jeffrey M. |title=A Revelation from Gabriel to Nathan? The Herodian Temple and the Ideology of the Davidic Covenant in the Hazon Gabriel |journal=Annali di Storia dell'Esegesi |volume=31 |number=1 |year=2014 |pages=7–27 |url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0001988525 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCO }} ([https://asejournal.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/ase-31-1-abstracts.pdf abstract])<!-- probably most important source --> * {{cite magazine |last=Tabor |first=James |date=13 May 2013 |author-link=James Tabor |title=The "Gabriel Stone" on Display |magazine=Bible History Daily |publisher=Biblical Archeology Society |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/inscriptions/the-gabriel-stone-on-display/ |access-date=29 September 2017 }} * {{cite journal |author=원용국 |title=사해사본에 나타난 "요셉의 아들 그 메시야 |trans-title=The messiah, the son of Joseph |work=성경과 고고학 <!--Bibles and Archeology --> |volume=72 |year=2012 |pages=4–18 |url=http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE01804237 |language=Korean }} {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101224092040/http://www.bib-arch.org/news/dssinstone_english.pdf English translation] from {{harvnb|Yardeni|2008}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120515235133/http://www.bib-arch.org/images/DSS-stone-hebrew.jpg Hebrew text] from {{harvnb|Yardeni|2008}} * {{cite web |last=Yardeni |first=Ada |title=Untitled [Drawing of Hebrew as it is written on the stone] |date=14 March 2007 |url=http://www.nfc.co.il/uploadFIles/848324000835419.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110201612/http://www.nfc.co.il/uploadFIles/848324000835419.pdf |archive-date=10 January 2008}} {{mbegu-kitabu}} [[Jamii:maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] [[Jamii:Uyahudi]] 7mycqyhorww0zz2nglg34xf0y8zuy1o 1580176 1579964 2026-07-18T00:55:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580176 wikitext text/x-wiki '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni [[jiwe]]<ref name="NatGeo">{{ cite news | url=http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/series/expedition-week/4290/facts | title=The First Jesus? | publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] | access-date=5 August 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819141040/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/series/expedition-week/4290/facts | archive-date=19 August 2010 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref> lenye [[maandishi]] ya [[mtindo wa kiapokalipti]] lakini [[Kanuni ya Biblia|hakikukubaliwa]] kama [[Neno la Mungu]]. Liliandikwa kwa [[Kiebrania]] katika [[karne ya 1 KK]] au [[karne ya 1]] [[Baada ya Kristo|BK]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] == Tanbihi == {{marejeo}} == Marejeo == {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite journal |last=Atkinson |first=Kenneth |date=2018 |title=The Gabriel Revelation (Hazon Gabriel): A Reused Masseba Forgery? |journal=Qumran Chronicle |location=Moligany, Poland |publisher=The Enigma Press |issn=0867-8715 |volume=26 |number=3 |pages=113–127 |url=https://www.academia.edu/40999787 }} * {{cite book |last=Aus |first=Roger D. |chapter=Jesus as a Nazirite in Mark 14:25 par., and Joseph's reunion meal in Judaic tradition |editor-last=Evans |editor-first=Craig A. |editor-last2=Johnston |editor-first2=J.J. |title=Searching the Scriptures: Studies in Context and Intertextuality |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |series=The Library of New Testament Studies |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-567-66383-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9O-ECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91 |page=81ff }} * {{cite journal |last=Bar-Asher |first=Moshe |title=On the Language of 'The Vision of Gabriel' |journal=Revue de Qumran |volume=23 |number=4 |year=2008 |pages=491–524 |jstor=24663069 }} * {{cite news |last=Bronner |first=Ethan |author-link=Ethan Bronner |date=6 July 2008 |title=Ancient Tablet Ignites Debate on Messiah and Resurrection |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/06/world/middleeast/06stone.html |access-date=29 September 2017 }} * {{cite book |last=Byun |first=Seulgi L. |title=The Influence of Post-Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic on the Translator of Septuagint Isaiah |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |series=The Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-567-67239-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpmqDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 }} * {{cite book |last=Collins |first=J.J. |chapter=Gabriel and David: Some reflections on an enigmatic text |title=Apocalypse, Prophecy, and Pseudepigraphy: On Jewish Apocalyptic Literature |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-4674-4383-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdofCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 |page=127ff }} * {{cite book |last1=Dimant |first1=D. |last2=Kottsieper |first2=I. |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls in Scholarly Perspective: A History of Research |publisher=Brill |series=Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah |year=2012 |isbn=978-90-04-20806-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i6AQwnnEi6wC&pg=PA239 }} * {{cite journal |last=Elgvin |first=Torleif |year=2014 |title=Eschatology and Messianism in the Gabriel Inscription |journal=Journal of the Jesus Movement in Its Jewish Setting from the First to the Seventh Century |volume=1 |pages=5–25 |url=http://www.jjmjs.org/uploads/1/1/9/0/11908749/elgvin_gabriel_inscription.pdf |access-date=29 September 2017 }} {{small|This paper reworks and combines Elgvin's prior work on the Gabriel Revelation.}} * {{cite news |first=Daniel |last=Estrin |url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jerusalem-unveils-mysterious-hebrew-stone |title=Mysterious Hebrew stone displayed in Jerusalem |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=30 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503093324/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/jerusalem-unveils-mysterious-hebrew-stone |archive-date=3 May 2013}}<!-- Also at http://www.daily-chronicle.com/2013/05/01/mysterious-hebrew-stone-displayed-in-jerusalem/aarmbv1/ --> * {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |author-link=Craig A. Evans |title=Jesus and the Ossuaries |publisher=Baylor University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-918954-88-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=beoorz4Jk3sC&pg=PA116 }} * {{cite book |last=Gaines |first=J.M.H. |title=The Poetic Priestly Source |publisher=Augsburg Fortress, Publishers |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-5064-0046-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnHhCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 }} * {{cite journal |last=Goren |first=Yuval |year=2008 |title=Micromorphologic Examination of the 'Gabriel Revelation' Stone |journal=Israel Exploration Journal |volume=58 |number=2 |pages=220–229 |jstor=27927206}} * {{cite magazine |last=Halkin |first=Hillel |date=8 July 2008 |title=Blurry 'Vision of Gabriel' |magazine=[[The New York Sun]] |url=https://www.nysun.com/opinion/blurry-vision-of-gabriel/81384/ |access-date=14 October 2021 }} * {{cite journal |last=Hamidovic |first=David |year=2012 |title=An Eschatological Drama in Hazon Gabriel: Fantasy or Historical Background? |journal=Semitica |volume=54 |pages=233–250 |id=oai:serval.unil.ch:BIB_11BDA2887951 |issn=0373-630X }} * {{cite magazine |last=Hendel |first=Ronald |year=2009<!-- Published online in 2008 --> |title=The messiah son of Joseph: Simply sign |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/scholars-study/the-messiah-son-of-joseph/ |magazine=[[Biblical Archaeology Review]] |volume=35 |issue=1 |page=8 }} * {{cite book |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011a |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC }} [https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/063529P.front.pdf Table of contents and preface] * {{cite book |last=Henze |first=Matthias |chapter=Some Observations on the Hazon Gabriel |pages=113–29 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/download/36222284/Henze.Hazon_Gabriel.PDF |access-date=29 September 2017 |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011b |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA113 }} * {{cite book |last=Hutchinson |first=R.J. |title=Searching for Jesus: New Discoveries in the Quest for Jesus of Nazareth—and How They Confirm the Gospel Accounts |publisher=Thomas Nelson |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7180-1849-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09dhCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 }} * {{cite book |last=Jeselsohn |first=David |chapter=The Jeselsohn Stone: Discovery and Publication |pages=1–10 |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA1 }} * {{cite book |last=Justnes |first=Årstein |date=16 January 2015 |chapter=Hazon Gabriel: A Modern Forgery? |title=Material Philology in the Dead Sea Scrolls: New Approaches for New Text Editions: Proceedings of the International Conference at the University of Copenhagen, 3–5 April, 2014 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/24056084 |access-date=29 September 2017 }}{{Dead link|date=May 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Also published as {{cite speech |last=Justnes |first=Årstein |date=16 January 2015 |title=Hazon Gabriel: A Modern Forgery? |event=Holy Scriptures Forum |location=Norway |publisher=University of Agder |url=http://scriptures.typepad.com/nytestamentlig-fagforum/2014/12/ |access-date=29 September 2017 |ref=none |archive-date=2023-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517055108/https://scriptures.typepad.com/nytestamentlig-fagforum/2014/12/ |url-status=dead }} <!-- earlier non-english work: Justnes, Årstein. "Gabriels åpenbaring (Hazon Gabriel)-En moderne forfalskning?" Teologisk tidsskrift 3.02 (2015): 120-130. --> * {{cite journal |last1=Justnes |first1=Årstein |last2=Rasmussen |first2=Josephine Munch |year=2020 |title=Hazon Gabriel: A Display of Negligence |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=384 |pages=69–76 |s2cid=225553689 |doi=10.1086/709464}} * {{cite journal | last=Klawans | first=Jonathan | title=Deceptive Intentions: Forgeries, Falsehoods and the Study of Ancient Judaism | journal=Jewish Quarterly Review | publisher=Project Muse | volume=108 | issue=4 | year=2018 | issn=1553-0604 | doi=10.1353/jqr.2018.0030 | pages=489–501| s2cid=165452745 | doi-access=free }} * {{cite news |last=Knohl |first=Israel |author-link=Israel Knohl |title=In three days, you shall live |work=Haaretz |date=19 April 2007 |url=https://www.haaretz.com/1.4816749 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208123626/https://www.haaretz.com/1.4816749 |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 February 2018 |access-date=7 February 2018 }} * {{cite journal |last=Knohl |first=Israel |year=2008a |title="By Three Days, Live": Messiahs, Resurrection, and Ascent to Heaven in Hazon Gabriel |journal=The Journal of Religion |publisher=University of Chicago Press |volume=88 |issue=2 |issn=0022-4189 |doi=10.1086/525562 |pages=147–158 |s2cid=170794593 }} * {{cite book |last=Knohl |first=Israel |year=<!--2011 |orig-year=-->2008b |chapter=The Gabriel Revelation and the Birth of Christianity |pages=[https://archive.org/details/deadseascrol_xxxx_2011_000_10819893/page/435 435]–476 |editor-last=Schiffman |editor-first=Lawrence H. |editor-last2=Roitman |editor-first2=Adolfo D. |editor-last3=Tzoref |editor-first3=Shani |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls and Contemporary Culture: Proceedings of the International Conference held at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem (July 6-8, 2008) |url=https://archive.org/details/deadseascrol_xxxx_2011_000_10819893 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-18593-7 |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004185937.i-770 }} [https://web.archive.org/web/20080710052556/http://www.imj.org.il/DSS_conference_2008/abstracts.html#Knohl abstract] * {{cite magazine |last=Knohl |first=Israel |year=2008c |title=The Messiah son of Joseph: 'Gabriel's revelation' and the Birth of a New Messianic Model |magazine=Biblical Archaeology Review |volume=34 |number=5 |pages=58–62 |url=https://c795631.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/gabriels_revelation.pdf#page=8 |access-date=29 September 2017 |archive-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929233022/https://c795631.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/gabriels_revelation.pdf#page=8 |url-status=dead }} The translation from this document has been republished and is available online at {{cite web |last=Knohl |first=Israel |date=15 July 2008 |title='Gabriel's Revelation' Tablet Translation Now Available on Hartman Website |website=Shalom Hartman Institute |url=https://hartman.org.il/SHINews_View.asp?Article_Id=162 |access-date=31 January 2018 |archive-date=1 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201192931/https://hartman.org.il/SHINews_View.asp?Article_Id=162 |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last=Knohl |first=I. |title=Messiahs and Resurrection in 'The Gabriel Revelation' |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |series=The Robert and Arlene Kogod Library of Judaic Studies |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4411-1486-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2fOBAAAQBAJ }} * {{cite book | last=Knohl | first=Israel | chapter=The Apocalyptic and Messianic Dimensions of the Gabriel Revelation in Their Historical Gontext | editor-last=Henze | editor-first=Matthias | title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation | publisher=Brill | series=Early Judaism and its literature | year=2011 | isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA39 | pages=39–60 }} * {{cite journal |last=Koller |first=Aaron |title=Book Review: Henze, Matthias, ed. Hazon Gabriel |journal=Review of Biblical Literature |year=2014 |volume=16 |pages=74–78 |url=http://fontes.lstc.edu/~rklein/Doc15/koller.pdf |access-date=29 September 2017 |archive-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929232338/http://fontes.lstc.edu/~rklein/Doc15/koller.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last=Novenson |first=M.V. |title=The Grammar of Messianism: An Ancient Jewish Political Idiom and Its Users |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-025502-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPdKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |page=176ff }}<!-- more in this source --> * {{cite book |last=O'Connell |first=J.H. |title=Jesus' Resurrection and Apparitions: A Bayesian Analysis |publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4982-2559-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aLlyDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Qimron |first1=Elisha |last2=Yuditsky |first2=Alexey (Eliyahu) |year=2009 |title=Notes on the So-called 'Vision of Gabriel' Inscription |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |volume=123 |pages=133–144 |language=he |jstor=23408340 }}. An abbreviated version{{sfn|Koller|2014}} was published as {{cite book |last1=Qimron |first1=Elisha |last2=Yuditsky |first2=Alexey (Eliyahu) |chapter=Notes on the So-Called Gabriel Vision Inscription |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA31 |pages=31–38 }} * {{cite book |last=Rendsburg |first=Gary |chapter=Hazon Gabriel: A Grammatical Sketch |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA61 |pages=61–92 }} * {{cite book | last=Septimus | first=Y. | title=On the Boundaries of Talmudic Prayer | publisher=Mohr Siebeck | series=Texts and Studies in Ancient Judaism | year=2015 | isbn=978-3-16-153421-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bL0yh0aW95UC&pg=PA153 | access-date=8 February 2018 }} * {{cite journal |last=Schniedewind |first=W. M. |year=2005 |title=Prolegomena for the Sociolinguistics of Classical Hebrew |journal=Journal of Hebrew Scriptures |volume=5 |doi=10.5508/jhs.2004.v5.a6 |url=https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/jhs/index.php/jhs/article/view/5757 |issn=1203-1542 |doi-access=free }}{{Dead link|date=February 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite book |last=Terry |first=M. |title=Reader's Guide to Judaism |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-135-94150-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw5EAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA551 }} * {{cite book |last=Witherington |first=B. |title=The Indelible Image: The Theological and Ethical Thought World of the New Testament: The Collective Witness |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8308-3862-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LhmU7erHYHQC&pg=PA211 }} Republished in {{cite book |last=Witherington |first=B. |title=New Testament Theology and Ethics |publisher=InterVarsity Press |volume=2 |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-8308-9984-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OwYwDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 }} * {{cite journal |last=Yardeni |first=Ada |year=2008 |title=A New Dead Sea Scroll in Stone? Bible-like Prophecy Was Mounted in a Wall 2,000 Years Ago |journal=Biblical Archaeology Review |volume=34 |number=1 |url=https://c795631.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/gabriels_revelation.pdf#page=3 |access-date=29 September 2017 |archive-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170929233022/https://c795631.ssl.cf2.rackcdn.com/gabriels_revelation.pdf#page=3 |url-status=dead }} [https://members.bib-arch.org/biblical-archaeology-review/34/1/16 From BAR website] [https://web.archive.org/web/20130404024948/http://www.bib-arch.org/archive.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=34&Issue=1&ArticleID=16&extraID=14 HTML archive without sidebars] * {{cite journal |last1=Yardeni |first1=Ada |last2=Elizur |first2=Binyamin |year=2007 |title=A First-Century BCE Prophetic Text Written on a Stone: First Publication |journal=Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv |volume=123 |pages=155–166 |language=he |jstor=23407585 }}, translated with minor additions{{sfn|Koller|2014}} in {{cite book |last1=Yardeni |first1=Ada |last2=Elizur |first2=Binyamin |chapter=A Hebrew Prophetic Text on Stone from the Early Herodian Period: A Preliminary Report |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |series=Early Judaism and its literature |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA11 |pages=11–29 }} * {{cite journal |last=Young |first=Ian |year=2013 |title=Book Review: Hazon Gabriel: New Readings of the Gabriel Revelation |journal=Review of Biblical Literature |volume=15 |pages=211–215 |url=https://www.academia.edu/13584258 }}<!-- http://prophetess.lstc.edu/~rklein/Doc14/ianyoung.htm --> {{refend}} ===Subnotes=== {{reflist}} == Marejeo mengine == {{refbegin|40em}} * {{cite book |last=Beskow |first=Per |chapter=Modern Mystifications of Jesus |editor-last=Burkett |editor-first=Delbert |title=The Blackwell Companion to Jesus |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Oxford, UK |date=26 August 2010 |pages=458–473 |isbn=978-1-4443-2794-6 |doi=10.1002/9781444327946.ch28 }} * {{cite book |last=Capes |first=David B. |chapter=’Jerusalem’ in The Gabriel Revelation and the Revelation of John |pages=173–186 |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |title=Hazon Gabriel: New readings of the Gabriel Revelation |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-58983-541-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWgc2zexTIIC&pg=PA173 }}. An earlier draft of this chapter was published as {{cite book |last=David B. |first=Capes |date=24 January 2013 |title='Jerusalem' in The Gabriel Revelation and the Revelation of John |url=https://davidbcapes.com/articles/not-so-brief-articles/jerusalem-in-the-gabriel-revelation/ |access-date=29 September 2017 }} * {{cite web |last=Cohen-Matlofsky |first=Claude |title=Hazon Gabriel: A Social Historian's Point of View |website=The Bible and Interpretation |url=http://bibleinterp.com/opeds/coh368019.shtml |access-date=8 February 2018 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729033457/http://www.bibleinterp.com/opeds/coh368019.shtml |url-status=dead }} * {{cite conference |last=García |first=E. Macarena |year=2016 |title=Messianism and Resurrection in Jewish Apocalyptic Literature and the Dead Sea Scrolls |event=St. Andrews Symposium for Biblical and Early Christian Studies Son of God: Divine Sonship in Jewish and Christian Antiquity June 6–8, 2016 |url=https://www.academia.edu/26179848 |access-date=2026-07-04 |archivedate=2023-06-11 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230611025641/https://www.academia.edu/26179848 }} * {{cite journal |last=Hamidovic |first=David |year=2009 |title=La vision de Gabriel |journal=Revue d'Histoire et de Philosophie Religieuses |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=147–168 |doi=10.3406/rhpr.2009.1389 |id=oai:serval.unil.ch:BIB_46BAAA309892 |issn=0035-2403 |language=fr}} * {{cite journal |last=Hazen |first=Craig |year=2009 |title=Gabriel's Revelation |journal=Christian Research Journal |volume=32 |number=2 |url=http://www.equip.org/article/gabriels-revelation/ |access-date=29 September 2017 }} [http://www.equip.org/PDF/JAF2322.pdf PDF] <!-- At a conference at the [[Israel Museum]] in Jerusalem between 6 and 8 July 2008, marking the 60th anniversary of the discovery of the Dead Sea scrolls, Knohl gave a paper on the tablet.{{sfn|Bronner|2008}}--> * {{cite magazine |last=Tabor |first=James |author-link=James Tabor |year=2013 |title=The 'Gabriel Stone' on Display |magazine=[[Bible History Daily]] |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/inscriptions/the-gabriel-stone-on-display/ |access-date=8 February 2018 }} * {{cite journal |last=Tripp |first=Jeffrey M. |title=A Revelation from Gabriel to Nathan? The Herodian Temple and the Ideology of the Davidic Covenant in the Hazon Gabriel |journal=Annali di Storia dell'Esegesi |volume=31 |number=1 |year=2014 |pages=7–27 |url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rfh&AN=ATLA0001988525 |url-access=subscription |via=EBSCO }} ([https://asejournal.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/ase-31-1-abstracts.pdf abstract])<!-- probably most important source --> * {{cite magazine |last=Tabor |first=James |date=13 May 2013 |author-link=James Tabor |title=The "Gabriel Stone" on Display |magazine=Bible History Daily |publisher=Biblical Archeology Society |url=https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/inscriptions/the-gabriel-stone-on-display/ |access-date=29 September 2017 }} * {{cite journal |author=원용국 |title=사해사본에 나타난 "요셉의 아들 그 메시야 |trans-title=The messiah, the son of Joseph |work=성경과 고고학 <!--Bibles and Archeology --> |volume=72 |year=2012 |pages=4–18 |url=http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE01804237 |language=Korean }} {{refend}} == Viungo vya nje == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101224092040/http://www.bib-arch.org/news/dssinstone_english.pdf English translation] from {{harvnb|Yardeni|2008}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120515235133/http://www.bib-arch.org/images/DSS-stone-hebrew.jpg Hebrew text] from {{harvnb|Yardeni|2008}} * {{cite web |last=Yardeni |first=Ada |title=Untitled [Drawing of Hebrew as it is written on the stone] |date=14 March 2007 |url=http://www.nfc.co.il/uploadFIles/848324000835419.