Wikipedia:Vidumbizgano vya chikaya

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      <comment>/* Vote now in the 2026 U4C election */ new section</comment>
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      <text bytes="40897" sha1="1c47aliqnx7k43y8e1p03fjvgdubldb" xml:space="preserve">'''&lt;big&gt;DOFYANI [https://tumwikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Vidumbizgano_vya_chikaya&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new PANO] KUTI MUIKEPO MUTU UPHYA (CLICK [https://tumwikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Vidumbizgano_vya_chikaya&amp;action=edit&amp;section=new HERE] FOR NEW TOPIC)
&lt;/big&gt;'''

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== Request for Permanent Adminship (Nkhupempha ulongozgi wambula kumala) ==

 MU CHITUMBUKA 
Monile mose, nkhupempha kuti nilutizge
kukhala mlongozgi pa Wikipediya yino. Nkhukhumba kupitilizga kuonelela Wikipediya yino ngati nkhudikizga awo ŵakusokoneza, nkhukhumbaso kuponoska mapeji agho ngakuzilwa, kudilita mapeji gha vyambula kwenelela na vya kusaska malonda, na ntchito zinyake zinandi.
&lt;br&gt;
Pa Wikipediya yino nachitapo vinthu vinandi viwemi ivo ningafiska chala kulongosola. Antheura, nkhukhumba kupitilizga ntchito yane. 
&lt;br&gt;
Imwe mukususkana navo, chonde yowoyani pasi apa maganizo ghinu.--[[user:Tumbuka Arch|&lt;span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'&gt;'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''&lt;/span&gt;]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''&lt;span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'&gt;&lt;sup&gt;★&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;★&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;★&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;''']] 16:05, 22 Julayi 2025 (UTC)
&lt;br&gt;
 IN ENGLISH 
Hello, I would like to request for the permanent adminship here. I would like to continue protecting the wiki, fight against vandalism and spam, protect and move protected pages, among other duties that require advanced rights. I have been a sysop here for more than 3-4 times. 
&lt;br&gt;
I am always on Wikipedia, and if I am not on my PC, then I am on mobile. 
&lt;br&gt;
I joined this wiki in early 2010s when it didn't have its own logo and was editing anonymously. After creating this account, I requested a translated wiki logo, translated entire wiki interface into language of this wiki (including system messages), created hundreds of templates, protected important pages, deleted ads, etc. 
&lt;br&gt;
If anyone doesn't agree with this, please say so in the comment section below.  Thank you. --[[user:Tumbuka Arch|&lt;span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'&gt;'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''&lt;/span&gt;]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''&lt;span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'&gt;&lt;sup&gt;★&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;★&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;★&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;''']] 16:05, 22 Julayi 2025 (UTC)
&lt;br&gt;
=== Agree (Nkhuzomelezga) ===
# If this Wikipedia has arrived to its current state is just because of Tumbuka Arch's hard work. I totally support him as an administrator. He is a native speaker of Tumbuka and is clearly willing to put the work to develop a high-quality Wikipedia in Tumbuka. --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|pakuchezgela]]) 18:32, 22 Julayi 2025 (UTC)
# Tumbuka Arch is one of if not the hardest working person on this Wikipedia. He helped translate and create most of the pages on this Wikipedia, and was great in assigning jobs and acting as a leader on this Wikipedia for other users/admins. He should have permanent adminship in my opinion due to the fact that he has brought this wiki into only stubs, into having a lot of great educational content and knowledge for the Tumbuka people. [[File:Coat of arms of Cuba.svg|20px]] [[User:CubanoBoi|CubanoBoi]] [[File:Coat of arms of Cuba.svg|20px]] 19:42, 22 Julayi 2025 (UTC)
# I have worked tirelessly with Tumbuka Arch on this wikipedia. With his continuation as admin we can take our Wikipedia even further --[[User:anthonymunthali44|anthonymunthali44]] ([[User talk:anthonymunthali44|pakuchezgela]]) 16:45, 24 Julayi 2025 (UTC)
# I am working with a Malawian academic to launch a project named Motokazi to improve the coverage of Malawian women in English, Chichewa and Tumbuka. Dozens of new articles in English and two in Tumbuka... written by Tumbuka Arch. Surprised to see this debate, I assumed he was an admin, I regard him as such. [[User:Victuallers|Victuallers]] ([[User talk:Victuallers|pakuchezgela]]) 07:34, 28 Julayi 2025 (UTC)
# '''{{Strong Support}}.''' I fully endorse Tumbuka Arch’s request for permanent adminship. He has demonstrated long-term commitment to this wiki, dating back to the early 2010s—even before the project had its own logo. His efforts in translating the interface, creating and protecting core templates, handling spam, and maintaining page integrity have been crucial to the growth and safety of the platform. With multiple successful admin terms already served, he has shown both competence and consistency. Granting him permanent adminship is a logical and necessary step to ensure the continued stability and security of this wiki.Thank you for your service, Arch. You have my full confidence. [[User:Icem4k|Icem4k]] ([[User talk:Icem4k|pakuchezgela]])

=== Disagree (Nkhukana) ===
=== Results (Vyakulondezga) ===
* [[User: Tumbuka Arch]]

== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Temporary accounts will be rolled out soon&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;body&quot;/&gt;
Hello, we are the Wikimedia Foundation [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity|Product Safety and Integrity]] team. We would like to announce that '''we plan to enable [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] for this wiki in the week of September 1'''.

Temporary accounts are successfully live on 30 wikis, including many large ones like German, Japanese, and French. The change they bring is especially relevant to logged-out editors, who this feature is designed to protect. But it is also relevant to community members like mentors, patrollers, and admins – anyone who reverts edits, blocks users, or otherwise interacts with logged-out editors as part of keeping the wikis safe and accurate. 

'''Why we are building temporary accounts'''

Our wikis should be safer to edit by default for logged-out editors. Temporary accounts allow people to continue editing the wikis without creating an account, while avoiding publicly tying their edits to their IP address. We believe this is in the best interest of our logged-out editors, who make valuable contributions to the wikis and who may later create accounts and grow our community of editors, admins, and other roles. Even though the wikis do warn logged-out editors that their IP address will be associated with their edit, many people may not understand what an IP address is, or that it could be used to connect them to other information about them in ways they might not expect. 

Additionally, our moderation software and tools rely too heavily on network origin (IP addresses) to identify users and patterns of activity, especially as IP addresses themselves are becoming less stable as identifiers. Temporary accounts allow for more precise interactions with logged-out editors, including more precise blocks, and can help limit how often we unintentionally end up blocking good-faith users who use the same IP addresses as bad-faith users.

'''How temporary accounts work'''
[[File:Temporary account banner and empty talk page.png|thumb]]
Any time a logged-out user publishes an edit on this wiki, a cookie will be set in this user's browser, and a temporary account tied with this cookie will be automatically created. This account's name will follow the pattern: &lt;code dir=ltr&gt;~2025-12345-67&lt;/code&gt; (a tilde, current year, a number). On pages like Recent Changes or page history, this name will be displayed. The cookie will expire 90 days after its creation. As long as it exists, all edits made from this device will be attributed to this temporary account. It will be the same account even if the IP address changes, unless the user clears their cookies or uses a different device or web browser. A record of the IP address used at the time of each edit will be stored for 90 days after the edit. However, only some logged-in users will be able to see it.

'''What does this mean for different groups of users?'''

'''For logged-out editors'''

* This increases privacy: currently, if you do not use a registered account to edit, then everybody can see the IP address for the edits you made, even after 90 days. That will no longer be possible on this wiki.
* If you use a temporary account to edit from different locations in the last 90 days (for example at home and at a coffee shop), the edit history and the IP addresses for all those locations will now be recorded together, for the same temporary account. Users who [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Access_to_temporary_account_IP_addresses|meet the relevant requirements]] will be able to view this data. If this creates any personal security concerns for you, please contact talktohumanrights at wikimedia.org for advice.

'''For community members interacting with logged-out editors'''

* A temporary account is uniquely linked to a device. In comparison, an IP address can be shared with different devices and people (for example, different people at school or at work might have the same IP address).
* Compared to the current situation, it will be safer to assume that a temporary user's talk page belongs to only one person, and messages left there will be read by them. As you can see in the screenshot, temporary account users will receive notifications. It will also be possible to thank them for their edits, ping them in discussions, and invite them to get more involved in the community.

'''For users who use IP address data to moderate and maintain the wiki'''

* '''For patrollers''' who track persistent abusers, investigate violations of policies, etc.: Users who [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Access_to_temporary_account_IP_addresses|meet the requirements]] will be able to reveal temporary users' IP addresses and all contributions made by temporary accounts from a specific IP address or range ([[Special:IPContributions]]). They will also have access to useful information about the IP addresses thanks to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/IP Info|IP Info]] feature. Many other pieces of software have been built or adjusted to work with temporary accounts, including AbuseFilter, global blocks, Global User Contributions, and more. (For information for volunteer developers on how to update the code of your tools – see the last part of the message.)
* '''For admins blocking logged-out editors''':
** It will be possible to block many abusers by just blocking their temporary accounts. A blocked person won't be able to create new temporary accounts quickly if the admin selects the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Autoblock|autoblock]] option.
** It will still be possible to block an IP address or IP range.
* Temporary accounts will not be retroactively applied to contributions made before the deployment. On Special:Contributions, you will be able to see existing IP user contributions, but not new contributions made by temporary accounts on that IP address. Instead, you should use Special:IPContributions for this.

'''Our requests for you, and next steps'''

* If you know of any tools, bots, gadgets etc. using data about IP addresses or being available for logged-out users, you may want to test if they work on [[testwiki:Main_Page|testwiki]] or [[test2wiki:Main_Page|test2wiki]]. If you are a volunteer developer, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers|read our documentation for developers]], and in particular, the section on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers#How should I update my code?|how your code might need to be updated]].
* If you want to test the temporary account experience, for example just to check what it feels like, go to testwiki or test2wiki and edit without logging in.
* Tell us if you know of any difficulties that need to be addressed. We will try to help, and if we are not able, we will consider the available options.
* Look at our [[m:Meta:Babel#Temporary_Accounts:_access_to_IP_addresses_and_next_steps|previous message]] about requirements for users without extended rights who may need access to IP addresses.

To learn more about the project, check out [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/FAQ|our FAQ]] – you will find many useful answers there. You may also [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/Updates|look at the updates]] (we have just posted one) and [[mw:Newsletter:Product Safety and Integrity|subscribe to our new newsletter]]. If you'd like to talk to me (Szymon) off-wiki, you will find me on Discord and Telegram. Thank you!&lt;section end=&quot;body&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[m:user:NKohli (WMF)|NKohli (WMF)]], [[m:user:SGrabarczuk (WMF)|SGrabarczuk (WMF)]]&lt;/bdi&gt; 21:36, 26 Ogasiti 2025 (UTC)

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== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;server-switch&quot;/&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;

[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&amp;language=&amp;action=page&amp;filter= {{int:please-translate}}]

The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster.

All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2025-09-24|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2025-09-24T15:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2025-09-24T15:00}}]'''.

Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. 

A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. 
You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&amp;group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&amp;task=view&amp;language=&amp;filter=&amp;action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text.

'''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.'''

*You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2025-09-24|en}}.
*If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case.

''Other effects'':

*Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped.
* We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards.
* [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes.

This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. 

'''Please share this information with your community.'''&lt;/div&gt;&lt;section end=&quot;server-switch&quot;/&gt;
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&lt;span dir=ltr&gt;[[m:User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Trizek (WMF)|{{int:talk}}]])&lt;/span&gt; 15:41, 18 Sekutembala 2025 (UTC)

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== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Have your say: vote for the 2025 Board of Trustees&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
Hello all,

The voting period for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025|2025 Board of Trustees election]] is now open. Candidates are running for two (2) seats on the Board.

To check your voter eligibility, please visit the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Voter eligibility guidelines|voter eligibility page]].

Learn more about them by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Candidates|reading their application statements and watch their candidacy videos]].

When you are ready, go to the [[m:Special:SecurePoll/vote/405|SecurePoll voting page to vote]].

'''The vote is open from October 8 at 00:00 UTC to October 22 at 23:59 UTC.'''

Best regards,

Abhishek Suryawanshi&lt;br /&gt;Chair, Elections Committee&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|pakuchezgela]]) 04:48, 9 Okutobala 2025 (UTC)

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== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Help us decide the name of the new Abstract Wikipedia project&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;function1&quot;/&gt;
{{int:Hello}}. Please help pick a name for the new Abstract Wikipedia wiki project. This project will be a wiki that will enable users to combine functions from [[:f:|Wikifunctions]] and data from Wikidata in order to generate natural language sentences in any supported languages. These sentences can then be used by any Wikipedia (or elsewhere).

There will be two rounds of voting, each followed by legal review of candidates, with votes beginning on 20 October and 17 November 2025. Our goal is to have a final project name selected on mid-December 2025. If you would like to participate, then '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Abstract Wikipedia/Abstract Wikipedia naming contest|please learn more and vote now]]''' at meta-wiki.
{{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}}
&lt;section end=&quot;function1&quot;/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

-- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 11:43, 20 Okutobala 2025 (UTC)

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== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Seeking volunteers to join several of the movement’s committees&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
Each year, typically from October through December, several of the movement’s committees seek new volunteers. 

Read more about the committees on their Meta-wiki pages:
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations Committee|Affiliations Committee (AffCom)]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Ombuds commission|Ombuds commission (OC)]]
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Legal/Community Resilience and Sustainability/Trust and Safety/Case Review Committee|Case Review Committee (CRC)]]

Applications for the committees open on October 30, 2025. Applications for the Affiliations Committee, Ombuds commission and the Case Review Committee close on December 11, 2025. Learn how to apply by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Legal/Committee appointments|visiting the appointment page on Meta-wiki]]. Post to the talk page or email cst[[File:At sign.svg|16x16px|link=|(_AT_)]]wikimedia.org with any questions you may have.

For the Committee Support team,
&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

-[[m:User:MKaur (WMF)| MKaur (WMF)]] 14:13, 30 Okutobala 2025 (UTC)

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== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Reminder: Help us decide the name of the new Abstract Wikipedia project&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;function2&quot;/&gt;
{{int:Hello}}. Reminder: Please help to choose name for the new Abstract Wikipedia wiki project. The finalist vote starts today. The finalists for the name are: &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Abstract Wikipedia, Multilingual Wikipedia, Wikiabstracts, Wikigenerator, Proto-Wiki&lt;/span&gt;. If you would like to participate, then '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Abstract Wikipedia/Abstract Wikipedia naming contest|please learn more and vote now]]''' at meta-wiki.
{{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}}
&lt;section end=&quot;function2&quot;/&gt;
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-- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 14:22, 20 Novembala 2025 (UTC)

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== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Migration to Parsoid&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Product and Technology/Parsoid Read Views/Read View Announcement|Read this in another language]]&lt;/em&gt;

Hello everyone! I am glad to inform you that as the next step in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification|Parser Unification]] project, Parsoid will soon be turned on as the default article renderer on your wiki. We are gradually increasing the number of wikis using Parsoid, with the intention of making it the default wikitext parser for MediaWiki's next long-term support release. This will make our wikis more reliable and consistent for editors, readers, and tools to use, as well as making the development of future wikitext features easier.

If this disrupts your workflow, don’t worry! You can still opt out through a user preference or turn Parsoid off on the current page using the Tools submenu, as described in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:ParserMigration|Extension:ParserMigration]] documentation.

There is [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification/Confidence Framework|more information about our roll-out strategy]] available, including the testing done before we turn on Parsoid for a new wiki.

To report bugs and issues, please look at our [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification/Known Issues|known issues]] documentation and if you found a new bug please create a phab ticket and tag the [[phab:project/view/5846|Content Transform Team in Phabricator]].
&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[mw:User:ABreault (WMF)|Content Transform Team]]&lt;/bdi&gt; 00:35, 6 Janyuwale 2026 (UTC)

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== Thank You for Last Year – Join Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 ==

Dear Wikimedia communities,

We hope you are doing well, and we wish you a happy New Year.

''Last year, we captured light. This year, we’ll capture legacy.''

In 2025, communities around the world shared the glow of Ramadan nights and the warmth of collective iftars. In 2026, ''Wiki Loves Ramadan'' is expanding, bringing more stories, more cultures, and deeper global connections across Wikimedia projects.

We invite you to explore the ''Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026'' [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026|Meta page]] to learn how you can participate and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026/Participating communities|sign up]] your community.

📷 ''Photo campaign on '' [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026|Wikimedia Commons]]

If you have questions about the project, please refer to the FAQs:  
* [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan/FAQ/|Meta-Wiki]]
* [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Wiki Loves Ramadan/FAQ|Wikimedia Commons]]

''Early registration for updates is now open via the '''[[m:Special:RegisterForEvent/2710|Event page]]'''''

''Stay connected and receive updates:''  
* [https://t.me/WikiLovesRamadan Telegram channel]  
* [https://lists.wikimedia.org/postorius/lists/wikilovesramadan.lists.wikimedia.org/ Mailing list]

We look forward to collaborating with you and your community.


'''The Wiki Loves Ramadan 2026 Organizing Team''' 19:44, 16 Janyuwale 2026 (UTC)

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== Feminism and Folklore 2026 starts soon ==

&lt;div style=&quot;border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;&quot;&gt;

[[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|centre|550px|frameless]]
::&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; width: 100%;&quot;&gt;''{{int:please-translate}}''&lt;/div&gt;

;Invitation to Organize Feminism and Folklore 2026 

Dear Wiki Community,

We are pleased to invite Wikimedia communities, affiliates, and independent contributors to organize the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026]]''' writing competition on your local Wikipedia.

The international campaign will run from '''1 February to 31 March 2026''' and aims to improve coverage of feminism, women’s histories, gender-related topics, and folk culture across Wikipedia projects.

;About the Campaign 
'''Feminism and Folklore''' is a global writing initiative that complements the '''[[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2026|Wiki Loves Folklore]]''' photography competition. While Wiki Loves Folklore focuses on visual documentation, this writing campaign addresses the '''gender gap on Wikipedia''' by improving encyclopedic content related to folk culture and marginalized voices.

;What Can Participants Write About? 
Communities can contribute by creating, expanding, or translating articles related to:

* Folk festivals, rituals, and celebrations  
* Folk dances, music, and traditional performances  
* Women and queer figures in folklore  
* Women in mythology and oral traditions  
* Women warriors, witches, and witch-hunting narratives  
* Fairy tales, folk stories, and legends  
* Folk games, sports, and cultural practices  

Participants may work from curated article lists or generate new article suggestions using campaign tools.

;How to Sign Up as an Organizer 
Organizers are requested to complete the following steps to register their community:

# Create a local project page on your wiki [[:m:Feminism and Folklore/Sample|(see sample)]] 
# Set up the campaign using the '''CampWiz''' tool  
# Prepare a local article list and clearly mention:
#* Campaign timeline  
#* Local and international prizes  
# Request a site notice from local administrators [[:mr:Template:SN-FNF|(see sample)]]  
# Add your local project page and CampWiz link to the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Meta project page]]'''

;Campaign Tools

The Wiki Loves Folklore Tech Team has introduced tools to support organizers and participants:

* '''Article List Generator by Topic''' – Helps identify articles available on English Wikipedia but missing in your local language Wikipedia. The tool allows customized filters and provides downloadable article lists in CSV and wikitable formats.
* '''CampWiz''' – Enables communities to manage writing campaigns effectively, including jury-based evaluation. This will be the third year CampWiz is officially used for Feminism and Folklore.

Both tools are now available for use in the campaign.  '''[https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/ Click here to access the tools]'''

;Learn More &amp; Get Support
For detailed information about rules, timelines, and prizes, please visit the  
'''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026 project page]]'''.

If you have any questions or need assistance, feel free to reach out via:
* '''[[:m:Talk:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Meta talk page]]'''
* Email us using details on the contact page.

;Join Us 
We look forward to your collaboration and coordination in making Feminism and Folklore 2026 a meaningful and impactful campaign for closing gender gaps and enriching folk culture content on Wikipedia.

Thank you and best wishes,
  
'''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026 International Team]]'''

----

''Stay connected:''  
[[File:B&amp;W Facebook icon.png|link=https://www.facebook.com/feminismandfolklore/|30x30px]]&amp;nbsp;
[[File:B&amp;W Twitter icon.png|link=https://twitter.com/wikifolklore|30x30px]]
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

== Invitation to Host Wiki Loves Folklore 2026 in Your Country ==
&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; width: 100%;&quot;&gt;''{{int:please-translate}}''&lt;/div&gt;

[[File:Wiki Loves Folklore Logo.svg|right|150px|frameless]]
Hello everyone,

We are delighted to invite Wikimedia affiliates, user groups, and community organizations worldwide to participate in '''Wiki Loves Folklore 2026''', an international initiative dedicated to documenting and celebrating folk culture across the globe.

;About Wiki Loves Folklore 

'''Wiki Loves Folklore''' is an annual international photography competition hosted on Wikimedia Commons. The campaign runs from '''1 February to 31 March 2026''' and encourages photographers, cultural enthusiasts, and community members to contribute photographs that highlight:
* Folk traditions and rituals  
* Cultural festivals and celebrations  
* Traditional attire and crafts 
* Performing arts, music, and dance  
* Everyday practices rooted in folk heritage  

Through this campaign, we aim to preserve and promote diverse folk cultures and make them freely accessible to the world.

[[:c:Commons:Wiki_Loves_Folklore_2026|Project page on Wikimedia Commons]] 

; Host a Local Edition 

As we celebrate the '''eight edition''' of Wiki Loves Folklore, we warmly invite communities to organize a local edition in their country or region. Hosting a local campaign is a great opportunity to:
* Increase visibility of your region’s folk culture  
* Engage new contributors in your community  
* Enrich Wikimedia Commons with high-quality cultural content  

'''[[:c:Commons:Wiki_Loves_Folklore_2026/Organize|Sign up to organize]]:'''  

If your team prefers to organize the competition in ''either February or March only'', please feel free to let us know.

If you are unable to organize, we encourage you to share this opportunity with other interested groups or organizations in your region.

;Get in Touch 
If you have any questions, need support, or would like to explore collaboration opportunities, please feel free to contact us via:

* The project Talk pages  
* Email: '''support@wikilovesfolklore.org'''

We are also happy to connect via an online meeting if your team would like to discuss planning or coordination in more detail.

Warm regards,  

'''The Wiki Loves Folklore International Team'''
&lt;/div&gt;
[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|pakuchezgela]]) 13:21, 18 Janyuwale 2026 (UTC)

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== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Annual review of the Universal Code of Conduct and Enforcement Guidelines&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
I am writing to you to let you know the annual review period for the Universal Code of Conduct and Enforcement Guidelines is open now. You can make suggestions for changes through 9 February 2026. This is the first step of several to be taken for the annual review. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Annual review/2026|Read more information and find a conversation to join on the UCoC page on Meta]].

The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|you may review the U4C Charter]].

Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate.

-- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]])&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

21:02, 19 Janyuwale 2026 (UTC)

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== Join the sixth Ukraine’s Cultural Diplomacy Month on Wikipedia! ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
[[File:Ukraine’s Cultural Diplomacy Month on Wikipedia 2026.png|right|250px|thumb|link=https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Ukraine%27s_Cultural_Diplomacy_Month_2026|Join our campaign!]]
{{int:please-translate}}

Dear Wikipedians!

[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Ukraine|Wikimedia Ukraine]], in cooperation with the [[:en:Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine|MFA of Ukraine]] and [[:en:Ukrainian Institute|Ukrainian Institute]], has launched the sixth edition of writing challenge &quot;'''[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2026|Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month]]'''&quot;, which lasts from '''1st April''' until '''30th April 2026'''.

The initiative aims to promote knowledge about Ukrainian culture abroad by creating and improving Wikipedia articles in multiple languages. This year marks the sixth edition of the campaign, which will focus on contemporary culture, making today’s artistic voices and practices more visible to international audiences.

🧩'''How to participate?'''

Choose an article from the suggested list → Write an article in your language, or improve an existing one according to the rules → Add your contribution to the contest page and calculate your points → Win prizes and receive a certificate of participation → Become a promoter of truthful knowledge about Ukraine.

🧩'''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2026|Check our main page for more information]]'''.

'''If you are interested in coordinating long-term community engagement for the campaign and becoming a local ambassador, we would love to hear from you! Please let us know your interest.'''

If not, then we encourage you to translate the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2026|landing page of the contest]] and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MessageGroupStats?group=Centralnotice-tgroup-UCDM2026banner&amp;messages=&amp;language=en&amp;x=D banner] into your own language.

Also, we set up a [[:m:CentralNotice/Request/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2026|banner]] to notify users of the possibility to participate in this challenge! 

[[:m:User:OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)|OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)]] ([[:m:User talk:OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)|talk]]) 04:35, 1 April 2026 (UTC)
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== Action Required: Update templates/modules for electoral maps (Migrating from P1846 to P14226) ==

Hello everyone,

This is a notice regarding an ongoing data migration on Wikidata that may affect your election-related templates and Lua modules (such as &lt;code&gt;Module:Itemgroup/list&lt;/code&gt;).

'''The Change:'''&lt;br /&gt;
Currently, many templates pull electoral maps from Wikidata using the property [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]], combined with the qualifier [[:d:Property:P180|P180]]: [[:d:Q19571328|Q19571328]]. 

We are migrating this data (across roughly 4,000 items) to a newly created, dedicated property: '''[[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]]'''.

'''What You Need To Do:'''&lt;br /&gt;
To ensure your templates and infoboxes do not break or lose their maps, please update your local code to fetch data from [[:d:Property:P14226|P14226]] instead of the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] + [[:d:Property:P180|P180]] structure. A [[m:Wikidata/Property Migration: P1846 to P14226/List|list of pages]] was generated using Wikimedia Global Search.

'''Deadline:'''&lt;br /&gt;
We are temporarily retaining the old data on [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] to allow for a smooth transition. However, to complete the data cleanup on Wikidata, the old [[:d:Property:P1846|P1846]] statements will be removed after '''May 1, 2026'''. Please update your modules and templates before this date to prevent any disruption to your wiki's election articles.

Let us know if you have any questions or need assistance with the query logic. Thank you for your help! [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] using [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|pakuchezgela]]) 17:11, 3 Epulelo 2026 (UTC)

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== Request for comment (global AI policy) ==

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
Apologies for writing in English. {{int:Please-translate}}
A [[:m:Requests for comment/Artificial intelligence policy|request for comment]] is currently being held to decide on a global AI policy. {{int:Feedback-thanks-title}}
[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|pakuchezgela]]) 00:58, 26 Epulelo 2026 (UTC)
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== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Vote now in the 2026 U4C election&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2026 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|2026 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 2 June 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780358400 00:00 UTC].

Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 14 June 2026. -- In cooperation with the U4C,&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

[[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 17:15, 27 Meyi 2026 (UTC)

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      <sha1>1c47aliqnx7k43y8e1p03fjvgdubldb</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>United States of America</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>11678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>116058</id>
      <parentid>115740</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-28T10:47:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CommonsDelinker</username>
        <id>72</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Replacing President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Mikhail_Gorbachev_at_the_first_Summit_in_Geneva,_Switzerland.jpg with [[File:President_Ronald_Reagan_and_Soviet_General_Secretary_Gorbachev_at_The_First_Summit_in_Geneva_Switzerland_-_DPLA_-_b</comment>
      <origin>116058</origin>
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      <text bytes="338383" sha1="kv9talt3x525ursxjyaoos918eac0tw" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Country primarily located in North America}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Redirect-several|America|US|USA|The United States of America|United States}}
{{pp-30-500|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=September 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = United States of America
| common_name            = United States
| image_flag             = Flag of the United States (DoS ECA Color Standard).svg
| alt_flag               = {{nbsp}} &lt;!--Used to denote purely decorative images--&gt;
| flag_type_article      = Flag of the United States
| image_coat             = Greater coat of arms of the United States.svg
| coat_alt               = {{nbsp}} &lt;!--Used to denote purely decorative images--&gt;
| symbol_type_article    = Great Seal of the United States#Obverse
| national_motto         = &quot;[[In God We Trust]]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{USC|36|302}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{collapsible list
|title={{nowrap|Other traditional mottos:&lt;ref name=&quot;de facto Motto&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]], [[Bureau of Public Affairs]]|year=2003|url= https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/27807.pdf|title=The Great Seal of the United States|access-date=February 12, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
|titlestyle=background:transparent;text-align:center;line-height:1.15em;
|liststyle=text-align:center;white-space:nowrap;
|{{native phrase|la|&quot;[[E pluribus unum]]&quot;|italics=off}}&lt;br /&gt;&quot;Out of many, one&quot;
|{{native phrase|la|&quot;[[Annuit cœptis]]&quot;|italics=off}}&lt;br /&gt;&quot;Providence favors our undertakings&quot;
|{{native phrase|la|&quot;[[Novus ordo seclorum]]&quot;|italics=off}}&lt;br /&gt;&quot;New order of the ages&quot;
  }}
| national_anthem        = &quot;[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite act|date=March 3, 1931|article=14|article-type=H.R.|legislature=[[71st United States Congress]]|title=An Act To make The Star-Spangled Banner the national anthem of the United States of America|url=https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=46&amp;page=1508}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;&quot;&gt;[[File:Star_Spangled_Banner_instrumental.ogg]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Commented out, as not [[WP:DUE]] for lead.
| march                       = &quot;[[The Stars and Stripes Forever]]&quot;{{sfn|Kidder|Oppenheim|2007|p=91}}&lt;ref name=&quot;urluscode.house.gov&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=112&amp;page=1263|title=uscode.house.gov|date=August 12, 1999|website=Public Law 105-225|publisher=uscode.house.gov|pages=112 Stat. 1263|quote=Section 304. &quot;The composition by John Philip Sousa entitled 'The Stars and Stripes Forever' is the national march.&quot;|access-date=September 10, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;&quot;&gt;[[File:March, &quot;The Stars and Stripes Forever&quot; · Colonel John R. Bourgeois, Director · John Philip Sousa · United States Marine Band.ogg]]&lt;/div&gt; 
--&gt;
&lt;!-- Consensus map, see talk page. --&gt;| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:USA orthographic.svg|frameless|alt=Orthographic map of the U.S. in North America]]|Show globe ([[U.S. state|states]] and [[Washington, D.C.|D.C.]] only)|[[File:US insular areas SVG.svg|upright=1.15|frameless|alt=World map showing the U.S. and its territories]]|Show the U.S. and [[Territories of the United States|its territories]]|[[File:NOAA Map of the US EEZ.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show territories with [[Exclusive economic zone of the United States|EEZ]]|default=1}}
| map_width              = 
| capital                = [[Washington, D.C.]]&lt;br /&gt;{{coord|38|53|N|77|01|W|display=inline}}
| largest_city           = [[New York City]]&lt;br /&gt;{{coord|40|43|N|74|00|W|display=inline}}
| official_languages     = None at the [[Federal government of the United States|federal level]]{{efn|name=officiallanguage|30 of 50 states recognize only English as an official language. The state of [[Hawaii]] recognizes both [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and English as official languages, and the state of [[Alaska]] officially recognizes 20 [[Alaska Native languages]] alongside English.}}
| languages_type         = [[National language]]
| languages              = [[English language|English]] (''[[de facto]]'')
&lt;!-- NOTE: For English, don't add &quot;American English&quot; --&gt;| ethnic_groups          = {{plainlist|
* 57.8% [[White Americans|White]]
* 18.7% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latino]]
* 12.1% [[African Americans|Black]]
* 5.9% [[Asian Americans|Asian]]
* 0.7% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
* 0.2% [[Pacific Islander Americans|Pacific Islander]]
* 4.1% [[Multiracial Americans|multiracial]]
* 0.5% [[Race and ethnicity in the United States census|other]]}}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2020
| ethnic_groups_ref      = &lt;ref name=&quot;2020CensusData&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/improved-race-ethnicity-measures-reveal-united-states-population-much-more-multiracial.html|title=2020 Census Illuminates Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Country|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=August 13, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;2020InteractiveCensusData&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/race-and-ethnicity-in-the-united-state-2010-and-2020-census.html?linkId=100000060666476|title=Race and Ethnicity in the United States: 2010 Census and 2020 Census|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=August 13, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2021/08/13/1014710483/2020-census-data-us-race-ethnicity-diversity|title=A Breakdown of 2020 Census Demographic Data|author=|date=August 13, 2021|website=NPR|publisher=|access-date=|quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| demonym                = [[Americans|American]]{{efn|name=demonym|The historical and informal demonym [[Yankee]] has been applied to Americans, New Englanders, or northeasterners since the 18th century.}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia and Fact-index: Ohio|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uV5tvKPO684C&amp;q=%22national+nicknames%22+Yankee|year=1963|page=336}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| government_type        = [[Federalism in the United States|Federal]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic|constitutional republic]] and a [[liberal democracy|liberal]] [[representative democracy]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Elving |first1=Ron |title=Is America a democracy or a republic? Yes, it is |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/09/10/1122089076/is-america-a-democracy-or-a-republic-yes-it-is |publisher=[[National Public Radio]] |date=September 10, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!-- Consensus is to list President, Vice President, Chief Justice, and House Speaker --&gt;| leader_title1          = [[President of the United States|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[Donald Trump]]
| leader_title2          = [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]
| leader_name2           = [[JD Vance]]
| leader_title3          = [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|House Speaker]]
| leader_name3           = [[Kevin McCarthy]]
| leader_title4          = [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name4           = [[John Roberts]]
| legislature            = [[United States Congress|Congress]]
| upper_house            = [[United States Senate|Senate]]
| lower_house            = [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[History of the United States|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note       = from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]
| established_event1     = [[American Revolution|Revolution]]
| established_date1      = {{Start date|1765|3|22}}
| established_event2     = [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration]]
| established_date2      = {{Start date|1776|7|4}}
| established_event3     = [[Confederation Period|Confederation]]
| established_date3      = {{Start date|1781|3|1}}
| established_event4     = [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Recognized]]
| established_date4      = {{Start date|1783|9|3}}
| established_event5     = [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]]
| established_date5      = {{Start date|1788|6|21}}
| established_event6     = [[Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Last Amendment]]
| established_date6      = {{Start date|1992|5|5}}
| area_link              = Geography of the United States
| area_label             = Total area
| area_footnote          = &lt;ref&gt;Areas of the 50 states and the District of Columbia but not Puerto Rico nor other island territories per {{cite web| date = August 2010| title = State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates| work = [[Census.gov]]| url = https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/2010/geo/state-area.html| access-date = March 31, 2020| quote = reflect base feature updates made in the MAF/TIGER database through August, 2010.}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| area_rank              = 3rd{{efn|name=largestcountry}}
| area_sq_mi             = 3,796,742
| percent_water          = 4.66&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=October 11, 2020|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER#|date=2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; (2015)
| area_label2            = Land area
| area_data2             = {{convert|3,531,905|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} (3rd)
| population_census      = 331,449,281{{efn|name=&quot;pop&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/2020-census-apportionment-results.htmlpid=2020CENSUS&amp;src=pt|title=Census Bureau's 2020 Population Count|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=April 26, 2021}} The 2020 census is as of April 1, 2020.&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_census_year = 2020
| population_estimate    = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 333,287,557&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Bureau |first=US Census |title=Growth in U.S. Population Shows Early Indication of Recovery Amid COVID-19 Pandemic |url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2022/2022-population-estimates.html |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=Census.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| population_estimate_year = 2022
| population_census_rank = 3rd
| population_density_sq_mi = 87&lt;!-- Figure uses (population/land + water area) as of July 2019. --&gt;
| population_density_rank = 185th
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $26.855&amp;nbsp;trillion&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF.WEO.US&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&amp;s=NGDPD,&amp;sy=2020&amp;ey=2027&amp;ssm=0&amp;scsm=1&amp;scc=0&amp;ssd=1&amp;ssc=0&amp;sic=0&amp;sort=country&amp;ds=.&amp;br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |date=April 10, 2023 |website=IMF.org |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |access-date=April 10, 2023 |archive-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011140637/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&amp;s=NGDPD,&amp;sy=2020&amp;ey=2027&amp;ssm=0&amp;scsm=1&amp;scc=0&amp;ssd=1&amp;ssc=0&amp;sic=0&amp;sort=country&amp;ds=.&amp;br=1 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2023
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 2nd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $80,035&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF.WEO.US&quot;/&gt;
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 8th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $26.855&amp;nbsp;trillion&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF.WEO.US&quot;/&gt;
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2023
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 1st
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $80,035&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF.WEO.US&quot;/&gt;
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 7th
| Gini                   = 39.4&lt;!-- Number only. --&gt;
| Gini_year              = 2020
| Gini_change            = increase
| Gini_ref               = {{efn|After adjustment for taxes and transfers}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2021/demo/income-poverty/p60-273.html|title=Income and Poverty in the United States: 2020|first=US Census|last=Bureau|newspaper=Census.gov |page=48|access-date=July 26, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Gini_rank              = 
| HDI                    = 0.921&lt;!-- Number only. --&gt;
| HDI_year               = 2021&lt;!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year. --&gt;
| HDI_change             = increase&lt;!-- Increase/decrease/steady. --&gt;
| HDI_ref                = &lt;ref name=&quot;UNHDR&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=September 8, 2022|access-date=September 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| HDI_rank               = 21st
| currency               = [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] ($)
| currency_code          = USD
| utc_offset             = −4 to −12, +10, +11
| utc_offset_DST         = −4 to −10{{efn|name=&quot;time&quot;}}
| date_format            = mm/dd/yyyy{{efn|See [[Date and time notation in the United States]].}}
| drives_on              = Right{{efn|name=&quot;drive&quot;}}
| calling_code           = [[North American Numbering Plan|+1]]
| iso3166code            = US
| cctld                  = [[.com]], [[.us]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://cozab.com/the-difference-between-us-vs-com/|title=The Difference Between .us vs .com|date=January 3, 2022|website=Cozab}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| area_km2               = 
| today                  = 
| religion               = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap;
|{{Tree list}}
* 63% [[Christianity in the United States|Christianity]]
** 40% [[Protestantism in the United States|Protestantism]]
** 21% [[Catholic Church in the United States|Catholicism]]
** 2% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]]
{{Tree list/end}}
|29% [[Irreligion in the United States|no religion]]
|1% [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhism]]
|1% [[Hinduism in the United States|Hinduism]]
|1% [[Islam in the United States|Islam]]
|1% [[American Jews|Judaism]]
|2% [[Religion in the United States|other]]
|2% unanswered
  }}
| religion_year          = 2021
| religion_ref           = &lt;ref name=&quot;Pew2021&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=About Three-in-Ten U.S. Adults Are Now Religiously Unaffiliated|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2021/12/14/about-three-in-ten-u-s-adults-are-now-religiously-unaffiliated/|website=Measuring Religion in Pew Research Center's American Trends Panel|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=December 21, 2021|date=December 14, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|latm=|latNS=|longd=|longm=|longEW=|languages2_type=|leader_name5=|leader_name6=|leader_name7=|leader_name8=|leader_name9=|FR_total_population_estimate_year=|FR_foot=|FR_total_population_estimate=|FR_total_population_estimate_rank=|FR_metropole_population_estimate_rank=}}

'''United States of America''' ('''U.S.A.''' panji '''USA'''), panji '''United States''' (U.S. panji US) panji '''America''', ni chalo icho chili ku [[Amelika wa Kumpoto|North America]]. Chigaŵa ichi chili na vigaŵa 50, chigaŵa chimoza, vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vinkhondi, virwa vinkhondi na viŵiri, na malo 326 gha ŵanthu ŵa ku [[India]]. United States ni caru cacitatu pa vyaru vyose pa caru capasi. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na [[Canada]] kumpoto na [[Mexico]] kumwera, kweniso chili na mphaka na [[Bahamas]], [[Cuba]], [[Russia]], na vyaru vinyake. Mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 333 miliyoni. [[Washington, D.C.|Washington, D.C]]., ni msumba ukuru wa United States, ndipo [[New York City]] ndiyo ni msumba ukuru chomene.

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vya ku [[America]] vyaka vinandi chomene. Kwamba mu 1607, ŵanthu ŵa ku [[Britain]] ŵakambiska vyaru 13 ivyo sono vili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa United States. Ŵakaŵa na mphindano na boma la [[Great Britain|Britain]] pa nkhani ya msonkho na ndyali, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ku America kuŵe [[Nkhondo ya ku America]]. Pa Julayi 4, 1776, charu cha United States chikapharazga kuti chajiyimira paŵekha. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinjeru vya ndyali vya ku United States vikakhwaskika na fundo yakuti vinthu vyose vili kulengeka kuti vichitike. Kugawikana kwa vigaŵa ivyo vikazingilizga wuzga ku [[Southern United States]] kukapangiska kuti [[Confederate States of America]] yipatuke, iyo yikarwa nkhondo na vyaru vinyake vya ku America mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya ku America (1861-1865). Pakuwona kuti wupu wa United States watonda, ŵazga ŵakalekeskeka pa caru cose.

Kuzakafika mu 1900, caru ca United States cikaŵa kuti cazgoka ufumu wankhongono comene pa caru cose. Mu 1941, charu cha Japan chikati chawukira msumba wa [[Pearl Harbor]], charu cha United States chikamba kurwa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti charu cha United States na [[Soviet Union]] viŵe na mazaza pa charu chose. Pa nyengo ya [[Nkhondo Yakuzizima]], vyaru vyose viŵiri vikayezgayezga kuti viŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera, kweni vikagega nkhondo. Kweniso ŵakathereskeka pa mpikisano wa mu mlengalenga, uwo ukafika pachanya mu 1969 apo ndege ya Apollo 11 yikakhira pa charu chapasi. [[Nkhondo ya Cigaŵa Ciphya]] yikati yamara mu 1991, caru ca United States cikazgoka ufumu wankhongono comene pa caru cose.&lt;!-- Government and citizens --&gt;

Boma la United States ni boma la wupu wakulongozga ndipo muli maboma ghatatu. Boma ili lili na nyumba ziŵiri za malango, Nyumba ya Wupu Wakulongozga, iyo ni nyumba yakudikanya, na Senate, iyo ni nyumba yakudikanya. Nkhani zinandi za ndyali ni zakupambana, ndipo malango ghakupambana mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana. Mu vyaru vinyake, charu cha United States chili pa malo ghapacanya pa nkhani ya umoyo, ndalama, usambazi, kusalana pa nkhani za ndalama, wanangwa wa ŵanthu, luso, na masambiro. Mu caru ici muli ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu jele kweniso palije urunji. Ku United States kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma mu vyaru vinyake.

Charu icho chili na ndalama zinandi chomene pa charu chose, ndipo chuma cha ku America chikupanga pafupifupi chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vinayi vya GDP pa charu chose. United States ndiyo yikuru comene pa caru cose pa kunjizga vyakurya mu vyaru vinyake ndipo ndiyo yikuru comene pa vyakurya vinyake. Boma la United States ndilo likambiska wupu wa United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States, NATO, World Health Organization, ndipo lili na wanangwa wakuŵa mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council. Boma la United States ndilo lili na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose, ndipo ndilo likulamulira pa nkhani za ndyali, vya maluso, na sayansi.

==Kwiza kwa zina==
&lt;!-- linked --&gt;
{{Further|Mazina gha United States|Mazina gha ŵanthu ŵa ku United States}}

Ukaboni wakwamba wakulongora kuti mazgu ghakuti &quot;United States of America&quot; ghakalembeka mu kalata iyo Stephen Moylan wakalembera Joseph Reed, uyo wakaŵa movwiri wa George Washington. Moylan wakayowoya kuti wakukhumba kuluta &quot;ku Spain na mazaza ghose kufuma ku United States of America&quot; kukapempha wovwiri pa nkhondo ya kuwukira boma.&lt;ref&gt;DeLear, Byron (July 4, 2013) [https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2013/0704/Who-coined-United-States-of-America-Mystery-might-have-intriguing-answer Who coined 'United States of America'? Mystery might have intriguing answer.] &quot;Historians have long tried to pinpoint exactly when the name 'United States of America' was first used and by whom&amp;nbsp;... This latest find comes in a letter that Stephen Moylan, Esq., wrote to Col. Joseph Reed from the Continental Army Headquarters in Cambridge, Mass., during the siege of Boston. The two men lived with Washington in Cambridge, with Reed serving as Washington's favorite military secretary and Moylan fulfilling the role during Reed's absence.&quot; ''Christian Science Monitor'' (Boston, MA).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Touba, Mariam (November 5, 2014) [https://blog.nyhistory.org/coined-phrase-united-states-america-may-never-guess/ Who Coined the Phrase 'United States of America'? You May Never Guess] &quot;Here, on January 2, 1776, seven months before the Declaration of Independence and a week before the publication of Paine's ''Common Sense'', Stephen Moylan, an acting secretary to General George Washington, spells it out, 'I should like vastly to go with full and ample powers from the United States of America to Spain' to seek foreign assistance for the cause.&quot; ''New-York Historical Society Museum &amp; Library''&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Fay, John (July 15, 2016) [https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/The-forgotten-Irishman-who-named-the-United-States-of-America.html The forgotten Irishman who named the 'United States of America'] &quot;According to the NY Historical Society, Stephen Moylan was the man responsible for the earliest documented use of the phrase 'United States of America'. But who was Stephen Moylan?&quot; ''IrishCentral.com''&lt;/ref&gt; Mazgu ghakuti &quot;United States of America&quot; ghakalembeka kakwamba mu nyuzipepara ya The Virginia Gazette ku Williamsburg pa Epulero 6, 1776.

Kuzakafika mu Juni 1776, zina lakuti &quot;United States of America&quot; likaŵa kuti lalembeka kale mu chikalata chakuchemeka Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, icho chikalembeka na John Dickinson, kweniso mu chikalata chakuchemeka Declaration of Independence, icho chikalembeka na Thomas Jefferson.{{sfn|Safire|2003|p=199}}

Mazgu ghakuti &quot;United States&quot; ghakafuma ku lizgu lakuti &quot;United States&quot;. Likayowoyanga za vyaru vinandi nga ni &quot;United States of America&quot;. Mazgu agha ghakatchuka chomene pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya pa Mbumba. Munthu uyo ni mwenekaya wa United States wakucemeka &quot;Mamerika&quot;. &quot;United States&quot;, &quot;American&quot;, na &quot;U.S&quot;. vikuyowoya vya charu (&quot;American values&quot;, &quot;U.S. forces&quot;). Mu Cingelezi, lizgu lakuti &quot;America&quot; likuyowoya viŵi yayi za vinthu ivyo vikukolerana yayi na United States.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Wilson|first1=Kenneth G.|title=The Columbia guide to standard American English|url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetos00wils_0|url-access=registration|date=1993|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-231-06989-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/columbiaguidetos00wils_0/page/27 27–28]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Mbili==
{{Main|Mbili ya United States}}
{{For outline|Outline of United States history}}

=== Nyengo ya Columbian (pambere 1492) ===
{{Further|Native Americans in the United States|Pre-Columbian era}}
[[File:Extreme_Makeover,_Mesa_Verde_Edition_-_panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|Nyumba iyi yili ku Colorado, ndipo yikazengeka na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ancestral Puebloans pakati pa 1190 na 1260.|alt=Aerial view of the Cliff Palace]]

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku North America ŵakafuma ku Siberia na kuluta pa Bering land bridge ndipo ŵakafika vyaka 12,000 ivyo vyajumpha.{{sfn|Erlandson|Rick|Vellanoweth|2008|p=19}}{{sfn|Savage|2011|page= 55}}{{sfn|Haviland|Walrath|Prins|2013|page=219}} Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Clovis ndiwo ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya ku America.{{sfn|Waters|Stafford|2007|pages=1122–1126}}{{sfn|Flannery|2015|pages=173–185}} Ichi chikwenera kuti chikaŵa chakwamba pa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakaluta ku North America.

Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa ku North America ŵakamba kuŵa na maluso ghanandi, ndipo ŵanyake, nga ni ŵanthu ŵa ku Mississippian kumwera kwa charu ichi, ŵakamba kulima, kuzenga, na kupanga vinthu vinandi. Msumba wa Cahokia ndiwo ni malo ghakuru comene na ghakupambanapambana agho ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵakuwona mu United States. Mu chigaŵa cha Four Corners, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Puebloan ŵakamba kuchita ulimi kwa vyaka vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Algonquian ndiwo mbanandi chomene mu North America. Gulu ili lili na ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Algonquian. Kale ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Atlantic na mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Saint Lawrence na kuzingilizga Nyanja Yikuru. Pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kukumana nawo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Algonquian ŵakakhalanga mwa kuvina na kuloŵa somba, nangauli ŵanandi ŵakakuranga chomene vyakurya nga ni chimanga, nyungu, na ma squash. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Ojibwe ŵakaliskanga mpunga. Gulu la Haudenosaunee la ŵanthu ŵa ku Iroquois, ilo lili kumwera kwa chigaŵa cha Great Lakes, likaŵako pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1200 na 1500.

Ntchakusuzga kumanya unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku North America pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakalutanga ku charu ichi.{{sfn|Perdue|Green|2005|page=40}}{{sfn|Haines|Haines|Steckel|2000|page=12}} Douglas H. Ubelaker wa ku Smithsonian Institution wakati ŵanthu 93,000 ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Atlantic na 473,000 mu vyaru vya ku Gulf, kweni ŵasayansi ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti ciŵerengero ici nchicoko comene. Henry F. Dobyns wakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵanandi comene, ndipo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 1.1 miliyoni ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Gulf of Mexico, ŵanthu 2.2 miliyoni ŵakakhalanga pakati pa Florida na Massachusetts, 5.2 miliyoni ŵakakhalanga mu dambo la Mississippi na milonga yinyake, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 700,000 ŵakakhalanga mu Florida.{{sfn|Perdue|Green|2005|page=40}}{{sfn|Haines|Haines|Steckel|2000|page= 12}}

=== Nyengo ya Ŵakoloni (1492-1763) ===
{{Further|Colonial history of the United States|European colonization of the Americas|Slavery in the colonial history of the United States}}[[File:The_Mayflower_Compact_1620_cph.3g07155.jpg|thumb|Phangano la Mayflower ilo likalembeka mu 1620, likaŵa lakwamba kuti ŵanthu ŵajilamulire ŵekha.]]

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Scandinavia ndiwo ŵakambiska charu cha New England.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The New England Colonies and the Native Americans {{!}} National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/new-england-colonies-and-native-americans |access-date=2023-01-07 |website=[[History (American TV network)|History]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2016-06-21 |title=Forgotten History: How The New England Colonists Embraced The Slave Trade |language=en |work=[[NPR]] |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/06/21/482874478/forgotten-history-how-the-new-england-colonists-embraced-the-slave-trade |access-date=2023-01-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; Christopher Columbus wakaluta ku Puerto Rico mu 1493, ndipo pakati pajumpha vyaka 10, ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakamba kukhala ku San Juan. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakafika ku United States ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Spain nga ni Juan Ponce de León, uyo wakaluta kakwamba ku Florida mu 1513. Munthu munyake wa ku Italy, zina lake Giovanni da Verrazzano, uyo wakatumika na France ku New World mu 1525, wakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa ku America awo ŵakakhalanga mu malo agho sono ghakuchemeka New York Bay. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ndiwo ŵakambiska malo ghakwamba ku Florida na New Mexico, nga ni Saint Augustine, msumba wakale chomene mu charu ichi, na Santa Fe. Ŵafarisi ŵakakhazikiska mizi yawo mumphepete mwa mlonga wa Mississippi na Gulf of Mexico, chomenechomene ku New Orleans na Mobile.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku England ŵakamba kukhazikika mu vigaŵa vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa North America mu 1607 apo ŵakazenga malo gha Virginia Colony ku Jamestown. Nyumba ya Malango ya ku Virginia ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba mu charu ichi. Ku Massachusetts Bay Colony ndiko kukakhazikiskikira koleji ya Harvard mu 1636. Phangano la Mayflower Compact na malango gha Connecticut ghakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵajilamulirenge ŵekha mu America. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku England awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵa Ŵakhristu awo ŵakakhumbanga wanangwa wa kusopa. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku America ŵakamba kuchepa chifukwa cha vifukwa vyakupambanapambana, chomenechomene matenda nga ni nthomba na nthomba.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&amp;pg=PA205 The Cambridge encyclopedia of human paleopathology] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160208032805/https://books.google.com/books?id=qubTdDk1H3IC&amp;pg=PA205|date=February 8, 2016}}''&quot;. Arthur C. Aufderheide, Conrado Rodríguez-Martín, Odin Langsjoen (1998). [[Cambridge University Press]]. p. 205. {{ISBN|978-0-521-55203-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#Bianchine|Bianchine, Russo, 1992]] pp. 225–232&lt;/ref&gt;
Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1670, Ŵanandi ŵakathereska na kupoka malo gha Ŵadachi ku New Netherland, mu chigaŵa chapakati pa nyanja ya Atlantic.[[File:Thirteencolonies_politics_cropped.jpg|alt=Map of the U.S. showing the original Thirteen Colonies along the eastern seaboard|thumb|The [[United Colonies]] in 1775:
* Dark Red = [[New England Colonies|New England colonies]].
* Bright Red = [[Middle Colonies|Middle Atlantic colonies]].
* Red-brown = [[Southern Colonies|Southern colonies]]|left]]

Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakasuzgikanga na njara, matenda, kweniso nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵa ku America. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku America ŵakakumananga na mafuko ghanyake agho ghakaŵa pafupi na kwawo kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakathembanga ŵanyawo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaguliskanga vyakurya na vikumba vya nyama. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga ku America ŵakasambira kulima mbuto, nyungu, na vyakurya vinyake. Ŵamishonale ŵa ku Europe na ŵanji ŵakawona kuti nchakuzirwa comene &quot;kusambizga&quot; ŵanthu ŵa ku America kuti ŵaŵe na nkharo yiwemi.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Ripper2008|Ripper, 2008]] p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#Calloway1998|Calloway, 1998]], p. 55&lt;/ref&gt; Kweni chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kukhazikika ku North America, ŵanthu ŵa ku America ŵakachimbizgika mu vikaya vyawo ndipo kanandi ŵakakomekanga pa nkhondo.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe nawo ŵakamba kuguliska ŵazga ŵa ku Africa mu vyaru vya ku America. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵazga ndiwo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa America. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakagaŵikana pa nkhani ya kusopa na nkharo ya ŵazga.

Vyaru 13 ivyo vikazgoka United States of America vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Britain. Ndipouli, wose ŵakaŵa na maboma gha mu vigaŵa vyawo, ndipo ŵanalume ŵatuŵa awo ŵakaŵa na malo ŵakasankhikanga.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wood1998&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Wood |first=Gordon S. |url=https://archive.org/details/creationofameric0000wood_r7v4 |title=The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 |publisher=UNC Press Books |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8078-4723-7 |page=263}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{Sfn|Ratcliff|2013|p=220}}Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakababikanga, ŵanandi ŵakafwanga, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake. Mu ma 1730 na ma 1740, gulu la Ŵakhristu ilo likamanyikwanga kuti Great Awakening, likawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kutemwa chisopa kweniso wanangwa wawo.

Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Vyaka vinkhondi na viŵiri (1756-1763), iyo ku United States yikumanyikwa na zina lakuti Nkhondo ya ku France na ku India, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakapoka Canada. Phangano la Paris (1763) likapangiska chigaŵa chichoko chomene cha Quebec, icho chikasazgapo chipalamba cha Ohio na chipalamba cha Mississippi, mwantheura ŵanthu ŵa ku Canada awo ŵakayowoyanga Cifurenci ŵakaŵavya mwaŵi wakuyowoya Cingelezi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivi ŵakakwana 2.1 miliyoni mu 1770. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakizanga, kweni ŵakasazgikiranga comene mwakuti mu 1770 ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku America ndiwo ŵakababikira ku vyaru vinyake. Pakuti malo agha ghakaŵa kutali na Britain, ghakaŵa na wanangwa wakujiwusa ŵekha, kweni cifukwa ca umo vinthu vikaŵira makora, mafumu gha ku Britain ghakambaso kuwusa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Otis |first=James |url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_52678 |title=The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved |year=1763 |isbn=9780665526787}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Revolutionary period (1763–1789)===
{{Main|History of the United States (1776–1789)|History of the United States (1789–1849)|l2 = 1789–1849}}
{{further|American Revolution|American Revolutionary War|Confederation period|}}
[[File:Declaration independence.jpg|thumb|''[[Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)|Declaration of Independence]]'', a painting by [[John Trumbull]], depicts the [[Committee of Five]]{{efn|John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston}} presenting the draft of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration]] to the [[Second Continental Congress|Continental Congress]], June 28, 1776, in [[Philadelphia]].|alt=See caption]]

Nkhondo ya ku America yikapatura vyaru 13 ku ufumu wa Britain, ndipo yikaŵa nkhondo yakwamba ya kujithemba iyo yikacitika na boma la ku Europe yayi. Kuzakafika m'ma 1800, visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku America na visambizgo vya ndyali vya wanangwa vikazara chomene pakati pa ŵalongozgi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku America ŵakamba kulondezga fundo yakuti boma likuthemba pa kuzomerezgeka na ŵanthu. Iwo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaŵe na &quot;wenelero wakuŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku England&quot; kweniso kuti &quot;ŵaleke kupeleka msonkho kwambura munthu wakuŵawimira&quot;. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵachitenge vinthu mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pawo kwizira mu Nyumba ya Malamulo iyo yikaŵavya mwimiliri yumoza, ndipo nkhondo yikakura.&lt;ref name=&quot;Humphrey2003&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Humphrey, Carol Sue|title=The Revolutionary Era: Primary Documents on Events from 1776 To 1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=19NWMZ6Ec_sC&amp;pg=PA8|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing|isbn=978-0-313-32083-5|pages=8–10}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu 1774, ungano wakwamba wa ŵasilikari ŵa charu ichi ukazomerezga kuti maboma gha Britain ghaleke kuguliska vinthu vyawo. Nkhondo ya ku America yikamba mu chaka chakulondezgapo, ndipo yikakhwaskika na vinthu nga ni Stamp Act na Boston Tea Party. Pa Julayi 4, 1776, pa ungano unyake uwo ukachitikira ku United Colonies, ŵakalemba chikalata chakuyowoya za wanangwa wa charu. Mu chikalata ichi pakalembeka kuti: &quot;Tikuwona kuti unenesko ngwakuti ŵanthu wose ŵali kulengeka ŵakuyana waka, ndipo Mlengi wawo wali kuŵapa wanangwa unyake, uwo ngwakuti umoyo, wanangwa, na cimwemwe&quot;. Stephen Lucas wakati ni &quot;mazgu agho ghakumanyikwa comene mu Cingelezi&quot;, ndipo Joseph Ellis, wakulemba mdauko, wakalemba kuti mu buku ili muli &quot;mazgu agho ghakaŵa ghankhongono comene mu mdauko wa ku America&quot;. Mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Britain, ŵazga ŵakaŵa na wanangwa mu vyaru vyose ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa America. Ndipouli, mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kukayikira ivyo ŵakacitanga.

Mu 1781, mabuku gha Confederation and Perpetual Union ghakaŵa na boma lakugaŵikana ilo likagwira ntchito m'paka mu 1789. Mu 1777, ŵasilikari ŵa ku America ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain mu nkhondo ya ku Saratoga. Nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ŵasilikari ŵa Britain yikati yamara mu 1781, Britain yikacita phangano la mtende. Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinandi ŵakazomera kuti charu cha America ndicho chili na mazaza pa charu chose, ndipo charu chiphya ichi chikamba kulamulira chigaŵa chikuru cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Mississippi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/paris.asp |title=British-American Diplomacy: The Paris Peace Treaty of September 30, 1783 |editor-first=Hunter |editor-last=Miller |publisher=The Avalon Project at Yale Law School}}&lt;/ref&gt;

As it became increasingly apparent that the Confederation was insufficient to govern the new country, [[American nationalism|nationalists]] advocated for and led the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Philadelphia Convention]] of 1787 in writing the [[Constitution of the United States|United States Constitution]] to replace it, [[Ratification of the United States Constitution|ratified]] in state conventions in 1788.

=== Early national period (1789–1849) ===
{{Main|History of the United States (1789–1849)}}
U.S. Ndondomeko iyi ndiyo njakukhora comene pa vyose ivyo vili kulembeka mu malango gha caru cose.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.politifact.com/virginia/statements/2014/sep/22/bob-goodlatte/goodlatte-says-us-has-oldest-working-national-cons/ Goodlatte says U.S. has the oldest working national constitution], Politifact Virginia website, September 22, 2014.&lt;/ref&gt;Mu 1789, dango ili likamba kugwira ntchito, ndipo likapangiska kuti boma liŵe na maofesi ghatatu (ghawemi, ghaulamuliri, na ghakusora malango). George Washington, uyo wakalongozga ŵasilikari ŵa ku America kuti ŵathereske ŵasilikari ŵa ku America ndipo pamanyuma wakaleka mazaza ghake, ndiyo wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba uyo wakasankhika mwakuyana na dango liphya. Mu 1791, ŵakalemba chikalata chakuyowoya za wanangwa wa ŵanthu, icho chikakanizga boma kukanizga wanangwa wa munthu waliyose. Mu 1803 apo boma la Louisiana likagura charu ichi, chigaŵa chake chikakwera pafupifupi kaŵiri. Nkhondo ya ku Britain yikalutilira, ndipo yikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo ya 1812, iyo yikaŵa yambura umaliro. Spain wakapeleka Florida na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Gulf Coast mu 1819.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author1=Klose, Nelson |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstateshist00klos_0/page/150 |title=United States History to 1877 |author2=Jones, Robert F. |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8120-1834-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstateshist00klos_0/page/150 150]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Cotton gin harpers.jpg|thumb|William L. Sheppard &quot;First Use of a [[Cotton Gin]]&quot; (1790–1800), ''Harper's weekly'', Dec. 18, 1869]]
Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵakamba kupambana maghanoghano pa nkhani ya wuzga. Ku North, ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene nga ni John Adams, Roger Sherman, Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, na Benjamin Franklin, ŵakazomerezga kuti ŵazga ŵaleke kugwira ntchito, ndipo mu 1810 boma lililose mu chigaŵa ichi likazomerezga. Mu 1820 Missouri Compromise yikazomerezga Missouri kuŵa boma la ŵazga na Maine kuŵa boma lakufwatuka ndipo yikayowoya kuti ŵazga ŵaleke kuŵa ŵazga mu vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa kumpoto kwa 36°30′. Ivyo vikachitika vikapangiska kuti charu chigaŵike vigaŵa viŵiri: vyaru vya wanangwa, ivyo vikakanizganga wuzga; na vyaru vya ŵazga, ivyo vikavikiliranga wuzga.{{sfn|Walker Howe|2007|p=153-157}} 

In [[Southern United States|the South]], the invention of the [[cotton gin]] spurred entrenchment of slavery, with regional elites and intellectuals increasingly viewing [[Slavery as a positive good in the United States|the institution as a positive good]] instead of a [[necessary evil]].{{sfn|Walker Howe|2007|p=478, 481-482, 587-588}} Although the federal government [[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves|outlawed]] American participation in the [[Atlantic slave trade]] in 1807, after 1820, cultivation of the highly profitable cotton crop exploded in the [[Deep South]], and along with it, the use of [[Slavery in the United States|slave labor]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Cogliano2008&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Cogliano, Francis D.|title=Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1f-wAfE0mpsC&amp;pg=PA219|year=2008|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0-8139-2733-6|page=219}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#Walton|Walton, 2009]], p. 43&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#Gordon|Gordon, 2004]], pp. 27,29&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Second Great Awakening]], especially in the period 1800–1840, converted millions to [[Evangelicalism in the United States|evangelical]] Protestantism. In the North, it energized multiple social reform movements, including [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]];&lt;ref name=&quot;Clark2012iu&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Clark, Mary Ann|title=Then We'll Sing a New Song: African Influences on America's Religious Landscape|url=https://archive.org/details/thenwellsingnews0000clar/page/47|date=May 2012|publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield|isbn=978-1-4422-0881-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/thenwellsingnews0000clar/page/47 47] }}&lt;/ref&gt; in the South, [[History of Methodism in the United States|Methodists]] and [[Baptists in the United States|Baptists]] proselytized among slave populations.&lt;ref&gt;Heinemann, Ronald L., et al., Old Dominion, New Commonwealth: a history of Virginia 1607–2007, 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-8139-2609-4}}, p. 197&lt;/ref&gt;

{{anchor|Independence and expansion}}
[[File:United_States_evolution.gif|thumb|An animation of US [[Territorial evolution of the United States|territorial expansion]] over time.]]
Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku America ŵakamba kusamira kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu 1803 boma la Spain likagura malo ghaŵiri gha charu ichi. Mu 1819, charu cha Spain chikapeleka Florida na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Gulf Coast. Mu 1845, boma la Texas likapokeka na boma la United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kemp2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Kemp, Roger L.|title=Documents of American Democracy: A Collection of Essential Works|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHawgM-WnlUC&amp;pg=PA180|year=2010|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-4210-2|page=180|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Apo boma likalutiliranga kuthandazga mu vyaru ivyo mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku America, kanandi likaŵachimbizganga panji kuŵawuskamo mu charu chawo. Mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵakakanizgika kuluta ku malo ghanyake. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kurwa nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵa ku America kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Mississippi. Nkhondo zinandi zikamara para Ŵandyali ŵa ku America ŵafumako ku malo ghawo na kuluta ku malo gha Ŵandyali. Nkhondo ya ku Mexico na America yikati yamara, mu 1848, charu cha Mexico chikapoka chigaŵa cha California na chigaŵa chikuru cha kumwera kwa America. Nkhondo ya ku California iyo yikachitika mu 1848-1849 yikapangiska ŵanthu ŵanandi kusamira ku Pacific Coast, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ku California kuŵe nkhondo.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rawls1999&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Rawls, James J.|title=A Golden State: Mining and Economic Development in Gold Rush California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UPUsIaHZTm0C&amp;pg=PA20|year=1999|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-21771-3|page=20}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Pakuti ku United States kukaŵa vyakurya vinandi, malo ghakurya ghakaŵa ghanandi ndipo vyakurya vyakukwana ku vyaru vinyake vikakura. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakapika malo ghanandi, pafupifupi 10 peresenti ya malo ghose gha ku United States.&lt;ref&gt;Paul Frymer, &quot;Building an American Empire: The Era of Territorial and Political Expansion,&quot; (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017)&lt;/ref&gt; Pambere nkhondo ya pawenenawene yindambe, ŵanthu ŵakamba kukayikira usange ŵazga ŵangaŵako mu vyaru ivi.