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110201612/http://www.nfc.co.il/uploadFIles/848324000835419.pdf |archive-date=10 January 2008}} {{mbegu-kitabu}} [[Jamii:maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] [[Jamii:Uyahudi]] 661zeptd077capb1fbxsmh9f82vi3c8 0 241322 1580184 1577884 2026-07-18T01:01:07Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 4 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580184 wikitext text/x-wiki '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni [[kitabu]] cha kale kilichoandikwa kwa [[mtindo wa kiapokalipti]] lakini [[Kanuni ya Biblia|hakikukubaliwa]] kama [[Neno la Mungu]]. Kiliandikwa kwa [[Kigiriki]] katika miaka [[100]]-[[150]], ingawa kinajidai kuwa kazi ya [[Mtume Petro]]. Ni maarufu kwa kufafanua kinaganaga [[tuzo]] za [[Mbingu|mbinguni]] na [[adhabu]] za [[Jehanum|moto wa milele]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} ==Marejeo== * {{cite book |last=Bauckham |first=Richard B. |author-link=Richard Bauckham |date=1998 |title=The Fate of the Dead: Studies on the Jewish and Christian Apocalypses |url=https://archive.org/details/fateofdeadstudie0000bauc |series=Supplements to Novum Testamentum 93 |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |page= |isbn=9781589832886}} * {{cite book |last=Beck |first=Eric J. |editor-first=Jörg |editor-last=Frey |title=Justice and Mercy in the Apocalypse of Peter: A New Translation and Analysis of the Purpose of the Text |series=WUNT 427 |location=Tübingen |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |date=2019 |isbn=978-3-16-159030-6 |doi=10.1628/978-3-16-159031-3 }} * {{cite book |editor1-first=Jan N. |editor1-last=Bremmer |editor1-link=Jan N. Bremmer |editor2-first=István |editor2-last=Czachesz |title=The Apocalypse of Peter |date=2003 |series=Studies on Early Christian Apocrypha 7 |publisher=Peeters |isbn=90-429-1375-4 |ref=None}}<!-- {{harvid|Bremmer|Czachesz|2003}} --> * {{cite book |last=Buchholz |first=Dennis D. |date=1988 |title=Your Eyes Will Be Opened: A Study of the Greek (Ethiopic) Apocalypse of Peter |url=https://archive.org/details/youreyeswillbeop0000buch |location=Atlanta |publisher=Scholars Press |series=[[Society of Biblical Literature]] Dissertation series 97 |isbn=1-55540-025-6 }} * {{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart |author-link=Bart Ehrman |date=2022 |title=Journeys to Heaven and Hell: Tours of the Afterlife in the Early Christian Tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/journeystoheaven0000ehrm |location=New Haven and London |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-25700-7}} * {{cite book |last1=Kraus |first1=Thomas J. |last2=Nicklas |first2=Tobias |author2-link=Tobias Nicklas |date=2004 |title=Das Petrusevangelium und die Petrusapokalypse: Die griechischen Fragmente mit deutscher und englischer Übersetzung |url=https://archive.org/details/daspetrusevangel0000unse |trans-title=The Gospel of Peter and the Apocalypse of Peter: The Greek Fragments with German and English Translation |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter |series=GCS N.F. 11 |isbn=978-3110176353 |language=de }} * {{cite book |title=The Apocalypse of Peter in Context |date=2024 |series=Studies on Early Christian Apocrypha 21 |editor-first=Daniel C. |editor-last=Maier |editor2-first=Jörg |editor2-last=Frey |editor3-first=Thomas J. |editor3-last=Kraus |url=https://www.peeters-leuven.be/pdf/9789042952096.pdf |publisher=Peeters |isbn=978-90-429-5208-9 |doi=10.2143/9789042952096 |doi-access=free |ref=None }}<!-- {{harvid|Maier|Frey|Kraus|2024}} --> ==Viungo vya nje== * {{Wikisource-inline|The Apocryphal New Testament (1924)/Apocalypses/The Apocalypse of Peter|Apocalypse of Peter|single=true}}, translation by [[M. R. James]] in the 1924 book ''The Apocryphal New Testament'', with quotations from the Sibylline Oracles and writings of the early Church * [http://ntweblog.blogspot.co.uk/2009/05/apocalypose-of-peter-greek-text-online.html The Apocalypse of Peter (Greek Akhmim Fragment Text)], transcribed by [[Mark Goodacre]] from [[Erich Klostermann]]'s edition ([http://markgoodacre.org/ApocPet.htm HTML] {{Wayback|url=http://markgoodacre.org/ApocPet.htm |date=20240605084357 }}, [http://markgoodacre.org/ApocPet.pdf PDF] {{Wayback|url=http://markgoodacre.org/ApocPet.pdf |date=20260208111352 }}) * [http://nasscal.com/e-clavis-christian-apocrypha/apocalypse-of-peter/ "Apocalypse of Peter"], overview and bibliography by Cambry Pardee. NASSCAL: ''e-Clavis: Christian Apocrypha''. * [http://www.hell-on-line.org/BibJC3.html#BibPeter Bibliography of works on the Apocalypse of Peter], by Eileen Gardiner {{mbegu-kitabu}} [[Jamii:maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] 5tky7l8ji8dep7m0fviu2ozxdvm1llr 0 241323 1580156 1578049 2026-07-18T00:40:49Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 3 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580156 wikitext text/x-wiki '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni [[kitabu]] cha kale kilichoandikwa kwa [[mtindo wa kiapokalipti]] lakini [[Kanuni ya Biblia|hakikukubaliwa]] kama [[Neno la Mungu]]. Kwanza kiliandikwa kwa [[Kiaramu]] katika [[karne ya 7]], ingawa kinajidai kuwa kazi ya [[Metodi wa Olimpo|Metodi wa Olimpo]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] ==Vyanzo== *{{cite book|last=Alexander|first=P. J.|title=Byzantine Apocalyptic Traditions|url=https://archive.org/details/byzantineapocaly0000alex|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley}} *{{cite book|last=Ballard|first=Martin|title=End-timers: Three-thousand Years of Waiting for Judgment Day|url=https://archive.org/details/endtimersthreeth0000ball|url-access=registration|year=2011|publisher=Praeger|location=Santa Barbara}} *{{cite book|last=Bonura|first=Christopher|year=2016|chapter=A Forgotten Translation of Pseudo-Methodius in Eighth-Century Constantinople: New Evidence for the Dispersal of the Greek ''Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius'' during the Dark Age Crisis|title=From Constantinople to the Frontier: The City and the Cities|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004307742_018|pages=260–276|isbn=9789004307742 |editor1=Nicholas S.M. Matheou|editor2=Theofili Kampianaki|editor3=Lorenzo M. Bondioli}} *{{cite book |first=Sebastian |last=Brock |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |year=1997 |title=A Brief Outline of Syriac Literature |location=Kottyam |publisher=St Ephrem's Ecumenical Research Institute |url=https://archive.org/details/ABriefOutlineOfSyriacLiterature_267}} *{{cite journal|title=The Earliest Allusion in Slavic Literature to the Revelations of Pseudo-Methodius|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_speculum_1929-07_4_3/page/329|first=Samuel H.|last=Cross|journal=Speculum|volume=4|issue=3|year=1929|pages=329–339|doi=10.2307/2849558 |jstor=2849558 |s2cid=162384162 }} *{{cite book|last=Debié|first=Muriel|title=Muslim-Christian Controversy in an Unedited Syriac Text: ''Revelations and Testimonies about Our Lord's Dispensation''|chapter=Muslim-Christian Controversy in an Unedited Syriac Text Revelations and Testimonies About Our Lord's Dispensation |journal=History of Christian-Muslim Relations|year=2005|volume=5|pages=225–236 |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004149380.i-338.40|isbn=9789047408826}} *{{cite book|last=Garstad|first=Benjamin ed. and trans.|title=Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius. An Alexandrian World Chronicle|url=https://archive.org/details/apocalypseofpseu0000pseu|isbn=978-0674053076|year=2012|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge}} *{{cite book|last=Griffith|first=Sidney Harrison|title=The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque: Christians and Muslims in the World of Islam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jn-tiP0b-PYC|year=2008|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton|isbn=9780691130156}} *{{cite book|last=Griffith|first=Sidney Harrison|title=''"Christians Under Muslim Rule" in'' The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 3|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}} *{{cite book|title=Cultures of Eschatology|volume=1: Empires and Scriptural Authorities in Medieval Christian, Islamic and Buddhist Communities|editor1=Veronika Wieser|editor2=Vincent Eltschinger|editor3=Johann Heiss|first1=Cinzia|last1=Grifoni|first2=Clemens|last2=Gantner|chapter=The Third Latin Recension of the Revelationes of Pseudo-Methodius|pages=194–232|publisher=DeGruyter|year=2020}} *{{cite journal|last=Guenther|first=Alan M.|title=The Christian experience and interpretation of the early Muslim conquest and rule|journal=Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations|date=May 2007}} *{{cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|title=Medieval Christendom's Encounter with the Alien|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_historical-research_2001-11_74_186/page/347|journal=Historical Research|date=November 2001|volume=74|issue=186|pages=347–369 |doi=10.1111/1468-2281.00132|s2cid=159860524 }} *{{cite book|last=Louth|first=Andrew|title=''"Byzantium Transforming (600-700)" in'' The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c.500-1492|year=2010|url=http://universitypublishingonline.org/cambridge/histories/chapter.jsf?bid=CBO9781139055994&cid=CBO9781139055994A015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}} *{{cite journal|last=Pelle|first=Stephen|title=The Revelationes of Pseudo-Methodius and 'Concerning the Coming of Antichrist' in British Library MS Cotton Vespasian D.XIV|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_notes-and-queries_2009-09_56_3/page/324|journal=Notes and Queries|date=September 2009|volume=56|issue=3|pages=324–330 |doi=10.1093/notesj/gjp125}} *{{cite book|first=Michael Philip |last=Penn |title=When Christians First Met Muslims: A Sourcebook of the Earliest Syriac Writings on Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/whenchristiansfi0000penn |publisher=University of California Press|year=2015}} *{{cite book|last=Pollard|first=Richard M.|title=''"One Other on Another" in'' Difference and Identity in Francia and Medieval France|year=2010|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|location=Burlington, VT}} *{{cite book|last=Shepard|first=Jonathan|chapter=Introduction to 'Approaching Byzantium'|title=The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c.500-1492|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge}} *{{Rejea kitabu |last=Bonura |first=Christopher J. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.35139482 |title=A Prophecy of Empire: The Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius from Late Antique Mesopotamia to the Global Medieval Imagination |date=2025 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520418257 |edition=1 |volume=15 |language=en}} {{mbegu-kitabu}} [[Jamii:maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] 1mqobg8vk1k6eot2mfl6zrb6592emuh 0 241333 1580147 1576023 2026-07-18T00:36:23Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580147 wikitext text/x-wiki '''{{PAGENAME}}''' ni [[kitabu]] cha kale kilichoandikwa kwa [[mtindo wa kiapokalipti]] lakini [[Kanuni ya Biblia|hakikukubaliwa]] kama [[Neno la Mungu]], pia kwa sababu ya mwelekeo wake wa [[Ujuzilio|Kignosi]]. Iliandikwa kwa [[Kiyunani]] kati ya miaka [[150]] na [[karne ya 4]]. ==Tazama pia== * [[Maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} ==Marejeo== '''Tafsiri''' * {{cite book |last1=Kaler |first1=Michael |title=Flora Tells a Story: The Apocalypse of Paul and Its Contexts |date=2008 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-1-55458-282-2 |series=Études sur le christianisme et le judaïsme 19 }} <!-- https://books.google.com/books?id=8RJnr2_n0REC --> * {{cite book |last1=MacRae |first1=George W. |last2=Murdock |first2=William R. |last3=Parrott |first3=Douglas M. |editor-first=James M. |editor-last=Robinson |editor-link=James M. Robinson |title=The Nag Hammadi Library in English |date=1981 |publisher=Harper & Row |location=San Francisco |isbn=9780060669294 |pages=239–241 }} <!-- https://archive.org/details/naghammadilibrar00jame/page/238/mode/2up --> * {{cite book |last1=Meyer |first1=Marvin W. |last2=Robinson |first2=James MacConkey |title=The Nag Hammadi Library in English |url=https://archive.org/details/naghammadilibrar0000unse_z0l1 |date=1977 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-05434-9 }} * {{cite book |last1=Murdock |first1=William R. |last2=MacRae |first2=George W. |chapter=NHC V,2: The Apocalypse of Paul |title=Nag Hammadi Codices V, 2-5 and VI with Papyrus Berolinensis 8502, 1 And 4 |date=1979 |publisher=Brill |location=Boston |isbn=9789004438859 |pages=47–63 |doi=10.1163/9789004438859_009 }} '''Makala na vitabu''' * {{cite thesis |last1=Bergström |first1=Eirini |title=A comparative study of the Apocalypse of Paul (NHC V, 2) and the First Apocalypse of James (NHC V, 3 & TC 2) |publisher=Mid Sweden University |degree=Master |date=2019 |url=https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1371175/FULLTEXT01.pdf }} * {{cite journal |last1=Domeracki |first1=Michael S. |title=The Apocalypse of Paul (NHC V,2) as a Valentinian Baptismal Liturgy of Ascent |journal=Gnosis: Journal of Gnostic Studies |date=2017 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=212–234 |doi=10.1163/2451859X-12340037 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Kaler |first1=Michael |last2=Painchaud |first2=Louis |last3=Bussieres |first3=Marie-Pierre |title=The Coptic Apocalypse of Paul, Irenaeus' Adversus Haereses 2.30.7, and the Second-Century Battle for Paul's Legacy |url=https://corpus.ulaval.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/4d72ec44-d199-2b71-e053-2528090a90b1/content |journal=Journal of Early Christian Studies |access-date=23 June 2023 |pages=173–193 |doi=10.1353/earl.2004.0024 |date=2004|volume=12 |issue=2 |s2cid=55606637 |hdl=20.500.11794/365 |hdl-access=free }} * {{cite journal |last1=Kaler |first1=Michael |title=Contextualizing the Apocalypse of Paul |url=https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/ltp/1900-v1-n1-ltp1013/011815ar.pdf |journal=Laval théologique et philosophique |pages=241–245 |doi=10.7202/011815ar |date=2005|volume=61 |issue=2 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Roig Lanzillotta |first1=Lautaro |title=The Apocalypse of Paul (NHC V,2): Cosmology, Anthropology, and Ethics |journal=Gnosis: Journal of Gnostic Studies |date=2016 |volume=1 |issue=1–2 |pages=110–131 |doi=10.1163/2451859X-12340007 |url=https://research.rug.nl/files/48535125/Roig_Lanzillotta_The_Apocalypse_of_Paul_NHC_V_2_Cosmology_Anthropology_and_Ethics.pdf |issn=2451-8581}} * {{cite book |last=Pesthy |first=Monika |chapter=Earthly Tribunal in the Fourth Heaven (NHC V,2 20,5 - 21,22) |editor1-first=Jan N. |editor1-last=Bremmer |editor1-link=Jan N. Bremmer |editor2-first=István |editor2-last=Czachesz |title=The Visio Pauli and the Gnostic Apocalypse of Paul |url=https://archive.org/details/visiopaulignosti0000unse |date=2007 |publisher=Peeters |location=Leuven |series=Studies on Early Christian Apocrypha 9 |isbn=9789042918511 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/visiopaulignosti0000unse/page/198 198]-210 }} * {{cite journal |last1=Twigg |first1=Matthew |title=The Mountain of Jericho in the Nag Hammadi Apocalypse of Paul: A Suggestion |journal=Vigiliae Christianae |date=2015 |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=422–442 |doi=10.1163/15700720-12341219 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/vc/69/4/article-p422_4.xml |access-date=24 June 2023 |issn=1570-0720|url-access=subscription }} * {{cite book |last1=Twigg |first1=Matthew |title=The Valentinian Temple: Visions, Revelations, and the Nag Hammadi Apocalypse of Paul |date=2022 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-56868-4 }} * {{cite book |last1=van den Broek |first1=Roelof |title=Gnostic Religion in Antiquity |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-03137-1 |page=19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dE1WGYqzbnYC&pg=PA19 }} * {{cite journal |last1=van der Vliet |first1=Jacques |title=Paul and the Others: Rereading the Gnostic Apocalypse of Paul (NHC V, 2) |journal=Gnosis: Journal of Gnostic Studies |pages=127–150 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/gnos/7/2/article-p127_1.xml |access-date=23 June 2023 |doi=10.1163/2451859X-00702001 |date=2022 |volume=7 |issue=2 |s2cid=251784294 |doi-access=free }} '''Picha za gombo''' * {{cite book |editor-last=Robinson |editor-first=James M. |editor-link=James M. Robinson |date=1975 |title=The Facsimile Edition of the Nag Hammadi Codices: Codex V |url=https://archive.org/details/facsimileedition0005unse |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=9004042059}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Wikiquote}} * [http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/ascp.html The Apocalypse of Paul], text of the translation of George W. MacRae and William R. Murdock, at The Gnostic Society Library <!-- Is this really a legit link? "E. J. Brill has asserted copyright on texts published by the Coptic Gnostic Library Project." is not reassuring that they have rights to host this. --> * [https://www.nasscal.com/e-clavis-christian-apocrypha/apocalypse-of-paul-coptic/ "Apocalypse of Paul (Coptic)"], overview and bibliography by Michael Kaler. NASSCAL: ''e-Clavis: Christian Apocrypha''. {{mbegu-kitabu}} [[Jamii:maandiko ya kiapokalipti]] nfz5gwpogdpw70o3paleyfdmncixhcw 0 241458 1580262 1576537 2026-07-18T02:00:39Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580262 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Cartagena''' inayojulikana tangu enzi za kifalme kama '''Cartagena de Indias''', ni mji na moja ya bandari kuu kwenye pwani ya kaskazini ya [[Kolombia]] katika Kanda ya Pwani ya Karibi, kando ya [[Bahari ya Karibi]]. Jukumu la zamani la mji huu kama kiungo cha kuelekea [[West Indies]] unalipa thamani kubwa ya kihistoria kwa ugunduzi wa dunia na uhifadhi wa urithi wa njia kuu za biashara ya baharini.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Centre |first1=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Port, Fortresses and Group of Monuments, Cartagena |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/285/ |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref> Kama koloni la zamani la [[Hispania]], ulikuwa mji wa bandari muhimu kwa mauzo ya fedha ya Bolivia kwenda Uhispania na uingizaji wa Waafrika waliofanywa watumwa.<ref>Lance R. Grahn, "Cartagena" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 1, p 581. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.</ref> Eneo lake la kimkakati lilifanya uwe bandari kuu ya biashara ya kifalme na ukaanzisha umuhimu wake mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1540. Cartagena ya sasa ni mji mkuu wa [[Bolívar Department]], na ulikuwa na idadi ya watu 876,885 kulingana na sensa ya 2018,<ref>[https://www.citypopulation.de/en/colombia/bolivar/cartagena_de_indias/13001000__cartagena_de_indias/ Citypopulation.de]</ref> na kuufanya kuwa mji wa pili kwa ukubwa katika kanda ya Karibi, baada ya [[Barranquilla]], na mji wa tano kwa ukubwa nchini Kolombia. Shughuli za kiuchumi ni pamoja na viwanda vya baharini na kikemikali, pamoja na utalii. Kihistoria, mji huu ulianzishwa mnamo tarehe 1 Juni 1533, na kuufanya kuwa mmoja wa miji ya zamani zaidi ya kikoloni huko Amerika Kusini;<ref>{{cite news |title=Big on Charm: Colonial Cartagena |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/big-on-charm-colonial-cartagena |work=Travel |date=17 November 2015 |language=en}}</ref> lakini makazi ya wenyeji asili katika eneo hilo yalianza tangu mwaka 4000 KK. Wakati wa ukoloni wa Uhispania, Cartagena ilikuwa na jukumu kuu katika utawala na upanuzi wa [[Dola la Uhispania]]. Mnamo mwaka 1984, mji wa kikoloni uliozungushwa ukuta na ngome za Cartagena ulitangazwa kuwa [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. Pia, ulikuwa uwanja wa [[Mapigano ya Cartagena de Indias]] mnamo 1741 kati ya Uhispania na [[Uingereza]].[[File:Reconstruction of Taino village, Cuba.JPG|thumb|Mabaki ya nyumba za wenyeji wa zamani wa mji huu]] Utamaduni wa Puerto Hormiga, ulioanzishwa katika eneo la pwani ya Karibi, unaonekana kuwa jamii ya kwanza ya wanadamu iliyofanyiwa utafiti katika eneo ambalo sasa ni Kolombia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carvajal Contreras |first=Diana Rocío |last2=Iizuka |first2=Fumie |title=Un análisis visual de técnicas de manufactura y tecnología de la cerámica del sitio Puerto Hormiga, Colombia |url=https://revistas.icanh.gov.co/index.php/ap/article/download/2623/2020 |journal=Arqueología y Patrimonio}}</ref> Wanaakiolojia wanakadiria kuwa karibu mwaka 4000 KK, utamaduni huu ulipatikana karibu na mipaka ya sasa ya Bolívar na Sucre, ambapo waligundua vitu vya kauri vya zamani zaidi huko Amerika.<ref name="Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango">{{cite web |url=http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/arqueologia/arqueolo/cap4.1.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923164704/http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/arqueologia/arqueolo/cap4.1.htm |archive-date=23 September 2006 |title=Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango |publisher=Lablaa.org |access-date=26 March 2013 }}</ref> Baada ya kuporomoka kwa utamaduni huu karibu mwaka 3000 KK, utamaduni ulioendelea zaidi wa Monsú uliibuka karibu na vitongoji vya sasa vya Cartagena, ukichanganya uchumi vya kilimo na uvuvi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/publicacionesbanrep/boletin/boleti3/bol12/debate.htm |title=Biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango |publisher=Lablaa.org |date=4 June 2005 |access-date=24 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201091431/http://www.lablaa.org/blaavirtual/publicacionesbanrep/boletin/boleti3/bol12/debate.htm |archive-date=1 December 2008 }}</ref> Hatimaye, jamii ya Sinú ilitawala eneo hilo. Hadi ukoloni wa Uhispania, makabila mbalimbali ya lugha za Karib, Malibu, na Arawak yalishi kando ya pwani. Karibu mwaka 1500 BK, eneo hilo lilikaliwa na makabila tofauti ya familia ya lugha ya Karibi, hasa jamii ndogo ya Mocanae, ikiwa ni pamoja na kabila la Kalamarí ambalo lilikuwa na nguvu zaidi katika eneo la mji wa sasa.<ref name="Lemaitre">{{cite book|last1=Lemaitre|first1=Eduardo|title=A Brief History of Cartagena|url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofca0000lema|date=1994|publisher=Compania Litografica Nacional S.A.|location=Medellin|isbn=978-958-638-092-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofca0000lema/page/13 13]}}</ref> Makabila haya yalishiriki usanifu wa pamoja wa vibanda vya mbao vilivyozungushwa kuta za kujihami. ==Tazama pia== * [[Petro Claver]] ==Marejeo== {{Marejeo}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Kolombia]] kf1bel21rsaomvoua4bb30ngpcivl10 0 241583 1580161 1576840 2026-07-18T00:44:11Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 2 books for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580161 wikitext text/x-wiki '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (pia: '''Mwanzo Mdogo''') ni [[kitabu]] cha kale kilichoandikwa kwa [[Kiebrania]] katika [[karne ya 2 KK]] au [[karne ya 1 KK]] lakini [[Kanuni ya Biblia|hakikukubaliwa]] kama [[Neno la Mungu]], isipokuwa na [[Wakristo]] [[Waorthodoksi wa Mashariki]] wa [[Kanisa la Kiorthodoksi la Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] na [[Kanisa la Kiorthodoksi la Eritrea|Eritrea]]. Kinasimulia upya habari za vitabu vya [[Mwanzo (Biblia)|Mwanzo]] na [[Kutoka (Biblia)|Kutoka]] kwa kuzigawa katika makundi ya miaka 49 kila moja ([[Jubilei]]). ==Tanbihi== {{Reflist}} == Marejeo == * Martin Jr. Abegg. ''The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible''. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins, 1999. {{ISBN|0-06-060063-2}}. * Matthias Albani, Jörg Frey, Armin Lange. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Lr5nal2Bq9YC&pg=PP13 Studies in the Book of Jubilees]''. Leuven: Peeters, 1997. {{ISBN|3-16-146793-0}}. * [[Hanoch Albeck|Chanoch Albeck]]. ''{{lang|de|Das Buch der Jubiläen und die Halacha}}'' Berlin: Scholem, 1930. * {{cite book |last=Boccacini |first=Gabriele |year=1998 |title=Beyond the Essene Hypothesis |url=https://archive.org/details/beyondessenehypo0000bocc |publisher=Eerdmans}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Charles|first=Robert Henry|author-link=Robert Henry Charles |title=The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees |place=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon |year=1895 |ref=none}} * {{Rejea kitabu|last=Charles|first=Robert Henry|author-link=Robert Henry Charles |title=The Book of Jubilees or the Little Genesis |publisher=Adam and Charles Black |location=London |year=1902 |url=https://archive.org/details/bookofjubileesor00char}} * Gene L. Davenport. ''The Eschatology of the Book of Jubilees'' (SPB 20) Leiden: Brill, 1971. * Albert-Marie Denis. ''{{lang|fr|Concordance latine du Liber Jubilaeorum sive parva Genesis}}'' ({{lang|fr|Informatique et étude de textes}} 4; Louvain: CETEDOC, 1973) * [[August Dillmann]]. "Mashafa kufale sive Liber Jubilaeorum... aethiopice". Kiel, and London: Van Maack, Williams &Norgate, 1859. * August Dillmann, and Hermann Rönsch. ''Das Buch der Jubiläen; oder, Die kleine Genesis''. Leipzig: 1874. * John C. Endres. ''Biblical Interpretation in the Book of Jubilees'' (Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 18) Washington: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1987. {{ISBN|0-915170-17-5}}. * {{Rejea kitabu |title=The Book of Jubilees Among the Apocalypses |year=2008 |first=Todd Russell |last=Hanneken}} * {{cite journal|last=Katsumata|first=Etsuko|date=2012 |title=Abraham the Iconoclast: Different Interpretations in the Literature of the Second Temple Period, the Texts of Rabbinic Judaism, and the Quran|journal=Journal of the Interdisciplinary Study of Monotheistic Religions|volume=8 |pages=37–58}} * {{cite book |last=Kugel |first=James L. |author-link=James L. Kugel |title=A walk through Jubilees: studies in the Book of Jubilees and the world of its creation |url=https://archive.org/details/walkthroughjubil0000kuge |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-900421768-3}} * {{cite journal|author=Jan M.F. van Reeth|title=Le Prophète musulman en tant que Nâsir Allâh et ses antécédents: le "Nazôraios" évangélique et le livre des jubilés|journal=Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica |year=1992 |volume=23|pages=251–274 |doi=10.2143/OLP.23.1.519174}} * Michael Segal. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lrywCQAAQBAJ&pg=PR3 The Book of Jubilees: Rewritten Bible, Redaction, Ideology and Theology]''. Leiden-Boston, 2007. {{ISBN|978-90-04-15057-7}}. * Michel Testuz. ''{{lang|fr|Les idées religieuses du livre des Jubilés}}'' Geneva: Droz, 1960. * {{cite book |last=VanderKam |first=James C. |year=1977 |title=Textual and Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees |series=Harvard Semitic monographs |volume=14 |publisher=Missoula: Scholars Press}} * {{cite book |last=VanderKam |first=James C. |year=1989a |title=The Book of Jubilees. A Critical Text |volume=I |place=Leuven |publisher=Peeters |isbn=978-90-429-0551-1}} * {{cite book |last=VanderKam |first=James C. |year=1989b |title=The Book of Jubilees. Translation |place=Leuven |publisher=Peeters |isbn=978-90-429-0552-8}} * {{cite book |last=VanderKam |first=James C. |year=2000 |chapter=The Book of Jubilees |editor1=L. H. Schiffman |editor2=J. C. VanderKam |title=Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls |volume=I |publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book |last=VanderKam |first=James C. |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P-vUAwAAQBAJ |title=The Book of Jubilees |place=Sheffield |series=Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha |publisher=[[Sheffield Academic Press]] |volume=9 |isbn=978-1-85075-767-2}} * {{cite book |title=Jubilees: A Commentary in Two Volumes |last=VanderKam |first=James C. |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-5064-3848-1}} * {{cite book |title=Jubilees: The Hermeneia Translation |last=VanderKam |first=James C. |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-5064-6704-7 |url=}} * {{cite book |last=Wintermute |first=Orval S. |year=1985 |chapter=Jubilees |title=Old Testament Pseudepigrapha |editor=James H. Charlesworth |place=Garden City, NY |publisher=Doubleday |volume=2 |pages=35–142}} == Viungo vya nje == * [https://archive.org/details/bookofjubileesor00char/page/n7 The text translated by R.H. Charles, 1902, with introduction and notes.] * [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=582&letter=J ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' entry] * [https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08535a.htm The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' view] * [http://www.ntcanon.org/lists.shtml Development of the Canon] * [http://earlyjewishwritings.com/jubilees.html Jubilees at earlyjewishwritings.com] * [http://www.tau.ac.il/~hacohen/Jubil/Jubilp%201.html Ge'ez text of Jubilees (first page)] * [https://www.academia.edu/5955414/Ethiopic_Jubilees_Reading_Guide_11_1-10_The_Rise_of_Civilization Ethiopic Jubilees Reading Guide: 11:1-10] * [https://www.academia.edu/6136703/Ethiopic_Jubilees_Reading_Guide_The_Aqedah_17_15-18_16 Ethiopic Jubilees Reading Guide: 17:15-18:16] {{mbegu-kitabu}} [[Jamii:Uyahudi]] 5rxjop0a0mo7kp3mv33kj820ivj19rl 3 241698 1579986 1577600 2026-07-17T18:39:10Z Eta Carinae 53083 Eta Carinae alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Contaanonimao5bre4o54]] hadi [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Trevisando]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user "[[Special:CentralAuth/Contaanonimao5bre4o54|Contaanonimao5bre4o54]]" to "[[Special:CentralAuth/Trevisando|Trevisando]]" 1577600 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 30 Juni 2026 (UTC) pyyzqitqrzkfn2bs2to9p2jkvsjcqkm 0 241837 1580234 1578382 2026-07-18T01:37:57Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580234 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Zerubbabel_and_Cyrus_from_Jacob_van_Loo_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Zerubabeli akimuonyesha mfalme Koreshi II [[ramani]] ya Yerusalemu utakavyojengwa upya.]] [[File:Zerubbabel's Temple, B.C. 579 LOC matpc.11788.tif|thumb|Hekalu la Zerubabeli lilivyochorwa miaka 1898–1946 hivi.]] '''Zerubabeli''' (kwa [[Kiebrania]]: '''זְרֻבָּבֶל''', ''Zerubbāḇel'', yaani [[mbegu]] ya [[Babeli]] <ref name= Finkie>{{cite book |author1=[[Israel Finkelstein|Finkelstein, Israel]] |author2=[[Neil Asher Silberman|Silberman, Neil Asher]] |title= David and Solomon: in search of the Bible's sacred kings and the roots of the Western tradition |url=https://archive.org/details/davidsolomoninse00fink |publisher= Free Press |publication-place= New York |date= 2006 |isbn=0-7432-4362-5 |page=}}</ref><ref>"Zerubbabel." ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' online. 2nd ed. Macmillan Reference, Detroit, USA, 2007. [http://go.galegroup.com/ps/retrieve.do?sgHitCountType=None&sort=RELEVANCE&inPS=true&prodId=GVRL&userGroupName=imcpl1111&tabID=T003&searchId=R1&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&contentSegment=&searchType=AdvancedSearchForm&currentPosition=2&contentSet=GALE|CX2587521512&&docId=GALE|CX2587521512&docType=GALE&role= Gale Virtual Reference Library.] Retrieved 6 Dec. 2010.</ref>) alikuwa [[Myahudi]] wa [[karne ya 6 KK]], [[mwana]] wa [[Shealtieli]]<ref>[[Kitabu cha Ezra]] 3:2,8; 5:2; [[Kitabu cha Nehemia|Neh]] 12:1; [[Kitabu cha Hagai]] 1:1,12,14</ref> na [[mjukuu]] wa [[mfalme Yekonia]]<ref>{{Rejea kitabu |title=T&T Clark Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism |last=Silverman |first=Jason M. |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2019 |isbn=978-0-567-66095-4 |editor-last=Stuckenbruck |editor-first=Loren T. |volume=2 |page=840 |chapter=Zerubbabel |editor-last2=Gurtner |editor-first2=Daniel M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ica_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA840}}</ref>. Alifanywa na [[mfalme]] [[Koreshi Mkuu|Koreshi II]] wa [[Uajemi]] kuwa [[gavana]] wa [[Yudea|Yuda]] <ref>Hag 1:1</ref><ref name= Sch>{{cite journal |last= Schulz |first= Sarah |title= Between History and Theology—Zerubbabel and Nehemiah as Governors of Judah from the Perspective of Literary History |journal= Religions |volume= 14 |issue= 4: 531, Special Issue "The History of Literature and Theology in the Hebrew Bible" |date= April 2023 |publisher=[[MDPI]] |doi= 10.3390/rel14040531 |doi-access= free}}</ref><ref name= Floyd104>{{cite book |author= Kessler, John |chapter= Haggai, Zerubbabel, and the Political Status of Yehud: The Signet Ring in Haggai 2:23 |title= Prophets, Prophecy, and Prophetic Texts in Second Temple Judaism |editor1= Michael Floyd |editor2= Robert D. Haak |pages= 102–119 (see 104) |year= 2006 |publisher= T & T Clark Int'l |isbn=978-0-567-02780-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1HCq055I_GoC&pg=PA104}}</ref>, akawa hivyo mtu wa mwisho wa [[ukoo]] wa [[Daudi (Biblia)|Daudi]] kushika [[madaraka]] ya [[siasa|kisiasa]], ingawa si kama mfalme <ref>[[Kitabu cha Yeremia]] 22:30; Hag 2:"3</ref>. Ndiye aliyeongoza [[kundi]] la kwanza la waliorudi [[Yerusalemu]] baada ya [[uhamisho wa Babeli]]<ref>Ezr 2:1–2, 64; 3:8; 5:2; Neh 12:1</ref> [[mwaka]] [[538 KK]]<ref>Janet E. Tollington, ''Tradition and Innovation in Haggai and Zechariah 1–8'' (Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), 132.</ref>. Ndiye pia aliyeanzisha [[ujenzi]] mpya wa [[hekalu la Yerusalemu]]<ref>Diana Edelman. ''The Origins of the 'Second' Temple: Persian Imperial Policy and the Rebuilding of Jerusalem''. (Oakville, CT, Equinox Publishing Ltd, 2005. 2.</ref> lililokuwa limebolewa na [[Nebukadreza II]] mwaka [[586 KK]]. Matarajio mbalimbali yalikuwepo juu yake <ref>[[Kitabu cha Zekaria]] 1:1-14</ref>, lakini hayakutimia mpaka alipotokea [[Yesu]] [[Kristo]] ambaye [[Injili ya Mathayo]] (1:12) na [[Injili ya Luka|ile ya Luka]] (3:27) zinasema wazi kwamba alitokana na Zerubabeli. ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} ==Viungo vya nje== {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category|Zorobabel}} * [http://bibletools.org/index.cfm/fuseaction/Def.show/RTD/Easton/ID/3914 ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'':] Zerubbabel * [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=115&letter=Z ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] Zerubbabel * [https://www.kethertomalkuth.net/zerubbabel-the-governor GOTHOD- Zerubbabel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804203545/https://www.kethertomalkuth.net/zerubbabel-the-governor |date=2021-08-04 }} Hebrew University of Jerusalem {{mbegu-mtu-Biblia}} [[Jamii:waliozaliwa karne ya 6 KK]] [[Jamii:watu wa Biblia]] [[Jamii:Yesu Kristo]] gpimontslpa5eyt02yh42gmb8a67k8m 0 241943 1579988 1578900 2026-07-17T18:40:33Z Lingo Cowboy 91007 Maandishi yaliyokuwepo yalichukuliwa nafasi na '{{delete|ALL CONTENT WAS MACHINE GENERATED BY A.I. ROBOT SYSTEM}}' 1579988 wikitext text/x-wiki {{delete|ALL CONTENT WAS MACHINE GENERATED BY A.I. ROBOT SYSTEM}} t7z9hrxnrx5kruf1ykjcvb6cug494g6 1580007 1579988 2026-07-17T20:07:37Z A09 55163 Masahihisho aliyefanya [[Special:Contributions/Lingo Cowboy|Lingo Cowboy]] ([[User talk:Lingo Cowboy|Majadiliano]]) yalirejeshwa hadi sahihisho la mwisho na [[User:Riccardo Riccioni|Riccardo Riccioni]] 1578900 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ziwa Ray Hubbard''', ambalo hapo awali liliitwa Ziwa la Dallas Mashariki au Ziwa la Forney, ni hifadhi ya maji safi iliyoko [[Dallas]], [[Texas]], katika kaunti za Dallas, Kaufman, Collin, na Rockwall, kaskazini mwa mji mdogo wa [[Forney]]. Liliundwa kwa ujenzi wa Bwawa la Rockwall-Forney, ambalo lilikamata Mto East Fork Trinity. Lina ukubwa wa ekari 22,745 na uwezo wa kuhifadhi wa ekari 490,000 na kina cha juu cha futi 40. Bwawa hilo kwa sasa linamilikiwa na Jiji la Dallas. I-30 huvuka ziwa kwenye Njia ya Mashariki ya Dallas. Ziwa hili lina idadi kubwa ya samaki aina ya bass mseto wenye mistari, bass nyeupe, bass kubwa, catfish wa njia, blue catfish, white crappie na black crappie . <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/fishboat/fish/recreational/lakes/ray_hubbard/|title=Fishing Lake Ray Hubbard|publisher=Texas Parks and Wildlife Department|accessdate=2 Apr 2013}}</ref> [[Jamii:Texas]] [[Jamii:maziwa ya Marekani]] [[Jamii:Coordinates on Wikidata]] 1asnvqvum04t87iv87q4xeqqq5iv6pp 1580008 1580007 2026-07-17T20:07:49Z A09 55163 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1c) 1580008 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|1=unsupervised crosswiki machine translation abuse <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> '''Ziwa Ray Hubbard''', ambalo hapo awali liliitwa Ziwa la Dallas Mashariki au Ziwa la Forney, ni hifadhi ya maji safi iliyoko [[Dallas]], [[Texas]], katika kaunti za Dallas, Kaufman, Collin, na Rockwall, kaskazini mwa mji mdogo wa [[Forney]]. Liliundwa kwa ujenzi wa Bwawa la Rockwall-Forney, ambalo lilikamata Mto East Fork Trinity. Lina ukubwa wa ekari 22,745 na uwezo wa kuhifadhi wa ekari 490,000 na kina cha juu cha futi 40. Bwawa hilo kwa sasa linamilikiwa na Jiji la Dallas. I-30 huvuka ziwa kwenye Njia ya Mashariki ya Dallas. Ziwa hili lina idadi kubwa ya samaki aina ya bass mseto wenye mistari, bass nyeupe, bass kubwa, catfish wa njia, blue catfish, white crappie na black crappie . <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/fishboat/fish/recreational/lakes/ray_hubbard/|title=Fishing Lake Ray Hubbard|publisher=Texas Parks and Wildlife Department|accessdate=2 Apr 2013}}</ref> [[Jamii:Texas]] [[Jamii:maziwa ya Marekani]] [[Jamii:Coordinates on Wikidata]] t1jkbrom1daccioq7y7vyakf6exlbsb 0 242001 1579992 1579106 2026-07-17T18:54:47Z Texas Online warrior range1848 91009 fake ai 1579992 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Celina'''{{mbegu-jio-USA}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Texas]] [[Jamii:Coordinates on Wikidata]] 6iiyc1d6rj8wlvk6mgd1l97vqcn38jp 1579993 1579992 2026-07-17T18:55:08Z Texas Online warrior range1848 91009 1579993 wikitext text/x-wiki {{delete|Fake AI}} '''Celina'''{{mbegu-jio-USA}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Texas]] [[Jamii:Coordinates on Wikidata]] 3y8hr21yvf0sulovg1jluyer0mr9ykq 1580005 1579993 2026-07-17T19:59:56Z A09 55163 Tengua pitio [[Special:Diff/1579993|1579993]] lililoandikwa na [[Special:Contributions/Texas Online warrior range1848|Texas Online warrior range1848]] ([[User talk:Texas Online warrior range1848|Majadiliano]]) 1580005 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Celina'''{{mbegu-jio-USA}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Texas]] [[Jamii:Coordinates on Wikidata]] 6iiyc1d6rj8wlvk6mgd1l97vqcn38jp 1580006 1580005 2026-07-17T20:00:17Z A09 55163 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1c) 1580006 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|1=unsupervised machine translation, see history <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> '''Celina'''{{mbegu-jio-USA}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Texas]] [[Jamii:Coordinates on Wikidata]] 9xsbsa1mthja5r5664z0ygqqc07zznj 1580323 1580006 2026-07-18T08:48:55Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement|image_map=Collin County Texas Incorporated Areas Celina highlighted.svg|mapsize=250px|map_caption=Location of Celina in [[Collin County, Texas|Collin County]], [[Texas]] <!-- Location ------------->|subdivision_type=Country|subdivision_name=United States|subdivision_type1=[[U.S. state|State]]|subdivision_name1=[[Texas]]|subdivision_type2=[[List of counties in Texas|County]]|subdivision_name2=[[Collin County, Texas|Collin]], [[Denton County, Texas|Denton]] <!-- Government ----------->|government_footnotes=|government_type=|leader_title=[[Mayor]]|leader_name=|established_title=Established|established_date=1876|established_title2=[[Municipal corporation|Incorporated]]|established_date2=1907|unit_pref=Imperial|area_footnotes=<ref name="CenPopGazetteer2023">{{cite web|title=2023 U.S. Gazetteer Files|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2023_Gazetteer/2023_gaz_place_48.txt|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=May 18, 2024}}</ref>|area_total_km2=124.879|area_land_km2=123.607|area_water_km2=1.273|area_total_sq_mi=48.216|area_land_sq_mi=47.725|area_water_sq_mi=0.491 <!-- Population ----------->|population_as_of=[[2020 United States census|2020]]|population_total=16739|population_density_km2=343.9|population_density_sq_mi=891.0|timezone=[[Central Time Zone|Central (CST)]]|utc_offset=–6|timezone_DST=CDT|utc_offset_DST=–5|elevation_footnotes=<ref name=gnis/>|elevation_ft=673|coordinates={{coord|33|19|09|N|96|47|44|W|region:US-TX|display=inline,title}}|postal_code=75009|blank_name=[[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]|blank_info=48-13684|blank1_name=[[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID|blank1_info=2409421<ref name=gnis>{{GNIS|2409421}}</ref>|blank2_name=[[Sales tax]]|blank2_info=8.25%<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.avalara.com/taxrates/en/state-rates/texas/cities/celina.html|title=Celina (TX) sales tax rate|access-date=May 18, 2024}}</ref>|website={{URL|https://www.celina-tx.gov/|celina-tx.gov}}|footnotes=}} '''Celina''' ni [[mji]] katika [[kaunti]] za Collin na Denton katika [[jimbo]] la [[Texas]] nchini [[Marekani]]. Celina ni sehemu ya metroplex ya Dallas-Fort Worth. Idadi ya watu ilikuwa 16,739 katika [[sensa]] ya mwaka [[:en:2020_United_States_census|2020]],<ref name="2020 Census (City)">{{Rejea tovuti|title=Explore Census Data|url=https://data.census.gov/profile/Celina_city,_Texas?g=160XX00US4813684|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=May 18, 2024}}</ref> na kulingana na makadirio ya sensa ya 2025, jiji linakadiriwa kuwa na idadi ya watu 64,427. ''Dallas Business Journal'' limeorodhesha Celina kama mji unaokua kwa kasi zaidi katika eneo la Dallas-Fort Worth kwa miaka mitatu mfululizo (2019-2021). <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://celinaedc.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Fastest-Growing-2021.pdf|title=Fastest-Growing Cities: Ranked by Five-Year Population Growth, 2016-2020|date=November 12, 2021|accessdate=July 5, 2022|archivedate=October 21, 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021171627/https://celinaedc.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Fastest-Growing-2021.pdf}}</ref> Kiwango cha ukuaji wa idadi ya watu wa Celina kilikuwa 50.8% kuanzia 2015 hadi 2019. Idadi ya juu zaidi ya watu waliojenga miradi katika Celina ni takriban 378,000. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Celina, Texas – Economic Development Corporation|url=https://celinaedc.com/|accessdate=July 5, 2022|language=en}}</ref> [[Faili:Celina,_Texas_(2013).jpg|left|thumb|North Louisiana Drive in Celina, 2013]] Celina ni jiji la kwanza la gigabiti katika Jimbo la Texas na lilitambuliwa na Gavana wa Texas mnamo Mei 2022. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|author=|first=|title=City of Celina gets a shoutout from Gov. Greg Abbott, here's why|url=https://starlocalmedia.com/celinarecord/city-of-celina-gets-a-shoutout-from-gov-greg-abbott-heres-why/article_51d64dde-d173-11ec-ac8e-eb33b0679c2b.html|accessdate=July 5, 2022|work=Star Local|date=May 11, 2022|language=en}}</ref> Mnamo 2017, Celina ilipitisha agizo la jiji la gigabiti, ambalo lilikuwa mpango bunifu wa kutoa kasi ya intaneti ya nyuzinyuzi, gigabiti kwa nyumba zake zote za makazi. Kufikia 2021, takriban nyumba 9,300 zina intaneti ya nyuzinyuzi ya kasi ya juu, na wakazi wana mtandao safi wa nyuzinyuzi wenye matumizi ya data yasiyo na kikomo na kasi ya megabiti 1,000 kwa sekunde. <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Celina, Texas – Economic Development Corporation|url=https://celinaedc.com/|accessdate=July 5, 2022|language=en}}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} {{mbegu-jio-USA}} [[Jamii:Miji ya Texas]] [[Jamii:Coordinates on Wikidata]] orqfwtco5gixes4u431ujnm7godxe2p 0 242113 1580127 1579557 2026-07-18T00:23:30Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580127 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Lillian Lehman''' (alizaliwa [[12 Februari]] [[1947]]) ni mwigizaji wa [[Marekani]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.amomama.com/204036-lillian-lehman-was-married-briefly-good.html|title=Lillian Lehman Was Married Briefly to 'Good Times' Star John Amos — Meet the Actress|website=AmoMama|author=Aby Rivas|date=April 18, 2020}}</ref> Lehman ni binti wa mchungaji wa dhehebu la Kilutheri. Alizaliwa huko Oak [[Hill]], Alabama, lakini alihamia pamoja na familia yake kwenda Buffalo, [[Jiji la New York|New York]], akiwa na umri wa miaka mitano. Wakati akisoma katika Kent State University, alitunukiwa jina la mwigizaji bora wa mwaka. Amejulikana kwa kuigiza nafasi mbalimbali katika vipindi vya televisheni, ikiwemo nafasi ya Lena Hart katika tamthilia ya NBC Sunset Beach, Muuguzi Carol Williams katika Emergency!, Letty Gilmore katika Fay, Ruth Tenafly katika Tenafly, na Dkt. Joyce Meadows katika General Hospital ya ABC. Pia ameshiriki katika nafasi mbalimbali za wageni kwenye vipindi vya televisheni.<ref name="ma">{{cite news|last1=Harmon|first1=Rick|title=TV judge makes return to birthplace|url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/74912021/lillian-lehman/|access-date=April 2, 2021|work=The Montgomery Advertiser|date=November 12, 1992|page=19|via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref> Lehman ni profesa mstaafu wa sanaa za [[Maigizo dhima|maigizo (]]Professor Emerita of Theatre) na alihitimu kutoka California State University, Northridge akiwa na shahada ya kwanza (B.A.) katika sanaa za maigizo. Pia ameigiza katika [[filamu]] mbalimbali kama Defending Your Life na Evan Almighty. Kazi zake za televisheni zinajumuisha vipindi kama Magnum, P.I., ER, Cold Case, Seinfeld, na Married... with Children. Pia alikuwa na nafasi za kujirudia kama Jaji Mary Harcourt katika L.A. Law na Jaji Tiano katika The Closer, pamoja na kuonekana katika vipindi vingine vingi kama JAG, The Wayans Bros. na Alfred Hitchcock Presents.<ref name="etvs">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Television Shows, 1925 through 2010|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofte0000terr_w3k8|last1=Terrace|first1=Vincent|date=2011|publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers|isbn=978-0-7864-6477-7|edition=2nd|location=Jefferson, N.C.|page=306}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{Reflist}}{{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1947]] [[Jamii:Waigizaji filamu wa Marekani]] kprw82sqh6r3s40qj9fokuc3u0rqmsk 0 242161 1580046 1579605 2026-07-17T23:26:21Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580046 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Akbar Ganji''' (alizaliwa Januari 31, 1960) ni mwandishi wa habari na mwandishi kutoka nchini Iran, ambaye pia ni mwanachama wa zamani wa Kikosi cha Walinzi wa Mapinduzi ya Kiislamu.<ref>{{cite book |author=Karen L. Kinnear |title=Women in Developing Countries: A Reference Handbook |url=https://archive.org/details/womenindevelopin0000kinn |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2011 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/womenindevelopin0000kinn/page/152 152] |isbn=978-1-59884-425-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Inside |url=http://www.inside.org |website=inside.org}}</ref> Ganji ameelezewa mara kwa mara kama mpinzani mkuu wa kisiasa nchini humo na mwandishi wa habari maarufu wa demokrasia ambaye amevuka mistari nyekundu ya udhibiti wa vyombo vya habari.<ref>{{cite web |title=Akbar Ganji – BetterWorldHeroes.com – Biography |url=http://www.betterworld.net/heroes/ganji.htm |website=Betterworld.net |accessdate=2013-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Biography: Akbar Ganji |url=https://www.cato.org/people/akbar-ganji |publisher=Cato Institute |accessdate=2021-01-11}}</ref> Ingawa katika ujana wake alikuwa mfuasi wa mapinduzi ya Kiislamu, alikata tamaa katikati ya miaka ya 1990 na kutumikia kifungo katika Gereza la Evin la Tehran kuanzia mwaka 2001 hadi 2006, kufuatia mfululizo wa machapisho yake kuhusu mauaji ya mnyororo nchini Iran yaliyolenga waandishi wapinzani.<ref name="Kahn2008">{{cite web |author=Kahn, Paul W. |title=Akbar Ganji in conversation with Charles Taylor |url=http://www.ssrc.org |publisher=Ssrc.org |date=2008-12-23 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506000000/http://www.ssrc.org |archivedate=2009-05-06 |accessdate=2013-11-10}}</ref> Akiwa gerezani, alitoa ilani iliyomfanya kuwa mwanamapinduzi wa kwanza wa zamani kutoa wito wa kubadilishwa kwa mfumo wa kitheokrasi wa Iran na kuwekwa kwa mfumo wa demokrasia.<ref name="Kahn2008" /><ref>{{cite news |title=Iranian dissident freed from jail |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4819770.stm |work=BBC News |date=2006-03-18}}</ref> == Tuzo na Kutambulika == Baada ya kukabiliwa na kifungo gerezani na hata kufanya mgomo mkali wa njaa ulioweka maisha yake hatarini, Ganji alitambuliwa kimataifa kama mfungwa maarufu wa kisiasa wa Iran.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ebadi, Shirin |title=Iran Awakening |publisher=Random House |location=New York |year=2006 |pages=193}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Iranian Political Prisoner on Hunger Strike Nears Death |url=https://www.npr.org |publisher=NPR |accessdate=2021-06-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=A top dissident refuses to give in |url=https://www.economist.com |work=The Economist |date=2005-12-08 |issn=0013-0613 |accessdate=2021-06-29}}</ref> Ametajwa kuwa raia wa heshima wa miji mingi ya Ulaya na kushinda tuzo kadhaa kubwa za kimataifa kwa ajili ya uandishi wake na utetezi wa haki za binadamu.<ref name="Kahn2008" /> Miongoni mwa tuzo hizo ni Tuzo ya Dhahabu ya Uhuru kutoka Chama cha Magazeti Duniani, Tuzo ya Martin Ennals kwa Watetezi wa Haki za Binadamu, Tuzo ya Milton Friedman ya Taasisi ya Cato ya Kuendeleza Uhuru, na Tuzo ya Uhuru ya John Humphrey.<ref name="Kahn2008" /><ref>{{cite web |author=Katajun Amirpur |title=Akbar Ganji: Beggars of the state |url=http://www.signandsight.com |website=signandsight |date=2006-07-18 |accessdate=2013-07-30}}</ref> == Marejeo == {{reflist}} {{BD|1960|}} [[Jamii:watu wa Irani]] [[Jamii:Wiki for Refugees 2026]] lc5t5ziobaeockjbkd0g8ecm4wsb3w3 0 242202 1580273 1579670 2026-07-18T02:07:09Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Add 1 book for verifiability (20260717)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 1580273 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tawana Vicenia Brawley''' (alizaliwa [[15 Desemba]] [[1971]]) ni mwanamke Mwafrika Mmarekani kutoka [[New York]] ambaye alipata umaarufu mwaka [[1987]] akiwa na umri wa miaka 15 kutokana na madai ya tukio la utekaji nyara na ubakaji lililodaiwa kufanywa na wanaume wanne weupe kwa kipindi cha siku nne. Mnamo tarehe [[28 Novemba]] [[1987]], Brawley alipatikana ndani ya mfuko wa taka baada ya kutoweka kwa siku nne kutoka nyumbani kwake huko Wappingers Falls, New York. Alikuwa na maandishi ya matusi ya kibaguzi mwilini na alikuwa amefunikwa na kinyesi. Brawley aliwashutumu wanaume wanne weupe kwa kumteka na kumbaka, na kesi hiyo ilipata uangalizi mkubwa nchini Marekani kutokana na hali aliyopatikana nayo, umri wake, pamoja na watu mashuhuri aliowataja katika madai yake.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Media Show: The Changing Face of the News, 1985–1990|url=https://archive.org/details/mediashowchangin0000diam|last=Diamond|first=Edwin|publisher=MIT Press|year=1991|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|quote=The great paradox of Brawley 2 was that this dumb show went on for months, encouraged by the authorities and the media. The 'white power structure' – as Sharpton calls it – all but propped up the advisers' shaky scenarios. The governor and the attorney general, their eyes on electoral politics as well as the case, gave the appearance of trying to avoid offense to any constituency, black or white.}}</ref> Mawakili na wanaharakati waliokuwa wakimsaidia, akiwemo Al Sharpton, Alton H. Maddox na C. Vernon Mason, walichangia katika kulifanya suala hilo lijulikane kitaifa. Baada ya uchunguzi, baraza kuu la majaji mnamo Oktoba [[1988]] lilihitimisha kuwa hakukuwa na ushahidi wa kutosha kuthibitisha kuwa Brawley alikuwa mwathirika wa unyanyasaji wa kingono kwa nguvu, na likaeleza kuwa huenda tukio hilo lilikuwa limetengenezwa. Steven Pagones, aliyekuwa mmoja wa watu aliowashutumu, baadaye alifanikiwa katika kesi ya kashfa dhidi ya Brawley na washauri wake. Tukio hilo lilizua mjadala mkubwa nchini Marekani kuhusu ubaguzi wa rangi, vyombo vya habari na namna jamii ilivyoshughulikia madai ya unyanyasaji. Baadhi ya viongozi na wasomi wa Kiafrika Marekani walimsaidia Brawley na kuhoji namna taarifa zilivyowasilishwa, huku familia yake ikiendelea kusisitiza kuwa madai yake yalikuwa ya kweli.<ref name=":0">{{cite news|last1=Cohen|first1=Richard|title=Opinion {{!}} A VINDICATED MAN|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1998/07/16/a-vindicated-man/f83e8a95-cca2-4379-9c7e-f4fc43c7b7af/|newspaper=Washington Post|date=January 9, 2024}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Rejea tovuti|date=April 26, 2022|title=Doubling down on a fraud {{!}} Christopher Silvester|url=https://thecritic.co.uk/issues/may-2022/doubling-down-on-a-fraud/|access-date=2023-09-02|website=The Critic Magazine|language=en-GB}}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1971]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:wanawake wa Marekani]] 135le571erqz9cyamiyqqwmtrr3ii6w 0 242206 1580190 1579685 2026-07-18T01:04:10Z InternetArchiveBot 41439 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 1580190 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Victoria Platt''' (alizaliwa [[Novemba 21]], [[1972]]) ni [[mwigizaji]] kutoka [[Marekani]].<ref name="tvs">{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.tvsa.co.za/actors/viewactor.aspx?actorid=12146|title=Victoria Platt &#124; TVSA|website=www.tvsa.co.za}}</ref> == Kazi == Platt alianza kazi yake ya uigizaji mwaka [[1985]] alipoonekana katika kipindi cha The Cosby Show cha [[NBC]]. Mwaka uliofuata alicheza katika filamu iitwayo Round Midnight pamoja na Dexter Gordon.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=http://victoriaplatt.com/about|title=bio|website=Victoria Platt}}</ref> Katika jukwaa la Broadway, aliigiza pamoja na Gregory Hines katika tamthilia ya muziki Jelly's Last Jam, na baadaye akacheza nafasi ya Altovise Davis, mke wa Sammy Davis Jr., katika tamthilia ya muziki Sammy Jr. Pia aliteuliwa kwa Tuzo ya Ukumbi ya NAACP kwa kazi zake katika Opening Doors na Hope Runs Eternal, na kwa Tuzo ya Ovation kutokana na tamthilia ya muziki wa hip-hop Venice mwaka [[2013]]. Kwenye [[televisheni]], mwaka [[1998]] alimuigiza Josephine Baker katika filamu ya HBO Winchell. Kuanzia Oktoba 1998 hadi majira ya joto ya mwaka [[2001]], aliigiza kama Vicky Spaulding katika tamthilia ya mchana ya CBS Guiding Light. Baadaye alionekana kama mwigizaji mgeni katika vipindi kama CSI: Miami, Crossing Jordan, Strong Medicine, Castle, Criminal Minds na Lucifer. Mwaka [[2010]] alikuwa sehemu ya waigizaji wa kudumu wa mfululizo wa ABC The Gates, na mwaka [[2014]] alipata nafasi ya kujirudia katika mfululizo wa CW Star-Crossed. Pia alionekana mara tano katika mfululizo wa NCIS, NCIS: Los Angeles na NCIS: New Orleans, akicheza wahusika watatu tofauti. Kuanzia mwaka [[2020]] hadi [[2021]], Platt alikuwa na nafasi ya kujirudia kama Dkt. Amanda Raynor katika tamthilia ya mchana ya NBC Days of Our Lives. Kutokana na nafasi hiyo, aliteuliwa kwa Tuzo ya Daytime Emmy ya Mwigizaji Bora wa Mgeni katika Mfululizo wa Tamthilia kwenye Tuzo za 48 za Daytime Emmy.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|url=https://www.soapcentral.com/guiding-light/theactors/platt_victoriag.php|title=About the Actors &#124; Victoria G. Platt &#124; Guiding Light on Soap Central|website=soapcentral.com|accessdate=2026-07-15|archive-date=2024-11-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241113114123/https://www.soapcentral.com/guiding-light/theactors/platt_victoriag.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> ==Tanbihi== {{reflist}} {{mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii: Waliozaliwa 1972]] [[Jamii: Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waigizaji filamu wa Marekani]] mueyrk5bri71sg3n7i8a3kzoexjj1nk 2 242219 1579972 1579651 2026-07-17T17:48:37Z Amanich7 44301 1579972 wikitext text/x-wiki Amanich ni jina langu la pili. Ninapenda fasihi. {{Babel|en-3|ru-4}} j954g4mjc5e6cjh5wgfuuhxd99bhq5m 1579975 1579972 2026-07-17T18:00:50Z Amanich7 44301 1579975 wikitext text/x-wiki Amanich ni jina langu la pili. Ninapenda fasihi. {{Babel|ru|en-3}} eocbr3hmd68aftdxo1jw9197xm126ay 1579976 1579975 2026-07-17T18:08:09Z Amanich7 44301 1579976 wikitext text/x-wiki Amanich ni jina langu la pili. Ninapenda fasihi. {{Babel|ru|en-4|sw-2}} g4og504k6f2km2xvunowy72sfdf8amn 2 242220 1579971 1579882 2026-07-17T17:38:23Z Amanich7 44301 1579971 wikitext text/x-wiki ''Ninapenda fasihi!'' <P><br> *** <br> His the most popular novels are... {{Infobox Person | jina = Andrei Evgenievich Gusev | picha = Andrei Gusev.jpg | maelezo_ya_picha = | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = 27 October 1952 | mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = Moscow, Soviet Union | tarehe_ya_kufariki = | mahala_alipofia = | majina_mengine = Андрей Евгеньевич Гусев (Kirusi) | anafahamika kwa = | kazi_yake = mwandishi | nchi = Urusi }} <br>'''Andrei Evgenievich Gusev''' (amezaliwa 27 Oktoba 1952) ni mwandishi wa urusi na mwandishi wa habari. Tangu 1993 Andrei Gusev amekuwa mhariri mkuu wa "The New Medical Gazette" (iliyochapishwa kwa kirusi). Kama mwandishi wa habari, alifanya Kazi kwa Gazeti La Moskovsky Komsomolets, kisha alikuwa mwandishi maalum Wa Rossiyskaya Gazeta, mhariri na mtangazaji wa programu katika kampuni ya televisheni Na redio Ya Resonance (Ostankino) na mhariri katika Shirika la Habari La Interfax. Andrei Gusev ndiye mwandishi wa vitabu nane vya nathari. Riwaya zake maarufu ni ''Consummation in Mombasa (2017),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm Review of ''"Consummation in Mombasa"''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105203257/http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm |date=5 November 2020 }} — on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2020 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 ''“Consummation in Mombasa”''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609223657/https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 |date=9 June 2020 }} — in Lady’s Club, 2017 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 «Консуммация в Момбасе»] by Andrei Gusev, 2017. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804015027/https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 |date=4 August 2020 }}</ref> Once in Malindi (2021),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm Review of ''"Once in Malindi"''] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2020/08/15/2 ''“Once in Malindi”''] on Proza.ru, 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> ''The Non-Returnee (2022)''<ref>[https://mliterature.narod.ru/Remaining.htm Review of ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2023</ref><ref> [https://proza.ru/2022/07/19/1220 ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] by Andrei Gusev, 2022</ref> na ''The World According to Novikoff.'' == Marejeo == <references /> 66k8401zgjhdexmm30klgw79mzhn2k0 1579978 1579971 2026-07-17T18:18:38Z Amanich7 44301 1579978 wikitext text/x-wiki ''Ninapenda fasihi!'' <P><br> *** <br> His the most popular novels are... {{Infobox Person | jina = Andrei Evgenievich Gusev | picha = Andrei Gusev.jpg | maelezo_ya_picha = | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = 27 October 1952 | mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = Moscow, Soviet Union | tarehe_ya_kufariki = | mahala_alipofia = | majina_mengine = Андрей Евгеньевич Гусев (Kirusi) | anafahamika kwa = | kazi_yake = mwandishi | nchi = Urusi }} <br>'''Andrei Evgenievich Gusev''' (amezaliwa 27 Oktoba 1952) ni mwandishi wa urusi na mwandishi wa habari. Tangu 1993 Andrei Gusev amekuwa mhariri mkuu wa "The New Medical Gazette" (iliyochapishwa kwa kirusi). Kama mwandishi wa habari, alifanya Kazi kwa Gazeti La Moskovsky Komsomolets, kisha alikuwa mwandishi maalum Wa Rossiyskaya Gazeta, mhariri na mtangazaji wa programu katika kampuni ya televisheni Na redio Ya Resonance (Ostankino) na mhariri katika Shirika la Habari La Interfax. Andrei Gusev ndiye mwandishi wa vitabu nane vya nathari. Riwaya zake maarufu ni ''Consummation in Mombasa (2017),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm Review of ''"Consummation in Mombasa"''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105203257/http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm |date=5 November 2020 }} — on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2020 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 ''“Consummation in Mombasa”''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609223657/https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 |date=9 June 2020 }} — in Lady’s Club, 2017 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 «Консуммация в Момбасе»] by Andrei Gusev, 2017. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804015027/https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 |date=4 August 2020 }}</ref> Once in Malindi (2021),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm Review of ''"Once in Malindi"''] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2020/08/15/2 ''“Once in Malindi”''] on Proza.ru, 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> The Non-Returnee (2022)''<ref>[https://mliterature.narod.ru/Remaining.htm Review of ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2023</ref><ref> [https://proza.ru/2022/07/19/1220 ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] by Andrei Gusev, 2022</ref> na ''The World According to Novikoff.'' == Marejeo == <references /> 4v975775888k6rxkyypsp70u7d6j0a5 1579982 1579978 2026-07-17T18:30:33Z Amanich7 44301 1579982 wikitext text/x-wiki ''Ninapenda fasihi!'' <P><br> *** <br> His the most popular novels are... {{Infobox Person | jina = Andrei Evgenievich Gusev | picha = Andrei Gusev.jpg | maelezo_ya_picha = | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = 27 October 1952 | mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = Moscow, Soviet Union | tarehe_ya_kufariki = | mahala_alipofia = | majina_mengine = Андрей Евгеньевич Гусев (Kirusi) | anafahamika kwa = | kazi_yake = mwandishi | nchi = Urusi }} <br>'''Andrei Evgenievich Gusev''' (amezaliwa 27 Oktoba 1952) ni mwandishi wa urusi na mwandishi wa habari. Tangu 1993 Andrei Gusev amekuwa mhariri mkuu wa "[[:en:New Medical Gazette|New Medical Gazette]]" (iliyochapishwa kwa kirusi). Kama mwandishi wa habari, alifanya Kazi kwa Gazeti La Moskovsky Komsomolets, kisha alikuwa mwandishi maalum Wa Rossiyskaya Gazeta, mhariri na mtangazaji wa programu katika kampuni ya televisheni Na redio Ya Resonance (Ostankino) na mhariri katika Shirika la Habari La Interfax. Andrei Gusev ndiye mwandishi wa vitabu nane vya nathari. Riwaya zake maarufu ni ''Consummation in Mombasa (2017),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm Review of ''"Consummation in Mombasa"''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105203257/http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm |date=5 November 2020 }} — on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2020 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 ''“Consummation in Mombasa”''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609223657/https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 |date=9 June 2020 }} — in Lady’s Club, 2017 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 «Консуммация в Момбасе»] by Andrei Gusev, 2017. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804015027/https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 |date=4 August 2020 }}</ref> Once in Malindi (2021),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm Review of ''"Once in Malindi"''] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2020/08/15/2 ''“Once in Malindi”''] on Proza.ru, 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> The Non-Returnee (2022)''<ref>[https://mliterature.narod.ru/Remaining.htm Review of ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2023</ref><ref> [https://proza.ru/2022/07/19/1220 ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] by Andrei Gusev, 2022</ref> na ''The World According to Novikoff.'' == Marejeo == <references /> ngthtp08mby456ct7qca7s0e7ojo3uq 1579990 1579982 2026-07-17T18:44:12Z Amanich7 44301 1579990 wikitext text/x-wiki ''Ninapenda fasihi!'' <P><br> *** <br> {{Infobox Person | jina = Andrei Evgenievich Gusev | picha = Andrei Gusev.jpg | maelezo_ya_picha = | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = 27 October 1952 | mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = Moscow, Soviet Union | tarehe_ya_kufariki = | mahala_alipofia = | majina_mengine = Андрей Евгеньевич Гусев (Kirusi) | anafahamika kwa = | kazi_yake = mwandishi | nchi = Urusi }} <br>'''Andrei Evgenievich Gusev''' (amezaliwa 27 Oktoba 1952) ni mwandishi wa urusi na mwandishi wa habari. Tangu 1993 Andrei Gusev amekuwa mhariri mkuu wa "[[:en:New Medical Gazette|New Medical Gazette]]" (iliyochapishwa kwa kirusi). Kama mwandishi wa habari, alifanya Kazi kwa Gazeti La Moskovsky Komsomolets, kisha alikuwa mwandishi maalum Wa Rossiyskaya Gazeta, mhariri na mtangazaji wa programu katika kampuni ya televisheni Na redio Ya Resonance (Ostankino) na mhariri katika Shirika la Habari La Interfax. Andrei Gusev ndiye mwandishi wa vitabu nane vya nathari. Riwaya zake maarufu ni ''Consummation in Mombasa (2017),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm Review of ''"Consummation in Mombasa"''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105203257/http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm |date=5 November 2020 }} — on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2020 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 ''“Consummation in Mombasa”''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609223657/https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 |date=9 June 2020 }} — in Lady’s Club, 2017 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 «Консуммация в Момбасе»] by Andrei Gusev, 2017. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804015027/https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 |date=4 August 2020 }}</ref> Once in Malindi (2021),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm Review of ''"Once in Malindi"''] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2020/08/15/2 ''“Once in Malindi”''] on Proza.ru, 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> The Non-Returnee (2022)''<ref>[https://mliterature.narod.ru/Remaining.htm Review of ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2023</ref><ref> [https://proza.ru/2022/07/19/1220 ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] by Andrei Gusev, 2022</ref> na ''[[:en:The World According to Novikoff|The World According to Novikoff]].'' == Marejeo == <references /> 1feqlyfw9busz77jaggz63x6o6re4sp 1580014 1579990 2026-07-17T22:14:03Z Amanich7 44301 1580014 wikitext text/x-wiki ''Ninapenda fasihi!'' <P><br> *** <br> {{Infobox Person | jina = Andrei Evgenievich Gusev | picha = Andrei Gusev.jpg | maelezo_ya_picha = | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = 27 October 1952 | mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = Moscow, Soviet Union | tarehe_ya_kufariki = | mahala_alipofia = | majina_mengine = Андрей Евгеньевич Гусев (Kirusi) | anafahamika kwa = | kazi_yake = mwandishi | nchi = Urusi }} <br>'''Andrei Evgenievich Gusev''' (amezaliwa 27 Oktoba 1952) ni mwandishi wa urusi na mwandishi wa habari. Tangu 1993 Andrei Gusev amekuwa mhariri mkuu wa "[[:en:New Medical Gazette|New Medical Gazette]]" (iliyochapishwa kwa kirusi). Kama mwandishi wa habari, alifanya Kazi kwa Gazeti La Moskovsky Komsomolets, kisha alikuwa mwandishi maalum Wa Rossiyskaya Gazeta, mhariri na mtangazaji wa programu katika kampuni ya televisheni Na redio Ya Resonance (Ostankino) na mhariri katika Shirika la Habari La Interfax. Andrei Gusev ndiye mwandishi wa vitabu nane vya nathari. Riwaya zake maarufu ni ''Consummation in Mombasa (2017),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm Review of ''"Consummation in Mombasa"''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105203257/http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm |date=5 November 2020 }} — on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2020 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 ''“Consummation in Mombasa”''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609223657/https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 |date=9 June 2020 }} — in Lady’s Club, 2017 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 «Консуммация в Момбасе»] by Andrei Gusev, 2017. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804015027/https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 |date=4 August 2020 }}</ref> Once in Malindi (2021),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm Review of ''"Once in Malindi"''] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2020/08/15/2 ''“Once in Malindi”''] on Proza.ru, 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> The Non-Returnee (2022)''<ref>[https://mliterature.narod.ru/Remaining.htm Review of ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2023</ref><ref> [https://proza.ru/2022/07/19/1220 ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] by Andrei Gusev, 2022</ref> na ''[[:en:The World According to Novikoff|The World According to Novikoff]].'' == Marejeo == <references /> = = Katika utamaduni maarufu == KATIKA "MALI D'AFRICA" na mwandishi wa italia Sara Cardelli, upendo wa kugusa wa wahusika wakuu wa riwaya yake Huko Malindi umeelezewa. [http://www.malindikenya.net/en/articles/words/books/the-impossible-love-in-the-italian-malindi.html upendo usiowezekana katika malindi ya italia] {{Wayback/url=http://www.malindikenya.net/en/articles/words/books/the-impossible-love-in-the-italian-malindi.html / tarehe=20201106213501}} — kuhusu riwaya ya mwandishi "Sara Cardelli," 2017.< / ref>. Matukio mengi katika riwaya "Once upon A Time in Malindi" [http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm Mapitio ya riwaya "Mara moja kwa Wakati Huko Malindi"] {{Wayback/url=http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm / tarehe=20211222073306}} - kwenye wavuti ya msingi wa umma "Umoja wa Waandishi Wa Moscow", 2021</ref> na"ngono Yetu ngumu Huko Malindi" < ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Malindi.htm Mapitio ya riwaya "Jinsia Yetu Ya Mwitu Huko Malindi"] {{Wayback/url=http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Malindi.htm / tarehe=20200804031310}} - kwenye wavuti ya msingi wa umma "Umoja wa Waandishi Wa Moscow", 2020 — Mwandishi Wa Moscow Gusev, Andrey Evgenievich Andrey Gusev hufanyika Malindi na Katika mji wa karibu wa kale Lamu. Riwaya hizo zinaelezea miaka kadhaa ya maisha katika kitongoji cha Malindi na mwandishi wa urusi Andy Na mkewe Jennifer, ambaye alizaliwa Nchini Kenya "[[Gusev Andrey Evgenievich Andrey Gusev]] "[http://Gusev.webs.com/Malindi_Andy.htm "Wakati mmoja Huko Malindi"], 2021 {{Wayback/url=http://gusev.webs.com/Malindi_Andy.htm tarehe=20201104180724 }}. [https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=23284 "ngono yetu ngumu Huko Malindi"] {{Wayback / url=https: / / lady. webnice.ru/forum |viewtopic. php?t=23284|date=20200609223649 }} — roman [[gusev, Andrey Evgenievich Andrey Gusev]] katika Klabu Ya Lady {{ref / ru}} < / ref>. Wimbo "Yasoi Malindi" umerekodiwa na mwimbaji Na mwanamuziki Yasoy Kala Kana katika albamu "Ndukanoe" [https://music.yandex.ru/album/3004276 "Ndukanoe-Yasoi Malindi"] 9msquq1z52aef5dp2c695km3ne388ni 1580025 1580014 2026-07-17T23:11:38Z Amanich7 44301 /* = Katika utamaduni maarufu = */ 1580025 wikitext text/x-wiki ''Ninapenda fasihi!'' <P><br> *** <br> {{Infobox Person | jina = Andrei Evgenievich Gusev | picha = Andrei Gusev.jpg | maelezo_ya_picha = | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = 27 October 1952 | mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = Moscow, Soviet Union | tarehe_ya_kufariki = | mahala_alipofia = | majina_mengine = Андрей Евгеньевич Гусев (Kirusi) | anafahamika kwa = | kazi_yake = mwandishi | nchi = Urusi }} <br>'''Andrei Evgenievich Gusev''' (amezaliwa 27 Oktoba 1952) ni mwandishi wa urusi na mwandishi wa habari. Tangu 1993 Andrei Gusev amekuwa mhariri mkuu wa "[[:en:New Medical Gazette|New Medical Gazette]]" (iliyochapishwa kwa kirusi). Kama mwandishi wa habari, alifanya Kazi kwa Gazeti La Moskovsky Komsomolets, kisha alikuwa mwandishi maalum Wa Rossiyskaya Gazeta, mhariri na mtangazaji wa programu katika kampuni ya televisheni Na redio Ya Resonance (Ostankino) na mhariri katika Shirika la Habari La Interfax. Andrei Gusev ndiye mwandishi wa vitabu nane vya nathari. Riwaya zake maarufu ni ''Consummation in Mombasa (2017),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm Review of ''"Consummation in Mombasa"''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105203257/http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm |date=5 November 2020 }} — on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2020 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 ''“Consummation in Mombasa”''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609223657/https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 |date=9 June 2020 }} — in Lady’s Club, 2017 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 «Консуммация в Момбасе»] by Andrei Gusev, 2017. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804015027/https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 |date=4 August 2020 }}</ref> Once in Malindi (2021),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm Review of ''"Once in Malindi"''] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2020/08/15/2 ''“Once in Malindi”''] on Proza.ru, 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> The Non-Returnee (2022)''<ref>[https://mliterature.narod.ru/Remaining.htm Review of ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2023</ref><ref> [https://proza.ru/2022/07/19/1220 ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] by Andrei Gusev, 2022</ref> na ''[[:en:The World According to Novikoff|The World According to Novikoff]].'' == Marejeo == <references /> == Katika utamaduni maarufu == * Katika "MALI D'AFRICA" na mwandishi wa italia Sara Cardelli, upendo wa kugusa wa wahusika wakuu wa riwaya yake Huko Malindi umeelezewa.<ref> [http://www.malindikenya.net/en/articles/words/books/the-impossible-love-in-the-italian-malindi.html upendo usiowezekana katika malindi ya italia] {{Wayback/url=http://www.malindikenya.net/en/articles/words/books/the-impossible-love-in-the-italian-malindi.html / tarehe=20201106213501}} — kuhusu riwaya ya mwandishi "Sara Cardelli," 2017.</ref> * Matukio mengi katika riwaya "Once in Malindi"<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm Mapitio ya riwaya "Mara moja kwa Wakati Huko Malindi"] {{Wayback/url=http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm / tarehe=20211222073306}} - kwenye wavuti ya msingi wa umma "Umoja wa Waandishi Wa Moscow", 2021</ref> na"ngono Yetu ngumu Huko Malindi"<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Malindi.htm Mapitio ya riwaya "Jinsia Yetu Ya Mwitu Huko Malindi"] {{Wayback/url=http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Malindi.htm / tarehe=20200804031310}} - kwenye wavuti ya msingi wa umma "Umoja wa Waandishi Wa Moscow", 2020 — Mwandishi Wa Moscow Gusev, Andrey Evgenievich Andrey Gusev hufanyika Malindi na Katika mji wa karibu wa kale Lamu. Riwaya hizo zinaelezea miaka kadhaa ya maisha katika kitongoji cha Malindi na mwandishi wa urusi Andy Na mkewe Jennifer, ambaye alizaliwa Nchini Kenya. "[[Gusev Andrey Evgenievich Andrey Gusev]]"[http://Gusev.webs.com/Malindi_Andy.htm "Wakati mmoja Huko Malindi"], 2021 {{Wayback/url=http://gusev.webs.com/Malindi_Andy.htm tarehe=20201104180724 }}. [https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=23284 "ngono yetu ngumu Huko Malindi"] {{Wayback / url=https: / / lady. webnice.ru/forum |viewtopic. php?t=23284|date=20200609223649 }} — roman [[gusev, Andrey Evgenievich Andrey Gusev]] katika Klabu Ya Lady {{ref / ru}} </ref> * Wimbo "Yasoi Malindi" umerekodiwa na mwimbaji Na mwanamuziki Yasoy Kala Kana katika albamu "Ndukanoe" [https://music.yandex.ru/album/3004276 "Ndukanoe-Yasoi Malindi"] 5z1u2wk56sx7m44ln08ghywa12ucx1d 1580050 1580025 2026-07-17T23:28:44Z Amanich7 44301 /* Katika utamaduni maarufu */ 1580050 wikitext text/x-wiki ''Ninapenda fasihi!'' <P><br> *** <br> {{Infobox Person | jina = Andrei Evgenievich Gusev | picha = Andrei Gusev.jpg | maelezo_ya_picha = | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = 27 October 1952 | mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = Moscow, Soviet Union | tarehe_ya_kufariki = | mahala_alipofia = | majina_mengine = Андрей Евгеньевич Гусев (Kirusi) | anafahamika kwa = | kazi_yake = mwandishi | nchi = Urusi }} <br>'''Andrei Evgenievich Gusev''' (amezaliwa 27 Oktoba 1952) ni mwandishi wa urusi na mwandishi wa habari. Tangu 1993 Andrei Gusev amekuwa mhariri mkuu wa "[[:en:New Medical Gazette|New Medical Gazette]]" (iliyochapishwa kwa kirusi). Kama mwandishi wa habari, alifanya Kazi kwa Gazeti La Moskovsky Komsomolets, kisha alikuwa mwandishi maalum Wa Rossiyskaya Gazeta, mhariri na mtangazaji wa programu katika kampuni ya televisheni Na redio Ya Resonance (Ostankino) na mhariri katika Shirika la Habari La Interfax. Andrei Gusev ndiye mwandishi wa vitabu nane vya nathari. Riwaya zake maarufu ni ''Consummation in Mombasa (2017),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm Review of ''"Consummation in Mombasa"''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105203257/http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm |date=5 November 2020 }} — on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2020 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 ''“Consummation in Mombasa”''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609223657/https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 |date=9 June 2020 }} — in Lady’s Club, 2017 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 «Консуммация в Момбасе»] by Andrei Gusev, 2017. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804015027/https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 |date=4 August 2020 }}</ref> Once in Malindi (2021),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm Review of ''"Once in Malindi"''] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2020/08/15/2 ''“Once in Malindi”''] on Proza.ru, 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> The Non-Returnee (2022)''<ref>[https://mliterature.narod.ru/Remaining.htm Review of ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2023</ref><ref> [https://proza.ru/2022/07/19/1220 ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] by Andrei Gusev, 2022</ref> na ''[[:en:The World According to Novikoff|The World According to Novikoff]].'' == Marejeo == <references /> == Katika utamaduni maarufu == * Katika "MALI D'AFRICA" na mwandishi wa italia Sara Cardelli, upendo wa kugusa wa wahusika wakuu wa riwaya yake Huko Malindi umeelezewa.<ref> [http://www.malindikenya.net/en/articles/words/books/the-impossible-love-in-the-italian-malindi.html upendo usiowezekana katika malindi ya italia] {{Wayback/url=http://www.malindikenya.net/en/articles/words/books/the-impossible-love-in-the-italian-malindi.html / tarehe=20201106213501}} — kuhusu riwaya ya mwandishi "Sara Cardelli," 2017.</ref> *Matukio mengi katika riwaya " Once upon A Time in Malindi "[8] na"Our Hard Sex in Malindi" [9] na mwandishi Wa Moscow Andrey Gusev hufanyika Malindi na Katika lamu ya zamani ya karibu. Riwaya hizo zinaelezea miaka kadhaa ya maisha katika kitongoji Cha Malindi na mwandishi wa urusi Andy Na mkewe Jennifer, ambaye alizaliwa Nchini Kenya [10] [11]. *Wimbo " Yasoi Malindi "ulirekodiwa na mwimbaji Na mwanamuziki Yasoy Kala Kana katika albamu"Ndukanoe" [12]. 6je49uqjta5dy47w858re21rs3nkgir 1580377 1580050 2026-07-18T11:42:39Z Amanich7 44301 /* Katika utamaduni maarufu */ 1580377 wikitext text/x-wiki ''Ninapenda fasihi!'' <P><br> *** <br> {{Infobox Person | jina = Andrei Evgenievich Gusev | picha = Andrei Gusev.jpg | maelezo_ya_picha = | tarehe_ya_kuzaliwa = 27 October 1952 | mahala_pa_kuzaliwa = Moscow, Soviet Union | tarehe_ya_kufariki = | mahala_alipofia = | majina_mengine = Андрей Евгеньевич Гусев (Kirusi) | anafahamika kwa = | kazi_yake = mwandishi | nchi = Urusi }} <br>'''Andrei Evgenievich Gusev''' (amezaliwa 27 Oktoba 1952) ni mwandishi wa urusi na mwandishi wa habari. Tangu 1993 Andrei Gusev amekuwa mhariri mkuu wa "[[:en:New Medical Gazette|New Medical Gazette]]" (iliyochapishwa kwa kirusi). Kama mwandishi wa habari, alifanya Kazi kwa Gazeti La Moskovsky Komsomolets, kisha alikuwa mwandishi maalum Wa Rossiyskaya Gazeta, mhariri na mtangazaji wa programu katika kampuni ya televisheni Na redio Ya Resonance (Ostankino) na mhariri katika Shirika la Habari La Interfax. Andrei Gusev ndiye mwandishi wa vitabu nane vya nathari. Riwaya zake maarufu ni ''Consummation in Mombasa (2017),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm Review of ''"Consummation in Mombasa"''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105203257/http://mliterature.narod.ru/In_Mombasa_.htm |date=5 November 2020 }} — on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2020 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 ''“Consummation in Mombasa”''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609223657/https://lady.webnice.ru/forum/viewtopic.php?t=22336 |date=9 June 2020 }} — in Lady’s Club, 2017 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 «Консуммация в Момбасе»] by Andrei Gusev, 2017. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804015027/https://proza.ru/2017/07/30/28 |date=4 August 2020 }}</ref> Once in Malindi (2021),<ref>[http://mliterature.narod.ru/Old_Novelist.htm Review of ''"Once in Malindi"''] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref><ref>[https://proza.ru/2020/08/15/2 ''“Once in Malindi”''] on Proza.ru, 2021 {{in lang|ru}}</ref> The Non-Returnee (2022)''<ref>[https://mliterature.narod.ru/Remaining.htm Review of ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] on the site of public fund "Union of writers of Moscow", 2023</ref><ref> [https://proza.ru/2022/07/19/1220 ''“Невозвращенец”'' (“The Non-Returnee”)] by Andrei Gusev, 2022</ref> na ''[[:en:The World According to Novikoff|The World According to Novikoff]].'' == Marejeo == <references /> == Katika utamaduni maarufu == * Katika "MALI D'AFRICA" na mwandishi wa italia Sara Cardelli, upendo wa kugusa wa wahusika wakuu wa riwaya yake Huko Malindi umeelezewa. * Matukio mengi katika riwaya "Once in Malindi" na "Our Wild Sex in Malindi" na mwandishi Wa Moscow Andrei Gusev hufanyika Malindi na Katika lamu ya zamani ya karibu. Riwaya hizo zinaelezea miaka kadhaa ya maisha katika kitongoji Cha Malindi na mwandishi wa urusi Andy Na mkewe Jennifer, ambaye alizaliwa Nchini Kenya. * Wimbo "Yasoi Malindi" ulirekodiwa na mwimbaji Na mwanamuziki Yasoy Kala Kana katika albamu"Ndukanoe". 38lilxr3ttpstlqf43rdrkhwro379rz 0 242223 1579981 1579928 2026-07-17T18:30:31Z Lingo Cowboy 91007 1579981 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|1=Wrong language. unsupervised crosswiki machine translation abuse <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude><templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>MSG: DELETE ALL SWAHILI CONTENT FROM THIS PAGE/ AI == Marejeo == [[Jamii:vyuo vikuu vya Marekani]] [[Jamii:Texas]] [[Jamii:Coordinates on Wikidata]] 9o4mk2vryj7a5w4ciwgjiq5l86bzb0v 1579983 1579981 2026-07-17T18:31:15Z NDG 79979 Masahihisho aliyefanya [[Special:Contributions/Lingo Cowboy|Lingo Cowboy]] ([[User talk:Lingo Cowboy|Majadiliano]]) yalirejeshwa hadi sahihisho la mwisho na [[User:A09|A09]] 1579928 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|1=Wrong language. unsupervised crosswiki machine translation abuse <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> {{Infobox university|jina=Chuo Kikuu cha Texas huko Dallas|native_name=University of Texas at Dallas|jina_la_picha=University of Texas at Dallas seal.svg|ukubwa_wa_picha=|picha_alt=|maelezo_ya_picha=|jina_la_kilatini=|wito=|wito_sw=|kimeanzishwa=|picha=University of Texas at Dallas seal.svg|aina=Chuo cha Umma|wakfu=|undergrad=21,602|postgrad=Postgraduates 8,284 (fall 2024)[3]|chansela=|vice_chancellor=|kampasi=|mji=Richardson|affiliations=|jimbo=Texas|nchi=Marekani|tovuti=[https://www.utdallas.edu/ utdallas.edu]|colours=machungwa, kijani<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.utdallas.edu/brand/logos-visual-identity|title=UT Dallas Visual Identity |publisher=The University of Texas at Dallas|access-date=October 2, 2019}}</ref>|rais=Dr. Prabhas V. Moghe}}<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>[[Faili:UT_Dallas_-_Full_Mark_Texas_Logo.jpg|alt=UT Dallas Texas logo|thumb|Nembo ya UT Dallas, iliyochochewa na nembo ya Texas Instruments]] [[Faili:Natural_Science_Engineering_and_Research_Lab_building_(University_of_Texas_at_Dallas).jpg|left|thumb|Maabara ya Utafiti wa Sayansi Asilia na Uhandisi]] [[Faili:Outside_of_bh_wiki.jpg|thumb|Kituo cha Afya ya UbongoCenter for BrainHealth]] '''Chuo Kikuu cha Texas huko Dallas''' ( '''UTD''' au '''UT Dallas''' ) ni chuo kikuu cha utafiti wa umma huko [[Richardson, Texas]], Marekani. Hapo awali ilianzishwa mwaka wa 1961 kama tawi la utafiti la binafsi la [[Texas Instruments]], University of Texas at Dallas chenye kauli mbiu inayosema Hekima ni Uhuru "Akili iliyoelimika inalinda na kuimarisha demokrasia".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://president.utdallas.edu/vision-and-goals/|title=UT Dallas Vision}}</ref>UDSM kina kampasi mbalimbali kama vile Kampasi Kuu, ROC Kampasi, Callier Center Kampasi, Kituo cha Afya ya Ubongo (Center for BrainHealth) na CVL Kampasi. Chuo Kikuu ni nyumbani kwa wanafunzi 21,600  wa shahada ya kwanza, na wanafunzi 8,200 wa shahada za uzamili na uzamivu. <ref>[https://www.utsystem.edu/sites/default/files/documents/publication/2025/ut-system-smartbook/smartbook-online-version-june-2025.pdf smartbook-online-version-june-2025.pdf]</ref> Wanavyuo wa MIT wamepokea tuzo nyingi pamoja na [[tuzo za Nobel]] 4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.utdallas.edu/about/|title=About UT Dallas|publisher=The University of Texas at Dallas|website=utdallas.edu|access-date=March 22, 2019}}</ref> [[Faili:UT_Dallas_School_of_Management.jpg|left|thumb|Naveen Jindal School of Management]] [[Faili:UT_Dallas_2_Color_Emblem_-_SVG_Brand_Identity_File.svg|alt=UTD Emblem Logo|thumb|150x150px|Nembo ya UT Dallas]] [[Faili:Engineering_and_Computer_Science_Complex_(University_of_Texas_at_Dallas).jpg|thumb|Jengo la Uhandisi na Sayansi ya Kompyuta Kusini]] == Marejeo == [[Jamii:vyuo vikuu vya Marekani]] [[Jamii:Texas]] [[Jamii:Coordinates on Wikidata]] jkppof28xweytw7liu7pb3075sca1ks 1580294 1579983 2026-07-18T08:03:36Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580294 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox university|jina=Chuo Kikuu cha Texas huko Dallas|native_name=University of Texas at Dallas|jina_la_picha=University of Texas at Dallas seal.svg|ukubwa_wa_picha=|picha_alt=|maelezo_ya_picha=|jina_la_kilatini=|wito=|wito_sw=|kimeanzishwa=|picha=University of Texas at Dallas seal.svg|aina=Chuo cha Umma|wakfu=|undergrad=21,602|postgrad=Postgraduates 8,284 (fall 2024)[3]|chansela=|vice_chancellor=|kampasi=|mji=Richardson|affiliations=|jimbo=Texas|nchi=Marekani|tovuti=[https://www.utdallas.edu/ utdallas.edu]|colours=machungwa, kijani<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.utdallas.edu/brand/logos-visual-identity|title=UT Dallas Visual Identity |publisher=The University of Texas at Dallas|access-date=October 2, 2019}}</ref>|rais=Dr. Prabhas V. Moghe}}<templatestyles src="Module:Hatnote/styles.css"></templatestyles>[[Faili:UT_Dallas_-_Full_Mark_Texas_Logo.jpg|alt=UT Dallas Texas logo|thumb|Nembo ya UT Dallas, iliyochochewa na nembo ya Texas Instruments]] [[Faili:Natural_Science_Engineering_and_Research_Lab_building_(University_of_Texas_at_Dallas).jpg|left|thumb|Maabara ya Utafiti wa Sayansi Asilia na Uhandisi]] [[Faili:Outside_of_bh_wiki.jpg|thumb|Kituo cha Afya ya UbongoCenter for BrainHealth]] '''Chuo Kikuu cha Texas huko Dallas''' ( '''UTD''' au '''UT Dallas''' ) ni chuo kikuu cha utafiti wa umma huko [[Richardson, Texas]], Marekani. Hapo awali ilianzishwa mwaka wa 1961 kama tawi la utafiti la binafsi la [[Texas Instruments]], University of Texas at Dallas chenye kauli mbiu inayosema Hekima ni Uhuru "Akili iliyoelimika inalinda na kuimarisha demokrasia".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://president.utdallas.edu/vision-and-goals/|title=UT Dallas Vision}}</ref>UDSM kina kampasi mbalimbali kama vile Kampasi Kuu, ROC Kampasi, Callier Center Kampasi, Kituo cha Afya ya Ubongo (Center for BrainHealth) na CVL Kampasi. Chuo Kikuu ni nyumbani kwa wanafunzi 21,600  wa shahada ya kwanza, na wanafunzi 8,200 wa shahada za uzamili na uzamivu. <ref>[https://www.utsystem.edu/sites/default/files/documents/publication/2025/ut-system-smartbook/smartbook-online-version-june-2025.pdf smartbook-online-version-june-2025.pdf]</ref> Wanavyuo wamepokea tuzo nyingi pamoja na [[tuzo za Nobel]] 4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.utdallas.edu/about/|title=About UT Dallas|publisher=The University of Texas at Dallas|website=utdallas.edu|access-date=March 22, 2019}}</ref> [[Faili:UT_Dallas_School_of_Management.jpg|left|thumb|Naveen Jindal School of Management]] [[Faili:UT_Dallas_2_Color_Emblem_-_SVG_Brand_Identity_File.svg|alt=UTD Emblem Logo|thumb|150x150px|Nembo ya UT Dallas]] [[Faili:Engineering_and_Computer_Science_Complex_(University_of_Texas_at_Dallas).jpg|thumb|Jengo la Uhandisi na Sayansi ya Kompyuta Kusini]] == Marejeo == [[Jamii:vyuo vikuu vya Marekani]] [[Jamii:Texas]] [[Jamii:Coordinates on Wikidata]] qfwut9lk3ba4k1b8ln1k0h1k50ro3tw 0 242257 1580295 1579902 2026-07-18T08:04:48Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580295 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Katherine Quaye''' (alizaliwa 1963), anayejulikana zaidi kwa jina lake la kisanii Taffy, ni mwimbaji wa [[Kiingereza]] wa muziki wa hi-NRG na Italo disco kutoka Deptford, [[Uingereza]], anayefahamika zaidi kwa wimbo wake maarufu wa miaka ya 1980<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Dailymotion|url=https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x715hqc|work=www.dailymotion.com|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Taffy - Step By Step ⋆ Mark Moore & S'Express Official|url=https://markmoore.com/album/taffy-step-by-step-mark-moore-remix/|work=Mark Moore & S'Express Official|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en-GB}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki-Ulaya}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1963]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:waimbaji wa Uingereza]] 4ihb94najcq1u2ser5h8yqqv0mhkl4i 0 242258 1580296 1579859 2026-07-18T08:12:53Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580296 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Claudine Clark''' (alizaliwa 26 Aprili 1941) ni [[mwanamuziki]] wa [[Marekani]] wa miondoko ya R&B, anayefahamika zaidi kama mwimbaji na mtunzi wa wimbo maarufu wa mwaka 1962, "Party Lights", ulioshika nafasi ya 5 kwenye chati za Billboard Hot 100.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Claudine Clark — Biography, Discography, Albums & Expert Reviews|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/claudine-clark-mn0000786991|work=AllMusic|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Obituary information for Minister Bruce Richard Clark|url=https://www.tlhuttonfuneralservices.com/obituaries/obituary-listings?obId=24919871|work=www.tlhuttonfuneralservices.com|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1941]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:waimbaji wa Marekani]] r29aycyp9qp3mbm0794znlrlcpexr0f 0 242259 1580298 1579887 2026-07-18T08:29:11Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580298 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kaycee Moore''' (alizaliwa '''Collier'''; 24 Februari 1944 – 13 Agosti 2021) alikuwa [[mwigizaji]] wa [[Marekani]]. Akiwa amezaliwa na kulelewa huko Kansas City, Missouri, alikuwa mwanachama wa kundi la L.A. Rebellion, vuguvugu mbadala la kisanii lililoanzishwa katika Chuo Kikuu cha UCLA na waongozaji wa filamu Weusi wakiwemo Charles Burnett na Julie Dash.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Kaycee Moore, Star of ‘Killer of Sheep’ and ‘Bless Their Little Hearts,’ Dies at 77|url=https://variety.com/2021/film/obituaries-people-news/kaycee-moore-dead-killer-of-sheep-1235049363/|work=Variety|date=2021-08-25|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en-US|author=Ethan Shanfeld}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu-USA}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1944]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2021]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Marekani]] 5kti3zvtc7vmijdo7xszoitwpufk6s0 0 242260 1580299 1579863 2026-07-18T08:29:49Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580299 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Brenda J. Penny''' ni jaji wa [[Marekani]] katika Mahakama Kuu ya Kaunti ya Los Angeles. Aliteuliwa mnamo mwaka wa 2018 na aliyekuwa Gavana wa California wakati huo, Jerry Brown, na anafahamika zaidi kwa jukumu lake la kusimamia mzozo wa ulinzi wa kisheria (conservatorship) wa Britney Spears.<ref>{{Citation|last=A|title=Who Is Mathew Rosengart, Britney Spears' New Lawyer?|date=2021-07-15|url=https://www.npr.org/2021/07/15/1016378951/britney-spears-new-lawyer-mathew-rosengart|work=NPR|language=en|access-date=2026-07-16|last2=n|last3=a|last4=s|last5=t|last6=a|last7=s|last8=i|last9=a}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Judge Brenda Penny Holds Britney Spears' Future in Her Hands|url=https://www.newsweek.com/who-brenda-penny-judge-britney-spears-conservatorship-case-1604212|work=Newsweek|language=en|access-date=2026-07-16}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:wanasheria wa Marekani]] 61p650toz8uqvbmsbl5a1w5d5pse6ld 0 242261 1580300 1579866 2026-07-18T08:30:40Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580300 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Aba Amuquandoh''' (aliyezaliwa mnamo 1994 au 1996) ni [[mwigizaji]] na [[mchekeshaji]] wa [[Kanada]], anayefahamika zaidi kwa kazi yake kwenye kipindi cha vichekesho vya maigizo cha runinga ya CBC kiitwacho ''This Hour Has 22 Minutes''.Alijiunga na kipindi hicho kwa mara ya kwanza msimu wa mwaka 2020, akiwa kama mwandishi na mwigizaji msaidizi katika maigizo ya vichekesho, na kisha akapandishwa cheo na kuwa mmoja wa waigizaji wakuu katika msimu wa 2021-22.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Together in Toronto {{!}} The Star|url=https://www.thestar.com/life/together/|work=Toronto Star|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en|author=Toronto Star}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Cooke|first=Stephen|title=CBC fall season expands This Hour Has 22 Minutes, debuts South Shore-shot Moonshine {{!}} Saltwire|url=https://www.saltwire.com/atlantic-canada/lifestyles/local-lifestyles/cbc-fall-season-expands-this-hour-has-22-minutes-debuts-south-shore-shot-moonshine-100595406/|language=en|access-date=2026-07-16}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1994]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Kanada]] 3dnol5zyizbac2ecgbj02048ssr3r2p 0 242262 1580301 1579875 2026-07-18T08:31:18Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580301 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Geraldene Felton''' (31 Januari 1926 – 20 Juni 2026) alikuwa msomi wa [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa Profesa mwenye Cheo cha Kelting (Kelting Chair Professor) katika fani ya Uuguzi kwenye Chuo Kikuu cha Iowa.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Iowa City Press-Citizen (Saturday, May 25, 1996) - Iowa City, Iowa {{!}} Page Page 5 archive|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/207180466/|work=Newspapers.com|date=1996-05-25|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Obituary information for Geraldene Felton|url=https://www.lensingfuneral.com/obituaries/obituary-listings?obId=48802306|work=www.lensingfuneral.com|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1926]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2026]] [[Jamii:wataalamu wa Marekani]] ttbs38hdtbqgjop6wmpx157ugj6djpf 0 242263 1580302 1579901 2026-07-18T08:32:01Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580302 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sthefany Thomas Díaz''' (alizaliwa 4 Mei 1989) ni [[mchezaji]] wa mpira wa kikapu wa [[Argentina]] na [[Marekani]] anayecheza kama mshambuliaji (forward). Amekuwa mwanachama wa timu ya taifa ya wanawake ya Argentina katika ngazi ya chini ya miaka 18 (2006), chini ya miaka 19 (2007) na timu ya wakubwa (2008-2016).<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=AgSouth Homegrown Athlete of the Week – Sthefany Thomas|url=https://clemsontigers.com/news/2010/11/29/agsouth-homegrown-athlete-of-the-week-sthefany-thomas|work=Clemson University Athletics|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=archive.fiba.com: Players|url=https://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/p/rpp//q//pid/56673/_//players.html|work=archive.fiba.com|accessdate=2026-07-16}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1989]] [[Jamii:wachezaji wa Marekani]] rhmau6rxkrbrwabmuj98j1idqe4wesz 1580303 1580302 2026-07-18T08:32:27Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580303 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sthefany Thomas Díaz''' (alizaliwa 4 Mei 1989) ni [[mchezaji]] wa mpira wa kikapu wa [[Argentina]] na [[Marekani]] anayecheza kama mshambuliaji (forward). Amekuwa mwanachama wa timu ya taifa ya wanawake ya Argentina katika ngazi ya chini ya miaka 18 (2006), chini ya miaka 19 (2007) na timu ya wakubwa (2008-2016).