===Civil War and Reconstruction (1849–1877)===
{{main|History of the United States (1849–1865)}}
{{Further|Slave states and free states|American Civil War|Reconstruction era}}
{{see also|Lost Cause of the Confederacy}}
[[File:US Secession map 1861.svg|thumb|{{center|'''Status of the states, 1861'''}} {{legend|#A40000| Slave states that seceded before April 15, 1861}} {{legend|#EF2929| Slave states that seceded after April 15, 1861}} {{legend|#FCE94F| Union states that permitted slavery (border states)}} {{legend|#204A87| Union states that banned slavery}}
{{legend|#D3D7CF| Territories}}|alt=Map of U.S. showing two kinds of Union states, two phases of secession and territories]]

Irreconcilable sectional conflict regarding the [[Slavery in the United States|enslavement of those of black African descent]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Stuart|last=Murray|title=Atlas of American Military History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_sy7mmmxQC&amp;pg=PA76|year=2004|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-3025-5|page=76|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|first=Harold T.|last=Lewis|title=Christian Social Witness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kr-xNru5vZkC&amp;pg=PA53|year=2001|publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield|isbn=978-1-56101-188-9|page=53}}&lt;/ref&gt; was the [[Origins of the American Civil War|primary cause of the American Civil War]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Woods 2012 pp. 415–439&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last=Woods | first=Michael E. | title=What Twenty-First-Century Historians Have Said about the Causes of Disunion: A Civil War Sesquicentennial Review of the Recent Literature | journal=The Journal of American History | publisher=[Oxford University Press, Organization of American Historians] | volume=99 | issue=2 | year=2012 | issn=0021-8723 | jstor=44306803 | pages=415–439 | doi=10.1093/jahist/jas272 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44306803 | access-date=2023-04-29}}&lt;/ref&gt; With the [[1860 United States presidential election|1860 election]] of Republican [[Abraham Lincoln]], conventions in eleven slave states—all in the [[Southern United States]]—declared [[secession]] and formed the [[Confederate States of America]], while the federal government (the &quot;[[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]&quot;) maintained that [[Perpetual Union|secession was unconstitutional and illegitimate]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Silkenat 2019 p. 25&quot;&gt;{{cite book | last=Silkenat | first=D. | title=Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | series=Civil War America | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-4696-4973-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nHWKDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA25 | access-date=2023-04-29 | page=25}}&lt;/ref&gt; On April 12, 1861, the Confederacy initiated military conflict by [[Battle of Fort Sumter|bombarding Fort Sumter]], a federal garrison in [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston harbor]], South Carolina. The ensuing Civil War (1861–1865) was the deadliest military conflict in American history resulting in the deaths of approximately 620,000 soldiers from both sides and upwards of 50,000 civilians, almost all of them in the South.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Vinovskis|first=Maris|date=1990|title=Toward A Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays|page=4|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge; New York|isbn=978-0-521-39559-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Reconstruction (United States)|Reconstruction]] began in earnest following the defeat of the Confederates. While President Lincoln attempted to foster cooperation and reconciliation between the Union and the former Confederacy, [[Assassination of Abraham Lincoln|his assassination]] on April&amp;nbsp;14, 1865 drove a wedge between North and South again.{{fact|date=April 2023}} Republicans in the federal government made it their goal to oversee the rebuilding of the South and to [[Civil rights movement (1865–1896)|ensure the rights of African Americans]], and the so-called [[Reconstruction Amendments]] to the Constitution guaranteed the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|abolishment of slavery]], [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|full citizenship to Americans of African descent]], and [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|suffrage for adult Black males]]. They persisted until the [[Compromise of 1877]], when the Republicans agreed to cease enforcing the rights of African Americans in the South in order for Democrats to concede the [[1876 United States presidential election|presidential election of 1876]].{{fact|date=April 2023}} Influential Southern whites, calling themselves &quot;[[Redeemers]]&quot;, took local control of the South after the end of Reconstruction, beginning the [[nadir of American race relations]]. From 1890 to 1910, the Redeemers established so-called [[Jim Crow laws]], [[Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era|disenfranchising]] almost all blacks and some impoverished whites throughout the region. Blacks would face [[Racial segregation in the United States|racial segregation]] nationwide, especially in the South.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Shearer Davis Bowman|title=Masters and Lords: Mid-19th-Century U.S. Planters and Prussian Junkers|url=https://archive.org/details/masterslordsmid10000bowm|url-access=registration|year=1993|publisher=Oxford UP|page=[https://archive.org/details/masterslordsmid10000bowm/page/221 221]|isbn=978-0-19-536394-4 }}&lt;/ref&gt; They also lived under constant threat of vigilante violence, including [[Lynching in the United States|lynching]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Jason E.|last=Pierce|title=Making the White Man's West: Whiteness and the Creation of the American West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJPgCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT256|year=2016|publisher=University Press of Colorado|page=256|isbn=978-1-60732-396-9 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Gilded Age, Progressive Era, and World War I (1877–1929)===
{{Main|History of the United States (1865–1918)}}
{{further|United States in World War I|Economic history of the United States|Immigration to the United States|Technological and industrial history of the United States|Gilded Age|Progressive Era}}
[[File:Emigrants (i.e. immigrants) landing at Ellis Island -.webm|thumb|left|Film by [[Edison Studios]] showing immigrants at [[Ellis Island]] in [[New York Harbor]], that was a major entry point for European [[Immigration to the United States|immigration into the U.S.]]&lt;ref name=&quot;PriceBenton-Short2008&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Marie|last1=Price|first2=Lisa|last2=Benton-Short|title=Migrants to the Metropolis: The Rise of Immigrant Gateway Cities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Tb5HMB63xAC&amp;pg=PA51|year=2008|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0-8156-3186-6|page=51}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

National infrastructure, including [[First Transcontinental Telegraph|telegraph]] and [[First transcontinental railroad|transcontinental railroads]], spurred economic growth and greater settlement and development of the [[American frontier|American Old West]]. After the [[American Civil War]], new transcontinental [[Rail transportation in the United States#History|railways]] made relocation easier for settlers, expanded internal trade, and increased conflicts with Native Americans.&lt;ref name=&quot;Black2011kj&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Black|first=Jeremy|author-link=Jeremy Black (historian)|title=Fighting for America: The Struggle for Mastery in North America, 1519–1871|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIst_CSWOqIC&amp;pg=PA275|year=2011|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-35660-4|page=275}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Mainland expansion also included the [[Alaska Purchase|purchase of Alaska]] from [[Russian Empire|Russia]] in 1867.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Purchase of Alaska, 1867|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/alaska-purchase|publisher=U.S. Department of State|website=Office of the Historian|access-date=December 23, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1893, pro-American elements in Hawaii [[Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|overthrew]] the [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Hawaiian monarchy]] and formed the [[Republic of Hawaii]], which the U.S. [[Newlands Resolution|annexed]] in 1898. Puerto Rico, [[Guam]], and the [[Philippines]] were ceded by Spain in the same year, by the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)]] following the [[Spanish–American War]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Spanish–American War, 1898|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/spanish-american-war|publisher=U.S. Department of State|website=Office of the Historian|access-date=December 24, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; Neither the [[Foraker Act]] (1900), nor the [[Insular Cases]] (1901) accorded US citizenship to Puerto Ricans. One month prior to [[American entry into World War I]], citizenship was extended to Puerto Ricans via the [[Jones–Shafroth Act]] (1917).&lt;ref name=HoE&gt;{{Cite book | title = Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America | first = Juan | last = Gonzalez | publisher = Penguin | date = 2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|60–63}} In November 1903, the US acquired a perpetual lease of the [[Panama Canal Zone]] via the [[Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty]] after providing naval aid preventing [[Colombia]] from putting down the [[Separation of Panama from Colombia|rebellion]] which led to the creation of an independent Panama. The logistics of the November uprising were prepared in New York.&lt;ref name=HoE /&gt;{{rp|67}} [[American Samoa]] was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the end of the [[Second Samoan Civil War]].&lt;ref&gt;Ryden, George Herbert. ''The Foreign Policy of the United States in Relation to Samoa''. New York: Octagon Books, 1975.&lt;/ref&gt; The [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]] were purchased from [[Denmark]] in 1917.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Virgin Islands History|url=https://www.vinow.com/general_usvi/history/|publisher=Vinow.com|access-date=January 5, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Ford Motor Company assembly line.jpg|thumb|Workers [[Mass production|mass producing]] [[Automotive industry in the United States|automobiles]] on an [[assembly line]] in Chicago in 1913.&lt;ref&gt;Rubin, A. (2021). Postindustrial America. In S. P. Holland (Ed.), ''Encyclopedia of American studies''. Johns Hopkins University Press. &lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[Gilded Age|Rapid economic development]] during the late 19th and early 20th centuries fostered the rise of [[Robber baron (industrialist)|many prominent industrialists]]. [[Tycoon|Tycoons]] like [[Cornelius Vanderbilt]], [[John D. Rockefeller]], and [[Andrew Carnegie]] led the nation's progress in the [[Railways|railroad]], [[Petroleum industry|petroleum]], and [[History of the steel industry (1850–1970)|steel]] industries. Banking became a major part of the economy, with [[J. P. Morgan]] playing a notable role. The United States also emerged as a pioneer of the [[Automotive industry in the United States|automotive industry]] in the early 20th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author1=The Pit Boss |title=The Pit Stop: The American Automotive Industry Is Packed With History |url=https://pitstop.rumbleon.com/american-automotive-history |website=Rumble On |access-date=5 December 2021 |date=26 February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the North, [[urbanization]] and an unprecedented [[History of immigration to the United States|influx of immigrants]] from [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Eastern Europe]] supplied a surplus of labor for the country's industrialization.&lt;ref name=&quot;Powell2009qwet&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=John|last=Powell|title=Encyclopedia of North American Immigration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&amp;pg=PA74|year=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1012-7|page=74|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Incandescent light bulb|Electric light]] and the [[telephone]] drastically changed communication and urban life.{{sfn|Winchester|2013|pp=351, 385}}

The American economy boomed, becoming the world's largest.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kirkland|first1=Edward|title=Industry Comes of Age: Business, Labor, and Public Policy|pages=400–405|edition=1961}}&lt;/ref&gt; These dramatic changes were accompanied by significant increases in [[economic inequality]], [[Effects of immigration to the United States|immigration]], and [[List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States|social unrest]], which prompted the rise of [[Labor history of the United States|organized labor]] along with [[Populism in the United States|populist]], [[History of the socialist movement in the United States|socialist]], and [[Anarchism in the United States|anarchist]] movements.&lt;ref&gt;Tindall, George Brown and Shi, David E. (2012). ''America: A Narrative History (Brief Ninth Edition) (Vol. 2).'' [[W. W. Norton &amp; Company]]. {{ISBN|978-0-393-91267-8}} p. 589&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#Zinn|Zinn, 2005]], pp. 321–357&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fraser&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Fraser |first=Steve |title=The Age of Acquiescence: The Life and Death of American Resistance to Organized Wealth and Power |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-316-18543-1 |page=66}}&lt;/ref&gt; This period eventually ended with the advent of the [[Progressive Era]], which saw significant reforms including [[Consumer protection|health and safety regulation]] of consumer goods, the rise of [[Labor unions in the United States|labor unions]], and greater [[United States antitrust law|antitrust measures]] to ensure competition among businesses and attention to worker conditions. The [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] beginning around 1910 also brought millions of African Americans to Northern urban centers from the rural South.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/migrations/great-migration|title=The Great Migration (1910-1970)|date=May 20, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:The center of New York 1932.jpg|thumb|The newly constructed [[Empire State Building]] in [[midtown Manhattan]], 1932]]
The last vestiges of the Progressive Era resulted in [[women's suffrage]] and [[Prohibition in the United States|alcohol prohibition]].&lt;ref&gt;Paige Meltzer, &quot;The Pulse and Conscience of America&quot; The General Federation and Women's Citizenship, 1945–1960,&quot;&amp;nbsp;''Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies''&amp;nbsp;(2009), Vol. 30 Issue 3, pp. 52–76.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;James Timberlake,&amp;nbsp;''Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 1900–1920''&amp;nbsp;(Harvard UP, 1963)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;George B. Tindall, &quot;Business Progressivism: Southern Politics in the Twenties,&quot;&amp;nbsp;''South Atlantic Quarterly''&amp;nbsp;62 (Winter 1963): 92–106.&lt;/ref&gt; The first state to grant women the right to vote was Wyoming, in 1869, followed by some other states&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Timeline and Map of Woman Suffrage Legislation|website=Mapping American Social Movements Project|url=https://depts.washington.edu/moves/WomanSuffrage_map.shtml|publisher=University of Washington|access-date=25 September 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; before the women's rights movement won passage of a [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|constitutional amendment]] granting nationwide [[Women's suffrage in the United States|women's suffrage]] in 1920.&lt;ref name=&quot;voris&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Voris|first1=Jacqueline Van|title=Carrie Chapman Catt: A Public Life|series=Women and Peace Series|year=1996|publisher=Feminist Press at CUNY|location=New York City|isbn=978-1-55861-139-9|page=vii|quote=Carrie Chapmann Catt led an army of voteless women in 1919 to pressure Congress to pass the constitutional amendment giving them the right to vote and convinced state legislatures to ratify it in 1920.&amp;nbsp;... Catt was one of the best-known women in the United States in the first half of the twentieth century and was on all lists of famous American women.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States remained neutral from the outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914 until 1917 when it joined the war as an &quot;associated power&quot; alongside the [[Allies of World War I]], helping to turn the tide against the [[Central Powers]]. In 1919, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] took a leading diplomatic role at the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]] and advocated strongly for the U.S. to join the [[League of Nations]]. However, the Senate refused to approve this and did not ratify the [[Treaty of Versailles]] that established the League of Nations.&lt;ref name=&quot;autogenerated418&quot;&gt;McDuffie, Jerome; Piggrem, Gary Wayne; Woodworth, Steven E. (2005). ''U.S. History Super Review''. Piscataway, NJ: Research &amp; Education Association. p. 418. {{ISBN|978-0-7386-0070-3}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Great Depression, New Deal, and World War II (1929–1945) ===
{{main|History of the United States (1918–1945)}}
{{Further|Roaring Twenties|Great Depression in the United States|United States home front during World War II|Military history of the United States during World War II}}

The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of [[radio]] for [[mass communication]] and the invention of early [[television]].{{sfn|Winchester|2013|pp=410–411}} The prosperity of the [[Roaring Twenties]] ended with the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929]] and the onset of the [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]]. After his election as President in 1932, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] responded with the [[New Deal]] economic policies.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Social Welfare: A History of the American Response to Need|first1=June|last1=Axinn|first2=Mark J.|last2=Stern|isbn=978-0-205-52215-6|edition=7th|publisher=Allyn &amp; Bacon|location=Boston|year=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Dust Bowl]] of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=James Noble Gregory|title=American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qNdtGwnXYrIC|year=1991|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507136-8|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/dustbowl-mass-exodus-plains/|title=Mass Exodus From the Plains|author=&lt;!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. --&gt;|year=2013|website=American Experience|publisher=WGBH Educational Foundation|access-date=October 5, 2014}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite web|url=https://memory.loc.gov/ammem/afctshtml/tsme.html|title=The Migrant Experience|last1=Fanslow|first1=Robin A.|date=April 6, 1997|website=American Folklore Center|publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=October 5, 2014}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|first=Walter J.|last=Stein|title=California and the Dust Bowl Migration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGuGAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-8371-6267-6|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Trinity_Detonation_T&amp;B_(cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Mushroom cloud]] formed by the [[Trinity (nuclear test)|Trinity Experiment]] in [[New Mexico]], part of the [[Manhattan Project]], the first detonation of a [[nuclear weapon]] in history, July 1945]]
At first [[United States non-interventionism before entering World War II|neutral during World War II]], the United States began supplying [[Lend-Lease|war material]] to the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in March 1941. A total of [[United States dollar|$]]50.1 billion (equivalent to ${{Formatprice|{{Inflation|US-GDP|50100000000|1941|r=-8}}}} in {{Inflation/year|US-GDP}}) worth of supplies was shipped in 1941–1945, or 17% of the total war expenditures of the U.S.&lt;ref name=&quot;McNeill 778&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author= McNeill| title=America, Britain and Russia|page= 778}}&lt;/ref&gt; On December&amp;nbsp;7, 1941, the [[Empire of Japan]] launched a surprise [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], prompting the United States to militarily join the Allies against the [[Axis powers]], and in the following year, to [[Internment of Japanese Americans|intern]] about 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans.&lt;ref&gt;The official WRA record from 1946 state it was 120,000 people. See {{cite book |author=[[War Relocation Authority]] |url=https://ddr.densho.org/ddr-densho-282-5/ |title=The Evacuated People: A Quantitative Study |year=1946 |page=8}} This number does not include people held in other camps such as those run by the DoJ or U.S. Army. Other sources may give numbers slightly more or less than 120,000.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Pearl Harbor&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last1=Yamasaki|first1=Mitch|title=Pearl Harbor and America's Entry into World War II: A Documentary History|url=https://www.hawaiiinternment.org/static/ush_yamasaki_documentary_history.pdf|publisher=World War II Internment in Hawaii|access-date=January 14, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213122046/https://www.hawaiiinternment.org/static/ush_yamasaki_documentary_history.pdf|archive-date=December 13, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. pursued a &quot;[[Europe first]]&quot; defense policy,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Stoler|first1=Mark A.|title=George C. Marshall and the &quot;Europe-First&quot; Strategy, 1939–1951: A Study in Diplomatic as well as Military History|url=https://marshallfoundation.org/marshall/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2014/04/EDStoler.pdf|access-date=April 4, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the Philippines being [[Philippines campaign (1941–42)|invaded]] and [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines|occupied by Japan]] until the country's [[Philippines campaign (1944–45)|liberation]] by the U.S.-led forces in 1944–1945. During the war, the United States was one of the &quot;[[Four Policemen]]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681|title=The Four Policemen and. Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and. Idealist Perspectives|last=Kelly|first=Brian|access-date=June 21, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; who met to plan the postwar world, along with Britain, the Soviet Union, and China.{{sfn|Hoopes|Brinkley|1997|p=100}}{{sfn|Gaddis|1972|p=25}} The United States emerged [[World War II casualties#Human losses by country|relatively unscathed]] from the war, and with even greater economic and military influence.&lt;ref&gt;Kennedy, Paul (1989). ''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers''. New York: Vintage. p. 358. {{ISBN|978-0-679-72019-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The United States played a leading role in the [[Bretton Woods Conference|Bretton Woods]] and [[Yalta Conference|Yalta]] conferences, which signed agreements on new international financial institutions and Europe's postwar reorganization. As an [[Victory in Europe Day|Allied victory was achieved in Europe]], a 1945 [[United Nations Conference on International Organization|international conference]] held in [[San Francisco]] produced the [[United Nations Charter]], which became active after the war.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/pubs/fs/55407.htm|title=The United States and the Founding of the United Nations, August 1941 – October 1945|date=October 2005|access-date=June 11, 2007|publisher=U.S. Dept. of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of the Historian}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States developed the [[Manhattan Project|first nuclear weapons]] and used them on Japan [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|in the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] in August 1945; the Japanese subsequently [[Surrender of Japan|surrendered]] on September 2, ending [[World War II]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2016/08/06/commentary/japan-surrender-world-war-ii/|title=Why did Japan surrender in World War II? {{!}} The Japan Times|newspaper=The Japan Times|access-date=February 8, 2017|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Pacific War Research Society (2006). ''Japan's Longest Day''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-4-7700-2887-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Cold War (1945–1990)===
{{Main|History of the United States (1945–1964)|History of the United States (1964–1980)|History of the United States (1980–1991)|l2 = 1964–1980|l3 = 1980–1991|History of the United States (1991–2008)|l4 = 1991–2008}}
[[File:LevittownPA.jpg|thumb|[[Post–World War II economic expansion]] in the U.S. led to [[Suburbanization|suburban development]] and [[urban sprawl]], as shown in this aerial photograph of [[Levittown, Pennsylvania]], {{Circa|1959}}.]]

After World War II, the United States financed and implemented the [[Marshall Plan]] to help rebuild and economically revive war-torn Europe; disbursements paid between 1948 and 1952 would total $13 billion ($115 billion in 2021).&lt;ref&gt;See {{cite journal |last=Frankenfeld |first=Peter |title=A Marshall Plan for Greece? The European Union and the Financial Crisis in Greece. A Theoretical and Political Analysis in the Global World Against a Background of Regional Integration: Table 1. European Recovery Programme – Marshall Plan ($ million) |date=2012 |pages=69 |url=http://bazekon.icm.edu.pl/bazekon/element/bwmeta1.element.ekon-element-000171238489 |journal=Prace i Materiały Instytutu Handlu Zagranicznego Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego |language=EN |issue=31/1 |issn=2300-6153}}&lt;/ref&gt; Also at this time, [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] tensions between the United States and Soviet Russia led to the [[Cold War]], driven by an ideological divide between [[capitalism]] and [[communism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;WaggAndrews2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Wagg|first1=Stephen|last2=Andrews|first2=David|title=East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmjLR5YyUhEC&amp;pg=PR11|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-24167-5|page=11}}&lt;/ref&gt; The two countries dominated the military affairs of Europe, with the U.S. and its [[NATO]] allies on one side and the Soviet Union and its [[Warsaw Pact]] [[Satellite state#Soviet satellite states|satellite states]] on the other.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blakemore-2019&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Blakemore|first=Erin|date=March 22, 2019|title=What was the Cold War?|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/topics/reference/cold-war/|access-date=August 28, 2020|website=National Geographic|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Unlike the US, the USSR concentrated on its own recovery, seizing and transferring most of Germany's industrial plants, and it exacted [[World War II reparations|war reparations]] from its [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet Bloc]] satellites using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises.{{efn|[The Soviet Union] instituted trading arrangements deliberately designed to favour the country. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: &quot;The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan.&quot;}}&lt;ref&gt;Mark Kramer, &quot;The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe,&quot; in {{Cite book |editor-first=Klaus | editor-last=Larresm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EyNcCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT174 |title=A Companion to Europe Since 1945 |publisher=Wiley |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-89024-0 |page=79}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. sometimes opposed [[Third World]] movements that it viewed as Soviet-sponsored, occasionally pursuing direct action for [[United States involvement in regime change|regime change]] against [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] governments.&lt;ref&gt;[[#Blakeley|Blakeley, 2009]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=rft8AgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA92 p. 92]&lt;/ref&gt; American troops fought the communist forces in the [[Korean War]] of 1950–1953,&lt;ref name=&quot;Proxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Collins |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/liftoff00coll |title=Liftoff: The Story of America's Adventure in Space |publisher=Grove Press |year=1988 |isbn=9780802110114 |location=New York |author-link=Michael Collins (astronaut) |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the U.S. became increasingly involved in the [[Vietnam War]] (1955–1975), introducing combat forces in 1965.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Chapman |first=Jessica M. |title=Origins of the Vietnam War |date=August 5, 2016 |url=https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-353 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.353 |isbn=978-0-19-932917-5 |access-date=August 28, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Their competition to achieve superior [[spaceflight]] capability led to the [[Space Race]], which culminated in the U.S. becoming the first and only nation to [[Apollo 11|land people on the Moon]] in 1969.&lt;ref name=&quot;Proxy&quot; /&gt; While both countries engaged in [[proxy war]]s and developed powerful [[nuclear weapon]]s, they avoided direct military conflict.&lt;ref name=&quot;Blakemore-2019&quot; /&gt;

At home, the United States experienced [[Post–World War II economic expansion|sustained economic expansion]], [[Urbanization in the United States|urbanization]], and a [[Post–World War II baby boom|rapid growth of its population]] and [[American middle class|middle class]] following World War II. Construction of an [[Interstate Highway System]] transformed the nation's transportation infrastructure in decades to come.{{sfn|Winchester|2013|pp=305–308}}&lt;ref name=&quot;IntHighways&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last1=Blas|first1=Elisheva|title=The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways|url=https://www.societyforhistoryeducation.org/pdfs/N10_NHD_Blas_Junior.pdf|website=societyforhistoryeducation.org|publisher=Society for History Education|access-date=January 19, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1959, the United States admitted [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]] to become the 49th and 50th states, formally expanding beyond the [[contiguous United States]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Lightner2004&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Richard|last=Lightner|title=Hawaiian History: An Annotated Bibliography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yei4fDrecWsC&amp;pg=PA141|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-28233-1|page=141}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington_colorized_photo.jpg|thumb|[[Martin Luther King Jr.]] gives his famous &quot;[[I Have a Dream]]&quot; speech at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] during the [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom|March on Washington]], 1963.|alt=See caption]]The growing [[civil rights movement]] used [[nonviolence]] to confront [[Racism in the United States|racism]], with [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] becoming a prominent leader.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/johngardner/chapters/4b.html|title=The Civil Rights Movement|website=PBS.org|access-date=January 5, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] initiated legislation that led to a series of policies addressing poverty and racial inequalities, in what he termed the &quot;[[Great Society]]&quot;. The launch of a &quot;[[War on Poverty]]&quot; expanded [[Social programs in the United States|entitlements and welfare]] spending, leading to the creation of the [[Food Stamp Program]], [[Aid to Families with Dependent Children]], along with national [[health insurance]] programs [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]] and [[Medicaid]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ssa.gov/history/lbjsm.html|title=Social Security|website=ssa.gov|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; A combination of court decisions and legislation, culminating in the [[Civil Rights Act of 1968]], made significant improvements.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Dallek|first=Robert|year=2004|title=Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President|page=[https://archive.org/details/lyndonbjohnsonpo00dall/page/169 169]|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-515920-2|url=https://archive.org/details/lyndonbjohnsonpo00dall/page/169 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=old&amp;doc=97|title=Our Documents—Civil Rights Act (1964)|publisher=United States Department of Justice|access-date=July 28, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/Johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/651003.asp|title=Remarks at the Signing of the Immigration Bill, Liberty Island, New York|date=October 3, 1965|access-date=January 1, 2012|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516063650/https://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/Johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/651003.asp|archive-date=May 16, 2016|url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; Meanwhile, a [[counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture movement]] grew, which was fueled by [[Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War|opposition to the Vietnam War]], mainstream [[Philosophy of psychedelics|experimentation with psychedelics]] and [[Cannabis culture|cannabis]], the [[Black Power movement]], and the [[sexual revolution]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/5106608/protest-1968/?amp=true|title=Behind the Protests Against the Vietnam War in 1968|last=Levy|first=Daniel|date=January 19, 2018|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=May 5, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Women's Movement in the United States (1963-1982)|women's movement]] in the U.S. broadened the debate on women's rights and made [[gender equality]] a major social goal. The [[Sexual revolution in 1960s United States|1960s Sexual Revolution]] liberalized American attitudes to sexuality and eventually spread to the rest of the developed world,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://study.com/learn/lesson/sexual-liberation-movement-origin-timeline-impact-revolution.html |title=The Sexual Revolution Origins and Impact |website=study.com |author=Svetlana Ter-Grigoryan |date=February 12, 2022 |access-date=April 27, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=August 25, 2022 |title=Playboy: American Magazine |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Playboy |access-date=February 2, 2023 |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |quote=...the so-called sexual revolution in the United States in the 1960s, marked by greatly more permissive attitudes toward sexual interest and activity than had been prevalent in earlier generations.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the 1969 [[Stonewall riots]] in New York City marked the beginning of the modern [[gay liberation|gay rights]] movement in the [[Western world|West]].&lt;ref name=&quot;StonewallNYC1&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/new-york/articles/why-new-york-city-is-a-major-destination-for-lgbt-travelers/|title=Why New York City Is a Major Destination for LGBT Travelers|first=Julia|last=Goicichea|publisher=The Culture Trip|date=August 16, 2017|access-date=July 15, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.uky.edu/~lbarr2/gws250spring11_files/Page1186.htm|title=Brief History of the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement in the U.S|publisher=University of Kentucky|access-date=July 15, 2022}}; {{cite web|url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/2013/06/28/feature-how-the-stonewall-riots-started-the-gay-rights-movement/|title=Feature: How the Stonewall riots started the LGBT rights movement|first=Nell|last=Frizzell|publisher=Pink News UK|date=June 28, 2013|access-date=July 15, 2022}}; {{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Stonewall-riots|title=Stonewall riots|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=July 15, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The United States supported [[Israel]] during the [[Yom Kippur War]]; in response, the country faced an oil [[embargo]] from [[OPEC]] nations, sparking the [[1973 oil crisis]]. The presidency of [[Richard Nixon]] saw the American withdrawal from Vietnam but also the [[Watergate scandal]], which led to [[Nixon resignation|his resignation]] and a decline in public trust of government that expanded for decades.&lt;ref name=&quot;watergate_committee_final_report&quot;&gt;[[Sam Ervin|Ervin, Sam]], et al., ''Final Report of the Watergate Committee''.&lt;/ref&gt; After a surge in female labor participation around the 1970s, by 1985, the majority of women aged 16 and over were employed.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Women in the Labor Force: A Databook|url=https://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook-2012.pdf|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics|access-date=March 21, 2014|page=11|year=2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 1970s and early 1980s also saw the onset of [[stagflation]].

[[File:President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev at The First Summit in Geneva Switzerland - DPLA - b534f3d00bb05c3cc293789b180d2116.jpg|thumb|U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] (left) and Soviet general secretary [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] at the [[Geneva Summit (1985)|Geneva Summit]] in 1985]]

After his election in 1980, President [[Ronald Reagan]] responded to economic stagnation with [[Reaganomics|neoliberal reforms]] and accelerated the [[Rollback|rollback strategy]] towards the Soviet Union after its [[Soviet–Afghan War|invasion of Afghanistan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Allen|first=Robert C.|date=November 2001|title=The rise and decline of the Soviet economy|journal=Canadian Journal of Economics|volume=34|issue=4|pages=859–881|doi=10.1111/0008-4085.00103|issn=0008-4085}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|Gerstle|2022|pp=106–108, 121-128}}&lt;ref&gt;[[#Soss|Soss, 2010]], p. 277&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#Fraser|Fraser, 1989]]&lt;/ref&gt; During Reagan's presidency, the federal debt held by the public nearly tripled in nominal terms, from $738 billion to $2.1 trillion.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report|url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=k977|title=Federal Debt Held by the Public|publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis |date=May 31, 2018|access-date=June 12, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; This led to the United States moving from the world's largest international creditor to the world's largest debtor nation.&lt;ref name=&quot;U.S. Debt&quot;&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A26402-2004Jun8.html |title=Reagan Policies Gave Green Light to Red Ink |access-date= May 25, 2007 |newspaper= The Washington Post | date=June 9, 2004}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Revolutions of 1989|collapse]] of the USSR's [[Eastern Bloc|network of satellite states]] in Eastern Europe in 1989 and the subsequent [[dissolution of the Soviet Union|dissolution of the country itself]] in 1991 ended the Cold War with American victory,&lt;ref name=&quot;Gaidar&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Gaĭdar|first=E.T.|year=2007|title=Collapse of an Empire: Lessons for Modern Russia|url={{GBUrl|bDSfnxYjVwAC|pg=PA102}}|pages=190–205|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[Brookings Institution#Publications|Brookings Institution Press]]|isbn=978-0-815-73114-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Howell|first=Buddy Wayne|title=The Rhetoric of Presidential Summit Diplomacy: Ronald Reagan and the U.S.-Soviet Summits, 1985–1988|year=2006|publisher=Texas A&amp;M University|isbn=978-0-549-41658-6|page=352 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Kissinger|first=Henry|author-link=Henry Kissinger|title=Diplomacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0IZboamhb5EC&amp;pg=PA731|year=2011|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster|isbn=978-1-4391-2631-8|pages=781–784|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|last=Mann|first=James|title=The Rebellion of Ronald Reagan: A History of the End of the Cold War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BgZyXNIrvB4C&amp;pg=PT12|year=2009|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-4406-8639-9|page=432}}&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[#Hayes|Hayes, 2009]]&lt;/ref&gt; ensuring a global [[unipolarity]]&lt;ref&gt;[[Charles Krauthammer]], &quot;The Unipolar Moment&quot;, ''Foreign Affairs'', 70/1, (Winter 1990/1), 23–33.&lt;/ref&gt; in which the U.S. was unchallenged as the world's sole [[superpower]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Judt|first1=Tony|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nVDHAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA61|title=With Us Or Against Us: Studies in Global Anti-Americanism|last2=Lacorne|first2=Denis|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2005|isbn=978-1-4039-8085-4|page=61}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|first=Richard J.|last=Samuels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K751AwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT666|title=Encyclopedia of United States National Security|publisher=Sage Publications|year=2005|isbn=978-1-4522-6535-3|page=666}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|first=Paul R.|last=Pillar|url=https://archive.org/details/terrorismusforei00pill|title=Terrorism and U.S. Foreign Policy|publisher=Brookings Institution Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8157-0004-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/terrorismusforei00pill/page/57 57]|url-access=registration}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|first=Gabe T.|last=Wang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CbPJ7KZ9FvIC&amp;pg=PA179|title=China and the Taiwan Issue: Impending War at Taiwan Strait|publisher=University Press of America|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7618-3434-2|page=179}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgdmiw4VUHsC&amp;pg=PA1|title=Understanding the &quot;Victory Disease&quot;, From the Little Bighorn to Mogadishu and Beyond|publisher=Diane Publishing|year=2004|isbn=978-1-4289-1052-2|page=1}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|first1=Akis|last1=Kalaitzidis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzwYzL9KcwEC&amp;pg=PA313|title=U.S. Foreign Policy: A Documentary and Reference Guide|first2=Gregory W.|last2=Streich|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2011|isbn=978-0-313-38375-5|page=313}}&lt;br /&gt;[[#Cohen|Cohen, 2004: History and the Hyperpower]]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Contemporary period (1990–present)===
{{Main|History of the United States (1991–2008)|History of the United States (2008–present)|l2 = 2008–present}}