<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=AgSouth Homegrown Athlete of the Week – Sthefany Thomas|url=https://clemsontigers.com/news/2010/11/29/agsouth-homegrown-athlete-of-the-week-sthefany-thomas|work=Clemson University Athletics|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=archive.fiba.com: Players|url=https://archive.fiba.com/pages/eng/fa/p/rpp//q//pid/56673/_//players.html|work=archive.fiba.com|accessdate=2026-07-16}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1989]] [[Jamii:wachezaji wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:wachezaji wa Argentina]] pa26wmdy8a2pdvbsgedbxz9iwm27st4 0 242264 1580304 1579910 2026-07-18T08:33:00Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580304 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dede Lovelace''' ni [[mwigizaji]], mcheza ubao wa kuteleza (skateboarder), msanii wa sanaa za uoni (visual artist), na DJ wa [[Marekani]]. Lovelace alifanya mwanzo wake katika uigizaji kwenye filamu ya ''That One Day'' (2016). Lovelace alicheza kama Janay kwenye filamu ya mwaka 2018 ya ''Skate Kitchen'', na kwa sasa anacheza kama Janay kwenye tamthilia ya HBO ya mwaka 2020 iitwayo ''Betty'', ambayo ni toleo lililoigizwa kutoka kwenye filamu hiyo.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Rookie » Find the Authenticity: Behind the Scenes of Skate Kitchen|url=https://www.rookiemag.com/2018/10/find-the-authenticity-behind-the-scenes-of-skate-kitchen/|work=www.rookiemag.com|date=2018-10-02|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en-US|author=Shriya Samavai}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title='Skate Kitchen' or die: Meet the NYC all-women collective empowering and inspiring with their own big screen skate sesh|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/la-et-mn-skate-kitchen-movie-20180823-story.html|work=Los Angeles Times|date=2018-08-23|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en-US}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu-USA}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Marekani]] hilgpbiwa794abq6i2x4cd95hqtpgy0 0 242265 1580305 1579883 2026-07-18T08:33:31Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580305 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Johanne Harrelle''' (29 Januari 1930 – 4 Agosti 1994) alikuwa [[mwigizaji]], [[mwanamitindo]], na mwandishi wa [[Kanada]], na mwanamke wa kwanza mweusi kujipatia umaarufu mkubwa katika ulimwengu wa mitindo huko Quebec na nchini Kanada.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Collections {{!}} Cinémathèque québécoise|url=https://www.cinematheque.qc.ca/fr/collections/|work=www.cinematheque.qc.ca|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Magazine Madame : Loisirs - culture : Johanne Harrelle, première top-modèle noire au Québec|url=http://www.madame.ca/LOISIRS_CULTURE/personnalites/johanne-harrelle-premiere-top-modele-noire-au-quebec-n2549p1.html|work=www.madame.ca|accessdate=2026-07-16}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1930]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1994]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Kanada]] kgkbbhbsrl41vqwmvldqasaxfla6vgl 0 242266 1580306 1579909 2026-07-18T08:34:15Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580306 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Deborahe Elizabeth Glasgow''' (19 Januari 1966 – 25 Januari 1994) alikuwa [[mwimbaji]] wa [[Uingereza]] wa miondoko ya ''lovers rock'' mwenye asili ya [[Guyana]] kupitia wazazi wake, aliyekuwa akifanya muziki kuanzia mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1970 hadi mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1990.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=How To Get from Mavado to Chelsea’s Michael Essien in three moves!|url=http://back2dafuture.blogspot.com/2009_01_01_archive.html|work=Back 2 Da Future Music Representin'|date=2009-01-27|accessdate=2026-07-16|author=Unknown Unknown}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1966]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1994]] [[Jamii:waimbaji wa Uingereza]] ijncq4jmeeht89rxe07v3vy5cwfmdmw 0 242267 1580307 1579903 2026-07-18T08:36:02Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580307 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tracy Freeman''' (alizaliwa Halifax, West Yorkshire, <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Tracy Spencer|url=https://www.discogs.com/artist/141880-Tracy-Spencer|work=Discogs|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en}}</ref> 5 Januari 1962), anayejulikana zaidi kwa jina lake la kisanii Tracy Spencer, ni [[mwimbaji]] na [[mwigizaji]] wa Uingereza wa muziki wa Italo disco, aliyegunduliwa na mtayarishaji wa muziki na mtafuta vipaji wa Italia, Claudio Cecchetto. Anafahamika zaidi kwa wimbo wa "Run to Me", ulioshinda tuzo ya Festivalbar mwaka 1986 na kushika nafasi ya kwanza kwenye chati za muziki nchini Italia == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki-Ulaya}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1962]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:waimbaji wa Uingereza]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Uingereza]] p48b9hy04f5y8r1y8cb2b6lgvg1k1ec 0 242268 1580308 1579889 2026-07-18T08:36:31Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580308 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kirsten Williamson''' (alizaliwa 1969), anayejulikana pia kitaaluma kama Kirsten Alter, ni [[mwigizaji]] wa [[Kanada]]. Anaigiza kwa sauti uhusika wa Ororo Munroe kwenye tamthilia ya katuni ya runinga ya ''X-Men: Evolution''. Pia alikuwa na uhusika kama Tammy kwenye filamu ya ''RV''. Aidha, ameonekana kwenye tamthilia za ''Jeremiah'', ''Da Vinci's Inquest'', na ''Da Vinci's City Hall''. Alikuwa na nyongeza ya uhusika mdogo kwenye filamu ya ''The Last Mimzy'', kwenye ''Juno'' kama muuguzi wa chumba cha wazazi, na pia kwenye filamu ya ''Fifty Shades Freed''.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Kirsten Williamson Movies & TV Shows List {{!}} Rotten Tomatoes {{!}} Rotten Tomatoes|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/celebrity/kirsten_williamson|work=www.rottentomatoes.com|accessdate=2026-07-16|language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1969]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Kanada]] 9ne1l2r2evqee59ybkwroxnpowqd4pj 0 242269 1580310 1579934 2026-07-18T08:37:26Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580310 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Juanita Cowart-Motley''' (wakati mwingine akitambuliwa kama '''Wyanetta''') ni mwimbaji mstaafu wa [[Marekani]], anayefahamika sana kwa kuwa mwanachama wa kundi la waimbaji watano la Motown Records, The Marvelettes.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Wyanetta Cowart {{!}} American singer {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wyanetta-Cowart|work=www.britannica.com|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=The Marvelettes|url=https://history-of-rock.com/marvelettes.htm|work=history-of-rock.com|accessdate=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1994]] [[Jamii:Waimbaji wa Marekani]] 3xe2osba4lgdrgj2ga2gwvk1re31jch 0 242270 1580311 1579926 2026-07-18T08:38:05Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580311 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Shae Jones''' (alizaliwa 27 Julai 1968) ni [[mwimbaji]] wa [[Marekani]] wa miondoko ya R&B. Aligunduliwa mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1990 na nyota wa R&B, Montell Jordan, aliyevutiwa na ukweli kwamba sauti yake haikuwa sawa na sauti za waimbaji wengine.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Shae Jones|url=https://rareandobscuremusic.wordpress.com/2011/09/17/shae-jones/|work=rareandobscuremusic|date=2011-09-17|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LgoEAAAAMBAJ&dq=%22Shae+Jones%22&pg=PA61|title=Billboard|last=Inc|first=Nielsen Business Media|date=1998-12-05|publisher=Nielsen Business Media, Inc.|language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1968]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:waimbaji wa Marekani]] rvak1vc40g4zfcnla32lxo6wjn5zh8z 0 242271 1580312 1579932 2026-07-18T08:38:38Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580312 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Diane Sommerfield''' (alizaliwa '''Diane Yvonne Young'''; 24 Oktoba 1949 – 9 Machi 2001) alikuwa [[mwigizaji]] wa [[Marekani]] aliyeshiriki katika michezo ya kuigiza ya jukwaani, filamu na runinga kuanzia mwanzoni mwa miaka ya 1970 hadi katikati ya miaka ya 1980. Sommerfield alijulikana zaidi kwa uhusika wake kama Valerie Grant kwenye tamthilia ya NBC iitwayo ''Days of Our Lives'' (1981–82).<ref>{{Citation|last=Dargis|first=Manohla|title=Movies|url=https://www.nytimes.com/section/movies|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2026-07-17|last2=Lamont|first2=Erynn|last3=Murphy|first3=Mekado|last4=Salam|first4=Maya|last5=Catsoulis|first5=Jeannette|last6=Kennedy|first6=Lisa|last7=Kenigsberg|first7=Ben|last8=Loayza|first8=Beatrice|last9=Huff|first9=Matthew}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea kitabu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=29gDAAAAMBAJ&dq=diane+sommerfield&pg=PA123|title=Ebony|last=Company|first=Johnson Publishing|date=1982-11|publisher=Johnson Publishing Company|language=en}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu-USA}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1949]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2001]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Marekani]] pl85gfw0qlmnwfjybwib3uct5evyv4f 0 242272 1580313 1579933 2026-07-18T08:39:11Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580313 wikitext text/x-wiki {{umbo}} == Elimu == Baada ya kuhitimu kutoka Chuo Kikuu cha Washington huko St. Louis ambapo alitunukiwa shahada ya [[saikolojia]] na sanaa za maonyesho, alijiunga na Shule ya Maigizo ya Yale (Yale School of Drama) na kupata shahada yake ya uzamili ya sanaa (MFA) katika uigizaji.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Luke Cage's President Obama References Explained|url=https://screenrant.com/luke-cage-president-obama-ellis/|work=ScreenRant|date=2016-10-02|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=Hannah Shaw-Williams}}</ref> == Kazi == Uhusika maarufu zaidi wa Ricks umekuwa ni ule wa kujirudia kwenye tamthilia ya Showtime ya ''Billions'' kama Tonelle “T” Burton, [[tamthilia]] za ulimwengu wa [[filamu]] wa Marvel (Marvel Cinematic Universe) za ''Luke Cage'', ''Jessica Jones'', na ''Iron Fist'' kama mwandishi wa habari Thembi Wallace,[1][2] tamthilia ya ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' kama Daktari bingwa wa uzazi na magonjwa ya wanawake (OB/GYN) Dr. Marnie Aiken, ''Law & Order'' kama Sajenti Royce, na ''Guiding Light'' kama Muuguzi Maggie.<ref>{{Citation|title=Tijuana Ricks on Twitter|url=https://twitter.com/tijuanaricks/status/842852341246283777|work=Twitter|language=fa|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1978]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] s4sepi6mupxoklxtxwwyqfkqzlppods 0 242273 1580315 1579916 2026-07-18T08:39:36Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580315 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Capathia Jenkins''' ni [[mwigizaji]] na [[mwimbaji]] wa Marekani. Anafahamika zaidi kwa kazi yake kama mtumbuizaji wa Broadway, akiwa na uhusika katika maonyesho kama vile ''Caroline, or Change'', ''Newsies'', na ''Fame Becomes Me'' la Martin Short.<ref>{{Cite web|title=An Interview with Capathia Jenkins: "Knight" Time is the Right Time|url=https://www.manhattandigest.com/2015/11/03/an-interview-with-capathia-jenkins-knight-time-is-the-right-time/|work=Manhattan Digest|date=2015-11-03|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en-US|author=Ryan Leeds}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu-USA}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Marekani]] 9w5n9yfacp7xd80jyk2bgyespttga48 0 242274 1580316 1579925 2026-07-18T08:40:16Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580316 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Rena Lalgie''' ni mtumishi wa umma wa [[Uingereza]] ambaye alihudumu kama [[Gavana]] wa Bermuda kuanzia Desemba 2020 hadi Januari 2025. Alikuwa mwanamke wa kwanza, na mtu wa kwanza mwenye asili ya Kiafrika na Karibea, kuteuliwa kuwa gavana wa Bermuda.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=First black woman to be appointed governor|url=https://www.royalgazette.com/other/news/article/20200613/first-black-woman-to-be-appointed-governor/|date=2020-06-13|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en-US|author=Jonathan Bell, Fiona McWhirter}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Rena Lalgie Appointed As The New Governor|url=https://bernews.com/2020/06/rena-lalgie-appointed-as-the-new-governor/|work=Bernews|date=2020-06-12|accessdate=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:wanasiasa wa Uingereza]] 7rwpy79941ycaxqcsgkkyhr0m3dgmth 0 242275 1580317 1579922 2026-07-18T08:40:52Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580317 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Madalen Mills''' (alizaliwa Januari 2009) ni [[mwigizaji]] wa [[Marekani]]. Anafahamika zaidi kwa uhusika wake kama Journey kwenye filamu ya muziki ya Krismasi ya Netflix ya mwaka 2020 iitwayo ''Jingle Jangle: A Christmas Journey''. Pia alionekana kwenye filamu ya mwaka 2022 iitwayo ''The Tiger Rising''.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Madalen Mills on ‘Jingle Jangle’, her Alabama roots and her beloved Crimson Tide|url=https://www.al.com/life/2020/12/madalen-mills-on-jingle-jangle-her-alabama-roots-and-her-beloved-crimson-tide.html|work=al|date=2020-12-05|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=Ben Flanagan}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=WME & Brillstein Entertainment Sign ‘Jingle Jangle’ Star Madalen Mills|url=https://deadline.com/2020/12/wme-brillstein-entertainment-jingle-jangle-madalen-mills-1234656741/|work=Deadline|date=2020-12-15|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en-US|author=Amanda N'Duka}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu-USA}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 2009]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Marekani]] oh0wgqvob4x9lfwmbaljiiplnvbdi6i 0 242276 1580318 1579927 2026-07-18T08:41:35Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580318 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sherry Dorsey Walker''' ni [[mwanasiasa]] wa [[Marekani]] aliyependekezwa na chama cha Kidemokrasia na kuhudumu kama mjumbe wa Baraza la Wawakilishi la Delaware, akiwakilisha Jimbo la 3 kuanzia mwaka 2018 hadi 2025. Mnamo mwaka 2018, Dorsey Walker alichaguliwa baada ya kushinda kura za maoni za vyama zilizoshirikisha wagombea watatu dhidi ya Jim Miller na Paul Falkowski, ambapo alipata zaidi ya asilimia 68 ya kura. Hakukabiliwa na mpinzani yeyote katika uchaguzi mkuu. Hakugombea tena nafasi hiyo ya uwakilishi, badala yake aligombea katika uchaguzi wa Naibu Gavana wa Delaware wa mwaka 2024, ambapo alishindwa kwenye kura za maoni za chama chake.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=State of Delaware - Department of Elections · Office of the State Election Commissioner|url=https://elections.delaware.gov/archive/elect18/elect18_primary/html/election.shtml|work=elections.delaware.gov|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Representative Sherry Dorsey Walker (D) - Delaware General Assembly|url=https://www.legis.delaware.gov/AssemblyMember/150/DorseyWalker|work=www.legis.delaware.gov|accessdate=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:wanasiasa wa Marekani]] 734sy7na1acemia1g6x251axsiyk3zz 0 242277 1580319 1579920 2026-07-18T08:42:06Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580319 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Angelique Francis''' ni [[mwimbaji]] wa [[muziki]] wa ''blues'' wa Kanada kutoka Ottawa, Ontario. Anafahamika zaidi kama mshindi wa Tuzo ya Juno ya Albamu ya Blues ya Mwaka (Juno Award for Blues Album of the Year) katika Tuzo za Juno za mwaka 2023, kwa albamu yake ya ''Long River''.<ref>{{Citation|title=Ottawa's Angelique Francis mines the power of blues|url=https://ottawacitizen.com/entertainment/ottawas-angelique-francis-mines-the-power-of-blues|work=ottawacitizen|language=en-CA|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Rising blues star Angelique Francis has a new album out ahead of Ottawa Grassroots {{!}} Roots Music Canada|url=https://www.rootsmusic.ca/2022/04/20/rising-blues-star-angelique-francis-has-a-new-album-out-ahead-of-ottawa-grassroots/|date=2022-04-20|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en-US|author=Eric Alper}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:waimbaji wa Kanada]] 70q73fnw10mwfiemsxq9wm7y651a3ww 0 242278 1580320 1579923 2026-07-18T08:42:35Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580320 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Michele Reynolds''' ni mmiliki wa [[biashara]] wa [[Marekani]] na mjumbe wa Seneti ya Ohio. katika uchaguzi wa katikati ya muhula wa mwaka 2022, aliweka historia kama mwanamke wa kwanza mwenye asili ya Kiafrika kuchaguliwa kupitia chama cha Republican katika Kaunti ya Franklin.<ref>{{Citation|last=Lapin|first=Andrew|title=Ohio GOP candidate apologizes for antisemitic ‘Jew you down’ comment|date=2022-10-21|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/ohio-gop-candidate-apologizes-for-antisemitic-jew-you-down-comment/|work=The Times of Israel|language=en-US|issn=0040-7909|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Jewish leaders vouch for Reynolds despite ‘Jew you down’ comment|url=https://www.clevelandjewishnews.com/news/politics/elections/jewish-leaders-vouch-for-reynolds-despite-jew-you-down-comment/article_25fedc0a-8858-5c10-8eda-4b1680cb8530.html|work=Cleveland Jewish News|date=2022-11-11|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=STEPHEN LANGEL slangel@cjn.org}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:wanasiasa wa Marekani]] st4eekal9s3bn4girl0l3uim510r4je 3 242281 1579979 1579937 2026-07-17T18:23:48Z Shommy keyz02 90989 /* Shommy */ mjadala mpya 1579979 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 17 Julai 2026 (UTC) == Shommy == CURRICULUM VITAE (CV) SHOMARI FADHILI Professional Dancer & Choreographer 📍 Location: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 📞 Phone: +255 766 127 410 👤 Gender: Male 🎂 Date of Birth: 23 May 2004 🎉 Age: 22 Years 🌍 Nationality: Tanzanian Social Media Username (TikTok, Instagram, Facebook, YouTube & other platforms): @shommy_keyz ⸻ PROFESSIONAL PROFILE Energetic and passionate professional dancer and choreographer with experience performing at major festivals, entertainment events, concerts, and nightclubs across Tanzania. Skilled in creating dynamic choreography and delivering captivating performances in various African dance styles, including Singeli, Afro Dance, Amapiano, and Bolingo. Dedicated to entertaining audiences, working collaboratively with dance teams, and continuously developing creative performances. ⸻ CORE SKILLS * Professional Dance Performance * Dance Choreography * Stage Performance * Entertainment & Live Shows * Teamwork & Leadership * Creative Movement * Audience Engagement * Event Performance * Dance Training & Coaching ⸻ DANCE STYLES * Singeli Dance * Afro Dance * Amapiano Dance * Bolingo (Congolese Afro Dance) * Dancehall * Freestyle Dance ⸻ PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE Professional Dancer & Choreographer * Performed at major festivals, concerts, and entertainment events throughout Tanzania. * Performed at Sanaa Blast Festival – UDSM. * Performed at Bagamoyo Festival – TASUBA. * Performed at Wavuvi Camp, Msasani Coco Beach. * Performed in various nightclubs and live entertainment events. * Choreographed and performed Afro Dance, Singeli, Amapiano, and Bolingo routines. * Worked as a member of the professional dance group Afro Mob. Achievements * 🥈 2nd Place Winner – Cheza Mania 2024 as a member of Afro Mob. ⸻ LANGUAGES * Swahili – Fluent * English – Good ⸻ PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES * Creative and innovative * Strong stage presence * Excellent teamwork * Disciplined and reliable * Fast learner * Passionate about dance and entertainment * Confident performer '''[[Mtumiaji:Shommy keyz02|Shommy keyz02]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Shommy keyz02#top|majadiliano]])''' 18:23, 17 Julai 2026 (UTC) prw4ku0wj0st2k2k9mm1hzjmtklrsc6 3 242292 1579952 2026-07-17T12:23:04Z Gerges 71732 Gerges alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:انس عبد الله الخفاجي]] hadi [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:انس الشهراني]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user "[[Special:CentralAuth/انس عبد الله الخفاجي|انس عبد الله الخفاجي]]" to "[[Special:CentralAuth/انس الشهراني|انس الشهراني]]" 1579952 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:انس الشهراني]] pbq6ubc01opflmcg5nxdu9rtwbef405 1580154 1579952 2026-07-18T00:39:29Z Xqbot 1852 Bot: Fixing double redirect from [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:انس الشهراني]] to [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:أنس الشهراني]] 1580154 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:أنس الشهراني]] kp7viu687ry2w27dgltmk9rlpty5w8z 3 242293 1579962 2026-07-17T15:08:19Z Dr-Taher 22446 Dr-Taher alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:انس الشهراني]] hadi [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:أنس الشهراني]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user "[[Special:CentralAuth/انس الشهراني|انس الشهراني]]" to "[[Special:CentralAuth/أنس الشهراني|أنس الشهراني]]" 1579962 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:أنس الشهراني]] kp7viu687ry2w27dgltmk9rlpty5w8z 3 242294 1579985 2026-07-17T18:32:11Z NDG 79979 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika '{{karibu }} ~~~~' 1579985 wikitext text/x-wiki {{karibu }} '''[[Mtumiaji:NDG|NDG]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:NDG|majadiliano]])''' 18:32, 17 Julai 2026 (UTC) hjrn59il1oq1wi4z2hzv03p1wg212nd 3 242295 1579987 2026-07-17T18:39:10Z Eta Carinae 53083 Eta Carinae alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Contaanonimao5bre4o54]] hadi [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Trevisando]]: Automatically moved page while renaming the user "[[Special:CentralAuth/Contaanonimao5bre4o54|Contaanonimao5bre4o54]]" to "[[Special:CentralAuth/Trevisando|Trevisando]]" 1579987 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:Trevisando]] 8j3eicpoo8ws8ro51wyx5m8das9lvv4 0 242296 1579994 2026-07-17T19:17:58Z Don Malya 61486 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Louisa Sewell (1848–1893)''' alikuwa mzaliwa wa Richmond, Virginia, nchini [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa miongoni mwa Waoregon wa kwanza wenye asili ya [[Afrika]] kuishi katika Kaunti ya Grant pamoja na mume wake, Columbus Sewell, na wana wao, Thomas na Joseph. == Maisha == Louisa alizaliwa mjini Richmond, Virginia, mwaka 1848. Alipokuwa na umri wa miaka 19 aliolewa na Columbus Sewell, kisha wakahamia mji wa Canyon, Oregon. Wawili hao walipata watoto watatu...' 1579994 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Louisa Sewell (1848–1893)''' alikuwa mzaliwa wa Richmond, Virginia, nchini [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa miongoni mwa Waoregon wa kwanza wenye asili ya [[Afrika]] kuishi katika Kaunti ya Grant pamoja na mume wake, Columbus Sewell, na wana wao, Thomas na Joseph. == Maisha == Louisa alizaliwa mjini Richmond, Virginia, mwaka 1848. Alipokuwa na umri wa miaka 19 aliolewa na Columbus Sewell, kisha wakahamia mji wa Canyon, Oregon. Wawili hao walipata watoto watatu wa kiume, lakini Thomas na Joseph pekee ndio walioishi hadi utu uzima. Alipowasili [[mji]] wa Canyon, Louisa alianza kufanya kazi kama [[mpishi]]. Baadaye alisimamia makazi ya familia wakati mume wake alipokuwa akisafiri kwa shughuli za kusafirisha mizigo kwa kutumia magari ya kukokotwa na wanyama.