Fearing the spread of [[Middle East|regional]] international instability from the [[Iraqi invasion of Kuwait]], in August 1991, President [[George H. W. Bush]] launched and led the [[Gulf War]] against Iraq, expelling Iraqi forces and dissolving the [[Republic of Kuwait|Iraqi-backed puppet state]] in Kuwait.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Halliday|first=Fred|title=The Gulf War and Its Aftermath: First Reflections|volume=67|number=2|pages=223–234|date=April 1991|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]]|doi=10.2307/2620827|jstor=2620827|s2cid=154565052 }}&lt;/ref&gt; During the administration of President [[Bill Clinton]] in 1994, the U.S. signed the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), causing trade among the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to soar.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) {{!}} United States Trade Representative|url=https://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta|website=www.ustr.gov|access-date=January 11, 2015|archive-date=March 17, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130317011855/https://www.ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/north-american-free-trade-agreement-nafta|url-status=dead }}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|author1=Thakur|author2=Manab Thakur Gene E Burton B N Srivastava|title=International Management: Concepts and Cases|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2SbAuVzHBMC&amp;pg=PA334|year=1997|publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education|isbn=978-0-07-463395-3|pages=334–335|access-date=October 25, 2015 }}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|first1=Akis|last1=Kalaitzidis|first2=Gregory W.|last2=Streich|title=U.S. Foreign Policy: A Documentary and Reference Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c9rhlt2Ke3gC&amp;pg=PA201|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-38376-2|page=201 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the [[dot-com bubble|dot-com boom]], stable monetary policy, and [[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act|reduced social welfare spending]], the 1990s saw the [[1990s United States boom|longest economic expansion]] in modern U.S. history.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Did Clinton Do It, or Was He Lucky?|author=Dale, Reginald|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/18/business/worldbusiness/18iht-think.2.t_2.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 18, 2000|access-date=March 6, 2013}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|last=Mankiw|first=N. Gregory|title=Macroeconomics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58KxPNa0hF4C&amp;pg=PA463|year=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-324-58999-3|page=559|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
On [[September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001]], [[al-Qaeda]] terrorist hijackers flew passenger planes into the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York City and [[the Pentagon]] near Washington, D.C., killing nearly 3,000 people.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite AV media|date=September 9, 2011|title=Flashback 9/11: As It Happened|url=https://video.foxnews.com/v/1151859712001/flashback-911-as-it-happened/|access-date=March 6, 2013|work=Fox News}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite news|title=America remembers Sept. 11 attacks 11 years later|agency=Associated Press|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57510234/america-remembers-sept-11-attacks-11-years-later/|work=CBS News|date=September 11, 2012|access-date=March 6, 2013|archive-date=October 17, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017215138/https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-201_162-57510234/america-remembers-sept-11-attacks-11-years-later/|url-status=dead }}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/trade.center/multimedia.day.html|title=Day of Terror Video Archive|year=2005|work=CNN|access-date=March 6, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In response, President [[George W. Bush]] launched the [[war on terror]], which included a nearly 20-year [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]] from 2001 to 2021 and the 2003–2011 [[Iraq War]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=The 'War on Terror' Is Critical to President George W. Bush's Legacy|author=Walsh, Kenneth T.|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/12/09/the-war-on-terror-is-critical-to-president-george-w-bushs-legacy|newspaper=U.S. News &amp; World Report|date=December 9, 2008|access-date=March 6, 2013}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|last=Atkins|first=Stephen E.|title=The 9/11 Encyclopedia: Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PDDIgWRN_HQC&amp;pg=PA210|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-921-9|page=872|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Overview: The Iraq War|last=Wong|first=Edward|url=https://www.nytimes.com/ref/timestopics/topics_iraq.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=February 15, 2008|access-date=March 7, 2013 }}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=James Turner|title=The War to Oust Saddam Hussein: Just War and the New Face of Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SF7U27JsLC4C&amp;q=iraq+invasion+removes+hussein|year=2005|publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-4956-2|page=159|access-date=October 25, 2015 }}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite news|title=Timeline: Key moments in the Iraq War|author=Durando, Jessica|author2=Green, Shannon Rae|agency=Associated Press|url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/story/2011-12-21/iraq-war-timeline/52147680/1|newspaper=USA Today|date=December 21, 2011|access-date=March 7, 2013|archive-date=September 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904084312/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/story/2011-12-21/iraq-war-timeline/52147680/1|url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Government policy designed to promote affordable housing,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=Hidden in Plain Sight: What Really Caused the World's Worst Financial Crisis and Why It Could Happen Again|last=Wallison|first=Peter|publisher=Encounter Books|year=2015|isbn=978-978-59407-7-0|author-link=Peter J. Wallison}}&lt;/ref&gt; widespread failures in corporate and regulatory governance,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-FCIC/pdf/GPO-FCIC.pdf|title=Financial Crisis Inquiry Report|year=2011|author=Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission|isbn=978-1-60796-348-6|author-link=Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission }}&lt;/ref&gt; and historically low interest rates set by the [[Federal Reserve]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Taylor|first=John B.|author-link=John B. Taylor|access-date=January 21, 2017|title=The Financial Crisis and the Policy Responses: An Empirical Analysis of What Went Wrong|url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w14631.pdf|journal=Hoover Institution Economics Paper Series|date=January 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; led to a [[United States housing bubble|housing bubble]] in 2006. This culminated in the [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]] and the [[Great Recession]], the nation's largest economic contraction since the Great Depression.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122169431617549947|title=Worst Crisis Since '30s, With No End Yet in Sight|last1=Hilsenrath|first1=Jon|last2=Ng|first2=Serena|last3=Paletta|first3=Damian|date=September 18, 2008|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]| url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Barack Obama]], the first [[Multiracial American|multiracial]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|author=&lt;!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. --&gt;|title=Barack Obama: Face Of New Multiracial Movement?|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=96916824| work=[[NPR]]|date=November 12, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; President with [[African-American]] ancestry, [[2008 United States presidential election|was elected in 2008]] amid the financial crisis.&lt;ref name=&quot;Washington-2011&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=African-American Economic Gains Reversed By Great Recession|agency=[[Associated Press]]| last1=Washington| first1=Jesse| last2=Rugaber| first2=Chris|url=https://www.oklahoman.com/article/3584442/economic-gains-for-blacks-reversed-in-great-recession|date=July 10, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616183529/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/07/10/black-recession-economy-african-americans_n_894046.html|archive-date=June 16, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; By the end of his second term, the stock market, median household income and net worth, and the number of persons with jobs were all at record levels, while the unemployment rate was well below the historical average.&lt;ref name=RSKrugman1&gt;{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/in-defense-of-obama-20141008|title=In Defense of Obama|magazine=Rolling Stone|access-date=November 19, 2016|date=October 8, 2014|archive-date=November 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119140244/http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/in-defense-of-obama-20141008|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Obama_Inequality&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/docs/chapter_1-eight_years_of_recovery_reinvestment_2017.pdf|title=CEA 2017 Economic Report of the President-Chapter One-Eight Years of Recovery and Reinvestment|website=Whitehouse.gov|access-date=March 12, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Politico_Awesome&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/12/everything-is-still-awesome-214554|title=Everything is Awesome|website=Politico.com|date=December 29, 2016 |access-date=December 30, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Factcheck_Inherits&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.factcheck.org/2017/01/what-president-trump-inherits/|title=What President Trump Inherits|first=Brooks|last=Jackson|date=January 20, 2017|via=Factcheck.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Factcheck_Obama#&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.factcheck.org/2017/09/obamas-final-numbers/|title=Obama's Final Numbers|first=Brooks|last=Jackson|date=September 29, 2017|via=Factcheck.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; His signature legislative accomplishment was the [[Affordable Care Act]] (ACA), popularly known as &quot;Obamacare&quot;. It represented the [[U.S. healthcare system|U.S. health care system]]'s most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since Medicare in 1965. As a result, the uninsured share of the population was cut in half, while the number of newly insured Americans was estimated to be between 20 and 24 million.&lt;ref name=&quot;HHS_ASPE16&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://aspe.hhs.gov/pdf-report/health-insurance-coverage-and-affordable-care-act-2010-2016 |first1  =  Namrata|  first2 = Kenneth |first3 =Emily | last1= Uberoi |last2 =Finegold| last3=Gee |title=Health Insurance Coverage and the Affordable Care Act, 2010–2016|publisher =  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services  |department= Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation |access-date=December 7, 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211205091604/https://aspe.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/migrated_legacy_files//142146/ACA2010-2016.pdf  | archive-date = December 5, 2011|date=March 2, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; After Obama served two terms, Republican [[Donald Trump]] was elected as the [[List of Presidents of the United States|45th president]] in 2016. [[2016 United States presidential election|His election]] is viewed as one of the biggest political upsets in American and world history.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Harrison|title=Donald Trump is elected president of the United States|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/donald-trump-is-elected-president-of-the-united-states/2016/11/09/58046db4-a684-11e6-ba59-a7d93165c6d4_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=October 27, 2020|date=November 9, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Trump held office through [[Timeline of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|the first waves]] of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] and the resulting [[COVID-19 recession]] starting in 2020 that exceeded even the Great Recession earlier in the century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Kochhar |first=Rakesh |title=Unemployment rose higher in three months of COVID-19 than it did in two years of the Great Recession |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/06/11/unemployment-rose-higher-in-three-months-of-covid-19-than-it-did-in-two-years-of-the-great-recession/ |access-date=October 1, 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Political polarization in the United States|Political polarization]] increased beginning in the 2010s, with [[Abortion in the United States|abortion access]], [[Same-sex marriage in the United States|same-sex marriage]], the [[transgender rights movement]], [[Institutional racism|lingering systemic racism]], [[Police brutality in the United States|police brutality]], [[Illegal immigration to the United States|undocumented immigration]], [[Mass shootings in the United States|mass shootings]] and [[Legalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States|recreational marijuana use]] becoming central topics of debate. [[List of protests and demonstrations in the United States by size|Several protests have since become among the largest]] in U.S. history.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Hamid |first=Shadi |date=January 8, 2022 |title=The Forever Culture War |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/01/republicans-democrats-forever-culture-war/621184/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Hammond |first=Michael |date=2018 |title=Chapter 30: The Recent Past |url=https://www.americanyawp.com/text/30-the-recent-past/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=[[Stanford University Press]] |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; On January 6, 2021, supporters of the outgoing President Trump [[2021 United States Capitol attack|stormed the U.S. Capitol]] in an unsuccessful effort to disrupt the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]] vote count that would confirm Democrat [[Joe Biden]] as the 46th president.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Peñaloza |first=Marisa |date=January 6, 2021 |title=Trump Supporters Storm U.S. Capitol, Clash with Police |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/congress-electoral-college-tally-live-updates/2021/01/06/953616207/diehard-trump-supporters-gather-in-the-nations-capital-to-protest-election-resul |access-date=January 16, 2021 |website=NPR |publisher=[[NPR]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2022, the Supreme Court [[Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization|ruled that there is no constitutional right to an abortion]], causing [[2022 abortion protests|another wave of protests]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |title=Protests erupt in D.C., around the country as Roe v. Wade falls |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2022/06/24/supreme-court-abortion-protests-roe/ |access-date=September 28, 2022 |issn=0190-8286}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States responded to Russia and Belarus after their [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|invasion of Ukraine]], with the country applying [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War|harsh sanctions]] on Russia and [[United States and the Russian invasion of Ukraine|sending tens of billions of dollars of military and humanitarian aid]] to Ukraine.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |title=The Senate has approved roughly $40 billion in aid to Ukraine |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/05/19/1100228289/the-senate-has-approved-roughly-40-billion-in-aid-to-ukraine |access-date=September 28, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of the United States}}
[[File:Uspaintedrelief.png|thumb|[[Topographic map]] of the United States]]

The [[List of states and territories of the United States|48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia]] occupy a combined area of {{convert|3,119,885|sqmi|km2|abbr=}}. Of this area, {{convert|2,959,064|sqmi|km2|abbr=}} is contiguous land, composing 83.65% of total U.S. land area.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/279.html#as|work=The World Factbook|publisher=cia.gov|title=Field Listing: Area|access-date=April 21, 2020|archive-date=July 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707180005/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/279.html#as|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;urlState Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates—Geography—U.S. Census Bureau&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/geographies/reference-files/2010/geo/state-area.html|title=State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates—Geography—U.S. Census Bureau|website=State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce|access-date=September 11, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; About 15% is occupied by [[Alaska]], a state in northwestern North America, with the remainder in [[Hawaii]], a state and [[archipelago]] in the central [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], and the five populated but [[Unincorporated area|unincorporated]] insular territories of [[Puerto Rico]], [[American Samoa]], [[Guam]], the [[Northern Mariana Islands]], and the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=2010 Census Area|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-2-1.pdf|website=census.gov|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|page=41|access-date=January 18, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Measured by only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China, and just ahead of Canada.&lt;ref name=&quot;CIA Factbook Area&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Area|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html|website=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=January 15, 2015|archive-date=January 31, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131115000/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html|url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Wonder Lake and Denali.jpg|thumb|[[Denali]], or Mount McKinley, in [[Alaska]], the highest [[mountain]] peak in [[North America]]]]

The United States is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|third- or fourth-largest]] nation by total area (land and water), ranking behind Russia and Canada and nearly equal to China. The ranking varies depending on how two territories disputed by China and India are counted, and how the total size of the United States is measured.{{efn|name=largestcountry}}&lt;ref name=&quot;WF&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|title=United States|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|website=The World Factbook|date=January 3, 2018|access-date=January 8, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Atlantic coastal plain|coastal plain]] of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] seaboard gives way further inland to [[deciduous]] forests and the rolling hills of the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Geographic Regions of Georgia|url=https://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/topics/geography/article/geographic-regions-of-georgia|website=Georgia Info|publisher=Digital Library of Georgia|access-date=December 24, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Appalachian Mountains]] and the [[Adirondack Mountains|Adirondack]] [[massif]] divide the eastern seaboard from the [[Great Lakes]] and the grasslands of the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]].&lt;ref name=&quot;NAU&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Lew|first=Alan|title=PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE US|url=https://www.geog.nau.edu/courses/alew/gsp220/text/chapters/ch2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409112252/https://www.geog.nau.edu/courses/alew/gsp220/text/chapters/ch2.html|archive-date=April 9, 2016|website=GSP 220—Geography of the United States|publisher=North Arizona University|access-date=December 24, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]]–[[Missouri River]], the world's [[List of rivers by length|fourth longest river system]], runs mainly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat, fertile [[prairie]] of the [[Great Plains]] stretches to the west, interrupted by [[U.S. Interior Highlands|a highland region]] in the southeast.&lt;ref name=&quot;NAU&quot; /&gt;

The [[Rocky Mountains]], west of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, peaking at over {{convert|14000|ft}} in [[Colorado]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Harms|first=Nicole|title=Facts About the Rocky Mountain Range|url=https://traveltips.usatoday.com/rocky-mountain-range-11967.html|website=Travel Tips|publisher=USA Today|access-date=December 24, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; Farther west are the rocky [[Great Basin]] and deserts such as the [[Chihuahuan Desert|Chihuahua]], [[Sonoran Desert|Sonoran]], and [[Mojave Desert|Mojave]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Tinkham|first=Ernest R.|title=Biological, Taxonomic and Faunistic Studies on the Shield-Back Katydids of the North American Deserts|jstor=2421073|doi=10.2307/2421073|journal=[[The American Midland Naturalist]]|volume=31|number=2|date=March 1944|pages=257–328|publisher=The [[University of Notre Dame]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] and [[Cascade Range|Cascade]] mountain ranges run close to the [[West Coast of the United States|Pacific coast]], both ranges also reaching altitudes higher than {{convert|14000|ft}}. The [[Extreme points of the United States|lowest and highest points]] in the contiguous United States are in the state of California,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Mount Whitney, California|url=https://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=2829|publisher=Peakbagger|access-date=December 24, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; and only about {{convert|84|mi|km}} apart.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Find Distance and Azimuths Between 2 Sets of Coordinates (Badwater 36-15-01-N, 116-49-33-W and Mount Whitney 36-34-43-N, 118-17-31-W)|url=https://transition.fcc.gov/fcc-bin/distance?dlat=36&amp;mlat=15&amp;slat=01&amp;ns=1&amp;dlon=116&amp;mlon=49&amp;slon=33&amp;ew=1&amp;dlat2=36&amp;mlat2=34&amp;slat2=43&amp;sn=1&amp;dlon2=118&amp;mlon2=17&amp;slon2=31&amp;we=1&amp;iselec=1|publisher=Federal Communications Commission|access-date=December 24, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; At an elevation of {{convert|20310|ft|1}}, Alaska's [[Denali]] is the highest peak in the country and in North America.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Poppick|first=Laura|title=US Tallest Mountain's Surprising Location Explained|date=August 28, 2013|url=https://www.livescience.com/39245-us-tallest-mountain-location-explained.html|publisher=LiveScience|access-date=May 2, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Active [[volcano]]es are common throughout Alaska's [[Alexander Archipelago|Alexander]] and [[Aleutian Islands]], and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The [[supervolcano]] underlying [[Yellowstone National Park]] in the [[Rockies]] is the continent's largest volcanic feature.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=O'Hanlon|first=Larry|title=America's Explosive Park|url=https://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/supervolcano/under/under.html|date=March 14, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050314034001/https://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/supervolcano/under/under.html|archive-date=March 14, 2005|publisher=Discovery Channel|access-date=April 5, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of the United States|Climate change in the United States}}
[[File:Köppen Climate Types US 50.png|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of the U.S.]]

The United States, with its large size and geographic variety, includes most climate types. To the east of the [[100th meridian west|100th meridian]], the climate ranges from [[humid continental climate|humid continental]] in the north to [[humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical]] in the south.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Boyden|first=Jennifer|title=Climate Regions of the United States|url=https://traveltips.usatoday.com/climate-regions-united-states-21570.html|website=Travel Tips|publisher=USA Today|access-date=December 24, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian are [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]]. Many mountainous areas of the American West have an [[alpine climate]]. The climate is [[Desert climate|arid]] in the Great Basin, desert in the Southwest, [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] in [[coastal California]], and [[oceanic climate|oceanic]] in coastal [[Oregon]] and [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] or [[Polar climate|polar]]. Hawaii and the southern tip of [[Florida]] are [[Tropical climate|tropical]], as well as its territories in the [[Caribbean]] and the Pacific.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=World Map of Köppen–Geiger Climate Classification|url=https://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/kottek_et_al_2006_A4.pdf|access-date=August 19, 2015|archive-date=January 26, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126115149/http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdf/kottek_et_al_2006_A4.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

States bordering the [[Gulf of Mexico]] are prone to [[Tropical cyclone|hurricanes]], and most of the world's [[tornado]]es occur in the country, mainly in [[Tornado Alley]] areas in the Midwest and South.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|author=Perkins, Sid|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701131631/https://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20020511/bob9.asp|archive-date=July 1, 2007|title=Tornado Alley, USA|access-date=September 20, 2006|date=May 11, 2002|work=Science News}}&lt;/ref&gt; Overall, the United States receives more high-impact extreme weather incidents than any other country in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=USA has the world's most extreme weather|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/weather/2013/05/16/extreme-weather-north-america/2162501/|last=Rice|first=Doyle|website=USA Today|language=en|access-date=May 17, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Extreme weather has become more frequent in the U.S., with three times the number of reported [[heat waves]] as in the 1960s. Of the ten warmest years ever recorded in the 48 contiguous states, eight have occurred since 1998. In the [[Southwestern United States|American Southwest]], droughts have become more persistent and more severe.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=US EPA|first=OAR|date=June 27, 2016|title=Climate Change Indicators: Weather and Climate|url=https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/weather-climate|access-date=June 19, 2022|website=www.epa.gov|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Biodiversity and conservation===
{{Anchor|Wildlife and conservation}}
{{Main|Fauna of the United States|Flora of the United States}}
[[File:Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) in Kachemak Bay, Alaska.jpg|alt=A bald eagle|thumb|The [[bald eagle]] has been the [[National bird of the United States|national bird]] of the United States since 1782.&lt;ref name=&quot;McDougall2004&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Len|last=McDougall|title=The Encyclopedia of Tracks and Scats: A Comprehensive Guide to the Trackable Animals of the United States and Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9XOc2_u7z6cC&amp;pg=PA325|year=2004|publisher=Lyons Press|isbn=978-1-59228-070-4|page=325}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

The U.S. is one of 17 [[megadiverse countries]] containing large numbers of [[List of endangered species in North America|endemic species]]: about 17,000 species of [[vascular plant]]s occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and more than 1,800 species of [[flowering plant]]s are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=Morin, Nancy|url=https://www.fungaljungal.org/papers/National_Biological_Service.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724222726/https://www.fungaljungal.org/papers/National_Biological_Service.pdf|title=Vascular Plants of the United States|publisher=National Biological Service|website=Plants|access-date=October 27, 2008|archive-date=July 24, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States is home to 428 [[mammal]] species, 784 [[bird]]s, 311 [[reptile]]s, and 295 [[amphibian]]s,&lt;ref name=&quot;Current Results # of native species in the US&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last1=Osborn|first1=Liz|title=Number of Native Species in United States|url=https://www.currentresults.com/Environment-Facts/Plants-Animals/number-of-native-species-in-united-states.php|publisher=Current Results Nexus|access-date=January 15, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 91,000 [[insect]] species.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/buginfo/bugnos.htm|title=Numbers of Insects (Species and Individuals)|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|access-date=January 20, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

There are 63 [[List of national parks of the United States|national parks]] which are managed by the [[National Park Service]], and [[Federal lands|hundreds of other federally managed]] parks, forests, and [[National Wilderness Preservation System|wilderness areas]] managed by it and other agencies.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title= National Park FAQ|url=https://www.nps.gov/aboutus/national-park-system.htm/|last1=Park|first1=National|website=nps|access-date=May 8, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Altogether, the government owns about 28% of the country's land area,&lt;ref name=&quot;NYTimes Federal Land&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Lipton|first1=Eric|last2=Krauss|first2=Clifford|title=Giving Reins to the States Over Drilling|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/24/us/romney-would-give-reins-to-states-on-drilling-on-federal-lands.html?pagewanted=2&amp;_r=0|access-date=January 18, 2015|newspaper=The New York Times|date=August 23, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; mostly in the [[Western United States|western states]].&lt;ref name=&quot;AKLeg CRS Federal Land&quot;&gt;{{Cite report|url=https://www.akleg.gov/basis/get_documents.asp?session=31&amp;docid=47224|title=Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=March 3, 2017|access-date=June 18, 2020|last1=Vincent|first1=Carol H.|last2=Hanson|first2=Laura A.|last3=Argueta|first3=Carla N.|page=2}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most of this land is [[Protected areas of the United States|protected]], though some is [[Bureau of Land Management|leased for oil and gas drilling, mining, logging, or cattle ranching]], and about .86% is used for military purposes.&lt;ref name=&quot;Federal Land Ownership&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last1=Gorte|first1=Ross W.|last2=Vincent|first2=Carol Hardy.|last3=Hanson|first3=Laura A.|last4=Marc R.|first4=Rosenblum|title=Federal Land Ownership: Overview and Data|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R42346.pdf|website=fas.org|publisher=Congressional Research Service|access-date=January 18, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Fed Land Uses&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Chapter 6: Federal Programs to Promote Resource Use, Extraction, and Development|url=https://www.doi.gov/pmb/oepc/wetlands2/v2ch6.cfm|website=doi.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318005744/https://www.doi.gov/pmb/oepc/wetlands2/v2ch6.cfm|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior|access-date=January 19, 2015|archive-date=March 18, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Environmental issues in the United States|Environmental issues]] include debates on oil and [[nuclear binding energy|nuclear energy]], dealing with air and water pollution, the economic costs of protecting [[wildlife]],{{explain|date=March 2023}} logging and [[deforestation]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=The National Atlas of the United States of America|url=https://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/biology/a_forest.html|title=Forest Resources of the United States|publisher=Nationalatlas.gov|date=January 14, 2013|access-date=January 13, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090507195541/https://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/biology/a_forest.html|archive-date=May 7, 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/gtr587.pdf|title=Land Use Changes Involving Forestry in the United States: 1952 to 1997, With Projections to 2050|year=2003|access-date=January 13, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Climate change in the United States|climate change]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#Daynes|Daynes &amp; Sussman, 2010]], pp. 3, 72, 74–76, 78&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Hays, Samuel P. (2000). ''A History of Environmental Politics since 1945''.&lt;/ref&gt; The most prominent environmental agency is the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA), created by presidential order in 1970.&lt;ref name=&quot;Collin2006&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Collin|first=Robert W.|title=The Environmental Protection Agency: Cleaning Up America's Act|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVPoqXeTYTwC&amp;pg=PA1|year=2006|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-33341-5|page=1|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the [[Wilderness Act]].&lt;ref&gt;Turner, James Morton (2012). ''The Promise of Wilderness''&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Endangered Species Act]] of 1973 is intended to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Office&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Endangered species Fish and Wildlife Service|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a8BEuUPJb58C&amp;pg=PA1|publisher=General Accounting Office, Diane Publishing|isbn=978-1-4289-3997-4|page=1|access-date=October 25, 2015|year=2003 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

As of 2020, the U.S. ranked 24th among 180 nations in the [[Environmental Performance Index]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=What Is the Greenest Country in the World?|url=https://www.atlasandboots.com/greenest-country-in-the-world/|website=Atlas &amp; Boots|date=June 6, 2020|publisher=Environmental Performance Index|access-date=November 18, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; The country joined the [[Paris Agreement]] on climate change in 2016, and has many other environmental commitments.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=United States of America|url=https://climateaction.unfccc.int/views/country.html?country=US|website=Global Climate Action – NAZCA|publisher=United Nations|access-date=November 18, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It [[United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement|withdrew]] from the Paris Agreement in 2020&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Nugent|first1=Ciara|title=The U.S. Just Officially Left the Paris Agreement. Can it Be a Leader in the Climate Fight Again?|url=https://time.com/5907210/us-leaves-paris-agreement-2020-election/|access-date=November 18, 2020|agency=Times|date=November 4, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; but rejoined it in 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Biden announces return to global climate accord, new curbs on U.S. oil industry|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-biden-climate-idINKBN29P12S|date=January 20, 2021|work=Reuters|department=Money News|access-date=February 9, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Politics of the United States}}
{{Further|Political parties in the United States|Elections in the United States|Political ideologies in the United States|American patriotism|American civil religion}}
[[Image:US Capitol west side.JPG|thumb|The [[United States Capitol]], where [[United States Congress|Congress]] meets: the [[United States Senate|Senate]], left; the [[United States House of Representatives|House]], right]]
[[File:White House lawn (long tightly cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[White House]], residence and workplace of the [[President of the United States|U.S. President]]]]
[[Image:Panorama of United States Supreme Court Building at Dusk.jpg|thumb|The [[United States Supreme Court Building|Supreme Court Building]], where the [[Supreme Court of the United States|nation's highest court]] sits]]

The United States is a [[federal republic]] of 50 [[U.S. state|states]], a [[District of Columbia|federal district]], [[Territories of the United States|five territories]] and several uninhabited [[United States Minor Outlying Islands|island possessions]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Common Core Document of the United States of America|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/179780.htm|date=December 30, 2011|publisher=[[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]]|access-date=July 10, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{sfn|The New York Times|2007|p=670}}{{sfn|Onuf|2010|p=xvii}} It is the world's oldest surviving [[federation]], and, according to the [[World Economic Forum]], the oldest [[democracy]] as well.&lt;ref&gt;Desjardins, Jeff  (August 8, 2019) [https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/08/countries-are-the-worlds-oldest-democracies/ &quot;Mapped: The world's oldest democracies&quot;] [[World Economic Forum]]&lt;/ref&gt; It is a [[Liberal democracy|liberal]] [[representative democracy]] &quot;in which [[majority rule]] is tempered by [[minority rights]] protected by [[Law of the United States|law]].&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Scheb&quot;&gt;Scheb, John M.; Scheb, John M. II (2002). ''An Introduction to the American Legal System''. Florence, KY: Delmar, p. 6. {{ISBN|978-0-7668-2759-2}}.&lt;/ref&gt; [[List of democracy indices|Major democracy indexes]] uniformly classify the country as a liberal democracy.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Greenwood |first=Shannon |date=2022-12-06 |title=Appendix A: Classifying democracies |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/12/06/online-civic-engagement-spring-2022-appendix-a-classifying-democracies/ |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; The 2022 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] and [[Global Corruption Barometer]] rank the United States as having low levels of both actual and perceived [[corruption]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Global Corruption Barometer |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/gcb |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=[[Transparency International]] |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=2022 Corruption Perceptions Index |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2022 |access-date=2023-03-05 |website=[[Transparency International]] |date=January 31, 2023 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]] serves as the country's supreme legal document, establishing the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. The Constitution has been amended 27 times;&lt;ref&gt;[[#Feldstein|Feldstein, Fabozzi, 2011]], p. 9&lt;/ref&gt; the first ten amendments ([[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]]) and the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] form the central basis of Americans' individual rights. All laws and governmental procedures are subject to [[judicial review]], and any law can be voided if the courts determine that it violates the Constitution. The principle of [[Judicial review in the United States|judicial review]], not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was established by the Supreme Court in ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'' (1803).&lt;ref&gt;[[#Schultz|Schultz, 2009]], pp. 164, 453, 503&lt;/ref&gt;

In the American [[federalism|federal]] system, sovereignty is shared between [[Political divisions of the United States|two levels of government]]: federal and state. Citizens of the states are also governed by local governments, which are administrative divisions of the states. The territories are administrative divisions of the federal government. Governance on many issues is [[Decentralization|decentralized]], with [[Political ideology of states in the United States|widely differing state laws]] on [[Abortion in the United States|abortion]], [[Legality of cannabis by U.S. jurisdiction|cannabis]], the [[Capital punishment in the United States|death penalty]],{{efn|Capital punishment is a ''de jure'' legal penalty throughout the country at the federal level, in 27 states, and [[capital punishment in American Samoa|in American Samoa]]. The death penalty is sanctioned for certain federal and military crimes.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Death Penalty States [2022] |url=https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/state-and-federal-info/state-by-state |access-date=September 8, 2022 |publisher=Death Penalty Info}}&lt;/ref&gt; The country had a high ''per capita'' execution rate between the 1960s and 1990s, but execution rates and public support have fallen sharply since. According to [[Ian Millhiser]] of ''[[Vox Media|Vox]]'', &quot;only five states — Texas, Alabama, Georgia, Missouri, and Tennessee — conducted executions in 2020. And of these five states, only one, Texas, killed more than one person on death row.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/news/dpic-adds-eleven-cases-to-innocence-list-bringing-national-death-row-exoneration-total-to-185 DPIC adds Eleven cases to the Innocence List bringing national death-row exonerations to 185], ''[[Death Penalty Information Center]]'', Robert Durham, February 18, 2021. Retrieved November 9, 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Millhiser |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Millhiser |date=2020-12-30 |title=The decline and fall of the American death penalty |url=https://www.vox.com/2020/12/30/22187578/death-penalty-united-states-executions-decline-gregg-georgia-bucklew-precythe |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=Vox |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;}} [[Gun law in the United States|guns]], economic policy, and other issues.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Feldstein |first=Martin |date=March 2017 |title=Why is Growth Better in the United States Than in Other Industrial Countries? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3386/w23221 |journal=[[National Bureau of Economic Research]] |location=Cambridge, MA|doi=10.3386/w23221 }}&lt;/ref&gt; States have increasingly restricted so-called &quot;[[List of U.S. jurisdictions banning conversion therapy|conversion therapy]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Migdon |first=Brooke |date=2023-02-17 |title=Utah Senate votes to ban conversion therapy from health care providers |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/state-watch/3863652-utah-senate-votes-to-ban-conversion-therapy-from-health-care-providers/ |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=The Hill |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Drescher&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Drescher |first1=Jack |last2=Schwartz |first2=Alan |last3=Casoy |first3=Flávio |last4=McIntosh |first4=Christopher A. |last5=Hurley |first5=Brian |last6=Ashley |first6=Kenneth |last7=Barber |first7=Mary |last8=Goldenberg |first8=David |last9=Herbert |first9=Sarah E. |last10=Lothwell |first10=Lorraine E. |last11=Mattson |first11=Marlin R. |last12=McAfee |first12=Scot G. |last13=Pula |first13=Jack |last14=Rosario |first14=Vernon |last15=Tompkins |first15=D. Andrew |date=2016 |title=The Growing Regulation of Conversion Therapy |journal=Journal of Medical Regulation |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=7–12 |doi=10.30770/2572-1852-102.2.7 |pmc=5040471 |pmid=27754500}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Prostitution]] is only [[Prostitution in the United States|legal]] in [[Prostitution in Nevada|several counties of Nevada]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Rodriguez |first=Barbara |date=2021-07-29 |title=What is the future of prostitution and sex work? Two states preview diverging paths |url=https://19thnews.org/2021/07/future-of-prostitution-and-sex-work-two-states-preview-diverging-paths/ |access-date=2023-04-06 |website=The 19th |language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The United States has operated under an uncodified informal [[two-party system]] for most of its history, although [[List of political parties in the United States|other parties have run candidates]].&lt;ref name=&quot;twsNovGe&quot;&gt;{{cite news|author1=Etheridge, Eric|author2=Deleith, Asger|title=A Republic or a Democracy?|newspaper=The New York Times blogs|quote=The US system seems essentially a two-party system.&amp;nbsp;...|date=August 19, 2009|url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/a-republic-or-a-democracy/|access-date=November 7, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; What the two  [[Major party|major parties]] are has changed over time: the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] presently are, and the country is currently in either the [[Fifth Party System|Fifth]] or [[Sixth Party System]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=David|last1=Mosler|first2=Robert|last2=Catley|title=America and Americans in Australia|date=1998|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=83|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YungugjvIaQC&amp;pg=PA83|access-date=April 11, 2016|isbn=978-0-275-96252-4 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Both parties have no formal central organization at the national level that controls membership, elected officials or political policies; thus, each party has traditionally had factions and individuals that deviated from party positions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.shmoop.com/political-parties/founding-fathers-political-parties.html |title=Political Parties - The Founding Fathers &amp; Political Parties |website=Shmoop |date= |access-date=2022-02-25}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since the 2000s, the country has [[Political polarization in the United States|suffered from significant political polarization]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last1=McCoy |first1=Jennifer |last2=Press |first2=Benjamin |date=January 18, 2022 |title=What Happens When Democracies Become Perniciously Polarized? |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/01/18/what-happens-when-democracies-become-perniciously-polarized-pub-86190 |access-date=April 2, 2023 |website=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Federal government===
{{Main|Government of the United States}}
The federal government comprises three branches, which are headquartered in Washington, D.C. and regulated by a system of [[separation of powers|checks and balances]] defined by the Constitution.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Killian, Johnny H. |title=Constitution of the United States |url=https://www.senate.gov/civics/constitution_item/constitution.htm |access-date=February 11, 2012 |publisher=The Office of the Secretary of the Senate}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Legislature|Legislative]]: The [[United States Congress|bicameral Congress]], made up of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] and the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], makes [[federal law]], [[declaration of war|declares war]], approves treaties, has the [[power of the purse]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Legislative Branch|publisher=United States Diplomatic Mission to Germany|url=https://usa.usembassy.de/government-legislative.htm|access-date=August 20, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; and has the power of [[impeachment]], by which it can remove sitting members of the federal government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Process for impeachment|publisher=ThinkQuest|url=https://library.thinkquest.org/25673/process.htm|access-date=August 20, 2012|archive-date=April 8, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408102119/https://library.thinkquest.org/25673/process.htm|url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Executive (government)|Executive]]: [[President of the United States|The president]] is the [[commander-in-chief]] of the military, can veto [[bill (law)|legislative bills]] before they become law (subject to congressional override), and appoints the [[Cabinet of the United States|members of the Cabinet]] (subject to Senate approval) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies through their respective [[List of federal agencies in the United States|agencies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Executive Branch|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/our-government/the-executive-branch/|website=The White House|access-date=February 11, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Judiciary|Judicial]]: The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] and lower [[Federal judiciary of the United States|federal courts]], whose judges are appointed by the President with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find [[constitutionality|unconstitutional]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Kermit L.|last1=Hall|first2=Kevin T.|last2=McGuire|title=Institutions of American Democracy: The Judicial Branch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rWCaMAdUzgC|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-988374-5}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|author=U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|title=Learn about the United States: Quick Civics Lessons for the Naturalization Test|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8X1CzvBXHksC&amp;pg=PA4|date=2013|publisher=Government Printing Office|isbn=978-0-16-091708-0|page=4}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|first=Bryon|last=Giddens-White|title=The Supreme Court and the Judicial Branch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mbZw3bJsWtUC|year=2005|publisher=Heinemann Library|isbn=978-1-4034-6608-2}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|first=Charles L.|last=Zelden|title=The Judicial Branch of Federal Government: People, Process, and Politics|url=https://archive.org/details/judicialbranchof0000zeld|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-702-9|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.uscourts.gov/FederalCourts.aspx|title=Federal Courts|author=&lt;!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line. --&gt;|publisher=United States Courts|access-date=October 19, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[lower house]], the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], has 435 voting members, each representing a [[congressional district]] for a two-year term. House seats are [[United States congressional apportionment|apportioned]] among the states by population. Each state then draws single-member districts to conform with the census apportionment. The District of Columbia and the five major U.S. territories each have [[Non-voting members of the United States House of Representatives|one member of Congress]]—these members are not allowed to vote.&lt;ref name=&quot;Territories1&quot; /&gt;