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Louisa Sewell|url=https://bluemountaineagle.com/2022/09/27/louisa-sewell/|work=Blue Mountain Eagle|date=2022-09-27|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=Staff reports}}</ref> Katika jamii yake, Louisa alijulikana kwa kutengeneza aiskrimu ya nyumbani na kwa kuwa na uwanja wa mchezo wa croquet uliotumiwa na wageni waliotembelea makazi ya [[familia]] ya Sewell. Miongoni mwa wageni hao alikuwa mwandishi Sarah Winnemucca. Louisa alimsaidia Sarah kuondoka salama mjini baada ya mwanamke mmoja mzungu kutaka kumuua kufuatia kuuawa kwa mume wa mwanamke huyo na shujaa wa kabila la Paiute. == Katika utamaduni maarufu == Louisa alionyeshwa katika video ya kielimu (Meeting the Sewells), iliyotayarishwa na High Desert Museum kwa ushirikiano na Oregon Black Pioneers. Pia alikuwa mmoja wa Waoregon kumi wenye asili ya Afrika walioonyeshwa katika maonyesho ya sanaa (Re-Envisioned: Contemporary Portraits of Our Black Ancestors), yaliyochorwa na msanii Jeremy Okai Davis.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Portraits by Jeremy Okai Davis add new faces to Oregon history • Oregon ArtsWatch|url=https://www.orartswatch.org/portraits-by-jeremy-okai-davis-add-new-faces-to-oregon-history/|work=Oregon ArtsWatch • Arts & Culture News|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=Arts & Culture News, Laurel Reed Pavic}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1848]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1893]] 84s9bho87a0siw1h5swdoyowtggjv0w 1580009 1579994 2026-07-17T20:51:16Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 Boti Replaced Cite web->Rejea tovuti, Cite journal->Rejea jarida, Cite book->Rejea kitabu, Cite news->Rejea habari; 2 template(s) replaced. 1580009 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Louisa Sewell (1848–1893)''' alikuwa mzaliwa wa Richmond, Virginia, nchini [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa miongoni mwa Waoregon wa kwanza wenye asili ya [[Afrika]] kuishi katika Kaunti ya Grant pamoja na mume wake, Columbus Sewell, na wana wao, Thomas na Joseph. == Maisha == Louisa alizaliwa mjini Richmond, Virginia, mwaka 1848. Alipokuwa na umri wa miaka 19 aliolewa na Columbus Sewell, kisha wakahamia mji wa Canyon, Oregon. Wawili hao walipata watoto watatu wa kiume, lakini Thomas na Joseph pekee ndio walioishi hadi utu uzima. Alipowasili [[mji]] wa Canyon, Louisa alianza kufanya kazi kama [[mpishi]]. Baadaye alisimamia makazi ya familia wakati mume wake alipokuwa akisafiri kwa shughuli za kusafirisha mizigo kwa kutumia magari ya kukokotwa na wanyama.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Louisa Sewell|url=https://bluemountaineagle.com/2022/09/27/louisa-sewell/|work=Blue Mountain Eagle|date=2022-09-27|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=Staff reports}}</ref> Katika jamii yake, Louisa alijulikana kwa kutengeneza aiskrimu ya nyumbani na kwa kuwa na uwanja wa mchezo wa croquet uliotumiwa na wageni waliotembelea makazi ya [[familia]] ya Sewell. Miongoni mwa wageni hao alikuwa mwandishi Sarah Winnemucca. Louisa alimsaidia Sarah kuondoka salama mjini baada ya mwanamke mmoja mzungu kutaka kumuua kufuatia kuuawa kwa mume wa mwanamke huyo na shujaa wa kabila la Paiute. == Katika utamaduni maarufu == Louisa alionyeshwa katika video ya kielimu (Meeting the Sewells), iliyotayarishwa na High Desert Museum kwa ushirikiano na Oregon Black Pioneers. Pia alikuwa mmoja wa Waoregon kumi wenye asili ya Afrika walioonyeshwa katika maonyesho ya sanaa (Re-Envisioned: Contemporary Portraits of Our Black Ancestors), yaliyochorwa na msanii Jeremy Okai Davis.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Portraits by Jeremy Okai Davis add new faces to Oregon history • Oregon ArtsWatch|url=https://www.orartswatch.org/portraits-by-jeremy-okai-davis-add-new-faces-to-oregon-history/|work=Oregon ArtsWatch • Arts & Culture News|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=Arts & Culture News, Laurel Reed Pavic}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1848]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1893]] fyk8gii7rh817a7xiqesv2kaafszhms 1580324 1580009 2026-07-18T08:50:06Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580324 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Louisa Sewell''' (1848–1893), mzaliwa wa Richmond, Virginia, nchini [[Marekani]]. alikuwa miongoni mwa Waoregon wa kwanza wenye asili ya [[Afrika]] kuishi katika Kaunti ya Grant pamoja na mume wake, Columbus Sewell, na wana wao, Thomas na Joseph. == Maisha == Louisa alizaliwa mjini Richmond, Virginia, mwaka 1848. Alipokuwa na umri wa miaka 19 aliolewa na Columbus Sewell, kisha wakahamia mji wa Canyon, Oregon. Wawili hao walipata watoto watatu wa kiume, lakini Thomas na Joseph pekee ndio walioishi hadi utu uzima. Alipowasili [[mji]] wa Canyon, Louisa alianza kufanya kazi kama [[mpishi]]. Baadaye alisimamia makazi ya familia wakati mume wake alipokuwa akisafiri kwa shughuli za kusafirisha mizigo kwa kutumia magari ya kukokotwa na wanyama.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Louisa Sewell|url=https://bluemountaineagle.com/2022/09/27/louisa-sewell/|work=Blue Mountain Eagle|date=2022-09-27|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=Staff reports}}</ref> Katika jamii yake, Louisa alijulikana kwa kutengeneza aiskrimu ya nyumbani na kwa kuwa na uwanja wa mchezo wa croquet uliotumiwa na wageni waliotembelea makazi ya [[familia]] ya Sewell. Miongoni mwa wageni hao alikuwa mwandishi Sarah Winnemucca. Louisa alimsaidia Sarah kuondoka salama mjini baada ya mwanamke mmoja mzungu kutaka kumuua kufuatia kuuawa kwa mume wa mwanamke huyo na shujaa wa kabila la Paiute. == Katika utamaduni maarufu == Louisa alionyeshwa katika video ya kielimu (Meeting the Sewells), iliyotayarishwa na High Desert Museum kwa ushirikiano na Oregon Black Pioneers. Pia alikuwa mmoja wa Waoregon kumi wenye asili ya Afrika walioonyeshwa katika maonyesho ya sanaa (Re-Envisioned: Contemporary Portraits of Our Black Ancestors), yaliyochorwa na msanii Jeremy Okai Davis.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Portraits by Jeremy Okai Davis add new faces to Oregon history • Oregon ArtsWatch|url=https://www.orartswatch.org/portraits-by-jeremy-okai-davis-add-new-faces-to-oregon-history/|work=Oregon ArtsWatch • Arts & Culture News|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=Arts & Culture News, Laurel Reed Pavic}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1848]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1893]] [[Jamii:Wamarekani Weusi]] q07mpn6sp4s64pf1ato8jphvb16xa4w 0 242297 1579998 2026-07-17T19:28:22Z Don Malya 61486 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Mary Alice Thatch''' (6 Julai 1943 – 28 Desemba 2021) alikuwa mhariri wa magazeti wa [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa mhariri na mchapishaji wa Wilmington Journal, [[gazeti]] kongwe zaidi linalomilikiwa na Waamerika Weusi katika [[jimbo]] la Carolina. Alikuwa na mchango mkubwa katika kufanikisha msamaha wa kisheria kwa kundi lililojulikana kama Wilmington Ten.<ref>{{Citation|last=Risen|first=Clay|title=Mary Alice Thatch, Publisher Who Won Pardon for the Wilmingt...' 1579998 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mary Alice Thatch''' (6 Julai 1943 – 28 Desemba 2021) alikuwa mhariri wa magazeti wa [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa mhariri na mchapishaji wa Wilmington Journal, [[gazeti]] kongwe zaidi linalomilikiwa na Waamerika Weusi katika [[jimbo]] la Carolina. Alikuwa na mchango mkubwa katika kufanikisha msamaha wa kisheria kwa kundi lililojulikana kama Wilmington Ten.<ref>{{Citation|last=Risen|first=Clay|title=Mary Alice Thatch, Publisher Who Won Pardon for the Wilmington 10, Dies at 78|date=2022-01-05|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/05/us/mary-alice-thatch-dead.html|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1943]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2021]] [[Jamii:Waandishi wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] om1xnw7hqnedrx84yzie9nsr2ser0g9 1580327 1579998 2026-07-18T08:51:25Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580327 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Mary Alice Thatch''' (6 Julai 1943 – 28 Desemba 2021) alikuwa mhariri wa magazeti wa [[Marekani]]. Alikuwa mhariri na mchapishaji wa Wilmington Journal, [[gazeti]] kongwe zaidi linalomilikiwa na Waamerika Weusi katika [[jimbo]] la Carolina. Alikuwa na mchango mkubwa katika kufanikisha msamaha wa kisheria kwa kundi lililojulikana kama Wilmington Ten.<ref>{{Citation|last=Risen|first=Clay|title=Mary Alice Thatch, Publisher Who Won Pardon for the Wilmington 10, Dies at 78|date=2022-01-05|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/05/us/mary-alice-thatch-dead.html|work=The New York Times|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1943]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2021]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] ssh0s4pthlbmjrpr50ilwq05szwsngr 0 242298 1579999 2026-07-17T19:37:09Z Don Malya 61486 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Gladys Anne Moore Perdue''' (1898–1998) alikuwa mpiga kinanda cha kanisani (organisti) na mwalimu wa [[muziki]] ambaye alikuwa [[mwanamke]] wa kwanza mwenye asili ya Afrika kuhitimu kutoka New England Conservatory of Music mwaka 1924.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home of Gladys A. Moore Perdue|url=https://www.bwht.org/explore/home-of-gladys-a-moore-perdue/|work=Boston Women's Heritage Trail|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en-US}}</ref> == Elimu == Perdue alip...' 1579999 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gladys Anne Moore Perdue''' (1898–1998) alikuwa mpiga kinanda cha kanisani (organisti) na mwalimu wa [[muziki]] ambaye alikuwa [[mwanamke]] wa kwanza mwenye asili ya Afrika kuhitimu kutoka New England Conservatory of Music mwaka 1924.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Home of Gladys A. Moore Perdue|url=https://www.bwht.org/explore/home-of-gladys-a-moore-perdue/|work=Boston Women's Heritage Trail|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en-US}}</ref> == Elimu == Perdue alipata stashahada ya upigaji [[kinanda]] (''pianoforte'') kutoka New England Conservatory of Music mwaka 1924. Kuanzia mwaka 1925 hadi 1931, alifundisha muziki katika Taasisi ya Tuskegee. == Kazi == Mwaka 1939, Perdue alikuwa mpiga kinanda wa kuandamana na waimbaji katika mkutano wa kumbukumbu wa mkutano mkuu wa 21 wa Chama Cha Kitaifa cha Wanawake Wenye Rangi (National Association of Colored Women). Pia alikuwa mpiga kinanda wa kuandamana na kikundi cha maonesho kilichoitwa 464 Follies, ambacho kilikusanya [[fedha]] kwa ajili ya programu za ustawi zilizoendeshwa na Women's Service Club. Aidha, Perdue alikuwa miongoni mwa wadhamini wa Nyumba ya Kumbukumbu ya Frederick Douglass iliyoko Washington, D.C. == Urithi == Nyumba ya Perdue iliyoko eneo la South End mjini Boston ni sehemu ya Boston Women's Heritage Trail, njia ya kihistoria inayotambua mchango wa wanawake mashuhuri wa [[jiji]] hilo. Mwaka 2023, alitambuliwa na [[mradi]] wa Black Women Lead kama mmoja wa "wanawake Weusi viongozi wanaoheshimika, kupendwa na kufanikiwa zaidi mjini Boston."<ref>{{Citation|title=Portraits along Blue Hill Avenue honor Boston's Black women leaders|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/portraits-honor-boston-black-women-leaders-roxbury/|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Black Women Lead - Greater Grove Hall Main Streets|url=http://www.greatergrovehall.org/black-women-lead/|work=Greater Grove Hall Main Streets|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1898]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1998]] guzz4pnfcuhvrq7wkaro35va3kp2gsq 1580002 1579999 2026-07-17T19:48:08Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 Boti Replaced Cite web->Rejea tovuti, Cite journal->Rejea jarida, Cite book->Rejea kitabu, Cite news->Rejea habari; 1 template(s) replaced. 1580002 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gladys Anne Moore Perdue''' (1898–1998) alikuwa mpiga kinanda cha kanisani (organisti) na mwalimu wa [[muziki]] ambaye alikuwa [[mwanamke]] wa kwanza mwenye asili ya Afrika kuhitimu kutoka New England Conservatory of Music mwaka 1924.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Home of Gladys A. Moore Perdue|url=https://www.bwht.org/explore/home-of-gladys-a-moore-perdue/|work=Boston Women's Heritage Trail|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en-US}}</ref> == Elimu == Perdue alipata stashahada ya upigaji [[kinanda]] (''pianoforte'') kutoka New England Conservatory of Music mwaka 1924. Kuanzia mwaka 1925 hadi 1931, alifundisha muziki katika Taasisi ya Tuskegee. == Kazi == Mwaka 1939, Perdue alikuwa mpiga kinanda wa kuandamana na waimbaji katika mkutano wa kumbukumbu wa mkutano mkuu wa 21 wa Chama Cha Kitaifa cha Wanawake Wenye Rangi (National Association of Colored Women). Pia alikuwa mpiga kinanda wa kuandamana na kikundi cha maonesho kilichoitwa 464 Follies, ambacho kilikusanya [[fedha]] kwa ajili ya programu za ustawi zilizoendeshwa na Women's Service Club. Aidha, Perdue alikuwa miongoni mwa wadhamini wa Nyumba ya Kumbukumbu ya Frederick Douglass iliyoko Washington, D.C. == Urithi == Nyumba ya Perdue iliyoko eneo la South End mjini Boston ni sehemu ya Boston Women's Heritage Trail, njia ya kihistoria inayotambua mchango wa wanawake mashuhuri wa [[jiji]] hilo. Mwaka 2023, alitambuliwa na [[mradi]] wa Black Women Lead kama mmoja wa "wanawake Weusi viongozi wanaoheshimika, kupendwa na kufanikiwa zaidi mjini Boston."<ref>{{Citation|title=Portraits along Blue Hill Avenue honor Boston's Black women leaders|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/portraits-honor-boston-black-women-leaders-roxbury/|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Black Women Lead - Greater Grove Hall Main Streets|url=http://www.greatergrovehall.org/black-women-lead/|work=Greater Grove Hall Main Streets|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1898]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1998]] iizqa7z7f9lwkgqqaactlbbdoccqlng 1580328 1580002 2026-07-18T08:52:08Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580328 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Gladys Anne Moore Perdue''' (1898–1998) alikuwa mpiga kinanda cha kanisani na mwalimu wa [[muziki]] ambaye alikuwa [[mwanamke]] wa kwanza mwenye asili ya Afrika kuhitimu kutoka New England Conservatory of Music mwaka 1924.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Home of Gladys A. Moore Perdue|url=https://www.bwht.org/explore/home-of-gladys-a-moore-perdue/|work=Boston Women's Heritage Trail|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en-US}}</ref> == Elimu == Perdue alipata stashahada ya upigaji [[kinanda]] (''pianoforte'') kutoka New England Conservatory of Music mwaka 1924. Kuanzia mwaka 1925 hadi 1931, alifundisha muziki katika Taasisi ya Tuskegee. == Kazi == Mwaka 1939, Perdue alikuwa mpiga kinanda wa kuandamana na waimbaji katika mkutano wa kumbukumbu wa mkutano mkuu wa 21 wa Chama Cha Kitaifa cha Wanawake Wenye Rangi (National Association of Colored Women). Pia alikuwa mpiga kinanda wa kuandamana na kikundi cha maonesho kilichoitwa 464 Follies, ambacho kilikusanya [[fedha]] kwa ajili ya programu za ustawi zilizoendeshwa na Women's Service Club. Aidha, Perdue alikuwa miongoni mwa wadhamini wa Nyumba ya Kumbukumbu ya Frederick Douglass iliyoko Washington, D.C. == Urithi == Nyumba ya Perdue iliyoko eneo la South End mjini Boston ni sehemu ya Boston Women's Heritage Trail, njia ya kihistoria inayotambua mchango wa wanawake mashuhuri wa [[jiji]] hilo. Mwaka 2023, alitambuliwa na [[mradi]] wa Black Women Lead kama mmoja wa "wanawake Weusi viongozi wanaoheshimika, kupendwa na kufanikiwa zaidi mjini Boston."<ref>{{Citation|title=Portraits along Blue Hill Avenue honor Boston's Black women leaders|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/portraits-honor-boston-black-women-leaders-roxbury/|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Black Women Lead - Greater Grove Hall Main Streets|url=http://www.greatergrovehall.org/black-women-lead/|work=Greater Grove Hall Main Streets|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamuziki}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1898]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 1998]] [[Jamii:wanamuziki wa Marekani]] 396p1vbv04xxvb11hur5mpbuogv15q0 0 242299 1580001 2026-07-17T19:42:28Z Don Malya 61486 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Dkt. Edna C. Robinson Brown, DDS''' alikuwa [[mwanamke]] wa kwanza mwenye asili ya [[Afrika]] kufanya kazi ya udaktari wa meno katika [[mji]] wa Cambridge, Massachusetts. Alianzisha kliniki yake mwaka 1916 na wakati huo alikuwa mwanamke pekee mwenye asili ya Afrika aliyekuwa akifanya kazi hiyo katika eneo la New England. Alihitimu kutoka Chuo cha Udaktari wa Meno cha Columbia. Pia alikuwa mmoja wa waanzilishi wa tawi la Psi Omega la chama cha Alpha Kap...' 1580001 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dkt. Edna C. Robinson Brown, DDS''' alikuwa [[mwanamke]] wa kwanza mwenye asili ya [[Afrika]] kufanya kazi ya udaktari wa meno katika [[mji]] wa Cambridge, Massachusetts. Alianzisha kliniki yake mwaka 1916 na wakati huo alikuwa mwanamke pekee mwenye asili ya Afrika aliyekuwa akifanya kazi hiyo katika eneo la New England. Alihitimu kutoka Chuo cha Udaktari wa Meno cha Columbia. Pia alikuwa mmoja wa waanzilishi wa tawi la Psi Omega la chama cha Alpha Kappa Alpha. Tawi hilo lilianzishwa mwaka 1926 kwa ushirikiano na Dkt. Jessie G. Garnett, mwanamke wa kwanza mwenye asili ya Afrika kuhitimu kutoka Shule ya Udaktari wa [[Meno]] ya Chuo Kikuu cha Tufts, pamoja na wanawake wengine watano wenye asili ya Afrika waliokuwa wataalamu mashuhuri katika Chuo Kikuu cha Harvard. Akiwa mwanachama wa tawi la Psi Omega, Robinson Brown alidhamini programu za kila mwaka za kuwaongoza wanafunzi wa shule za sekondari kuhusu [[uchaguzi]] wa taaluma. Mwaka 2023, alitambuliwa kama mmoja wa wanawake viongozi wenye asili ya Afrika waliokuwa wakiheshimika, kupendwa na kufanikiwa zaidi mjini Boston.<ref>{{Citation|title=Portraits along Blue Hill Avenue honor Boston's Black women leaders|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/portraits-honor-boston-black-women-leaders-roxbury/|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Black Women Lead - Greater Grove Hall Main Streets|url=https://www.greatergrovehall.org/black-women-lead/|work=Greater Grove Hall Main Streets|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:Karne ya 20]] p0ndjesf3u0xbkc2feyg8aow33swx9d 1580329 1580001 2026-07-18T08:53:19Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580329 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Dkt. Edna C. Robinson Brown, DDS''' alikuwa [[mwanamke]] wa kwanza mwenye asili ya [[Afrika]] kufanya kazi ya udaktari wa meno katika [[mji]] wa Cambridge, Massachusetts. Alianzisha kliniki yake mwaka 1916 na wakati huo alikuwa mwanamke pekee mwenye asili ya Afrika aliyekuwa akifanya kazi hiyo katika eneo la New England. Alihitimu kutoka Chuo cha Udaktari wa Meno cha Columbia. Pia alikuwa mmoja wa waanzilishi wa tawi la Psi Omega la chama cha Alpha Kappa Alpha. Tawi hilo lilianzishwa mwaka 1926 kwa ushirikiano na Dkt. Jessie G. Garnett, mwanamke wa kwanza mwenye asili ya Afrika kuhitimu kutoka Shule ya Udaktari wa [[Meno]] ya Chuo Kikuu cha Tufts, pamoja na wanawake wengine watano wenye asili ya Afrika waliokuwa wataalamu mashuhuri katika Chuo Kikuu cha Harvard. Akiwa mwanachama wa tawi la Psi Omega, Robinson Brown alidhamini programu za kila mwaka za kuwaongoza wanafunzi wa shule za sekondari kuhusu [[uchaguzi]] wa taaluma. Mwaka 2023, alitambuliwa kama mmoja wa wanawake viongozi wenye asili ya Afrika waliokuwa wakiheshimika, kupendwa na kufanikiwa zaidi mjini Boston.<ref>{{Citation|title=Portraits along Blue Hill Avenue honor Boston's Black women leaders|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/portraits-honor-boston-black-women-leaders-roxbury/|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Black Women Lead - Greater Grove Hall Main Streets|url=https://www.greatergrovehall.org/black-women-lead/|work=Greater Grove Hall Main Streets|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] [[Jamii:waliozaliwa karne ya 19]] 9dqjitx8kse060jurj5ttfyr1sz2dri 0 242300 1580003 2026-07-17T19:48:22Z Don Malya 61486 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika ''''Qunnie Pettway''' (1943–2010) alikuwa [[msanii]] wa [[Marekani]] aliyehusishwa na kundi la watengenezaji wa mablanketi ya Gee's Bend. Pia alifanya kazi katika shirika la Freedom Quilting Bee.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Quiltmakers Of The Quilts of Gees Bend|url=http://www.quiltsofgeesbend.com/quiltmakers/index.html|work=www.quiltsofgeesbend.com|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=The Quilts of Gee's Bend, www.quiltsofgeesbend.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web...' 1580003 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Qunnie Pettway''' (1943–2010) alikuwa [[msanii]] wa [[Marekani]] aliyehusishwa na kundi la watengenezaji wa mablanketi ya Gee's Bend. Pia alifanya kazi katika shirika la Freedom Quilting Bee.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Quiltmakers Of The Quilts of Gees Bend|url=http://www.quiltsofgeesbend.com/quiltmakers/index.html|work=www.quiltsofgeesbend.com|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=The Quilts of Gee's Bend, www.quiltsofgeesbend.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Qunnie Pettway {{!}} Souls Grown Deep|url=https://www.soulsgrowndeep.org/artist/qunnie-pettway|work=www.soulsgrowndeep.org|accessdate=2026-07-17}}</ref> Alifundishwa kushona mablanketi na mama yake, Candis Pettway, ambaye baadaye alimfundisha pia binti yake, Loretta Pettway Bennett. Qunnie alikuwa mashuhuri kwa kutengeneza mablanketi ya mitindo ya jadi kwa kutumia vipande vya mabaki ya [[vitambaa]] alivyovileta kutoka Freedom Quilting Bee.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Official Alabama Quilt|url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/kids_emblems/ST_QUILT.HTML|work=www.archives.alabama.gov|accessdate=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Maisha == Qunnie Pettway alikulia katika [[mazingira]] yaliyozungukwa na wanawake waliobobea katika utengenezaji wa mablanketi. Mama yake, Candis Pettway, pamoja na dada yake walikuwa walimu wake wa kwanza. Baadaye alijifunza mitindo ya jadi ya kushona mablanketi katika nyumba ya Estelle Witherspoon, ambako wanawake wapatao 20 walikuwa wakikusanyika kushona pamoja. Baadaye maishani alipata ugonjwa wa kisukari, na kadiri uwezo wake wa kuona ulivyopungua, alianza kutengeneza mablanketi yenye miundo rahisi pekee. Alifariki mwaka 2010. == Kazi == Qunnie Pettway alitambuliwa kwa ubunifu wake katika utengenezaji wa mablanketi. Mtindo wake ulijulikana kwa kubuni upya miundo ya jadi kwa njia ya kipekee. Muundo alioupenda zaidi uliitwa "Crazy Z", uliotengenezwa kwa kutumia kitambaa cha korduroi kilichopatikana kutoka Freedom Quilting Bee. == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1943]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2010]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] 6y4qxctz8yjd8yyfl51ck2ylgowqlzj 1580013 1580003 2026-07-17T22:10:01Z Gayle-Bot 78697 #2.0 Boti Replaced Cite web->Rejea tovuti, Cite journal->Rejea jarida, Cite book->Rejea kitabu, Cite news->Rejea habari; 3 template(s) replaced. 1580013 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Qunnie Pettway''' (1943–2010) alikuwa [[msanii]] wa [[Marekani]] aliyehusishwa na kundi la watengenezaji wa mablanketi ya Gee's Bend. Pia alifanya kazi katika shirika la Freedom Quilting Bee.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Quiltmakers Of The Quilts of Gees Bend|url=http://www.quiltsofgeesbend.com/quiltmakers/index.html|work=www.quiltsofgeesbend.com|accessdate=2026-07-17|language=en|author=The Quilts of Gee's Bend, www.quiltsofgeesbend.com}}</ref><ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Qunnie Pettway {{!}} Souls Grown Deep|url=https://www.soulsgrowndeep.org/artist/qunnie-pettway|work=www.soulsgrowndeep.org|accessdate=2026-07-17}}</ref> Alifundishwa kushona mablanketi na mama yake, Candis Pettway, ambaye baadaye alimfundisha pia binti yake, Loretta Pettway Bennett. Qunnie alikuwa mashuhuri kwa kutengeneza mablanketi ya mitindo ya jadi kwa kutumia vipande vya mabaki ya [[vitambaa]] alivyovileta kutoka Freedom Quilting Bee.<ref>{{Rejea tovuti|title=Official Alabama Quilt|url=http://www.archives.alabama.gov/kids_emblems/ST_QUILT.HTML|work=www.archives.alabama.gov|accessdate=2026-07-17}}</ref> == Maisha == Qunnie Pettway alikulia katika [[mazingira]] yaliyozungukwa na wanawake waliobobea katika utengenezaji wa mablanketi. Mama yake, Candis Pettway, pamoja na dada yake walikuwa walimu wake wa kwanza. Baadaye alijifunza mitindo ya jadi ya kushona mablanketi katika nyumba ya Estelle Witherspoon, ambako wanawake wapatao 20 walikuwa wakikusanyika kushona pamoja. Baadaye maishani alipata ugonjwa wa kisukari, na kadiri uwezo wake wa kuona ulivyopungua, alianza kutengeneza mablanketi yenye miundo rahisi pekee. Alifariki mwaka 2010. == Kazi == Qunnie Pettway alitambuliwa kwa ubunifu wake katika utengenezaji wa mablanketi. Mtindo wake ulijulikana kwa kubuni upya miundo ya jadi kwa njia ya kipekee. Muundo alioupenda zaidi uliitwa "Crazy Z", uliotengenezwa kwa kutumia kitambaa cha korduroi kilichopatikana kutoka Freedom Quilting Bee. == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1943]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2010]] [[Jamii:Wanawake wa Marekani]] plhu461m3jchiszue98kg7ncudqq9m0 2 242301 1580321 2026-07-18T08:44:25Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Ukurasa ulianzishwa kwa kuandika 'Jina langu Muhindo Kitakya Esdras. Nilizaliwa tarehe 22/06/1987. Katika Kijiji kinakyo itwa Kiwata kwenye hospitali ya Butuhe. Kwenye tauni ya Butembo. Mama yangu anaitwa Onike. Baba yangu anaitwa Arnolo. Tumezaliza watoto watatu wawili wanawake na mimi kijana mmoja. Tuliishi maisha ya tabu sana kwani wazazi wetu walitengana kisha kutuzaa. Asante' 1580321 wikitext text/x-wiki Jina langu Muhindo Kitakya Esdras. Nilizaliwa tarehe 22/06/1987. Katika Kijiji kinakyo itwa Kiwata kwenye hospitali ya Butuhe. Kwenye tauni ya Butembo. Mama yangu anaitwa Onike. Baba yangu anaitwa Arnolo. Tumezaliza watoto watatu wawili wanawake na mimi kijana mmoja. Tuliishi maisha ya tabu sana kwani wazazi wetu walitengana kisha kutuzaa. Asante bhpi35iocgewk76uatcvqwm4v3qrv4g 0 242302 1580326 2026-07-18T08:50:42Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Riccardo Riccioni alihamisha ukurasa wa [[Uuaji wa Deborah Danner]] hadi [[Deborah Danner]]: urahisi wa kuupata 1580326 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Deborah Danner]] db2sq8xwmxbzomdm53z7vibdgucjsqt 0 242303 1580331 2026-07-18T08:57:46Z Germainngandu14 73636 Created by translating the page "[[:fr:Special:Redirect/revision/232156313|Guerre des six jours (Kisangani)]]" 1580331 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vita ya Siku Sita''' ilikuwa mfululizo wa mapigano makali kati ya majeshi ya Uganda na Rwanda huko [[Kisangani]], [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]], kwanzia tarehe tano adi tarehe 10 mwezi wa sita mwaka 2000, wakati wa vita ya pili ya Kongo. Kulingana na kundi la Uwaki na Uhuru, chama cha haki za binadamu chenye makao yake Kisangani, mapigano hayo yalisababisha 1 000 la wafu na angalau 3 000 wakuumia, wengi wao wakiwa raia <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|language=fr-FR|title=« Guerre de six jours » à Kisangani : les victimes congolaises en appellent à Tshisekedi|url=https://www.justiceinfo.net/fr/41711-guerre-de-six-jours-a-kisangani-les-victimes-congolaises-en-appellent-a-tshisekedi.html|date=2019-06-20|accessdate=2021-12-09}}</ref> . Tukio hilo linajulikana kama " Vita ya siku sita " kwa sababu ilidumu kwa siku sita, lakini pia kwa sababu ilidumu kuanzia tarehe 5 adi 10 mwezi wa sita. Vita vya Siku Sita kati ya [[Israeli]] na [[Jumuiya ya Nchi za Kiarabu|Umoja wa Kiarabu]] mwaka wa 1967. Mfanya filamu wa Kongo [[Dieudo Hamadi|Dieudonné Hamadi]] anarejelea vita hilo katika angalau makala zake mbili za hali halisi: qua1se8crzjdr62htm00jdq7wnyllue 1580332 1580331 2026-07-18T09:03:41Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580332 wikitext text/x-wiki ^{Ni tofauti na [[Vita vya Siku Sita]] kati ya [[Israeli]] na [[Jumuiya ya Nchi za Kiarabu|Umoja wa Kiarabu]] mwaka wa 1967.} '''Vita ya Siku Sita''' ilikuwa mfululizo wa mapigano makali kati ya majeshi ya Uganda na Rwanda huko [[Kisangani]], [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]], kuanzia tarehe 5 hadi 10 Juni 2000, wakati wa vita ya pili ya Kongo. Kulingana na kundi la Uwaki na Uhuru, chama cha haki za binadamu chenye makao yake Kisangani, mapigano hayo yalisababisha 1 000 wafu na angalau 3 000 wakuumia, wengi wao wakiwa raia <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|language=fr-FR|title=« Guerre de six jours » à Kisangani : les victimes congolaises en appellent à Tshisekedi|url=https://www.justiceinfo.net/fr/41711-guerre-de-six-jours-a-kisangani-les-victimes-congolaises-en-appellent-a-tshisekedi.html|date=2019-06-20|accessdate=2021-12-09}}</ref>. Tukio hilo linajulikana kama " Vita ya siku sita " kwa sababu ilidumu kwa siku sita, lakini pia kwa sababu ilitokea mwezi wa sita. Mfanya filamu wa Kongo [[Dieudo Hamadi|Dieudonné Hamadi]] anarejelea vita hivyo katika angalau makala zake mbili za hali halisi. ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:2000]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] lw36vxjuccnegqextyont78nbcz5jc6 1580333 1580332 2026-07-18T09:04:09Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580333 wikitext text/x-wiki ^{Ni tofauti na [[Vita vya Siku Sita]] kati ya [[Israeli]] na [[Jumuiya ya Nchi za Kiarabu|Umoja wa Kiarabu]] mwaka wa 1967.} '''Vita ya Siku Sita''' ilikuwa mfululizo wa mapigano makali kati ya majeshi ya Uganda na Rwanda huko [[Kisangani]], [[Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]], kuanzia tarehe 5 hadi 10 Juni 2000, wakati wa vita ya pili ya Kongo. Kulingana na kundi la Uwaki na Uhuru, chama cha haki za binadamu chenye makao yake Kisangani, mapigano hayo yalisababisha 1 000 wafu na angalau 3 000 wakuumia, wengi wao wakiwa raia <ref>{{Rejea tovuti|language=fr-FR|title=« Guerre de six jours » à Kisangani : les victimes congolaises en appellent à Tshisekedi|url=https://www.justiceinfo.net/fr/41711-guerre-de-six-jours-a-kisangani-les-victimes-congolaises-en-appellent-a-tshisekedi.html|date=2019-06-20|accessdate=2021-12-09}}</ref>. Tukio hilo linajulikana kama " Vita ya siku sita " kwa sababu ilidumu kwa siku sita, lakini pia kwa sababu ilitokea mwezi wa sita. Mfanya filamu wa Kongo [[Dieudo Hamadi|Dieudonné Hamadi]] anarejelea vita hivyo katika angalau makala zake mbili za hali halisi. ==Tanbihi== {{marejeo}} {{mbegu-historia}} [[Jamii:2000]] [[Jamii:Kisangani]] [[Jamii:Historia ya Jamhuri ya Kidemokrasia ya Kongo]] 3kmoccf23llhcfgax2evo51ibg78130 3 242304 1580338 2026-07-18T09:48:15Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580338 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) b1j2ejwjgoc5u0qf16sz8g71nmii6f7 3 242305 1580339 2026-07-18T09:48:25Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580339 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) b1j2ejwjgoc5u0qf16sz8g71nmii6f7 3 242306 1580340 2026-07-18T09:48:35Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580340 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) b1j2ejwjgoc5u0qf16sz8g71nmii6f7 3 242307 1580341 2026-07-18T09:48:45Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580341 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) b1j2ejwjgoc5u0qf16sz8g71nmii6f7 3 242308 1580342 2026-07-18T09:48:55Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580342 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:48, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) b1j2ejwjgoc5u0qf16sz8g71nmii6f7 3 242309 1580343 2026-07-18T09:49:05Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580343 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 3frfc40n5qs1zum80dw0os3rhr3beu9 3 242310 1580344 2026-07-18T09:49:15Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580344 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 3frfc40n5qs1zum80dw0os3rhr3beu9 3 242311 1580345 2026-07-18T09:49:25Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580345 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 3frfc40n5qs1zum80dw0os3rhr3beu9 3 242312 1580346 2026-07-18T09:49:35Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580346 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 3frfc40n5qs1zum80dw0os3rhr3beu9 3 242313 1580347 2026-07-18T09:49:45Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580347 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 3frfc40n5qs1zum80dw0os3rhr3beu9 3 242314 1580348 2026-07-18T09:49:55Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580348 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:49, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 3frfc40n5qs1zum80dw0os3rhr3beu9 3 242315 1580349 2026-07-18T09:50:05Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580349 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 6f4b6oxnxz911grny1bxgc5c9cfbn4x 3 242316 1580350 2026-07-18T09:50:15Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580350 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 6f4b6oxnxz911grny1bxgc5c9cfbn4x 3 242317 1580351 2026-07-18T09:50:25Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580351 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 6f4b6oxnxz911grny1bxgc5c9cfbn4x 3 242318 1580352 2026-07-18T09:50:35Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580352 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 6f4b6oxnxz911grny1bxgc5c9cfbn4x 3 242319 1580353 2026-07-18T09:50:46Z AmmarBot 81277 Karibu 1580353 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="background-color: #EEEEFF; border: solid 1px #eaa5ff; padding: 6pt; margin: 1em auto; width: 85%"> <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''<big>Karibu kwenye Wikipedia kwa Kiswahili!</big>'''</p> Tunamfurahia kila mmoja anayeingia na kuungana nasi. Hii ni kamusi elezo ya maandishi huru. Unaweza kuandika makala uipendayo ama kuitafsiri kutoka Wikipedia ya lugha nyingine. Ukipenda kutumia '''kurasa zetu za mwongozo na msaada''', a) ukitumia simu bofya kwa "'''Dawati'''" chini kwenye dirisha lako na b) ubadilishe mwonekano wa Wikipedia kwa kubofya "'''Switch to old look'''" kwenye menyu upande wa kushoto. Kwa mawili matatu labda tazama:<br> * [[Wikipedia:Ukurasa wangu na kurasa za kamusi|Kuhusu ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji na kurasa nyingine]] * [[Wikipedia:Mwongozo|Ukurasa wa mwongozo]] * [https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamii:Msaada Jamii:Msaada] <small>(makala zilizomo humo zinaweza kusaidia mara nyingi)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Jumuia|Ukurasa wa jumuia]] <small>(pamoja na '''[[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]''', penye majina walio tayari kukusaidia)</small> * [[Wikipedia:Makala za msingi za kamusi elezo|Makala za msingi za Wikipedia]] Jisikie huru kuuliza swali lolote lihusianalo na Wikipedia hii. Karibu kujitambulisha kwenye "Ukurasa wa mtumiaji". Ukitaka kupata kwanza uzoefu wa kuweza kuhariri Wikipedia, tafadhali tumia '''[[Msaada:Jaribio#2._Jaribio_katika_nafasi_yako_ya_mtumiaji| ukurasa wako kwa majaribio]]'''. Humo unaruhusiwa kujipatia uzoefu wa uundaji wa makala za Wikipedia! Juu yako mwenyewe uandike tu kwenye '''[[Special:Mypage|ukurasa wako wa mtumiaji]]'''. Humo uko huru kutangaza chochote upendacho, kama si biashara au matusi. <big>'''Ujue miiko:'''</big> * usilete kamwe matini wala [[Msaada:Picha|picha kutoka tovuti za nje]]. * usiingize matangazo ya kibiashara (pamoja na kuelekeza kwa kurasa zenye matangazo). * usimwage kamwe matini kutoka [[Msaada:Tafsiri ya kompyuta‎|google-translate]] au [[Msaada:Tafsiri|programu za kutafsiri]]. * usitumie kama vyanzo vya taarifa au tanbihi <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (au mradi mwingine wa Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, ila unaweza kutumia vyanzo vyake kwa kuvitaja vyenyewe moja kwa moja. Tunakushauri pia [[Wikipedia:Email|kuandikisha email]] yako; haitaonekana na wengine lakini wataweza kukuandikia kupitia mfumo wa Wikipedia. Karibu sana! <p style="margin-left: 5em;">'''Welcome to Kiswahili Wikipedia!'''</p> We welcome you even if you don't speak Kiswahili. For a bot flag go to [[Wikipedia:Bots|this site]]. If you try to edit entries as a non-speaker, it is better to first communicate with one of our admins who can advise you. You may find them at [[Wikipedia:Wakabidhi]]. And, please: * '''do not''' post computer translated texts (like Google Translate, [[Special:ContentTranslation|Content Translation]], etc. all do not work for Swahili) * nor copied texts/images from other webs to this site! * do not use links to commercial pages, never post anything that looks like advertising. * do not use as references <nowiki><ref>Wikipedia (or another project of Wikimedia)</ref></nowiki>, though you can use their references by writing them themselves. As a newcomer we advise that you [[:en:Wikipedia:Emailing_users|register your email]]. This will not be visible to others but it allows us to notify you, which often is helpful in case of problems. </div> '''[[Mtumiaji:AmmarBot|AmmarBot]] ([[Majadiliano ya mtumiaji:AmmarBot|majadiliano]])''' 09:50, 18 Julai 2026 (UTC) 6f4b6oxnxz911grny1bxgc5c9cfbn4x 0 242320 1580355 2026-07-18T10:57:19Z Castro255 89781 kuanzisha makala 1580355 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Barbara Cheeseborough''' (née Bowman) (Machi 14, 1946 – Oktoba 24, 2013) alikuwa mwanamitindo wa [[Marekani|Kimarekani]] katika miaka ya 1960 na 1970, aliyejulikana kwa kutangaza na kueneza mtindo wa kitamaduni wa Kiafrika .<ref>{{Citation|title=Barbara Cheeseborough, 67, high-fashion model|url=http://articles.philly.com/2013-11-13/news/43985598_1_major-designers-essence-fashion|work=Philly.com|language=en|access-date=2026-07-18}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamitindo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1946]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2013]] 8u3zkrb00s5bmsa9hrypv0lju0291gb 1580360 1580355 2026-07-18T11:18:32Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580360 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Barbara Cheeseborough''' (née '''Bowman'''; Machi 14, 1946 – Oktoba 24, 2013) alikuwa [[mwanamitindo]] wa [[Marekani]] katika miaka ya 1960 na 1970, aliyejulikana kwa kutangaza na kueneza mtindo wa kitamaduni wa Kiafrika .<ref>{{Citation|title=Barbara Cheeseborough, 67, high-fashion model|url=http://articles.philly.com/2013-11-13/news/43985598_1_major-designers-essence-fashion|work=Philly.com|language=en|access-date=2026-07-18}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanamitindo}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1946]] [[Jamii:Waliofariki 2013]] [[Jamii:wanamitindo wa Marekani]] 5gkuqom9ae5jxb6i1iara0obsihftbg 0 242321 1580356 2026-07-18T11:04:11Z Castro255 89781 kuanzisha makala 1580356 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Christine Armstrong''' ni mhariri wa [[filamu]] wa [[Kanada]]. Anajulikana zaidi kwa kazi yake kwenye filamu ya ''Sugar Daddy'' ya mwaka 2020, ambapo alipokea uteuzi wa Tuzo ya Skrini ya Kanada (Canadian Screen Award) kwa Mhariri Bora wa Filamu katika Tuzo za 9 za Skrini za Kanada mnamo mwaka 2021.<ref>{{Citation|last=Furdyk|first=Brent|title=Canadian Screen Awards Announces 2021 Film Nominations|date=2021-03-30|url=https://etcanada.com/news/762082/canadian-screen-awards-announces-2021-film-nominations/|work=ET Canada|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-18}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 1inbu0wgecdcphtb74k0g71wuz233l7 1580362 1580356 2026-07-18T11:20:29Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580362 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Christine Armstrong''' ni mhariri wa [[filamu]] wa [[Kanada]]. Anajulikana zaidi kwa kazi yake kwenye filamu ya ''Sugar Daddy'' ya mwaka 2020, ambapo alipokea uteuzi wa Tuzo ya Skrini ya Kanada (Canadian Screen Award) kwa Mhariri Bora wa Filamu katika Tuzo za 9 za Skrini za Kanada mnamo mwaka 2021.<ref>{{Citation|last=Furdyk|first=Brent|title=Canadian Screen Awards Announces 2021 Film Nominations|date=2021-03-30|url=https://etcanada.com/news/762082/canadian-screen-awards-announces-2021-film-nominations/|work=ET Canada|language=en-US|access-date=2026-07-18}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mtu}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:wanawake wa Kanada]] s7oc2qhqbgspky3daa0iyhms59th45u 0 242322 1580357 2026-07-18T11:09:28Z Castro255 89781 kuanzisha makala 1580357 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vivian Flowers''' ni [[mwanasiasa]] wa [[Marekani]] wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Democrat) ambaye kwa sasa anahudumu kama Meya wa Pine Bluff, Arkansas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Randy Torres|url=https://arkansashouse.kinsta.cloud/district/17/|work=Arkansas House of Representatives|accessdate=2026-07-18|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Vivian Flowers: 50 Years of Legislative Support|date=2019-11-09|url=https://www.acluarkansas.org/en/vivian-flowers-50-years-legislative-support|work=ACLU of Arkansas|language=en|access-date=2026-07-18}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 7we4m1cfhyn6sdzhbl9pvhri8olaiwa 1580363 1580357 2026-07-18T11:21:41Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580363 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vivian Flowers''' ni [[mwanasiasa]] wa [[Marekani]] wa [[Chama cha Democrat|Chama cha Kidemokrasia]] ambaye kwa sasa anahudumu kama Meya wa Pine Bluff, Arkansas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Randy Torres|url=https://arkansashouse.kinsta.cloud/district/17/|work=Arkansas House of Representatives|accessdate=2026-07-18|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Vivian Flowers: 50 Years of Legislative Support|date=2019-11-09|url=https://www.acluarkansas.org/en/vivian-flowers-50-years-legislative-support|work=ACLU of Arkansas|language=en|access-date=2026-07-18}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:wanasiasa wa Marekani]] k4858rv4lassz2ksck74l13v2w6stuk 0 242323 1580359 2026-07-18T11:14:26Z Castro255 89781 kuanzisha makala 1580359 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ragen Hatcher''' (amezaliwa Julai 5, 1978) ni [[Siasa|mwanasiasa]] wa [[Marekani]] kutoka mji wa Gary, Indiana. Akiwa mwanachama wa Chama cha Kidemokrasia (Democratic Party), anahudumu katika Baraza la Wawakilishi la Indiana (Indiana House of Representatives).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ragen Hatcher throws her hat in the race to represent Gary in the state Legislature. She joins Jessica Renslow as a candidate for the 3rd House seat|url=https://nwitimes.com/news/local/lake/lake-newsletter/lake-news/article_de6e8ebb-1bf7-58b0-a145-422b6750d423.html|work=nwitimes.com|date=2017-12-03|accessdate=2026-07-18|language=en|author=Bill Dolan bill.dolan@nwi.com, 219-662-5328}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] 7zmn3erctbt7vqji6is5ltcvi1xth70 1580364 1580359 2026-07-18T11:22:21Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580364 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Ragen Hatcher''' (amezaliwa Julai 5, 1978) ni [[Siasa|mwanasiasa]] wa [[Marekani]] kutoka mji wa Gary, Indiana. Akiwa mwanachama wa [[Chama cha Democrat|Chama cha Kidemokrasia]] (Democratic Party), anahudumu katika Baraza la Wawakilishi la Indiana (Indiana House of Representatives).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ragen Hatcher throws her hat in the race to represent Gary in the state Legislature. She joins Jessica Renslow as a candidate for the 3rd House seat|url=https://nwitimes.com/news/local/lake/lake-newsletter/lake-news/article_de6e8ebb-1bf7-58b0-a145-422b6750d423.html|work=nwitimes.com|date=2017-12-03|accessdate=2026-07-18|language=en|author=Bill Dolan bill.dolan@nwi.com, 219-662-5328}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwanasiasa}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:wanasiasa wa Marekani]] irl5dmvxh8lrf3wfs4rhxv1sefbr13e 0 242324 1580361 2026-07-18T11:19:41Z Castro255 89781 kuanzisha makala 1580361 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Indhira Rosa Serrano Redondo''' (amezaliwa Januari 27, 1976) ni mwigizaji na [[mwanamitindo]] wa [[Kolombia]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gaceta, Dulce Paraíso: Indhira Serrano juega a ser buena y mala|url=http://gacetadulceparaiso.blogspot.com/2010/05/indhira-serrano-juega-ser-buena-y-mala.html|work=gacetadulceparaiso.blogspot.com|accessdate=2026-07-18}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1976]] g09vyfsblqwtr5810fl3q9v3yqkpbxo 1580366 1580361 2026-07-18T11:25:47Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 1580366 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Indhira Rosa Serrano Redondo''' (amezaliwa Januari 27, 1976) ni mwigizaji na [[mwanamitindo]] wa [[Kolombia]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Gaceta, Dulce Paraíso: Indhira Serrano juega a ser buena y mala|url=http://gacetadulceparaiso.blogspot.com/2010/05/indhira-serrano-juega-ser-buena-y-mala.html|work=gacetadulceparaiso.blogspot.com|accessdate=2026-07-18}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-igiza-filamu}} [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1976]] [[Jamii:waigizaji filamu wa Kolombia]] j6s0pudtjwhn94annfh1uhhig3pn848 0 242325 1580367 2026-07-18T11:27:01Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Ukurasa umeelekezwa kwenda [[Mwili wa Kristo]] 1580367 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT[[mwili wa Kristo]] muf787xv98e6gommbsbyjlyko58dxb1 0 242326 1580368 2026-07-18T11:28:15Z Castro255 89781 kuanzisha makala 1580368 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Aerial LynnDonna Chavarin''' (amezaliwa Machi 18, 1998) ni [[mchezaji]] wa [[soka]] wa kulipwa kutoka Marekani ambaye anacheza katika klabu ya Cruz Azul kwenye ligi ya Liga MX Femenil.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Washington Spirit vs. Chicago Red Stars|url=https://www.nwslsoccer.com/game/washington-spirit-vs-chicago-red-stars-2020-09-12|work=www.nwslsoccer.com|accessdate=2026-07-18|language=en-US|author=intive}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-cheza-mpira}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1998]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] szyyb4y1x2i94u76bojqukx2wo17zmr 0 242327 1580369 2026-07-18T11:28:39Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Ukurasa umeelekezwa kwenda [[Mwanasheria]] 1580369 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT[[mwanasheria]] ff0ga425jm7vvcuvp40xoypffv4ew0w 0 242328 1580370 2026-07-18T11:29:26Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Ukurasa umeelekezwa kwenda [[Mkaapweke]] 1580370 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT[[mkaapweke]] 4y1wcqhvtjw5vr6y7x8v8lcqxv3fdhv 0 242329 1580371 2026-07-18T11:29:59Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Ukurasa umeelekezwa kwenda [[Maisha ya wakfu]] 1580371 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT[[maisha ya wakfu]] 7o19k2t9mv0gubrkoo1l3bwygxvh09e 0 242330 1580372 2026-07-18T11:30:23Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Ukurasa umeelekezwa kwenda [[Sheria za Kanisa]] 1580372 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT[[sheria za Kanisa]] sy5ymmvb7uisavbhq2dlwiskxusvcsa 0 242331 1580373 2026-07-18T11:31:21Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Ukurasa umeelekezwa kwenda [[Saumu]] 1580373 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT[[saumu]] 7varvkc6hm83id0oixsj0g476dvrge9 0 242332 1580375 2026-07-18T11:34:46Z Riccardo Riccioni 452 Ukurasa umeelekezwa kwenda [[Wafransisko]] 1580375 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT[[Wafransisko]] 9rbyxrnmk5tyui7bdpjoxfqohz56r1t 0 242333 1580379 2026-07-18T11:50:48Z Castro255 89781 kuanzisha makala 1580379 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Vida Spears''' (amezaliwa Aprili 8, 1956) ni mtayarishaji na mwandishi wa vipindi vya [[televisheni]] kutoka nchi ya [[Marekani]]. Anajulikana zaidi kama mmoja wa waanzilishi (pamoja na Ralph Farquhar na Sara Finney-Johnson) wa tamthilia za ucheshi za chaneli ya UPN zilizojulikana kama ''Moesha'' (iliyochezwa na Brandy) na ''The Parkers'' (iliyochezwa na Countess Vaughn na Mo'Nique).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oKoT6p_elBEC&dq=vida+spears&pg=PA36|title=African Americans in Television: Behind the Scenes|last=Adamo|first=Gregory|date=2010|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-1-4331-1039-9|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Co-Creator of TV Hit 'Moesha' Fired|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1999-dec-02-fi-39659-story.html|work=Los Angeles Times|date=1999-12-02|accessdate=2026-07-18|language=en-US}}</ref> == Marejeo == <references /> {{Mbegu-mwandishi}} [[Jamii:Waliozaliwa 1956]] [[Jamii:Watu walio hai]] [[Jamii:Televisheni za Marekani]] mum5w1rc9hxf7e11hn83jsl1iow4yoy