The [[upper house]], the [[United States Senate|Senate]], has 100 members with each state having two senators, elected [[at-large|at large]] to six-year terms; one-third of Senate seats are up for election every two years. The District of Columbia and the five major U.S. territories do not have senators.&lt;ref name=&quot;Territories1&quot; /&gt; The Senate is unique among upper houses in being the most prestigious and powerful portion of the country's [[Bicameralism|bicameral system]]; political scientists have frequently labeled it the &quot;most powerful upper house&quot; of any government.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Shell |first1=Donald |title=Second Chambers |last2=Baldwin |first2=Nicholas |publisher=[[Taylor &amp; Francis]] |year=2013 |isbn=9781136337000 |pages=43 |quote=The United States Senate is frequently characterised as the most powerful upper house in the world.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The President serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office [[Term limits in the United States|no more than twice]]. The President is [[United States presidential election|not elected by direct vote]], but by an indirect [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral college]] system in which the determining votes are apportioned to the states and the District of Columbia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Avaliktos2004&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Avaliktos |first=Neal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XR21acqXy28C&amp;pg=PA111 |title=The Election Process Revisited |publisher=Nova Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-59454-054-7 |page=111}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Supreme Court, led by the [[Chief Justice of the United States|chief justice of the United States]], has nine members, who serve for life. They are appointed by the sitting President when a vacancy becomes available.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Beyond politics: Why Supreme Court justices are appointed for life|first=Roger|last=Cossack|url=https://archives.cnn.com/2000/LAW/07/columns/cossack.scotus.07.12/|work=CNN|date=July 13, 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712085825/https://archives.cnn.com/2000/LAW/07/columns/cossack.scotus.07.12|archive-date=July 12, 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Political subdivisions===
{{Main|Political divisions of the United States|State government in the United States|Local government in the United States|U.S. state}}
{{Further|List of states and territories of the United States|Indian reservation|Territories of the United States}}
{{see also|Territorial evolution of the United States}}
Each of the 50 states holds jurisdiction over a geographic territory, where it shares [[sovereignty]] with the federal government. They are subdivided into [[List of United States counties and county equivalents|counties or county equivalents]], and further divided into [[Municipality|municipalities]]. The District of Columbia is a [[federal district]] that contains the capital of the United States, the [[Washington, D.C.|city of Washington]].&lt;ref&gt;{{usc|8|1101}}(a)(36) and {{usc|8|1101}}(a)(38) U.S. Federal Code, Immigration and Nationality Act. {{USC|8|1101a}}&lt;/ref&gt; Each state has an amount of [[presidential electors]] equal to the number of their representatives plus senators in Congress, and the District of Columbia has three electors.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Electoral College Fast Facts {{!}} U.S. House of Representatives: History, Art &amp; Archives|url=https://history.house.gov/Institution/Electoral-College/Electoral-College/|website=history.house.gov|access-date=August 21, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Territories of the United States do not have presidential electors, therefore people there cannot vote for the president.&lt;ref name=&quot;Territories1&quot;&gt;{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/3736845/john-oliver-last-week-tonight-voting-rights/|title=Watch John Oliver Cast His Ballot for Voting Rights for U.S. Territories|last=Locker|first=Melissa|date=March 9, 2015|magazine=Time|access-date=November 11, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Citizenship of the United States|Citizenship is granted at birth in all states]], the District of Columbia, and all major U.S. territories except American Samoa.{{efn|People born in American Samoa are non-citizen U.S. nationals unless one of their parents is a U.S. citizen.&lt;ref name=&quot;AS_citizenship&quot;/&gt; In 2019, a court ruled that American Samoans are U.S. citizens, but the litigation is ongoing.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Alvarez|first=Priscilla|title=Federal judge rules American Samoans are US citizens by birth|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/12/12/politics/american-samoa-citizenship/index.html|date=December 12, 2019|website=CNN|access-date=October 6, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Romboy|first=Dennis|title=Judge puts citizenship ruling for American Samoans on hold|url=https://www.ksl.com/article/46690822|date=December 13, 2019|website=KSL.com|access-date=October 6, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Keating |first=Joshua |date=June 5, 2015 |title=How Come American Samoans Still Don't Have U.S. Citizenship at Birth? |url=https://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2015/06/05/american_samoa_the_only_place_in_the_u_s_where_citizenship_isn_t_granted.html |journal=Slate}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;AS_citizenship&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=American Samoa and the Citizenship Clause: A Study in Insular Cases Revisionism |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/2017/04/american-samoa-and-the-citizenship-clause/ |access-date=January 5, 2018 |website=harvardlawreview.org|date=April 10, 2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States observes limited [[Tribal sovereignty in the United States|tribal sovereignty]] of the American Indian nations, like states' sovereignty. American Indians are U.S. citizens and tribal lands are subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S. Congress and the federal courts. Like the states, tribes have some autonomy restrictions. They are prohibited from making war, engaging in their own foreign relations, and printing or issuing independent currency.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=https://www.bia.gov/FAQs/|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior Indian Affairs|access-date=January 16, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Indian reservation]]s are usually contained within one state, but there are 12 reservations that cross state boundaries.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/tribal/tribes-organizations-health/tribes/geography.html|title=Tribal Geography in Relation to State Boundaries}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
{{USA image map}}

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of the United States|Foreign policy of the United States}}
[[File:Midtown Manhattan Skyline 004.jpg|thumb|The [[Headquarters of the United Nations|United Nations headquarters]] has been situated along the [[East River]] in [[Midtown Manhattan]] since 1952. The United States is a founding member of the UN.|alt=see caption]]

The United States has an established structure of foreign relations, and it had the world's second-largest diplomatic corps in 2019.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/country_rank.html |title=Global Diplomacy Index&amp;nbsp;– Country Rank|publisher=[[Lowy Institute]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/current-members|title=Current Members|work=[[United Nations Security Council]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; and home to the [[Headquarters of the United Nations|United Nations headquarters]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=United Nations Headquarters Agreement|journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=42|number=2|date=April 1948|pages=445–447|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.2307/2193692|jstor=2193692|s2cid=246008694 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States is also a member of the [[G7]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/where-g7-headed|title=Where is the G7 Headed?|work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|location=New York City|date=June 28, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[G-20 major economies|G20]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/the-united-states-and-g20-building-a-more-peaceful-stable-and-prosperous-world-together/|title=The United States and G20: Building a More Peaceful, Stable, and Prosperous World Together|date=July 6, 2022|work=[[United States Department of State]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[OECD]] intergovernmental organizations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/about/members-and-partners/|title=Our global reach|work=[[OECD]]|access-date=July 15, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Almost all countries have [[List of diplomatic missions in the United States|embassies]] and many have [[consul (representative)|consulates]] (official representatives) in the country. Likewise, nearly all nations host formal [[diplomatic mission]]s with United States, except [[Iran–United States relations|Iran]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report |last1=Fialho |first1=Livia Pontes |last2=Wallin |first2=Matthew |title=Reaching for an Audience: U.S. Public Diplomacy Towards Iran |date=August 1, 2013 |publisher=American Security Project |jstor=resrep06070}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[North Korea–United States relations|North Korea]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42351336|title=Which are the countries still talking to North Korea?|newspaper=[[BBC News]]|location=London|date=December 19, 2017|access-date=July 15, 2022|last1=Oliver|first1=Alex|last2=Graham|first2=Euan|quote=The United States has never established diplomatic relations with North Korea.}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Foreign relations of Bhutan#Other countries|Bhutan]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://thediplomat.com/2014/12/the-case-for-a-stronger-bhutanese-american-relationship/|title=The Case for Stronger Bhutanese-American Ties|newspaper=[[The Diplomat]]|date=December 22, 2014|last=Ferraro|first=Matthew F.|quote=While Bhutan joined the United Nations in 1971, it does not have diplomatic relations with any of the permanent members of the UN Security Council, including the United States and China.|access-date=July 15, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Though [[Taiwan–United States relations|Taiwan]] does not have formal diplomatic relations with the U.S., it maintains close, if unofficial, relations.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=September 28, 2022 |title=US will continue to strengthen 'unofficial ties' with Taiwan, says Harris |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3194126/us-will-continue-strengthen-unofficial-ties-taiwan-vice |access-date=September 28, 2022 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States also regularly supplies Taiwan with [[Six Assurances|military equipment]] to deter potential Chinese aggression.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/09/22/915818283/formal-ties-with-u-s-not-for-now-says-taiwan-foreign-minister|title=Formal Ties With U.S.? Not For Now, Says Taiwan Foreign Minister|newspaper=[[NPR]]|date=September 22, 2020|last=Ruwitch|first=John|access-date=July 15, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The United States has a &quot;[[Special Relationship]]&quot; with the [[United Kingdom–United States relations|United Kingdom]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLy-NKnQitIC&amp;q=uk+us+special+relationship&amp;pg=PA45|title=America's 'Special Relationships': Foreign and Domestic Aspects of the Politics of Alliance|page=45|first1=John|first2=Axel|last2=Schäfer|last1=Dumbrell|year=2009|isbn=978-0-203-87270-3|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; and strong ties with [[Canada–United States relations|Canada]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/96-397.pdf|title=Canada–U.S. Relations|author1=Ek, Carl|first2=Ian F.|last2=Fergusson|name-list-style=amp|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=September 3, 2010|access-date=August 28, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Australia–United States relations|Australia]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Australia: Background and U.S. Relations|author=Vaughn, Bruce|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=August 8, 2008|oclc = 70208969}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[New Zealand–United States relations|New Zealand]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32876.pdf|title=New Zealand: Background and Bilateral Relations with the United States|author=Vaughn, Bruce|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=May 27, 2011|access-date=August 28, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; the [[Philippines]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33233.pdf|title=The Republic of the Philippines and U.S. Interests|author=Lum, Thomas|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=January 3, 2011|access-date=August 3, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Japan–United States relations|Japan]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33436.pdf|title=Japan-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress|author=Chanlett-Avery, Emma|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=June 8, 2011|access-date=August 28, 2011|display-authors=etal}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[South Korea–United States relations|South Korea]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R41481.pdf|title=U.S.–South Korea Relations: Issues for Congress|first1=Mark E.|last1=Manyin|first2=Emma|last2=Chanlett-Avery|first3=Mary Beth|last3=Nikitin|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=July 8, 2011|access-date=August 28, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Israel–United States relations|Israel]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL33476.pdf|title=Israel: Background and U.S. Relations|author=Zanotti, Jim|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=July 31, 2014|access-date=September 12, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; and several [[European Union]] countries ([[France–United States relations|France]], [[Italy–United States relations|Italy]], [[Germany–United States relations|Germany]], [[Spain–United States relations|Spain]], and [[Poland–United States relations|Poland]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-poland/|title=U.S. Relations With Poland}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. works closely with its [[NATO]] allies on military and [[national security]] issues, and with nations in the Americas through the [[Organization of American States]] and the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement|United States–Mexico–Canada Free Trade Agreement]]. In [[South America]], [[Colombia]] is traditionally considered to be the closest ally of the United States.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=The Untapped Potential of the US-Colombia Partnership|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/report/untapped-potential-us-colombia-partnership/|date=September 26, 2019|website=Atlantic Council|language=en|access-date=May 30, 2020|last1=Kimer |first1=James }}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for [[Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia]], the [[Marshall Islands]], and [[Palau]] through the [[Compact of Free Association]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Charles L. |last=Zelden |url=https://archive.org/details/judicialbranchof0000zeld |title=The Judicial Branch of Federal Government: People, Process, and Politics |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85109-702-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/judicialbranchof0000zeld/page/217 217] |access-date=October 25, 2015 |url-access=registration}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book |first1=Loren |last1=Yager |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TfoBd7_KsZMC&amp;pg=PA7 |title=Foreign Relations: Migration from Micronesian Nations Has Had Significant Impact on Guam, Hawaii, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands |first2=Emil |last2=Friberg |first3=Leslie |last3=Holen |date=2003 |publisher=Diane Publishing |isbn=978-0-7567-3394-0 |page=7}}&lt;/ref&gt; It has increasingly conducted strategic cooperation [[India–United States relations|with India]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=INDO- PACIFIC STRATEGY OF THE UNITED STATES |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/U.S.-Indo-Pacific-Strategy.pdf |publisher=White House |access-date=3 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; and its [[China–United States relations|ties with China]] have steadily deteriorated.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report |last=Meidan |first=Michal |title=US-China: The Great Decoupling |date=July 1, 2019 |publisher=[[Oxford Institute for Energy Studies]] |jstor=resrep33982}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Bala |first=Sumathi |title=U.S.-China relations are going downhill with 'no trust' on either side, Stephen Roach says |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2023/03/28/us-china-ties-on-dangerous-path-with-no-trust-on-both-sides-roach-cohen.html |access-date=2023-05-07 |website=CNBC |date=March 28, 2023 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. has become a key ally of [[Ukraine]] since Russia [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed Crimea in 2014]] and began an [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|invasion of Ukraine in 2022]], significantly deteriorating relations with Russia in the process.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Rumer|first1=Eugene|last2=Sokolsky|first2=Richard|url=https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/06/20/thirty-years-of-u.s.-policy-toward-russia-can-vicious-circle-be-broken-pub-79323|title=Thirty Years of U.S. Policy Toward Russia: Can the Vicious Circle Be Broken?|newspaper=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]|location=Washington, D.C.|date=June 20, 2019|access-date=July 14, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Macias |first=Amanda |title=Here's a look at the $5.6 billion in firepower the U.S. has committed to Ukraine in its fight against Russia |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/06/17/russia-ukraine-war-summary-of-weapons-us-has-given-to-ukraine.html |access-date=September 28, 2022 |website=CNBC |date=June 17, 2022 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Military===
{{Main|United States Armed Forces|Military history of the United States}}
[[File:B-2 Spirit.jpg|thumb|[[Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit|B-2 Spirit]], the [[Stealth technology|stealth]] [[Heavy bomber|heavy]] [[strategic bomber]] of the [[United States Air Force|USAF]]]]
[[File:Aerial view of the Pentagon, Arlington, VA (38285035892).jpg|thumb|[[The Pentagon]], near Washington, D.C., is home to the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]].]]

The President is the [[Commander-in-Chief of the United States|commander-in-chief]] of the United States Armed Forces and appoints its leaders, the [[United States Secretary of Defense|secretary of defense]] and the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]]. The [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], which is headquartered at [[the Pentagon]] near Washington, D.C., administers five of the six service branches, which are made up of the [[United States Army|Army]], [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]], [[United States Navy|Navy]], [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], and [[United States Space Force|Space Force]]. The [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] is administered by the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] in peacetime and can be transferred to the [[United States Department of the Navy|Department of the Navy]] in wartime.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cfr.org/blog/happy-231st-birthday-united-states-coast-guard|title=Happy 231st Birthday to the United States Coast Guard!|last=Lindsay|first=James M.|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|location=New York City|date=August 4, 2021|access-date=July 16, 2022|quote=During peacetime it is part of the Department of Homeland Security. During wartime, or when the president or Congress so direct, it becomes part of the Department of Defense and is included in the Department of the Navy.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States spent $877 billion on its military in 2022, 39% of global military spending, accounting for 3.5% of the country's GDP.'''''&lt;ref name=&quot;SIPRI-20202&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=April 2023 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=29 April 2023 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;'''''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/Data%20for%20all%20countries%20from%201988%E2%80%932020%20in%20constant%20%282019%29%20USD%20%28pdf%29.pdf| title=Data for all countries from 1988–2020 in constant (2019) USD (pdf)| publisher=SIPRI| access-date=28 April 2021| archive-date=28 April 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428180002/https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/Data%20for%20all%20countries%20from%201988%E2%80%932020%20in%20constant%20(2019)%20USD%20(pdf).pdf| url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. has [[Nuclear weapons of the United States|more than 40% of the world's nuclear weapons]], the second-largest amount after Russia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Reichmann|first=Kelsey|date=June 16, 2019|title=Here's how many nuclear warheads exist, and which countries own them|url=https://www.defensenews.com/global/2019/06/16/heres-how-many-nuclear-warheads-exist-and-which-countries-own-them/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://conifer.rhizome.org/mossypiglet/wikipedia-citations/20200923183006/https://www.defensenews.com/global/2019/06/16/heres-how-many-nuclear-warheads-exist-and-which-countries-own-them/|archive-date=September 23, 2020|access-date=September 23, 2020|website=defensenews.com|publisher=Sightline Media Group}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2019, all six branches of the U.S. Armed Forces reported 1.4&amp;nbsp;million personnel on active duty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IISS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=&lt;!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--&gt;|title=The Military Balance 2019|url=https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance/the-military-balance-2019|location=London|publisher=International Institute for Strategic Studies|page=47|date=2019|isbn=978-1-85743-988-5|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 22, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922054426/https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance/the-military-balance-2019|access-date=September 23, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Reserve components of the United States Armed Forces|Reserves]] and [[National Guard of the United States|National Guard]] brought the total number of troops to 2.3&amp;nbsp;million.&lt;ref name=&quot;IISS&quot; /&gt; The Department of Defense also employed about 700,000 civilians, not including [[Military-industrial complex|contractors]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/20/politics/james-mattis-resignation-letter-doc/index.html| title=Read: James Mattis' resignation letter| date=December 21, 2018| work=[[CNN]]| access-date=January 8, 2020| url-status=dead| archive-date=December 4, 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204140006/https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/20/politics/james-mattis-resignation-letter-doc/index.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Military service in the United States is voluntary, although [[Conscription in the United States|conscription]] may occur in wartime through the [[Selective Service System]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sss.gov/what.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120915102215/https://www.sss.gov/what.htm|title=What does Selective Service provide for America?|publisher=Selective Service System|access-date=February 11, 2012|archive-date=September 15, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States has the third-largest combined armed forces in the world, behind the [[People's Liberation Army|Chinese People's Liberation Army]] and [[Indian Armed Forces]].&lt;ref&gt;[[#IISS2020|IISS 2020]], pp. 46&lt;/ref&gt;

Today, American forces can be rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of [[transport aircraft]], the Navy's 11 active [[aircraft carrier]]s, and [[Marine expeditionary unit]]s at sea with the Navy, and Army's [[XVIII Airborne Corps]] and [[75th Ranger Regiment]] deployed by Air Force transport aircraft. The Air Force can strike targets across the globe through its fleet of [[strategic bomber]]s, maintains the [[air defense]] across the United States, and provides [[close air support]] to Army and Marine Corps ground forces.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Noble Eagle Without End|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/0205eagle/|access-date=February 1, 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=The Ups and Downs of Close Air Support|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/the-ups-and-downs-of-close-air-support/|access-date=December 1, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The Space Force operates the [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS, also widespread in civilian use worldwide), the [[Eastern Range|Eastern]] and [[Western Range (USSF)|Western Range]]s for all space launches, and the United States's [[United States Space Surveillance Network|Space Surveillance]] and [[United States national missile defense|Missile Warning]] networks.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/building-the-space-range-of-the-future/|title=Building the Space Range of the Future|access-date=May 1, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.schriever.spaceforce.mil/GPS/#:~:text=The+GPS-dedicated+ground+system+consists+of+six+U.S.,passively+track+the+navigation+signals+on+all+satellites|title=Global Positioning System|website=www.schriever.spaceforce.mil}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Space surveillance technologies a top need for U.S. military|date=November 22, 2020|url=https://spacenews.com/space-surveillance-technologies-a-top-need-for-u-s-military/|access-date=November 22, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; The military operates about 800 bases and facilities abroad,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2015/5/18/8600659/military-bases-united-states|title=Why does the US have 800 military bases around the world?|last=Harris|first=Johnny|date=May 18, 2015|website=Vox|access-date=September 23, 2020|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924114313/https://www.vox.com/2015/5/18/8600659/military-bases-united-states}}&lt;/ref&gt; and maintains [[United States military deployments|deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel]] in 25 foreign countries.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/MILITARY/history/hst1003.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724211511/https://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/MILITARY/history/hst1003.pdf|title=Active Duty Military Personnel Strengths by Regional Area and by Country (309A)|publisher=Department of Defense|date=March 31, 2010|access-date=October 7, 2010|archive-date=July 24, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Law enforcement and crime===
{{Main|Law enforcement in the United States|Crime in the United States}}
There are about 18,000 U.S. police agencies from local to federal level in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Banks |first1=Duren |last2=Hendrix |first2=Joshua |last3=Hickman |first3=Mathhew |date=October 4, 2016 |title=National Sources of Law Enforcement Employment Data |url=https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/nsleed.pdf |journal=[[U.S. Department of Justice]] |pages=1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Law in the United States is mainly [[Law enforcement in the United States|enforced]] by local police departments and [[sheriff]]'s offices. The [[state police]] provides broader services, and [[Federal law enforcement in the United States|federal agencies]] such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] (FBI) and the [[United States Marshals Service|U.S. Marshals Service]] have specialized duties, such as protecting [[civil rights]], [[National Security of the United States|national security]] and enforcing [[U.S. federal courts]]' rulings and federal laws.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=U.S. Federal Law Enforcement Agencies, Who Governs &amp; What They Do|publisher=Chiff.com|url=https://www.chiff.com/police/federal-police-agencies.htm|access-date=November 10, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210040432/https://www.chiff.com/police/federal-police-agencies.htm|archive-date=February 10, 2014|url-status= }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[State court (United States)|State court]]s conduct most civil and criminal trials,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Manweller|first1=Mathew|editor1-last=Hogan|editor1-first=Sean O.|title=The Judicial Branch of State Government: People, Process, and Politics|date=2006|publisher=[[ABC-Clio]]|location=[[Santa Barbara, California]]|isbn=978-1-851-09751-7|pages=37–96|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ong5k8n97P4C&amp;pg=PA55|access-date=October 5, 2020|chapter=Chapter 2, The Roles, Functions, and Powers of State Courts}}&lt;/ref&gt; and federal courts handle designated crimes and appeals from the state criminal courts.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.justice.gov/usao/justice-101/federal-courts|title=Introduction To The Federal Court System|work=[[United States Attorney]]|date=November 7, 2014 |publisher=[[United States Department of Justice]]|access-date=July 14, 2022|location=Washington, D.C.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{as of|2020}}, the United States has an [[List of countries by intentional homicide rate|intentional homicide rate]] of 7 per 100,000 people.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/VC.IHR.PSRC.P5?locations=US|title=Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) - United States|work=[[World Bank]]|access-date=July 14, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; A cross-sectional analysis of the [[World Health Organization]] Mortality Database from 2010 showed that United States homicide rates &quot;were 7.0 times higher than in other high-income countries, driven by a gun homicide rate that was 25.2 times higher.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Grinshteyn|first1=Erin|last2=Hemenway|first2=David|date=March 2016|title=Violent Death Rates: The US Compared with Other High-income OECD Countries, 2010|url=https://www.amjmed.com/article/S0002-9343(15)01030-X/fulltext|journal=[[The American Journal of Medicine]]|volume=129|issue=3|pages=226–273|doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.10.025|pmid=26551975|access-date=June 18, 2017|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

As of January 2023, the United States has the [[List of countries by incarceration rate|sixth highest per-capita incarceration rate]] in the world, at 531 people per 100,000; and the largest [[Incarceration in the United States|prison and jail population]] in the world at 1,767,200.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.prisonstudies.org/country/united-states-america United States of America]. [[World Prison Brief]].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WorldPrisonBrief&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20231118142542/https://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison-population-total Highest to Lowest]. [[World Prison Brief]] (WPB). Use the dropdown menu to choose lists of countries by region or the whole world. Use the menu to select highest-to-lowest lists of prison population totals, prison population rates, percentage of pre-trial detainees/remand prisoners, percentage of female prisoners, percentage of foreign prisoners, and occupancy rate. Column headings in WPB tables can be clicked to reorder columns lowest to highest, or alphabetically. For detailed information for each country click on any country name in lists. See also the [http://www.prisonstudies.org/world-prison-brief-data WPB main data page] and click on the map links and/or the sidebar links to get to the region and country desired.&lt;/ref&gt; In 2019, the total prison population for those sentenced to more than a year was 1,430,800, corresponding to a ratio of 419 per 100,000 residents and the lowest since 1995.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/press/p19_pr.pdf|title=US Department of Justice, Oct. 22, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Some [[think tank]]s place that number higher, such as [[Prison Policy Initiative]]'s estimate of 1.9 million.&lt;ref name=&quot;WholePie2023&quot;&gt;{{cite report|url=https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2023.html|title=Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2023|last1=Sawyer|first1=Wendy|last2=Wagner|first2=Peter|date=March 14, 2023|publisher=Prison Policy Initiative|issue=|doi=|volume=|pmid=|access-date=May 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; Various states have attempted to [[Decarceration in the United States|reduce their prison populations]] via government policies and grassroots initiatives.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/decarceration-strategies-5-states-achieved-substantial-prison-population-reductions/|title=Decarceration Strategies: How 5 States Achieved Substantial Prison Population Reductions|date=September 5, 2018|access-date=July 16, 2022|last1=Schrantz|first1=Dennis|last2=DeBor|first2=Stephen|last3=Mauer|first3=Marc|publisher=[[The Sentencing Project]]|location=Washington, D.C.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of the United States}}
{{Further|Economic history of the United States|Taxation in the United States|United States federal budget|Federal Reserve}}
[[File:US one dollar bill, obverse, series 2009.jpg|thumb|alt=see caption|The [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] (featuring [[George Washington]]) is the currency most used in [[international trade|international transactions]] and is the world's foremost [[reserve currency]].&lt;ref name=&quot;federalreserve.gov&quot;/&gt;]]
[[File:Gaming-Wall-Street_BTS_Prodigium-266.jpg|thumb|The [[New York Stock Exchange]] on [[Wall Street]], the world's largest stock exchange by [[market capitalization]] of its listed companies&lt;ref name=NYSEhighestcap&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/advisor/investing/nyse-new-york-stock-exchange/|title=NYSE: What Is The New York Stock Exchange|author= Kat Tretina and Benjamin Curry|work=Forbes|date=April 9, 2021|access-date=July 24, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:West side of Manhattan from Hudson Commons (95103p).jpg|thumb|[[Midtown Manhattan]], the world's largest [[central business district]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/new-york-widens-lead-over-london-top-finance-centres-index-2022-03-24/ |title=New York widens lead over London in top finance centres index |website=www.reuters.com |date= March 24, 2022|access-date=June 25, 2022|last1= Jones|first1= Huw}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

According to the [[International Monetary Fund]], the U.S. [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) of $25.5&amp;nbsp;trillion constitutes over 25% of the [[gross world product]] at market exchange rates and over 15% of the gross world product at [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP).&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF-2023&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=111,&amp;s=NGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,NGAP_NPGDP,PPPSH,PPPEX,NID_NGDP,NGSD_NGDP,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,FLIBOR6,TM_RPCH,TMG_RPCH,TX_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,LUR,LE,LP,GGR,GGR_NGDP,GGX,GGX_NGDP,GGXCNL,GGXCNL_NGDP,GGSB,GGSB_NPGDP,GGXONLB,GGXONLB_NGDP,GGXWDN,GGXWDN_NGDP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,NGDP_FY,BCA,BCA_NGDPD,&amp;sy=2021&amp;ey=2023&amp;ssm=0&amp;scsm=1&amp;scc=0&amp;ssd=1&amp;ssc=0&amp;sic=0&amp;sort=country&amp;ds=.&amp;br=1 |website=www.imf.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF.WEO.US&quot; /&gt; From 1983 to 2008, U.S. real compounded annual GDP growth was 3.3%, compared to a 2.3% weighted average for the rest of the G7.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hagopian&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=Hagopian |first=Kip |last2=Ohanian |first2=Lee |date=August 1, 2012 |title=The Mismeasure of Inequality |url=https://www.hoover.org/publications/policy-review/article/123566 |url-status=dead |journal=Policy Review |volume= |issue=174 |pages= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203012353/https://www.hoover.org/publications/policy-review/article/123566 |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |access-date=January 23, 2020 |via=}}&lt;/ref&gt; The country ranks first in the world by [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|nominal GDP]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.bea.gov/news/2023/gross-domestic-product-fourth-quarter-and-year-2022-third-estimate-gdp-industry-and|title=Gross Domestic Product, Fourth Quarter and Year 2022 (Third Estimate), GDP by Industry, and Corporate Profits|publisher=[[United States Department of Commerce|U.S. Department of Commerce]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; second by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|GDP (PPP)]],&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF.WEO.US&quot;/&gt; seventh by [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|nominal GDP per capita]],&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF-2023&quot;/&gt; and eighth by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP (PPP) per capita]].&lt;ref name=&quot;IMF.WEO.US&quot;/&gt; As of 2022, the United States was ranked 25th out of 169 countries on the [[Social Progress Index]], which measures &quot;the extent to which countries provide for the social and environmental needs of their citizens.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Explore the 2022 Social Progress Index Map: United States |url=https://www.socialprogress.org/?tab=2&amp;code=USA |website=Social Progress Imperative |access-date=April 18, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. has been the world's largest economy since at least 1900.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Fordham |first=Benjamin |date=October 2017 |title=Protectionist Empire: Trade, Tariffs, and United States Foreign Policy, 1890–1914 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0898588x17000116 |journal=Studies in American Political Development |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=170–192 |doi=10.1017/s0898588x17000116 |s2cid=148917255 |issn=0898-588X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The United States is at or near the forefront of [[Science and technology in the United States|technological advancement]] and [[innovation]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2023-02-25 |website=www.wipo.int |series=Global Innovation Index |year=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |isbn=9789280534320 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; in many economic fields, especially in [[artificial intelligence]]; [[computers]]; [[pharmaceuticals]]; and [[medical]], [[aerospace]] and [[military equipment]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/ |title=United States reference resource |work=[[The World Factbook]] [[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=May 31, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; The nation's economy is fueled by abundant [[natural resource]]s, a well-developed infrastructure, and high productivity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wright, Gavin 2007 p. 185&quot;&gt;Wright, Gavin, and Jesse Czelusta, &quot;Resource-Based Growth Past and Present&quot;, in ''Natural Resources: Neither Curse Nor Destiny'', ed. Daniel Lederman and William Maloney (World Bank, 2007), p. 185. {{ISBN|0821365452}}.&lt;/ref&gt; It has the second-highest total-estimated value of natural resources, valued at [[United States dollar|US$]]44.98{{spaces}}trillion in 2019, although sources differ on their estimates. Americans have the highest average [[Household income|household]] and [[List of countries by average wage|employee]] income among [[OECD]] member states.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/income/|title=Income|work=Better Life Index|publisher=OECD|access-date=September 28, 2019|quote=In the United States, the average household net adjusted disposable income per capita is USD 45 284 a year, much higher than the OECD average of USD 33 604 and the highest figure in the OECD.}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2013, they had the sixth-highest [[median household income]], down from fourth-highest in 2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;Household Income&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Household Income|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/society-at-a-glance-2014_soc_glance-2014-en|journal=Society at a Glance 2014: OECD Social Indicators|publisher=OECD Publishing|access-date=May 29, 2014|doi=10.1787/soc_glance-2014-en |date=March 18, 2014|series=Society at a Glance|isbn=9789264200722|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=autogenerated4&gt;{{cite web |title=OECD Better Life Index |url= http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/#/11111111111 |publisher=OECD |access-date=November 25, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] is the currency most used in [[international trade|international transactions]] and is the world's foremost [[reserve currency]], backed by the country's dominant economy, [[United States Armed Forces|its military]], the [[petrodollar|petrodollar system]], and its linked [[eurodollar]] and large [[U.S. Treasury|U.S. treasuries market]].&lt;ref name=&quot;federalreserve.gov&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/pf/pdf/pf_4.pdf |title=The Implementation of Monetary Policy – The Federal Reserve in the International Sphere|access-date=August 24, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; Several countries [[International use of the US dollar|use it as their official currency]] and in others it is the [[de facto currency|''de facto'' currency]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Benjamin J. Cohen 2006, p. 17&quot;&gt;Benjamin J. Cohen, ''The Future of Money'', Princeton University Press, 2006, {{ISBN|0691116660}}; ''cf.'' &quot;the dollar is the de facto currency in Cambodia&quot;, Charles Agar, ''[[Frommer's]] Vietnam'', 2006, {{ISBN|0471798169}}, p. 17&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url = http://www.multpl.com/us-gdp-growth-rate/table/by-year|title = US GDP Growth Rate by Year |date=March 31, 2014 |access-date=June 18, 2014 |website = multpl.com|publisher = US Bureau of Economic Analysis}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[New York City]] is the world's principal [[financial center]], with the [[List of cities by GDP|largest]] economic output, and the epicenter of the principal American metropolitan economy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/new-york-widens-lead-over-london-top-finance-centres-index-2022-03-24/|title=New York widens lead over London in top finance centres index |website=www.reuters.com |date=March 24, 2022 |access-date=July 29, 2022|last1=Jones |first1=Huw }}{{SemiBareRefNeedsTitle|date=July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-32-explore-the-data/gfci-32-rank/|title=The Global Financial Centres Index 32|date=September 22, 2022|publisher=Long Finance|access-date=September 22, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=NYCEpicenterUSMetroEconomy&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/09/united-states-america-economic-output-new-york-la/|title=This 3D map shows the U.S. cities with the highest economic output|author=Iman Ghosh|publisher=World Economic Forum|date=September 24, 2020|access-date=March 5, 2023|quote=The New York metro area dwarfs all other cities for economic output by a large margin.}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[New York Stock Exchange]] and [[Nasdaq]] are the world's [[List of stock exchanges|largest stock exchanges]] by [[market capitalization]] and [[trade volume]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics|title=Monthly Reports - World Federation of Exchanges|publisher=WFE}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;sfc.hk&quot;&gt;[http://www.sfc.hk/web/doc/EN/research/stat/a01.pdf Table A – Market Capitalization of the World's Top Stock Exchanges (As at end of June 2012)]. Securities and Exchange Commission (China).&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[List of the largest trading partners of the United States|largest U.S. trading partners]] are the [[European Union]], [[Mexico]], [[Canada]], [[China]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Vietnam]], [[India]], and [[Taiwan]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=October 2022 |title=Top Trading Partners - October 2022 |url=https://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/highlights/top/top1612yr.html |access-date=12 May 2023 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States is the world's [[List of countries by imports|largest]] importer and the [[List of countries by exports|second-largest]] exporter after China.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/wts2019_e/wts2019_e.pdf |title=World Trade Statistical Review 2019 |work=[[World Trade Organization]] |page=100 |access-date=May 31, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; It has [[free trade agreements]] with [[Free trade agreements of the United States|several countries]], including the [[United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement|USMCA]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements |title=United States free trade agreements |work=[[Office of the United States Trade Representative]] |access-date=May 31, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ranked second in the [[Global Competitiveness Report]] in 2019, after [[Singapore]].&lt;ref name=&quot;World Economic Forum&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2013-14/GCR_Rankings_2013-14.pdf |title=Rankings: Global Competitiveness Report 2013–2014 |publisher=World Economic Forum |access-date=June 1, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many of the world's [[List of largest companies by revenue|largest]] companies, such as [[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]] ([[Google]]), [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[AT&amp;T]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[General Motors]], [[McDonald's]], [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]], [[Meta Platforms|Meta]], [[Microsoft]], [[PepsiCo|Pepsi]], and [[Walmart]], were founded and are headquartered in the United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortune-2022&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Global 500 |url=https://fortune.com/global500/2022/ |access-date=2022-08-25 |website=Fortune |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Of the world's [[Fortune Global 500|500 largest companies]], 124 are headquartered in the U.S.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fortune-2022&quot;/&gt;

While its economy has reached a [[post-industrial society|post-industrial]] level of development, the United States remains an industrial power.&lt;ref name=&quot;Econ&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=USA Economy in Brief|url=https://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/economy-in-brief/page3.html|publisher=U.S. Dept. of State, International Information Programs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312123609/https://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/economy-in-brief/page3.html|archive-date=March 12, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2018, the U.S. is the [[List of countries by manufacturing output|second-largest]] manufacturing nation after China.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2020-02-25 |title=These are the top 10 manufacturing countries in the world |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/countries-manufacturing-trade-exports-economics/ |access-date=2023-04-03 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2013, the [[National debt of the United States|U.S. national debt]] to GDP ratio surpassed 100% when both debt and GDP were approximately $16.7 trillion; in 2022, U.S. national debt was $30.93 trillion, while debt to GDP ratio was 124%.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://fiscaldata.treasury.gov/americas-finance-guide/national-debt/|title=What is the national debt?|publisher=[[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Department of Treasury]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Income and poverty===
{{Main|Income in the United States|Poverty in the United States}}
{{Further|Affluence in the United States|Income inequality in the United States}}At US$69,392 in 2020, the United States was ranked first in the world by [[List of countries by average wage|average yearly wage]] based on the [[OECD]] data, and it had the world's highest [[median income]] at US$46,625 in 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Labour &gt; Earnings &gt; Average annual wages |publisher=[[OECD]] |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=AV_AN_WAGE}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Income Distribution: Median equivalised disposable income |url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=IDD |access-date=January 21, 2023 |website=OECD}}&lt;/ref&gt; Despite the fact that the U.S. only accounted for 4.24% of the [[World population|global population]], residents of the U.S. collectively [[List of countries by total wealth|possessed 30.2%]] of the world's total wealth as of 2021, the largest percentage of any country.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last1=Shorrocks|first1=Anthony|url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2021.pdf|title=Global wealth databook 2021|last2=Davies|first2=James|last3=Lluberas|first3=Rodrigo|publisher=[[Credit Suisse]] Research Institute|year=2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. also ranks first in the number of dollar [[List of countries by number of billionaires|billionaires]] and [[List of countries by number of millionaires|millionaires]], with 724 billionaires (as of 2021)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Jackson |first=Sarah |title=These 20 countries and territories are home to most of the world's 2,755 billionaires |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/these-20-countries-are-home-to-the-most-billionaires-forbes-2021-10 |access-date=July 15, 2022 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; and nearly 22 million millionaires (2021).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/12/22/heres-how-22-million-americans-became-millionaires.html|title=Nearly 22 million Americans are millionaires. Here's how they got wealthy|last=Exley|first=Robert Jr.|date=December 22, 2021|access-date=July 16, 2022|work=[[CNBC]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The United States has a smaller [[welfare state]] and redistributes less income through government action than most other [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income]] countries.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|first1=Isabelle|last1=Joumard|first2=Mauro|last2=Pisu|first3=Debbie|last3=Bloch|title=Tackling income inequality The role of taxes and transfers|url=https://www.oecd.org/eco/public-finance/TacklingincomeinequalityTheroleoftaxesandtransfers.pdf|publisher=OECD|access-date=May 21, 2015|date=2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ranked the 52nd highest in [[List of countries by income equality|income inequality]] among 167 countries in 2014,&lt;ref name=&quot;Data for urban households only&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Monino |first1=Jean-Louis |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781119285199.ch3 |title=Data Development Mechanisms |last2=Sedkaoui |first2=Soraya |date=2016-03-11 |work=Big Data, Open Data and Data Development |publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. |isbn=978-1-119-28519-9 |place=Hoboken, N.J. |pages=43–72 |doi=10.1002/9781119285199.ch3 |access-date=2021-06-26}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the highest compared to the rest of the [[Developed country|developed world]] in 2018.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Gray |first=Sarah |date=June 4, 2018 |title=Trump Policies Highlighted in Scathing U.N. Report On U.S. Poverty|url=http://fortune.com/2018/06/04/trump-policies-u-n-report-u-s-poverty/|work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]|access-date=September 13, 2018|quote=&quot;The United States has the highest rate of income inequality among Western countries&quot;, the report states.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OHCHR&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2018/06/contempt-poor-us-drives-cruel-policies-says-un-expert|title=&quot;Contempt for the poor in US drives cruel policies,&quot; says UN expert|date=June 4, 2018|work=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|OHCHR]]|access-date=June 5, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Wealth in the United States is [[Wealth inequality in the United States|highly concentrated]]; the richest 10% of the adult population own 72% of the country's household wealth, while the bottom 50% own just 2%.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Piketty|first1=Thomas|title=Capital in the Twenty-First Century|title-link=Capital in the Twenty-First Century|date=2014|publisher=Belknap Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674430006/page/257 257]|author-link1=Thomas Piketty}} {{ISBN|978-0-674-43000-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Income inequality in the U.S. remains at record highs,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/09/26/income-inequality-america-highest-its-been-since-census-started-tracking-it-data-show/ |title=Income inequality in America is the highest it's been since Census Bureau started tracking it, data shows |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=July 27, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the top fifth of earners taking home more than half of all income&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Long|first=Heather|date=September 12, 2017|title=U.S. middle-class incomes reached highest-ever level in 2016, Census Bureau says|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/us-middle-class-incomes-reached-highest-ever-level-in-2016-census-bureau-says/2017/09/12/7226905e-97de-11e7-b569-3360011663b4_story.html|access-date=November 11, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; and giving the U.S. one of the widest income distributions among [[OECD]] members.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sme&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Smeeding|first1=T.M.|year=2005|title=Public Policy: Economic Inequality and Poverty: The United States in Comparative Perspective|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/81b4d972c7a40d051d9ee3ced2ab2ddfc221fbf9|journal=Social Science Quarterly|volume=86|pages=955–983|doi=10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00331.x|s2cid=154642286}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States is the only [[advanced economy]] that does not [[List of statutory minimum employment leave by country|guarantee its workers paid vacation]] nationally&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Min |first=Sarah |date=May 24, 2019 |title=1 in 4 workers in U.S. don't get any paid vacation time or holidays|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/one-in-four-workers-in-us-dont-get-any-paid-vacation-time-or-holidays/|work=CBS News |location= |access-date=July 15, 2022|quote=The United States is the only advanced economy that does not federally mandate any paid vacation days or holidays. }}&lt;/ref&gt; and is one of a few countries in the world without federal [[paid family leave]] as a legal right.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Bernard |first=Tara Siegel |date=February 22, 2013 |title=In Paid Family Leave, U.S. Trails Most of the Globe |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/23/your-money/us-trails-much-of-the-world-in-providing-paid-family-leave.html |access-date=August 27, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States also has a higher percentage of low-income workers than almost any other developed nation, largely because of a weak [[collective bargaining]] system and lack of government support for at-risk workers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Van Dam|first=Andrew|date=July 4, 2018|title=Is it great to be a worker in the U.S.? Not compared with the rest of the developed world.|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2018/07/04/is-it-great-to-be-a-worker-in-the-u-s-not-compared-to-the-rest-of-the-developed-world/?noredirect=on|access-date=July 12, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

There were about 567,715 sheltered and unsheltered [[Homelessness in the United States|homeless persons in the U.S.]] in January 2019, with almost two-thirds staying in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program.&lt;ref name=&quot;Culp2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book| editor = Anne McDonald Culp| date = June 25, 2013| title = Child and Family Advocacy: Bridging the Gaps Between Research, Practice, and Policy| publisher = Springer Science &amp; Business Media| pages = 77–| isbn = 978-1-4614-7456-2| oclc = 1026456872| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GZBDAAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA77}}&lt;/ref&gt; Attempts to combat homelessness include the [[Section 8 (housing)|Section 8]] housing voucher program and implementation of the [[Housing First]] strategy across all levels of government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Solving Homelessness from a Complex Systems Perspective: Insights for Prevention Responses|journal=Annual Review of Public Health|date=2019|volume=40|pmid=30601718|last1=Fowler|first1=P. J.|last2=Hovmand|first2=P. S.|last3=Marcal|first3=K. E.|last4=Das|first4=S.|pages=465–486|doi=10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-013553|pmc=6445694 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2011, [[Hunger in the United States#Children|16.7&amp;nbsp;million children lived in food-insecure households]], about 35% more than 2007 levels, though only 845,000 U.S. children (1.1%) saw reduced food intake or disrupted eating patterns at some point during the year, and most cases were not chronic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Household Food Security in the United States in 2011|url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/884525/err141.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007231515/https://www.ers.usda.gov/media/884525/err141.pdf|archive-date=October 7, 2012|publisher=USDA|access-date=April 8, 2013|date=September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{as of|2018|June|post=,}} 40&amp;nbsp;million people, roughly 12.7% of the U.S. population, were living in poverty, including 13.3&amp;nbsp;million children;&lt;ref name=&quot;OHCHR&quot;/&gt; the [[poverty threshold]] in the United States was at $12,880 for a single-person household and $26,246 for a family of four in 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2015/07/22/what-it-means-to-be-poor-by-global-standards/ |title=What it means to be poor by global standards |author=Rakesh Kochhar |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |date=July 22, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://aspe.hhs.gov/2021-poverty-guidelines |title=2021 Poverty Guidelines |website=aspe.hhs.gov |access-date=April 27, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2019, 2% of the U.S. population earned less than $10 per day.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Poverty and Inequality Forum |url=https://pip.worldbank.org/poverty-calculator?src=EAP,SAS,SSA,LAC,MNA,ECA,OHI,WLD&amp;pv=2.15&amp;oc=pop_in_poverty&amp;on=Population%20living%20in%20poverty&amp;os=millions&amp;od=Population%20living%20below%20the%20poverty%20line%20(2011%20PPP)&amp;tab=table&amp;ppp=2017 |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=[[World Bank]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; 0.25% of the U.S. population lived below the international poverty line of $2.15 per day in 2020.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Fact Sheet: An Adjustment to Global Poverty Lines |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/factsheet/2022/05/02/fact-sheet-an-adjustment-to-global-poverty-lines#:~:text=The%20new%20international%20poverty%20line,be%20living%20in%20extreme%20poverty. |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=World Bank}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Country Profile: United States |url=https://pip.worldbank.org/country-profiles/USA |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=World Bank}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Science, technology, and energy===
{{Main|Science and technology in the United States|Science policy of the United States|Energy in the United States}}
[[File:Buzz_salutes_the_U.S._Flag-crop.jpg|thumb|U.S. astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]] saluting the [[United States flag|flag]] on the [[lunar surface|Moon]] during the [[Apollo 11]], 1969. The United States is the only country that has sent [[Moon landing|crewed missions to the lunar surface]].]]

The United States has been a leader in technological [[innovation]] since the late 19th century and scientific research since the mid-20th century. Methods for producing [[interchangeable parts]] and the establishment of a [[machine tool]] industry enabled the [[American system of manufacturing|U.S. to have large-scale manufacturing]] of sewing machines, bicycles, and other items in the late 19th century. In the early 20th century, factory [[electrification]], the introduction of the [[assembly line]], and other labor-saving techniques created the system of [[mass production]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Hounshell1984}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the 21st century, approximately two-thirds of research and development funding comes from the private sector.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Research and Development (R&amp;D) Expenditures by Source and Objective: 1970 to 2004|url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2008/tables/08s0775.xls|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20120210170338/https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2008/tables/08s0775.xls|archive-date=February 10, 2012|access-date=June 19, 2007|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2022, the United States was the country with the [[List of countries by number of scientific and technical journal articles|second-highest]] number of published scientific papers.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=SJR - International Science Ranking|url=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?order=itp&amp;ord=desc&amp;year=2020|access-date=2022-02-05|website=www.scimagojr.com|language=en-uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2021, the U.S. ranked second by the number of [[World Intellectual Property Indicators|patent applications]], and third by trademark and industrial design applications.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=World Intellectual Property Indicators 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4571&amp;plang=EN |access-date=2022-04-27 |website=www.wipo.int | doi=10.34667/tind.44461 |language=en | author1=World Intellectual Property Organization. | series=World IP Indicators (WIPI) | year=2021 | publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) | isbn=9789280533293 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2021, the United States launched a total of 51 [[spaceflights]] (China reported 55).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last1=Hines |first1=R. Lincoln |last2=Ben-Itzhak |first2=Svetla |title=NASA's head warned that China may try to claim the Moon – two space scholars explain why that's unlikely to happen |url=http://theconversation.com/nasas-head-warned-that-china-may-try-to-claim-the-moon-two-space-scholars-explain-why-thats-unlikely-to-happen-186614 |access-date=July 11, 2022 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. had 2,944 active [[satellites]] in space in December 2021, the highest number of any country.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Satellite Database|url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database|access-date=July 14, 2022|website=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1876, [[Alexander Graham Bell]] was awarded the first U.S. [[Invention of the telephone|patent for the telephone]]. [[Thomas Edison]]'s [[Research institute|research laboratory]] developed the [[phonograph]], the first [[Incandescent light bulb|long-lasting light bulb]], and the first viable [[Kinetoscope|movie camera]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Edison&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Thomas Edison's Most Famous Inventions|url=https://www.thomasedison.org/index.php/education/inventions/|website=Thomas A Edison Innovation Foundation|access-date=January 21, 2015|archive-date=March 16, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316154517/https://www.thomasedison.org/index.php/education/inventions/|url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Wright brothers]] in 1903 made the [[Wright Flyer|first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight]], and the automobile companies of [[Ransom E. Olds]] ([[Oldsmobile]]) and [[Henry Ford]] ([[Ford Motor Company]]) popularized the assembly line in the early 20th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=Benedetti, François|url=https://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912065254/https://www.fai.org/news_archives/fai/000295.asp|archive-date=September 12, 2007|title=100 Years Ago, the Dream of Icarus Became Reality|publisher=Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI)|date=December 17, 2003|access-date=August 15, 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; The rise of [[fascism]] and [[Nazism]] in the 1920s and 30s led many European scientists, such as [[Albert Einstein]], [[Enrico Fermi]], and [[John von Neumann]], to immigrate to the United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;fraser&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Fraser|first1=Gordon|title=The Quantum Exodus: Jewish Fugitives, the Atomic Bomb, and the Holocaust|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-959215-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NYknwEACAAJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; During World War II, the [[Manhattan Project]]. developed nuclear weapons, ushering in the [[Atomic Age]]. During the Cold War, competition for superior missile capability led to the [[Space Race]] between the United States and Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qYZmj7Us3m8C&amp;q=Space+Race++rapid+advances+in+rocketry,+materials+science,+and+computers&amp;pg=PA68|title=10 Little Americans|via=Google Books|access-date=September 15, 2014|isbn=978-0-615-14052-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2525898/app-development/nasa-s-apollo-technology-has-changed-history.html|title=NASA's Apollo technology has changed the history|date=July 20, 2009|publisher=Sharon Gaudin|access-date=September 15, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The great American technological breakthroughs of the 20th century stem from the invention of the [[transistor]] in the 1950s, a key component in almost all modern [[electronics]], which led to the development of [[microprocessor]]s, [[software]], [[personal computer]]s, and the [[Internet]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Sawyer2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Sawyer|first=Robert Keith|title=Explaining Creativity: The Science of Human Innovation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyJjyZ_YBAkC&amp;pg=PA256|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-973757-4|page=256}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2022, the United States ranked 2nd in the [[Global Innovation Index]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=www.wipo.int |series=Global Innovation Index |year=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |isbn=9789280534320 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States also developed the [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS), the world's pre-eminent [[satellite navigation]] system.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/made-in-the-usa-american-tech-inventions/|first=Chenda|last=Ngak|publisher=[[CBS News]]|title=Made in the USA: American tech inventions|date=July 4, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{as of|2021}}, the United States receives approximately 79.1% of its energy from fossil fuels.&lt;ref name=&quot;visu&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date= |title=Energy Flow Charts: Charting the Complex Relationships among Energy, Water, and Carbon |url=https://flowcharts.llnl.gov/ |access-date=16 May 2023 |publisher=Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2021, the largest source of the country's energy came from [[petroleum]] (36.1%), followed by [[natural gas]] (32.2%), [[coal]] (10.8%), renewable sources (12.5%), and [[nuclear power]] (8.4%).&lt;ref name=&quot;visu&quot; /&gt;&lt;!--Numbers do not add up to 100 due to rounding errors. --&gt; The United States constitutes less than 5% of the [[world population|world's population]], but consumes 17% of the [[Energy use in the United States|world's energy]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=November 5, 2021 |title=What is the United States' share of world energy consumption? |work=[[Energy Information Administration|U.S. Energy Information Administration]] |url=https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=87&amp;t=1}}&lt;/ref&gt; It accounts for about 25% of the world's [[Oil consumption|petroleum consumption]], while producing only 6% of the world's annual petroleum supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;EIA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=EIA – Petroleum Basic Data |url=https://www.eia.doe.gov/basics/quickoil.html |access-date=March 30, 2012 |publisher=Eia.doe.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. ranks as second-highest emitter of greenhouse gases, exceeded only by China.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=US EPA |first=OAR |date=February 8, 2017 |title=Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks |url=https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks |access-date=December 3, 2020 |website=US EPA |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Transportation===
{{Main|Transportation in the United States}}
[[File:Atlanta Airport Aerial Angle (31435634003) (2) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport]] is the world's busiest by [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|passenger traffic]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/worlds-busiest-airports-2021/index.html|title=This US airport has reclaimed its title as the world's busiest|website=CNN.com|first=Marnie|last=Hunter|date=April 11, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

The United States's [[Rail transport in the United States|rail network]], nearly all [[Standard-gauge railway|standard gauge]], is the [[List of countries by rail transport network size|longest in the world]], and exceeds {{convert|293564|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/railways/country-comparison|title=Railways – The World Factbook|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=July 14, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; It handles mostly [[Freight transport|freight]], with intercity passenger service primarily provided by [[Amtrak]], a government-managed company that took over services previously run by private companies, to all but four states.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.transtats.bts.gov/osea/seasonaladjustment/?PageVar=RAIL_PM|title=Seasonally Adjusted Transportation Data|publisher=Bureau of Transportation Statistics|location=Washington, D.C.|date=2021|access-date=February 16, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Fitzsimmons |first=Emma G. |date=April 24, 2017 |title=Amtrak at a Junction: Invest in Improvements, or Risk Worsening Problems |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/24/nyregion/amtrak-infrastructure-crisis.html |work=The New York Times |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Personal transportation is [[Car dependency|dominated by automobiles]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-05-19 |title=Cars still dominate the American commute |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/05/commute-america-sustainability-cars/ |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; which operate on a network of {{convert|4|e6mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} of public roads, making it the [[List of countries by road network size|longest network]] in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Roadways - The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/roadways/country-comparison |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712201909/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/roadways/country-comparison |archive-date=2021-07-12 |access-date=2021-07-15 |website=www.cia.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Public Road and Street Mileage in the United States by Type of Surface|url=https://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_04.html|website=United States Department of Transportation|access-date=January 13, 2015|archive-date=January 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102141414/https://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_04.html|url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States became the first country in the world to have a mass market for vehicle production and sales, and mass market production process.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=automotive industry |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |last=Rae |first=John Bell |url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/automotive-industry |access-date=5 December 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; As of 2022, the United States is the [[List of countries by motor vehicle production|second-largest]] manufacturer of motor vehicles&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=2022 production statistics |url=https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2022-statistics/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers}}&lt;/ref&gt; and is home to [[Tesla, Inc.|Tesla]], the world's most valuable car company.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Klebnikov |first=Sergei |title=Tesla Is Now The World's Most Valuable Car Company With A $208 Billion Valuation |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/sergeiklebnikov/2020/07/01/tesla-is-now-the-worlds-most-valuable-car-company-with-a-valuation-of-208-billion/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Forbes |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[General Motors]] held the title of the world's best-selling automaker from 1931 to 2008.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last=Bunkley |first=Nick |date=2009-01-21 |title=Toyota Ahead of G.M. in 2008 Sales |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/22/business/22auto.html |access-date=2023-04-14 |issn=0362-4331}}&lt;/ref&gt; Currently, the U.S. has the world's second-largest automobile market by sales&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/jan/08/china-us-car-sales-overtakes|title=China overtakes US in car sales|newspaper=The Guardian|date=January 8, 2010|access-date=July 10, 2011|location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[List of countries by vehicles per capita|highest]] vehicle ownership per capita in the world, with 816.4 vehicles per 1,000 Americans (2014).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=|first=|date=January 30, 2017|title=Fact #962: Vehicles per Capita: Other Regions/Countries Compared to the United States|url=https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/fact-962-january-30-2017-vehicles-capita-other-regionscountries-compared-united-states|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=Energy.gov|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2017, there were 255 million non-two wheel motor vehicles, or about 910 vehicles per 1,000 people.&lt;ref name=&quot;USBTS&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://capitol-tires.com/how-many-cars-per-capita-in-the-us.html|title=Vehicle Statistics: Cars Per Capita|date=August 2017 |publisher=Capitol Tires}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[List of airlines of the United States|civil airline industry]] is entirely privately owned and has been largely [[Airline Deregulation Act|deregulated since 1978]], while [[List of airports in the United States|most major airports]] are publicly owned.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Edwards|first=Chris|date=July 12, 2020|title=Privatization|url=https://www.downsizinggovernment.org/privatization|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=Downsizing the Federal Government|publisher=Cato Institute|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; The three largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are U.S.-based; [[American Airlines]] is number one after its 2013 acquisition by [[US Airways]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iata.org/publications/pages/wats-passenger-carried.aspx|title=Scheduled Passengers Carried|publisher=International Air Transport Association (IATA)|year=2011|access-date=February 17, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102034843/https://www.iata.org/publications/pages/wats-passenger-carried.aspx|archive-date=January 2, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Of the [[List of the world's busiest airports by passenger traffic|world's 50 busiest passenger airports]], 16 are in the United States, including the top five and the busiest, [[Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport]].&lt;ref name=&quot;PANYNJ 2021 report&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.panynj.gov/content/dam/airports/statistics/statistics-general-info/annual-atr/ATR_2021.pdf|title=2021 Airport Traffic Report|work=Port Authority of New York and New Jersey|date=April 2022|page=32}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport-|title=Preliminary World Airport Traffic and Rankings 2013—High Growth Dubai Moves Up to 7th Busiest Airport|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401052319/https://www.aci.aero/News/Releases/Most-Recent/2014/03/31/Preliminary-World-Airport-Traffic-and-Rankings-2013--High-Growth-Dubai-Moves-Up-to-7th-Busiest-Airport-|archive-date=April 1, 2014|date=March 31, 2014|access-date=May 17, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2020}}, there are 19,919 airports in the United States, of which 5,217 are designated as &quot;public use&quot;, including for [[general aviation]] and other activities.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Number of U.S. Airports |url=https://www.bts.gov/content/number-us-airportsa |publisher=Bureau of Transportation Statistics |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Of the [[List of busiest container ports|fifty busiest container ports]], four are located in the United States, of which the busiest is the [[Port of Los Angeles]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.worldshipping.org/top-50-ports|title=The Top 50 Container Ports|work=[[World Shipping Council]]|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|access-date=July 14, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; The country's [[Inland waterways of the United States|inland waterways]] are the world's [[List of countries by waterways length|fifth-longest]], and total {{convert|41009|km|0|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/waterways/country-comparison |title=Waterways – The World Factbook |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=July 14, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Demographics==
{{Main|Americans|Demographics of the United States|Race and ethnicity in the United States|Religion in the United States|Family structure in the United States}}

===Population===
{{See also|List of U.S. states by population}}
&lt;!--As prose text is preferred, overly detailed statistical charts and diagrams such as economic trends, weather boxes, historical population charts, past elections results, etc. should be reserved for main sub articles on the topic as per WP:DETAIL as outlined at WP:NOTSTATS.--&gt;
{{US Census population
|1790= 3929326
|1800= 5308483
|1810= 7239881
|1820= 9638453
|1830= 12866020
|1840= 17069453
|1850= 23191876
|1860= 31443321
|1870= 38925598
|1880= 50189209
|1890= 62979766
|1900= 76212168
|1910= 92228496
|1920= 106021537
|1930= 122775046
|1940= 132164569
|1950= 150697361
|1960= 179323175
|1970= 203392031
|1980= 226545805
|1990= 248709873
|2000= 281421906
|2010= 308745538
|2020= 331449281
|estimate= 333287557
|estyear= 2022
|estref= &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045222#PST045222|title=U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States|publisher= United States Census Bureau|access-date= March 13, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|footnote= U.S. Decennial Census
}}

The [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]] reported 331,449,281 residents as of April 1, 2020,{{efn|This figure, like most official data for the United States as a whole, excludes the five unincorporated territories ([[Puerto Rico]], [[Guam]], the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], [[American Samoa]], and the [[Northern Mariana Islands]]) and minor island possessions.}}&lt;ref name=2020CENSUS&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/2020-census-apportionment-results.htmlpid=2020CENSUS&amp;src=pt|title=Census Bureau's 2020 Population Count|work=[[United States Census]]|access-date=April 26, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; making the United States the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|third most populous]] nation in the world, after China and India.&lt;ref name=&quot;CIA-2018&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=The World Factbook: United States|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/|access-date=November 10, 2018|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Bureau's [[U.S. and World Population Clock|U.S. Population Clock]], on January&amp;nbsp;28, 2021, the U.S. population had a net gain of one person every 100 seconds, or about 864 people per day.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Population Clock|url=https://www.census.gov/popclock/|website=www.census.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018, 52% of Americans age 15 and over were married, 6% were widowed, 10% were divorced, and 32% had never been married.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Table MS-1. Marital Status of the Population 15 Years Old and Over, by Sex, Race and Hispanic Origin: 1950 to Present|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/families/marital.html|access-date=September 11, 2019|website=Historical Marital Status Tables|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2021, the [[total fertility rate]] for the U.S. stood at 1.7 children per woman,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=McPhillips |first=Deidre |date=2023-01-31 |title=Covid-19 'baby bump' brought an increased US fertility rate in 2021 -- but also record high preterm births |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/01/31/health/us-birth-rate-fertility-trends-2021/index.html |access-date=2023-04-16 |website=CNN |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and it had the world's highest rate of children (23%) living in [[Single parents in the United States|single-parent]] households in 2019.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=U.S. has world's highest rate of children living in single-parent households|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/12/12/u-s-children-more-likely-than-children-in-other-countries-to-live-with-just-one-parent/|access-date=March 17, 2020|website=Pew Research Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The United States has a diverse population; 37 [[American ancestries|ancestry groups]] have more than one million members.&lt;ref name=&quot;An2000&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Ancestry 2000|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|date=June 2004|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|url-status=live|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20041204015245/https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf|archive-date=December 4, 2004|access-date=December 2, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Non-Hispanic whites|White Americans]] with ancestry from Europe, the Middle East or North Africa, form the largest [[race (human classification)|racial]] and [[ethnic group]] at 57.8% of the United States population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/2020-united-states-population-more-racially-ethnically-diverse-than-2010.html | title=The Chance That Two People Chosen at Random Are of Different Race or Ethnicity Groups Has Increased Since 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Table 52. Population by Selected Ancestry Group and Region: 2009|url=https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0052.pdf|date=2009|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121225031832/https://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0052.pdf|archive-date=December 25, 2012|access-date=February 11, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Hispanic and Latino Americans]] form the second-largest group and are 18.7% of the United States population. [[African Americans]] constitute the nation's third-largest ancestry group and are 12.1% of the total United States population.&lt;ref name=&quot;An2000&quot; /&gt; [[Asian Americans]] are the country's fourth-largest group, composing 5.9% of the United States population, while the country's 3.7 million [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] account for about 1%.&lt;ref name=&quot;An2000&quot; /&gt; In 2020, the [[median age]] of the United States population was 38.5 years.&lt;ref name=&quot;CIA-2018&quot; /&gt;

===Immigration===
{{main|Immigration to the United States}}
The United States has by far the highest [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population|number of immigrant population]] in the world, with 50,661,149 people.&lt;ref name=&quot;UNdef&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/docs/MigrationStockDocumentation_2019.pdf|title=INTERNATIONAL MIGRANT STOCK 2019 DOCUMENTATION}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/data/UN_MigrantStockTotal_2019.xlsx|title=UN_MigrantStockTotal_2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2018, there were almost 90 million immigrants and [[Second-generation immigrants in the United States|U.S.-born children of immigrants]] in the United States, accounting for 28% of the overall U.S. population.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=March 14, 2019|title=Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States|work=[[Migration Policy Institute]]|url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-united-states}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2017, out of the U.S. foreign-born population, some 45% (20.7&amp;nbsp;million) were naturalized citizens, 27% (12.3&amp;nbsp;million) were lawful permanent residents, 6% (2.2&amp;nbsp;million) were temporary lawful residents, and 23% (10.5&amp;nbsp;million) were unauthorized immigrants.&lt;ref name=&quot;KeyFindings&quot;&gt;{{cite web|date=June 17, 2019|title=Key findings about U.S. immigrants|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/17/key-findings-about-u-s-immigrants/|publisher=Pew Research Center}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The United States led the world in [[refugee resettlement]] for decades, admitting more refugees than the rest of the world combined.&lt;ref name=&quot;PewRefugees&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Key facts about refugees to the U.S.|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/10/07/key-facts-about-refugees-to-the-u-s/|author=Jens Manuel Krogstad|date=October 7, 2019|publisher=Pew Research Center}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Language===
{{Main|Languages of the United States}}

While many languages are spoken in the United States, English is the most common.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Kaur |first=Harmeet |date=2018-05-20 |title=FYI: English isn't the official language of the United States |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/05/20/us/english-us-official-language-trnd/index.html |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=CNN |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although there is no [[official language]] at the federal level, some laws—such as [[Naturalized citizen of the United States|U.S. naturalization requirements]]—standardize English, and most states have declared English as the official language.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=August 12, 2014|title=States Where English Is the Official Language|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/govbeat/wp/2014/08/12/states-where-english-is-the-official-language/|access-date=September 12, 2020|newspaper=The Washington Post}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three states and four U.S. territories have recognized local or indigenous languages in addition to English, including Hawaii ([[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date=November 7, 1978|title=The Constitution of the State of Hawaii, Article XV, Section 4|url=https://www.hawaii.gov/lrb/con/conart15.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130724231656/https://hawaii.gov/lrb/con/conart15.html|archive-date=July 24, 2013|access-date=June 19, 2007|publisher=Hawaii Legislative Reference Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt; Alaska ([[Alaska Native languages|twenty Native languages]]),{{efn|[[Inupiaq language|Inupiaq]], [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]], [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]], [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]], [[Aleut language|Unanga]] (Aleut), [[Denaʼina language|Denaʼina]], [[Deg Xinag language|Deg Xinag]], [[Holikachuk language|Holikachuk]], [[Koyukon language|Koyukon]], [[Upper Kuskokwim language|Upper Kuskokwim]], [[Gwichʼin language|Gwichʼin]], [[Lower Tanana language|Tanana]], [[Upper Tanana language|Upper Tanana]], [[Tanacross language|Tanacross]], [[Hän language|Hän]], [[Ahtna language|Ahtna]], [[Eyak language|Eyak]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], [[Haida language|Haida]], and [[Coast Tsimshian dialect|Tsimshian]]}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Chapel|first1=Bill|date=April 21, 2014|title=Alaska OKs Bill Making Native Languages Official|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2014/04/21/305688602/alaska-oks-bill-making-native-languages-official|newspaper=NPR}}&lt;/ref&gt; South Dakota ([[Sioux language|Sioux]]),&lt;ref name=&quot;LakotaCommon&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=South Dakota recognizes official indigenous language|url=https://eu.argusleader.com/story/news/politics/2019/03/22/south-dakota-recognizes-official-indigenous-language-governor-noem/3245113002/|access-date=March 26, 2019|publisher=[[Argus Leader]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; American Samoa ([[Samoan language|Samoan]]), Puerto Rico ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]), Guam ([[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]), and the Northern Mariana Islands ([[Carolinian language|Carolinian]] and Chamorro).

In Puerto Rico, Spanish is more widely spoken than English.&lt;ref name=&quot;PuertoRicoTranslation&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Translation in Puerto Rico|url=https://www.puertorico.com/translation/|access-date=December 29, 2013|website=Puerto Rico Channel|archive-date=December 30, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233259/http://www.puertorico.com/translation/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to the [[American Community Survey]], in 2010 some 229 million people (out of the total U.S. population of 308 million) spoke only English at home. More than 37 million spoke [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish]] at home, making it the second most commonly used language in the United States. Other languages spoken at home by one million people or more include [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (2.8 million), [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (1.6 million), [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (1.4 million), [[French language|French]] (1.3 million), [[Korean language|Korean]] (1.1 million), and [[German language|German]] (1 million).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_B16001&amp;prodType=table|title=American FactFinder—Results|first=U.S. Census|last=Bureau|access-date=May 29, 2017|archive-date=February 12, 2020|archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212213140/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_B16001&amp;prodType=table|url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[List of most commonly learned foreign languages in the United States|most widely taught foreign languages]] in the United States, in terms of enrollment numbers from kindergarten through university [[undergraduate education]], are Spanish, French, and [[German language in the United States|German]]. Other commonly taught languages include [[Latin]], [[Japanese language education in the United States|Japanese]], [[American Sign Language]], [[Italian language in the United States|Italian]], and [[Chinese language in the United States|Chinese]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf|title=Foreign Language Enrollments in K–12 Public Schools|date=February 2011|publisher=American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL)|access-date=October 17, 2015|archive-date=April 8, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408184754/https://www.actfl.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ReportSummary2011.pdf|url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.mla.org/pdf/2013_enrollment_survey.pdf|title=Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2013|last1=Goldberg|first1=David|last2=Looney|first2=Dennis|last3=Lusin|first3=Natalia|date=February 2015|publisher=Modern Language Association|access-date=May 20, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in the United States}}
{{See also|List of religious movements that began in the United States}}
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Self-identified religious affiliation in the United States (2023 ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]-[[Associated Press|NORC]]'' poll):&lt;ref name=&quot;WSJ-2022&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=March 2023 NORC/AP poll |url=https://s.wsj.net/public/resources/documents/WSJ_NORC_ToplineMarc_2023.pdf |access-date=March 27, 2023 |website=[[Wall Street Journal]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| label1 = [[Protestantism in the United States|Protestantism]]
| value1 = 26
| color1 = DarkBlue
| label2 = [[Catholicism in the United States|Catholicism]]
| value2 = 21
| color2 = Purple
| label3 = &quot;Just [[Christians|Christian]]&quot;
| value3 = 20
| color3 = Lightblue
| label4 = [[Mormonism]]
| value4 = 2
| color4 = Teal
| label5 = [[Unitarianism]]
| value5 = 1
| color5 = Red
| label6 = [[Judaism in the United States|Judaism]]
| value6 = 2
| color6 = Pink
| label7 = [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhism]]
| value7 = 2
| color7 = Yellow
| label8 = Other religious affilation
| value8 = 2 
| color8 = Salmon
| label9 = [[Islam in the United States|Islam]]
| value9 = 1
| color9 = Green
| label10 = [[Irreligion in the United States|Nothing in particular]]
| value10 = 12
| color10 = White
| label11 = [[Agnosticism]]
| value11 = 8
| color11 = LightGrey
| label12 = [[Atheism]]
| value12 = 4
| color12 = Black
}}
Religious affiliation in the United States is among the [[List of countries ranked by ethnic and cultural diversity level|most diverse in the world]]&lt;ref name=&quot;alesina1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |first=Alberto |last=Alesina |display-authors=etal |year=2003 |title=Fractionalization |url=http://www.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/alesina/files/fractionalization.pdf |journal=Journal of Economic Growth |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=155–194 |doi=10.1023/a:1024471506938 |access-date=September 13, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; and varies significantly [[List of regions of the United States|by region]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Williams-2023&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Daniel |date=March 1, 2023 |title='Christian America' Isn't Dying. It's Dividing. |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2023/february-web-only/christianity-america-pew-research-statistics-minority.html |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=[[Christianity Today]] |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and age.&lt;ref name=&quot;Burge-2023&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Burge |first=Ryan |author-link=Ryan Burge (political scientist) |date=2023-04-03 |title=Gen Z and Religion in 2022 |url=https://religioninpublic.blog/2023/04/03/gen-z-and-religion-in-2022/ |access-date=2023-04-04 |website=Religion in Public |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] guarantees the [[Free Exercise Clause|free exercise]] of religion and forbids Congress from passing laws respecting its [[Establishment Clause|establishment]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Donadio-2021&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Donadio |first=Rachel |date=2021-11-22 |title=Why Is France So Afraid of God? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2021/12/france-god-religion-secularism/620528/ |access-date=2023-03-25 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date= |title=First Amendment |url=https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/#:~:text=Congress%20shall%20make%20no%20law,for%20a%20redress%20of%20grievances. |work=Constitution Annotated |publisher=[[United States Congress]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; The country has the world's [[Christianity by country|largest Christian population]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Global Christianity&quot;&gt;{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS|url=https://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx|title=Global Christianity|publisher=Pewforum.org|date=December 19, 2011|access-date=August 17, 2012|archive-date=July 30, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730062627/http://www.pewforum.org/christian/global-christianity-exec.aspx|url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; and a majority of Americans identify as [[Christians|Christian]], predominately [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[mainline Protestant]], or [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]]. According to Gallup, 58% and 17% reporting [[Prayer|praying]] often or sometimes, respectively, and 46% and 26% reporting that religion plays a very important or fairly important role, respectively, in their lives.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gallup Poll&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=2022 |title=Religion Historical Trends |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/1690/religion.aspx |website=Gallup}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most do not regularly attend religious services&lt;ref name=&quot;WSJ-2022&quot; /&gt; and have low confidence in religious institutions.&lt;ref name=&quot;McCarthy-2019&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=McCarthy |first=Justin |date=2019-07-08 |title=U.S. Confidence in Organized Religion Remains Low |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/259964/confidence-organized-religion-remains-low.aspx |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=Gallup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Until the 1990s, the country was a [[outlier|significant outlier]] among [[Developed country|highly developed]] countries, notably having [[Wealth and religion|a high level of religiosity and wealth]], although this has lessened since.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nadeem-2022&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nadeem |first=Reem |date=2022-09-13 |title=Modeling the Future of Religion in America |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/09/13/modeling-the-future-of-religion-in-america/ |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=[[Pew Research Center]] |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Thompson-2019&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Derek |date=2019-09-26 |title=Three Decades Ago, America Lost Its Religion. Why? |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/09/atheism-fastest-growing-religion-us/598843/ |access-date=2022-10-02 |website=The Atlantic |language=en |quote=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

According to Gallup and Pew 81%-90% of Americans believe in a [[Higher Power|higher power]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Jeffrey |date=2022-06-17 |title=Belief in God in U.S. Dips to 81%, a New Low |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/393737/belief-god-dips-new-low.aspx |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=Gallup |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Key findings about Americans' belief in God |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/04/25/key-findings-about-americans-belief-in-god/ |website=Pew Research Center |date=April 25, 2018 |quote= The vast majority of Americans (90%) believe in some kind of higher power, with 56% professing faith in God as described in the Bible and another 33% saying they believe in another type of higher power or spiritual force. Only one-in-ten Americans say they don’t believe in God or a higher power of any kind.}}&lt;/ref&gt; while &quot;31% report attending a church, synagogue, mosque or temple weekly or nearly weekly today.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Jones-2022&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Jeffrey |date=2022-12-21 |title=In U.S., Childhood Churchgoing Habits Fade in Adulthood |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/467354/childhood-churchgoing-habits-fade-adulthood.aspx |access-date=2023-01-01 |website=Gallup.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the &quot;[[Bible Belt]]&quot;, located within the [[Southern United States]], evangelical Protestantism plays a significant role culturally. [[New England]] and the [[Western United States]] tend [[Unchurched Belt|to be less religious]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Williams-2023&quot; /&gt; Around 6% of Americans claim a non-Christian faith;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nadeem-2022&quot; /&gt; the largest of which are [[Judaism]], [[Islam in the United States|Islam]], [[Hinduism in the United States|Hinduism]], and [[Buddhism in the United States|Buddhism]].&lt;ref name=&quot;pew2015&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=May 12, 2015 |title=America's Changing Religious Landscape |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/ |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]: Religion &amp; Public Life}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States either has the [[American Jews|first or second-largest Jewish population]] in the world, the largest outside of [[Israel]].&lt;ref name=&quot;JDB&quot;&gt;{{cite report |editor1-last=Dashefsky |editor1-first=Arnold |editor-link1=Arnold Dashefsky |editor2-last=Della Pergola |editor2-first=Sergio |editor-link2=Sergio Della Pergola |editor3-last=Sheskin |editor3-first=Ira |date=2018 |title=World Jewish Population|url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2018-World_Jewish_Population_(AJYB,_DellaPergola)_DB_Final.pdf|publisher=[[Berman Jewish DataBank]]|access-date=22 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;[[Ceremonial deism]]&quot; is common in American culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;Donadio-2021&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last1=Merriam |first1=Jesse |last2=Lupu |first2=Ira |last3=Elwood |first3=F |last4=Davis |first4=Eleanor |date=August 28, 2008 |title=On Ceremonial Occasions, May the Government Invoke a Deity? |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2008/08/28/on-ceremonial-occasions-may-the-government-invoke-a-deity/ |access-date=March 31, 2023 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion &amp; Public Life Project |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Around 30% of Americans describe themselves as having [[irreligion|no religion]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Nadeem-2022&quot; /&gt; Membership in a house of worship fell from 70% in 1999 to 47% in 2020.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Jeffrey M. |date=March 29, 2021 |title=U.S. Church Membership Falls Below Majority for First Time |language=en |work=[[Gallup Inc.]] |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/341963/church-membership-falls-below-majority-first-time.aspx |access-date=April 5, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Urbanization===
{{Main|Urbanization in the United States|List of United States cities by population}}
About 82% of Americans live in [[United States urban area|urban areas]], including suburbs;&lt;ref name=&quot;WF&quot; /&gt; about half of those reside in cities with populations over 50,000.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&amp;-state=gct&amp;-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&amp;-_box_head_nbr=GCT-P1&amp;-mt_name=&amp;-_caller=geoselect&amp;-geo_id=&amp;-format=US-1&amp;-_lang=en|title=United States—Urban/Rural and Inside/Outside Metropolitan Area|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090403024532/https://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&amp;-state=gct&amp;-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&amp;-_box_head_nbr=GCT-P1&amp;-mt_name=&amp;-_caller=geoselect&amp;-geo_id=&amp;-format=US-1&amp;-_lang=en|archive-date=April 3, 2009|access-date=September 23, 2008|url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2008, 273 [[List of United States cities by population|incorporated municipalities]] had populations over 100,000, nine cities had more than one million residents, and four cities ([[New York City]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Chicago]], and [[Houston]]) had populations exceeding two million.&lt;ref name=&quot;PopEstBigCities&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/census/popestimate/copy_of_2008-subcounty-population-hawaii/SUB_EST2008_01.pdf|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5lpvuJk99?url=https://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/census/popestimate/copy_of_2008-subcounty-population-hawaii/SUB_EST2008_01.pdf|archive-date=December 7, 2009|title=Table 1: Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places Over 100,000, Ranked by July 1, 2008 Population: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2008|website=2008 Population Estimates|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division|date=July 1, 2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Many U.S. metropolitan populations are growing rapidly, particularly in the South and West.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date=April 18, 2019|title=Counties in South and West Lead Nation in Population Growth|url=https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2019/estimates-county-metro.html|access-date=August 29, 2020|website=The United States Census Bureau|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{Largest metropolitan areas of the United States}}

===Education===
{{Main|Education in the United States|Higher education in the United States}}
[[File:University-of-Virginia-Rotunda.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Virginia]], founded by [[Thomas Jefferson]], is one of the many public colleges and universities in the United States.|alt=Photograph of the University of Virginia]]

American [[state school|public education]] is operated by state and local governments and regulated by the [[United States Department of Education]] through restrictions on federal grants. In most states, children are required to attend school from the age of five or six (beginning with [[kindergarten]] or [[first grade]]) until they turn 18 (generally bringing them through [[twelfth grade]], the end of [[high school]]); some states allow students to leave school at 16 or 17.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d02/dt150.asp|title=Ages for Compulsory School Attendance ...|access-date=June 10, 2007|publisher=U.S. Dept. of Education, National Center for Education Statistics}}&lt;/ref&gt; Of Americans 25 and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a [[bachelor's degree]], and 9.6% earned graduate degrees.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Educational Attainment in the United States: 2003|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-550.pdf|access-date=August 1, 2006|publisher=U.S. Census Bureau}}&lt;/ref&gt; The basic [[literacy]] rate is approximately 99%.&lt;ref name=&quot;WF&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;For more detail on U.S. literacy, see [https://nces.ed.gov/NAAL/PDF/2006470.PDF A First Look at the Literacy of America's Adults in the 21st century], U.S. Department of Education (2003).&lt;/ref&gt;

The United States has many private and public [[Lists of American institutions of higher education|institutions of higher education]]. There are also local [[community college]]s with generally more open admission policies, shorter academic programs, and lower tuition.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Pannoni|first1=Alexandra|last2=Kerr|first2=Emma|url=https://www.usnews.com/education/community-colleges/articles/2015/02/06/frequently-asked-questions-community-college|title=Everything You Need to Know About Community Colleges: FAQ|work=[[U.S. News &amp; World Report]]|date=July 14, 2020|access-date=July 9, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. spends more on education per student than any nation in the world,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Rushe|first=Dominic|date=September 7, 2018|title=The US spends more on education than other countries. Why is it falling behind?|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/sep/07/us-education-spending-finland-south-korea|access-date=August 29, 2020|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; spending an average of $12,794 per year on public elementary and secondary school students in the 2016–2017 school year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date=April 2020|title=Fast Facts: Expenditures|url=https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=66|access-date=August 29, 2020|website=nces.ed.gov|language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt; As for [[public expenditure]]s on higher education, the U.S. spends more per student than the [[OECD]] average, and more than all nations in combined public and private spending.&lt;ref name=&quot;education spending&quot;&gt;{{cite news|date=June 25, 2013|title=U.S. education spending tops global list, study shows|publisher=CBS|agency=AP|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162-57590921/u.s-education-spending-tops-global-list-study-shows/|access-date=October 5, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Despite some student [[loan forgiveness]] programs in place,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Biden administration cancelled $9.5B in student loan debt. Here's who it affects. |url=https://usafacts.org/articles/the-biden-administration-cancelled-95b-in-student-loan-debt-heres-who-it-affects/ |access-date=July 15, 2022 |website=USAFacts |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Student debt|student loan debt]] has increased by 102% in the last decade,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Hess|first=Abigail Johnson|date=December 22, 2020|title=U.S. student debt has increased by more than 100% over the past 10 years|work=CNBC|location=|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/12/22/us-student-debt-has-increased-by-more-than-100percent-over-past-10-years.html|access-date=January 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; and exceeded 1.7&amp;nbsp;trillion dollars as of 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dickler|first1=Jessica|last2=Nova|first2=Annie|date=May 6, 2022|title=This is how student loan debt became a $1.7 trillion crisis|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/06/this-is-how-student-loan-debt-became-a-1point7-trillion-crisis.html|work=CNBC|location=|access-date=July 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The large majority of the world's top universities, as listed by various ranking organizations, are in the United States, including 19 of the top 25, and the most prestigious{{ww|date=May 2023}}{{or|date=May 2023}} – the [[Harvard University]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Fink |first=Jenni |date=2019-10-22 |title=U.S. Schools Take 8 of 10 Top Spots on U.S. News' Best Global Universities |url=https://www.newsweek.com/us-news-best-global-universities-american-schools-dominate-top-10-1466768 |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Nietzel |first=Michael T. |date=March 22, 2023 |title=U.S. Universities Dominate Latest QS World Rankings By Academic Field |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeltnietzel/2023/03/22/us-universities-dominate-latest-qs-world-rankings-by-academic-field/ |access-date=2023-04-18 |website=Forbes |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/best-countries-for-education |title=Best Countries for Education: North American and European countries are seen as offering the best opportunities for education. |website=U.S. News &amp; World Report |date=April 19, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.usnews.com/education/best-global-universities/rankings |title=2022-2023 Best Global Universities Rankings |website=[[U.S. News &amp; World Report]] |access-date=April 27, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; The country also has by far the most [[List of Nobel laureates by country|Nobel Prize winners]] in history, with 403 (having won 406 awards).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=All Nobel Prizes |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/all-nobel-prizes |website=NobelPrize.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Health===
{{See also|Health care in the United States|Health care reform in the United States|Health insurance in the United States}}
[[File:Texas medical center.jpg|thumb|The [[Texas Medical Center]] in downtown [[Houston]] is the largest medical complex in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://www.newsweek.com/texas-medical-center-largest-medical-complex-world-reaches-98-percent-icu-capacity-1526180 | title=Texas Medical Center, largest medical complex in the world, reaches 98 percent ICU capacity | website=[[Newsweek]] | date=August 19, 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; |alt=The Texas Medical Center, a cluster of contemporary skyscrapers, at night]]

In a preliminary report, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) announced that U.S. [[life expectancy]] at birth had dropped to 76.4 years in 2021 (73.2 years for men and 79.1 years for women), down 0.9 years from 2020. This was the second year of overall decline, and the chief causes listed were the [[COVID-19]] pandemic, accidents, drug overdoses, heart and liver disease, and suicides.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Life Expectancy in the United States Declines, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/nchs_press_releases/2022/20220831.htm|website=www.cdc.gov|access-date=September 3, 2022|date=August 31, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Noguchi|first=Yuki |date=December 22, 2022 |title=American life expectancy is now at its lowest in nearly two decades|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2022/12/22/1144864971/american-life-expectancy-is-now-at-its-lowest-in-nearly-two-decades|work=[[NPR]] |location= |access-date=December 27, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Life expectancy was highest among Asians and Hispanics and lowest among Blacks and American Indian–Alaskan Native ([[AIAN (U.S. Census)|AIAN]]) peoples.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date=November 29, 2018|title=Mortality in the United States, 2017|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db328.htm|access-date=December 27, 2018|website=www.cdc.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Bernstein|first1=Lenny|date=November 29, 2018|title=U.S. life expectancy declines again, a dismal trend not seen since World War I|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/us-life-expectancy-declines-again-a-dismal-trend-not-seen-since-world-war-i/2018/11/28/ae58bc8c-f28c-11e8-bc79-68604ed88993_story.html|access-date=December 27, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; Starting in 1998, the average life expectancy in the U.S. fell behind that of other wealthy industrialized countries, and Americans' &quot;health disadvantage&quot; gap has been increasing ever since.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Achenbach|first=Joel|date=November 26, 2019|title='There's something terribly wrong': Americans are dying young at alarming rates|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/theres-something-terribly-wrong-americans-are-dying-young-at-alarming-rates/2019/11/25/d88b28ec-0d6a-11ea-8397-a955cd542d00_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=December 19, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S. also has one of the highest [[Suicide in the United States|suicide]] rates among [[high-income countries]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date=January 30, 2020|title=New International Report on Health Care: U.S. Suicide Rate Highest Among Wealthy Nations {{!}} Commonwealth Fund|url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/press-release/2020/new-international-report-health-care-us-suicide-rate-highest-among-wealthy|access-date=March 17, 2020|website=www.commonwealthfund.org|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; and approximately one-third of the U.S. adult population is obese and another third is overweight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity Among Adults: United States, 2003–2004|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/overweight/overwght_adult_03.htm|access-date=June 5, 2007|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2010, [[coronary artery disease]], [[lung cancer]], [[stroke]], [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]]s, and traffic collisions caused the most years of life lost in the U.S. [[Low back pain]], [[major depressive disorder|depression]], [[musculoskeletal disorder]]s, [[neck pain]], and [[anxiety]] caused the most years lost to disability. The most harmful [[risk factor]]s were poor diet, [[tobacco smoking]], obesity, [[Hypertension|high blood pressure]], [[Hyperglycemia|high blood sugar]], [[physical inactivity]], and [[Alcohol consumption and health|alcohol consumption]]. [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[substance use disorder]]s, [[kidney disease]], [[cancer]], and falls caused the most additional years of life lost over their age-adjusted 1990 per-capita rates.&lt;ref name=&quot;Murray2013&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|first=Christopher J.L.|last=Murray|title=The State of US Health, 1990–2010: Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors|journal=Journal of the American Medical Association|doi=10.1001/jama.2013.13805|date=July 10, 2013|volume=310|issue=6|pages=591–608|pmid=23842577|pmc=5436627 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Teenage pregnancy in the United States|Teenage pregnancy]] and [[Abortion in the United States|abortion]] rates in the U.S. are substantially higher than in other Western nations, especially among blacks and Hispanics.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=About Teen Pregnancy|url=https://www.cdc.gov/TeenPregnancy/AboutTeenPreg.htm|publisher=Center for Disease Control|access-date=January 24, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The U.S. health care system far [[List of countries by total health expenditure (PPP) per capita|outspends]] that of any other nation, measured both in per capita spending and as a percentage of GDP but attains worse health care outcomes when compared to peer nations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|year=2001|title=The U.S. Healthcare System: The Best in the World or Just the Most Expensive?|url=https://dll.umaine.edu/ble/U.S.+HCweb.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/20070309142240/https://dll.umaine.edu:80/ble/U.S.%20HCweb.pdf|archive-date=March 9, 2007|access-date=November 29, 2006|publisher=University of Maine}}{{cbignore}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States is the only developed nation [[Healthcare reform in the United States|without a system of universal health care]], and a [[Health insurance coverage in the United States|significant proportion of the population that does not carry health insurance]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Vladeck|first=Bruce|title=Universal Health Insurance in the United States: Reflections on the Past, the Present, and the Future|date=January 2003|volume=93|number=1|pages=16–19|pmid=12511377|doi=10.2105/ajph.93.1.16|journal=[[American Journal of Public Health]]|pmc=1447684 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The U.S., however, is a global leader in medical innovation, measured either in terms of revenue or the number of new drugs and devices introduced.&lt;ref name=&quot;EFPIA&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.efpia.org/content/Default.asp?PageID=388|title=Improving Europe's competitiveness|publisher=[[European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations|EFPIA]]|access-date=November 6, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823030103/http://www.efpia.org/content/Default.asp?PageID=388|archive-date=August 23, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Europe&quot;&gt;Stats from 2007 Europ.Fed.of Pharm.Indust.and Assoc. Retrieved June 17, 2009, from [http://212.3.246.100/Objects/2/Files/infigures2007.pdf]{{dead link|date=October 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Foundation for Research on Equal Opportunity ranked the United States 11th in its World Index of Healthcare Innovation; it concluded that the U.S. dominates science &amp; technology, which &quot;was on full display during the COVID-19 pandemic, as the U.S. government [delivered] coronavirus vaccines far faster than anyone had ever done before,&quot; but lags behind in fiscal sustainability, with &quot;[government] spending [...] growing at an unsustainable rate.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://freopp.org/united-states-11-in-the-2022-world-index-of-healthcare-innovation-7175b47ab5d7|title=United States: #11 in the 2022 World Index of Healthcare Innovation. America's runaway leadership in science &amp; technology is marred by a fiscally unsustainable system of costly health care.|website=freopp.org|author=Grant Rigney|date=March 3, 2023|access-date=April 27, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Government-funded health care coverage for the poor ([[Medicaid]], established in 1965) and for those age 65 and older ([[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]], begun in 1966) is available to Americans who meet the programs' income or age qualifications. In 2010, former President Obama passed the [[Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act]] or ACA,{{efn|Also known less formally as Obamacare}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Oberlander|first=Jonathan|date=June 1, 2010| title=Long Time Coming: Why Health Reform Finally Passed|journal=Health Affairs|language=en|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1112–1116|doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0447| pmid=20530339|issn=0278-2715|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the law roughly halving the uninsured share of the population according to the CDC.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/earlyrelease/earlyrelease201611_01.pdf|title=National Health Interview Survey, January to June 2016|website=CDC.gov|access-date=November 23, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Multiple studies have concluded that ACA had reduced the mortality of enrollees.&lt;ref name=&quot;NYT20200323GoodnoughAbelsonetAl&quot;&gt;{{cite news|first1=Abby|last1=Goodnough|first2=Reed|last2=Abelson|first3=Margot|last3=Sanger-Katz|first4=Sarah|last4=Kliff|title=Obamacare Turns 10. Here's a Look at What Works and Doesn't.|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/health/obamacare-aca-coverage-cost-history.html|access-date=March 31, 2020|date=March 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200330105840/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/23/health/obamacare-aca-coverage-cost-history.html|archive-date=March 30, 2020|work=The New York Times}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last1=Miller|first1=Sarah|last2=Altekruse|first2=Sean|last3=Johnson|first3=Norman|last4=Wherry|first4=Laura|date=July 2019|title=Medicaid and Mortality: New Evidence from Linked Survey and Administrative Data|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research|series=NBER Working Paper No. 26081|doi=10.3386/w26081|s2cid=164463149|url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w26081.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Goldin|first1=Jacob|last2=Lurie|first2=Ithai Z.|last3=McCubbin|first3=Janet|title=Health Insurance and Mortality: Experimental Evidence from Taxpayer Outreach|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|year=2020|volume=136|pages=1–49|language=en|doi=10.1093/qje/qjaa029|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, its legacy [[Criticism of Obamacare|remains controversial]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Mathews|first=Anna Wilde|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/why-is-aca-still-controversial-11-years-after-healthcare-law-known-as-obamacare-was-passed-11623962729|title=Why Is ACA Still Controversial 11 Years After Healthcare Law Known as Obamacare Was Passed?|work=[[Wall Street Journal]]|date=June 17, 2021|access-date=July 18, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Culture and society==
{{Main|Culture of the United States|Society of the United States}}
[[File:Liberty02.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Statue of Liberty]] (''Liberty Enlightening the World''), a gift from [[France]], has become an iconic symbol of the [[American Dream]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| title = Statue of Liberty| website=World Heritage| publisher=UNESCO| url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/307| access-date = January 4, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;|alt=The Statue of Liberty, a large teal bronze sculpture on a stone pedestal]]

Americans have traditionally [[Stereotypes of Americans|been characterized]] by a unifying belief in an &quot;[[American civil religion|American creed]]&quot; emphasizing liberty, [[equality under the law]], democracy, [[social equality]], [[property rights]], and a preference for [[limited government]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Huntington |first=Samuel P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whoarewechalleng00hunt |title=Who are We?: The Challenges to America's National Identity |publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-684-87053-3 |chapter=Chapters 2–4 |author-link=Samuel P. Huntington |access-date=October 25, 2015 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6xiYiybkE8kC&amp;q=core}}: also see [[American Creed]], written by [[William Tyler Page]] and adopted by Congress in 1918.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Hoeveler, J. David, ''Creating the American Mind: Intellect and Politics in the Colonial Colleges'', Rowman &amp; Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-0742548398}}, 2007, p. xi&lt;/ref&gt; [[Individualism]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Grabb |first1=Edward |last2=Baer |first2=Douglas |last3=Curtis |first3=James |year=1999 |title=The Origins of American Individualism: Reconsidering the Historical Evidence |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Sociology]] |publisher=[[University of Alberta]] |volume=24 |pages=511–533 |doi=10.2307/3341789 |issn=0318-6431 |jstor=3341789 |number=4}}&lt;/ref&gt; having a strong [[work ethic]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Porter |first=Gayle |date=November 2010 |title=Work Ethic and Ethical Work: Distortions in the American Dream |journal=[[Journal of Business Ethics]] |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |volume=96 |pages=535–550 |doi=10.1007/s10551-010-0481-6 |jstor=29789736 |s2cid=143991044 |number=4}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Competition (economics)|competitiveness]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Stephens |first=R.H. |date=September 1952 |title=The Role Of Competition In American Life |journal=[[The Australian Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Australian Institute of Policy and Science]] |volume=24 |pages=9–14 |jstor=41317686 |number=3}}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[altruism]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://good2give.ngo/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/2022-CAF-World-Giving-Index.pdf |title=World Giving Index 2022 |website=[[Charities Aid Foundation]] |access-date=April 27, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Country-level estimates of altruism |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/cross-country-variation-in-altruism |access-date=2023-03-14 |website=Our World in Data}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Marsh |first=Abigail |date=February 5, 2018 |title=Could A More Individualistic World Also Be A More Altruistic One? |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2018/02/05/581873428/could-a-more-individualistic-world-also-be-a-more-altruistic-one |access-date=March 14, 2023 |website=[[National Public Radio]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; are also cited values. According to a 2016 study by the [[Charities Aid Foundation]], Americans donated 1.44% of total GDP to charity, the [[List of countries by charitable donation|highest]] in the world by a large margin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=January 2016 |title=GROSS DOMESTIC PHILANTHROPY: An international analysis of GDP, tax and giving |url=https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-policy-and-campaigns/gross-domestic-philanthropy-feb-2016.pdf |access-date=July 18, 2022 |publisher=[[Charities Aid Foundation]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States is home to a [[Multiculturalism|wide variety]] of ethnic groups, traditions, and values,&lt;ref name=&quot;DD&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=J.Q. |title=Dealing with diversity : the anthology |last2=Strother-Adams |first2=Pearlie |date=2001 |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Pub |isbn=978-0-7872-8145-8 |location=Chicago}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Society in Focus&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=William E. |title=Society in focus : an introduction to sociology |last2=Hickey |first2=Joseph V. |date=2004 |publisher=Pearson/Allyn and Bacon |isbn=978-0-205-41365-2 |edition=5th |location=Boston}}&lt;/ref&gt; and exerts major cultural influence on a global scale,&lt;ref&gt;[[#BBC18may|BBC, April 2008: Country Profile: United States of America]]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite magazine |last1=Fergie |first1=Dexter |date=March 24, 2022 |title=How American Culture Ate the World |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/165836/american-culture-ate-world-righteous-smokescreen-globalization-review |magazine=The New Republic |issn=0028-6583 |access-date=July 3, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the phenomenon being termed ''[[Americanization]]''.&lt;ref name=&quot;stead1901&quot;&gt;{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/stream/americanizationo01stea#page/392/mode/2up | title=The Americanization of the World | publisher=Horace Markley | author=Stead, W. T. | year=1901 | page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; As such, the U.S. is considered a [[cultural superpower]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Berghahn |first=Volker R. |date=2010-02-01 |title=The debate on 'Americanization' among economic and cultural historians |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14682740903388566 |journal=Cold War History |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=107–130 |doi=10.1080/14682740903388566 |s2cid=144459911 |issn=1468-2745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nearly all present Americans or their ancestors came from [[Afro-Eurasia|Eurafrasia]] (&quot;the [[Old World]]&quot;) within the past five centuries.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Fiorina|first1=Morris P.|author-link1=Morris P. Fiorina|last2=Peterson|first2=Paul E.|title=The New American democracy|date=2010|publisher=Longman|location=London|isbn=978-0-205-78016-7|page=97|edition=7th}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[wikt:mainstream|Mainstream]] American culture is a [[Western culture]] largely derived from the [[European American|traditions of European immigrants]] with influences from many other sources, such as [[African-American culture|traditions brought by slaves from Africa]].&lt;ref name=&quot;DD&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Holloway|first1=Joseph E.|title=Africanisms in American culture|date=2005|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-0-253-21749-3|pages=18–38|edition=2nd}}&lt;br /&gt;{{cite book|last1=Johnson|first1=Fern L.|title=Speaking culturally : language diversity in the United States|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-0-8039-5912-5|page=116|year=2000 }}&lt;/ref&gt; More recent immigration from [[Asian American|Asia]] and especially [[Latin American culture|Latin America]] has added to a cultural mix that has been described as a homogenizing [[melting pot]], and a heterogeneous [[salad bowl (cultural idea)|salad bowl]], with immigrants contributing to, and often [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilating]] into, mainstream American culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;DD&quot; /&gt; The [[American Dream]], or the perception that Americans enjoy high [[Socio-economic mobility in the United States|social mobility]], plays a key role in attracting immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.gallup.com/poll/161435/100-million-worldwide-dream-life.aspx|title=More Than 100 Million Worldwide Dream of a Life in the U.S. More than 25% in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Dominican Republic want to move to the U.S.|last=Clifton|first=Jon|date=March 21, 2013|publisher=Gallup|access-date=January 10, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; Whether this perception is accurate has been a topic of debate.&lt;ref name=&quot;socialmobility&quot;&gt;*{{cite web|url=https://www.oecd.org/tax/public-finance/chapter%205%20gfg%202010.pdf|title=A Family Affair: Intergenerational Social Mobility across OECD Countries|publisher=OECD|website=Economic Policy Reforms: Going for Growth|year=2010|access-date=September 20, 2010}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.suttontrust.com/reports/IntergenerationalMobility.pdf|title=Intergenerational Mobility in Europe and North America|author1=Blanden, Jo|author2=Gregg, Paul|author3=Machin, Stephen|publisher=Centre for Economic Performance|date=April 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623094610/https://www.suttontrust.com/reports/IntergenerationalMobility.pdf|archive-date=June 23, 2006}}
*{{cite web|last1=Gould|first1=Elise|title=U.S. lags behind peer countries in mobility|url=https://www.epi.org/publication/usa-lags-peer-countries-mobility/|website=[[Economic Policy Institute]]|access-date=July 15, 2013|date=October 10, 2012}}
*{{cite journal|last=Winship|first=Scott|title=Overstating the Costs of Inequality|journal=National Affairs|date=Spring 2013|url=https://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Articles/2013/03/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024141452/https://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Research/Files/Articles/2013/03/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship/overstating%20inequality%20costs%20winship.pdf|archive-date=October 24, 2013|access-date=January 10, 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CAP&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Understanding Mobility in America|url=https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/economy/news/2006/04/26/1917/understanding-mobility-in-america/|website=Center for American Progress|date=April 26, 2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Schneider&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Schneider|first=Donald|title=A Guide to Understanding International Comparisons of Economic Mobility|url=https://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/07/a-guide-to-understanding-international-comparisons-of-economic-mobility|publisher=The Heritage Foundation|access-date=August 22, 2013|date=July 29, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; While mainstream culture holds that the United States is a [[classless society]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Gutfeld|first=Amon|year=2002|title=American Exceptionalism: The Effects of Plenty on the American Experience|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|location=Brighton and Portland|page=65|isbn=978-1-903900-08-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; scholars identify significant differences between [[Social class in the United States|the country's social classes]], affecting [[socialization]], language, and values.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Zweig|first=Michael|year=2004|title=What's Class Got To Do With It, American Society in the Twenty-First Century|publisher=Cornell University Press|location=Ithaca, NY|isbn=978-0-8014-8899-3}} {{cite web|url=https://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&amp;_pageLabel=RecordDetails&amp;ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED309843&amp;ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&amp;objectId=0900000b800472a5|title=Effects of Social Class and Interactive Setting on Maternal Speech|publisher=Education Resource Information Center|access-date=January 27, 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; Americans tend to greatly value [[socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] achievement, but being [[Average Joe|ordinary or average]] is promoted by some as a noble condition.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=O'Keefe|first=Kevin|year=2005|title=The Average American|publisher=PublicAffairs|location=New York|isbn=978-1-58648-270-1|url=https://archive.org/details/averageamericant00okee }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The United States is considered to have the [[Freedom of speech by country|strongest protections of free speech of any country]] in the world under the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Coleman |first=Gabriella |title=Coding Freedom |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2013 |isbn=9780691144610 |pages=10, 201 |author-link=Gabriella Coleman}}&lt;/ref&gt; with the Supreme Court ruling that [[flag desecration]], [[Hate speech laws by country|hate speech]], [[Blasphemy law|blasphemy]], and [[Lèse-majesté|lese-majesty]] are all forms of protected expression.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=September 19, 2012 |title=Held Dear In U.S., Free Speech Perplexing Abroad |url=https://www.npr.org/2012/09/19/161439562/held-dear-in-u-s-free-speech-perplexing-abroad |access-date=March 4, 2023 |website=[[National Public Radio]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Liptak |first=Adam |date=11 June 2008 |title=Hate speech or free speech? What much of West bans is protected in U.S. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/11/world/americas/11iht-hate.4.13645369.html |url-access=limited |access-date=February 21, 2023 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Durkee |first=Alison |date=April 25, 2018 |title=What if we didn't... have the First Amendment? |url=https://www.mic.com/articles/188402/what-if-we-didnt-have-the-first-amendment |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Mic |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; A 2016 [[Pew Research Center]] poll found that Americans were the most supportive of free expression of any polity measured.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Wike |first=Richard |title=Americans more tolerant of offensive speech than others in the world |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/10/12/americans-more-tolerant-of-offensive-speech-than-others-in-the-world/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; They are also the &quot;most supportive of [[freedom of the press]] and the [[Right to Internet access|right to use the Internet]] without government censorship.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Gray |first=Alex |date=November 8, 2016 |title=Freedom of speech: which country has the most? |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/11/freedom-of-speech-country-comparison/ |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; It is a [[Cultural liberalism|socially progressive]] country&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Norris |first=Pippa |author-link=Pippa Norris |date=February 2023 |title=Cancel Culture: Myth or Reality? |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00323217211037023 |journal=Political Studies |language=en |volume=71 |issue=1 |pages=145–174 |doi=10.1177/00323217211037023 |s2cid=238647612 |issn=0032-3217 |quote=As predicted, in post-industrial societies, characterized by predominately liberal social cultures, like the US, Sweden, and UK...}}&lt;/ref&gt; with [[Permissive society|permissive]] attitudes surrounding [[human sexuality]].&lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Derks |first1=Marco |title=Public Discourses About Homosexuality and Religion in Europe and Beyond |last2=van den Berg |first2=Mariecke |publisher=[[Springer International Publishing]] |year=2020 |isbn=9783030563264 |pages=338 |quote=...(the United States and [Western] Europe) as &quot;already in crisis&quot; for their permissive attitudes toward nonnormative sexualities...}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[LGBT rights in the United States|LGBT rights in the U.S.]] are among the most advanced in the world.&lt;ref name=&quot;auto1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Leveille |first=Dan |date=December 4, 2009 |title=LGBT Equality Index: The most LGBT-friendly countries in the world |url=https://www.equaldex.com/equality-index |access-date=January 26, 2023 |website=[[Equaldex]] |quote=13.) United States}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Garretson |first=Jeremiah |title=The Path to Gay Rights: How Activism and Coming Out Changed Public Opinion |publisher=[[New York University Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=9781479850075 |page= |chapter=A Transformed Society: LGBT Rights in the United States |quote=In the late 1980s and early 1990s, a dramatic wave began to form in the waters of public opinion: American attitudes involving homosexuality began to change... The transformation of America's response to homosexuality has been — and continues to be — one of the most rapid and sustained shifts in mass attitudes since the start of public polling.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Literature and visual arts===
{{Main|American literature|American philosophy|Architecture of the United States|Visual art of the United States}}
[[File:Mark Twain by AF Bradley.jpg|thumb|253x253px|[[Mark Twain]], American author and [[humorist]]|alt=Photograph of Mark Twain]]

In the 18th and early 19th centuries, American art and literature took most of their cues from Europe, contributing to Western culture. Writers such as [[Washington Irving]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], and [[Henry David Thoreau]] established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the 19th century. [[Mark Twain]] and poet [[Walt Whitman]] were major figures in the century's second half; [[Emily Dickinson]], virtually unknown during her lifetime, is recognized as an essential American poet.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Harold|first1=Bloom|author-link1=Harold Bloom|title=Emily Dickinson|date=1999|publisher=Chelsea House Publishers|location=Broomall, PA|isbn=978-0-7910-5106-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/emilydickinson00bloo/page/9 9]|url=https://archive.org/details/emilydickinson00bloo/page/9 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the 1920s, the [[Harlem Renaissance|New Negro Movement]] coalesced in Harlem, where many writers had migrated (some coming from the South, others from the West Indies). Its pan-African perspective was a significant cultural export during the [[Jazz Age]] in Paris and as such was a key early influence on the ''[[négritude]]'' philosophy.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | last = Philipson | first = Robert | title = The Harlem Renaissance as Postcolonial Phenomenon | journal = African American Review | volume = 40 | issue = 1 |  year = 2006 | pages = 145–160 |  jstor = 40027037}}&lt;/ref&gt;

There have been a multitude of candidates for the &quot;[[Great American Novel]]&quot;—works seen as embodying and examining the essence and character of the United States—including [[Herman Melville]]'s ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' (1851), [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]]'s ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' (1852), Twain's ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn|The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'' (1885), [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' (1925), [[John Steinbeck]]'s ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]'' (1939), [[Harper Lee]]'s ''[[To Kill a Mockingbird]]'' (1960), [[Toni Morrison]]'s [[Beloved (novel)|''Beloved'']] (1987), and [[David Foster Wallace]]'s ''[[Infinite Jest]]'' (1996).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Buell |first=Lawrence |title=The Dream of the Great American Novel |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=9780674051157 |pages=57 |oclc=871257583 |author-link=Lawrence Buell}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal | first = Lawrence | last = Buell | title = The Rise and 'Fall' of the Great American Novel | journal = Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society | date =  October 1994 | volume = 104 | issue = 2 | pages = 261–283 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|author=Buell, Lawrence|title=The Unkillable Dream of the Great American Novel: ''Moby-Dick'' as Test Case|date=Spring–Summer 2008|volume=20|issue=1–2|pages=132–155|doi=10.1093/alh/ajn005|journal=American Literary History|s2cid=170250346|issn=0896-7148|url=https://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:31740086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Thirteen U.S. citizens have won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]], most recently [[Louise Glück]], [[Bob Dylan]], and Toni Morrison.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web | title = All Nobel Prizes in Literature | website = NobelPrize.org | author = Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2023 | access-date = 23 Mar 2023 | url = https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/all-nobel-prizes-in-literature | language = en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Earlier laureates [[William Faulkner]], [[Ernest Hemingway]] and John Steinbeck have also been recognized as influential 20th century writers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Edward|first1=Quinn|title=A dictionary of literary and thematic terms|date=2006|publisher=Facts On File|isbn=978-0-8160-6243-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflite0002quin/page/361 361]|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryoflite0002quin/page/361 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the visual arts, the [[Hudson River School]] was a mid-19th-century movement in the tradition of European [[Realism (arts)|naturalism]]. The 1913 [[Armory Show]] in New York City, an exhibition of European [[modern art|modernist art]], shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=Milton W.|title=The Story of the Armory Show|date=1963|publisher=Abbeville Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-89659-795-2|edition=2nd|url=https://archive.org/details/storyofarmorysho00brow }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Georgia O'Keeffe]], [[Marsden Hartley]], and others experimented with new, individualistic styles, which would become known as [[American modernism]].

Major artistic movements such as the [[abstract expressionism]] of [[Jackson Pollock]] and [[Willem de Kooning]] and the [[pop art]] of [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Roy Lichtenstein]] developed largely in the United States. The tide of modernism and then [[postmodernism]] has brought global fame to American architects such as [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Philip Johnson]], and [[Frank Gehry]].&lt;ref name=&quot;JansonJanson2003&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Janson|first1=Horst Woldemar|last2=Janson|first2=Anthony F.|title=History of Art: The Western Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MMYHuvhWBH4C&amp;pg=PT955|year=2003|publisher=Prentice Hall Professional|isbn=978-0-13-182895-7|page=955}}&lt;/ref&gt; Major photographers include [[Alfred Stieglitz]], [[Edward Steichen]], [[Dorothea Lange]], [[Edward Weston]], [[James Van Der Zee]], [[Ansel Adams]], and [[Gordon Parks]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Davenport1991&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Davenport|first=Alma|title=The History of Photography: An Overview|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hca5H_rJZnUC&amp;pg=PA67|year=1991|publisher=UNM Press|isbn=978-0-8263-2076-6|page=67}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The most notable American architectural innovation has been the [[skyscraper]]. By some measures, what came to be known as a &quot;skyscraper&quot; in the modern world, first appeared in [[Chicago]] with the 1885 completion of the world's first largely steel-frame structure, the [[Home Insurance Building]]. One culturally significant early skyscraper was New York City's [[Woolworth Building]] designed by architect [[Cass Gilbert]]. Raising previous technological advances to new heights, 793&amp;nbsp;ft (233 m), it was the world's tallest building in 1913–1930.&lt;ref name=&quot;WDL&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11376/ |title = Study for Woolworth Building, New York |website = [[World Digital Library]] |date = 1910-12-10 |access-date = 2013-07-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Cinema and theater===
{{Main|Cinema of the United States|Theater in the United States}}
[[File:Hollywood Sign (Zuschnitt).jpg|thumb|230px|The iconic [[Hollywood Sign]] in [[Los Angeles]], California|alt=The Hollywood Sign, large white block letters on a hillside]]

The United States movie industry has a worldwide influence and following. [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]], a northern district of Los Angeles, California, is the leader in motion picture production and the most recognizable movie industry in the world.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Annual Report of the Controller of the City of Los Angeles, California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VbOAAAAMAAJ&amp;q=Hollywood+merged+with+City+of+Los+Angeles+in+1910&amp;pg=PA193|publisher=By[[Office controller|Office of Controller]] Los Angeles, CA (1914)|access-date=February 22, 2014|year = 1914}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Report of the Auditor of the City of Los Angeles California of the Financial Affairs of the Corporation in Its Capacity as a City for the Fiscal Year|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cPo2AQAAMAAJ&amp;q=Hollywood+merged+with+City+of+Los+Angeles+in+1910&amp;pg=PA173|publisher=By [[State auditor|Auditor's Office]] of Los Angeles, CA (1913)|access-date=February 22, 2014|year = 1913}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=30707|title=Nigeria surpasses Hollywood as world's second-largest film producer|publisher=United Nations|date=May 5, 2009|access-date=February 17, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[major film studios]] of the United States are the primary source of the [[List of highest-grossing films|most commercially successful]] and most ticket selling movies in the world.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kerrigan_Page_18&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Kerrigan |first1=Finola |title=Film Marketing |date=2010 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |location=Oxford |isbn=9780750686839 |page=18 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ufMdvuuTQ7MC&amp;pg=PA18 |access-date=4 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Davis&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Glyn |last2=Dickinson |first2=Kay |last3=Patti |first3=Lisa |last4=Villarejo |first4=Amy |title=Film Studies: A Global Introduction |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon |isbn=9781317623380 |page=299 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dnXABgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA299 |access-date=24 August 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City in 1894, using the [[Kinetoscope]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Billboard|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_cBoEAAAAMBAJ|date=April 29, 1944|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_cBoEAAAAMBAJ/page/n67 68]|publisher=Nielsen Business Media|issn=0006-2510}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, although in the 21st century an increasing number of films are not made there, and film companies have been subject to the forces of globalization.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/john-landis-rails-studios-theyre-659222|title=John Landis Rails Against Studios: 'They're Not in the Movie Business Anymore'|magazine=The Hollywood Reporter|access-date=January 24, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Academy Awards]], popularly known as the Oscars, have been held annually by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] since 1929,&lt;ref name=&quot;DrowneHuber2004&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Drowne |first1=Kathleen Morgan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CecCHiI95dYC&amp;pg=PA236 |title=The 1920s |last2=Huber |first2=Patrick |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-313-32013-2 |page=236}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[Golden Globe Award]]s have been held annually since January 1944.&lt;ref name=&quot;Kroon2014&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Kroon |first=Richard W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjmNAgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA338 |title=A/V A to Z: An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Media, Entertainment and Other Audiovisual Terms |publisher=McFarland |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-7864-5740-3 |page=338}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Director [[D. W. Griffith]], an American [[filmmaker]] during the [[silent film]] period, was central to the development of [[film grammar]], and producer/entrepreneur [[Walt Disney]] was a leader in both [[animation|animated film]] and movie [[merchandising]].&lt;ref name=&quot;KrasniewiczDisney2010&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Krasniewicz|first1=Louise|last2=Disney|first2=Walt|title=Walt Disney: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ3vTgpHgFoC&amp;pg=PR10|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35830-2|page=10}}&lt;/ref&gt; Directors such as [[John Ford]] redefined the image of the American Old West, and, like others such as [[John Huston]], broadened the possibilities of cinema with location shooting. The industry enjoyed its golden years, in what is commonly referred to as the &quot;[[Classical Hollywood cinema|Golden Age of Hollywood]]&quot;, from the early sound period until the early 1960s,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Matthews|first1=Charles|title=Book explores Hollywood 'Golden Age' of the 1960s-'70s|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/books/book-explores-hollywood-golden-age-of-the-1960s-70s/2011/02/10/AGh5xJIH_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=June 3, 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; with screen actors such as [[John Wayne]] and [[Marilyn Monroe]] becoming iconic figures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Banner|first1=Lois|title=Marilyn Monroe, the eternal shape shifter|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2012/aug/05/opinion/la-oe-0805-banner-marilyn-monroe-icon-biography-20120805|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=August 5, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Rick|first1=Jewell|title=John Wayne, an American Icon|url=https://www.usc.edu/uscnews/stories/15465.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822102812/https://www.usc.edu/uscnews/stories/15465.html|archive-date=August 22, 2008|publisher=University of Southern California|access-date=August 6, 2015|date=August 8, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the 1970s, &quot;[[New Hollywood]]&quot; or the &quot;Hollywood Renaissance&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Greven2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Greven|first=David|title=Psycho-Sexual: Male Desire in Hitchcock, De Palma, Scorsese, and Friedkin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QIyNBQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT23|year=2013|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-74204-8|page=23}}&lt;/ref&gt; was defined by grittier films influenced by French and Italian realist pictures of the [[Aftermath of World War II|post-war period]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Morrison1998&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Morrison|first=James|title=Passport to Hollywood: Hollywood Films, European Directors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dWRif68I3igC&amp;pg=PA11|year=1998|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3938-8|page=11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The 21st century has been marked by the rise of the American streaming platforms, such as [[Netflix]], [[Disney+]], [[Paramount+]], and [[Apple TV+]], which came to rival traditional cinema.&lt;ref name=&quot;RE&quot;&gt;{{cite news |last=Seitz|first=Matt Zoller|author-link=Matt Zoller Seitz|title=What's Next: Avengers, MCU, Game of Thrones, and the Content Endgame|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/mzs/avengers-mcu-and-the-content-endgame|access-date=July 21, 2021|work=[[RogerEbert.com]]|publisher=Ebert Digital LLC|date=April 29, 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Hannah Avery |title=US streaming market growth continues, despite changes in the industry |url=https://www.kantar.com/inspiration/technology/us-streaming-market-growth-continues-despite-changes-in-the-industry |date=January 18, 2023 |website=[[Kantar Group]] |access-date=April 29, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mainstream theater in the United States derives from the old European theatrical tradition and has been heavily influenced by the [[Theatre of the United Kingdom|British theater]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Saxon2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book| first = Theresa| last = Saxon| date = October 11, 2011| title = American Theatre: History, Context, Form| publisher = Edinburgh University Press| pages = 7–| isbn = 978-0-7486-3127-8| oclc = 1162047055| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2-AkDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA7}}&lt;/ref&gt; The central hub of the American theater scene has been [[Manhattan]], with its divisions of [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], [[off-Broadway]], and [[off-off-Broadway]].&lt;ref name=&quot;LondréWatermeier1998&quot;&gt;{{cite book| first1 = Felicia Hardison | last1 = Londré| first2 = Daniel J.| last2 = Watermeier| date = 1998| title = The History of North American Theater: From Pre-Columbian Times to the Present| publisher = Continuum| pages =| isbn = 978-0-8264-1079-5| oclc = 1024855967}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many movie and television [[Celebrity|stars]] have gotten their big break working in New York productions. Outside New York City, many cities have professional [[Regional theater in the United States|regional or resident theater companies]] that produce their own seasons, with some works being produced regionally with hopes of eventually moving to New York. The biggest-budget theatrical productions are [[musical theatre|musicals]]. U.S. theater also has an active [[community theater]] culture, which relies mainly on local volunteers who may not be actively pursuing a theatrical career.&lt;ref&gt;Stephen Watt, and Gary A. Richardson, ''American Drama: Colonial to Contemporary'' (1994).&lt;/ref&gt;

===Music===
&lt;!---Wikipedia:WikiProject Countries. Caution should be taken to ensure that the section is not simply a listing of names or mini biographies.--&gt;
{{Main|Music of the United States}}
[[File:Country_music_hall_of_fame2.jpg|thumb|The [[Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum]] in [[Nashville, Tennessee]]]]

[[American folk music]] encompasses numerous music genres, variously known as traditional music, traditional [[folk music]], contemporary folk music, or roots music. Many traditional songs have been sung within the same family or folk group for generations, and sometimes trace back to such origins as the [[British Isles]], [[Mainland Europe]], or [[African-American music|Africa]].&lt;ref name=afc&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/folklife/guide/folkmusicandsong.html|title=Folk Music and Song: American Folklife Center: An Illustrated Guide (Library of Congress)|website=www.loc.gov}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Among the country's earliest composers was [[William Billings]] who, born in Boston, composed patriotic hymns in the 1770s;&lt;ref name=&quot;Eggart2007&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Elise|last=Eggart|title=Let's Go USA 24th Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SMGOgKLHbz8C&amp;pg=PA68|date=2007|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-37445-7|page=68}}&lt;/ref&gt; Billings was a part of the [[Yankee tunesmiths|First New England School]], who dominated American music during its earliest stages. [[Anthony Heinrich]] was the most prominent composer before the Civil War. From the mid- to late 1800s, [[John Philip Sousa]] of the late [[Romantic music|Romantic era]] composed numerous military songs—[[List of marches by John Philip Sousa|particularly marches]]—and is regarded as one of the nation's greatest composers.&lt;ref name=&quot;Bierley1973&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Paul E.|last=Bierley|title=John Philip Sousa: American Phenomenon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QcabC2avFLsC&amp;pg=PA5|year=1973|publisher=Alfred Music|isbn=978-1-4574-4995-6|page=5|edition=Revised}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The rhythmic and lyrical styles of [[African-American music]] have significantly influenced American music at large, distinguishing it from European and African traditions. The [[Smithsonian Institution]] states, &quot;African-American influences are so fundamental to American music that there would be no American music without them.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Musical Crossroads: African American Influence on American Music |url=https://music.si.edu/story/musical-crossroads |website=Smithsonian |date=September 22, 2016 |access-date=April 14, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Country music]] developed in the 1920s, and [[rhythm and blues]] in the 1940s. Elements from folk idioms such as the [[blues]] and what is known as [[old-time music]] were adopted and transformed into [[popular music|popular genres]] with global audiences. [[Jazz]] was developed by innovators such as [[Louis Armstrong]] and [[Duke Ellington]] early in the 20th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;autogenerated2001&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Biddle|first1=Julian|title=What Was Hot!: Five Decades of Pop Culture in America|date=2001|publisher=Citadel|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8065-2311-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/whatwashotroller00bidd/page/ ix]|url=https://archive.org/details/whatwashotroller00bidd/page/ }}&lt;/ref&gt; Known for singing in a wide variety of genres, [[Aretha Franklin]] is considered one of the all-time greatest American singers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Why Aretha was the greatest singer in US history |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20180816-aretha-greatest-singer-in-us-history |website=BBC |access-date=April 14, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Elvis Presley]] and [[Chuck Berry]] were among the pioneers of [[rock and roll]] in the mid-1950s. Rock bands such as [[Metallica]], the [[Eagles (band)|Eagles]], and [[Aerosmith]] are among the [[List of best-selling music artists|highest grossing]] in worldwide sales.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Hartman|first1=Graham|title=Metallica's 'Black album' is Top-Selling Disc of last 20 years|url=https://loudwire.com/metallica-black-album-top-selling-disc-last-20-years/|website=Loudwire|access-date=October 12, 2015|date=January 5, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Vorel|first1=Jim|title=Eagles tribute band landing at Kirkland|url=https://herald-review.com/entertainment/local/eagles-tribute-band-landing-at-kirkland/article_a8dcd506-08d0-11e2-82ac-001a4bcf887a.html|access-date=October 12, 2015|agency=Herald &amp; Review|date=September 27, 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Aerosmith will rock Salinas with July concert|url=https://www.ksbw.com/news/central-california/salinas/aerosmith-will-rock-salinas-with-july-concert/31042330|access-date=October 12, 2015|date=February 2, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In the 1960s, [[Bob Dylan]] emerged from the [[American folk music revival|folk revival]] to become one of the country's most celebrated songwriters.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |date=April 10, 2020 |title=No. 1 Bob Dylan |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/interactive/lists-100-greatest-songwriters/#bob-dylan |magazine=Rolling Stone |access-date=January 29, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mid-20th-century American [[Popular music|pop stars]] such as [[Bing Crosby]], [[Frank Sinatra]],&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date=December 8, 2015|title=10 ways that Frank Sinatra changed the world|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/music/2015/12/08/10-ways-frank-sinatra-changed-world/76381754/|access-date=June 24, 2021|website=USA Today}}&lt;/ref&gt; and Elvis Presley became global celebrities,&lt;ref name=&quot;autogenerated2001&quot; /&gt; as have artists of the late 20th century such as [[Prince (musician)|Prince]], [[Michael Jackson]], [[Madonna]], [[Whitney Houston]], and [[Mariah Carey]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=February 13, 2012 |title=Whitney Houston's Global Impact |url=https://edition.cnn.com/videos/bestoftv/2012/02/13/exp-nr-bilchik-whitney-international-reaction.cnn |access-date=June 24, 2021 |website=CNN}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=How Prince and his music challenged the music industry |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/2654768/how-prince-and-his-music-challenged-the-music-industry/ |access-date=June 25, 2016 |website=Global News}}&lt;/ref&gt; The musical forms of [[Punk rock|punk]] and [[hip hop]] both originated in the United States.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|url=https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/artandmusicbiographies/chapter/reading-9-neo-expressionism-and-music-reaching-into-the-1980s/|title=A Quick and Dirty Guide to Art, Music, and Culture|author=Clayton Funk|chapter=9. Neo-Expressionism, Punk, and Hip Hop Emerge|publisher=The Ohio State University|date=August 16, 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; American professional opera singers have reached the highest level of success in that form, including [[Renée Fleming]], [[Leontyne Price]], [[Beverly Sills]], [[Nelson Eddy]], and many others.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=https://journals.openedition.org/lisa/2966#:~:text=The%20American%20Opera%20Boom%20of,1960s%3A%20History%20and%20Stylistic%20Analysis|title=The American Opera Boom of the 1950s and 1960s: History and Stylistic Analysis|author=Rachel Hutchins-Viroux|journal=Revue Lisa / Lisa e-Journal |year=2004 |issue=Vol. II - n°3 |pages=145–163 |publisher=OpenEdition Journals|doi=10.4000/lisa.2966 |access-date=April 28, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[American popular music]], as part of the wider U.S. pop culture, has a worldwide influence and following.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author =Ewen, David|title=Panorama of American Popular Music|url =https://archive.org/details/panoramaofameric00ewen|url-access =registration|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=1957 |isbn=0-13-648360-7}} pg. 3 ''Of all the contributions made by Americans to world culture—automation and the assembly line, advertising, innumerable devices and gadgets, skyscrapers, supersalesmen, baseball, ketchup, mustard and hot dogs and hamburrgers—one, undeniably native has been taken to heart by the entire world. It is American popular music.''&lt;/ref&gt; [[Beyoncé]], [[Taylor Swift]], [[Miley Cyrus]], [[Ariana Grande]], [[Eminem]], [[Lady Gaga]], [[Katy Perry]], and many other contemporary artists dominate [[List of most-streamed artists on Spotify|global streaming rankings]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2022/music/news/spotify-wrapped-bad-bunny-taylor-swift-1235444491|title=Spotify Launches Wrapped 2022: Bad Bunny, Taylor Swift Are Most-Streamed Artists of the Year|last=Spangler|first=Todd|date=November 30, 2022|website=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130153903/https://variety.com/2022/music/news/spotify-wrapped-bad-bunny-taylor-swift-1235444491/|archive-date=November 30, 2022|url-status=live|access-date=November 30, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The United States has the world's [[List of largest recorded music markets|largest music market]] with a total retail value of $4.9 billion in 2014.&lt;ref name=&quot;RIAJ Yearbook 2012&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.riaj.or.jp/riaj/pdf/issue/industry/RIAJ2015E.pdf|title=RIAJ Yearbook 2015: IFPI 2013, 2014 Report: 28. Global Sales of Recorded Music (Page 24)|publisher=[[Recording Industry Association of Japan]]|access-date=2016-03-20}}&lt;/ref&gt; The American music industry includes a number of fields, ranging from record companies to [[Radio in the United States|radio stations]] and community orchestras. Most of the world's [[Record label#Major labels|major record companies]] are based in the U.S.; they are represented by the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://universitytimes.ie/2014/03/how-american-music-took-over-the-world/ |title=How American Music Took Over the World |author=Eoin Hennessy |website=[[The University Times]] |access-date=April 28, 2023 |date=March 27, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Mass media===
{{further|Mass media in the United States}}
{{see also|Newspapers in the United States|Television in the United States|Internet in the United States|Radio in the United States|Video games in the United States}}
[[File:Comcast_Philly.JPG|upright|thumb|The [[Comcast Center]] in [[Philadelphia]], headquarters of the [[Comcast Corporation]], which is the nation's largest [[Multinational corporation|multinational]] [[telecommunications]] [[conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]]{{cn|date=April 2023}}]]

The four major broadcasters in the U.S. are the [[National Broadcasting Company]] (NBC), [[Columbia Broadcasting System]] (CBS), [[American Broadcasting Company]] (ABC), and [[Fox Broadcasting Company]] (FOX). The four major broadcast [[television network]]s are all commercial entities. [[Cable television in the United States|Cable television]] offers hundreds of channels catering to a variety of niches.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Streaming TV Services: What They Cost, What You Get|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/10/12/business/ap-us-streaming-tv-options.html|access-date=October 12, 2015|work=[[The New York Times]]|agency=Associated Press|date=October 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015023520/https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/10/12/business/ap-us-streaming-tv-options.html|archive-date=October 15, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{as of|2021}}, about 83% of Americans over age 12 listen to [[radio broadcasting|broadcast radio]], while about 41% listen to [[podcast]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/fact-sheet/audio-and-podcasting/|title=Audio and Podcasting Fact Sheet|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|location=Washington, D.C.|date=June 29, 2021|access-date=July 3, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{As of|2014|09|30|df=US}}, there are 15,433 licensed full-power radio stations in the U.S. according to the U.S. [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Waits|first=Jennifer|date=October 17, 2014|title=Number of U.S. Radio Stations on the Rise, Especially LPFM, according to New FCC Count|url=https://www.radiosurvivor.com/2014/10/17/number-u-s-radio-stations-rise-especially-lpfm-according-latest-fcc-count/|access-date=January 6, 2015|website=Radio Survivor}}&lt;/ref&gt; Much of the public radio broadcasting is supplied by [[NPR]], incorporated in February 1970 under the [[Public Broadcasting Act of 1967]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=June 20, 2013|title=History: NPR|publisher=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/about-npr/192827079/overview-and-history|access-date=May 5, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Internationally well-known U.S. newspapers include ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Washington Post]]'' and ''[[USA Today]]''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shaffer2006&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Brenda|last=Shaffer|title=The Limits of Culture: Islam and Foreign Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEOd-cDWVwQC&amp;pg=PA116|year=2006|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-19529-4|page=116}}&lt;/ref&gt; More than 800 publications are produced in Spanish, the second most commonly used language in the United States behind English.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Spanish Newspapers in United States|url=https://www.w3newspapers.com/usa/spanish|access-date=August 5, 2014|publisher=W3newspapers}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Spanish Language Newspapers in the USA : Hispanic Newspapers : Periódiscos en Español en los EE.UU|url=https://www.onlinenewspapers.com/usstate/spanish-language-newspapers-usa.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626114455/https://www.onlinenewspapers.com/usstate/spanish-language-newspapers-usa.htm|archive-date=June 26, 2014|access-date=August 5, 2014|publisher=Onlinenewspapers.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; With very few exceptions, all the newspapers in the U.S. are privately owned, either by large chains such as [[Gannett Company|Gannett]] or [[The McClatchy Company|McClatchy]], which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or, in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families. Major cities often have [[alternative newspaper]]s to complement the mainstream daily papers, such as New York City's ''[[The Village Voice]]'' or Los Angeles' ''[[LA Weekly]]''. The five most popular websites used in the U.S. are [[Google]], [[YouTube]], [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[Yahoo]], and [[Facebook]], with all of them being American companies.&lt;ref name=&quot;alexa-topsitesus&quot;&gt;{{cite web|year=2021|title=Top Sites in United States|url=https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/US|access-date=October 6, 2021|publisher=Alexa|archive-date=June 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621221154/https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/US|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Widely regarded as the birthplace of the modern video gaming industry,{{cn|date=May 2023}} the United States is the world's second-largest video game market by revenue.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Asian countries make up 40% of the world's top 10 video gaming markets |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/08/which-countries-have-the-largest-video-gaming-markets/ |access-date=2023-04-15 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Major publishers headquartered in the United States are [[Sony Interactive Entertainment]], [[Take-Two Interactive|Take-Two]], [[Activision Blizzard]], [[Electronic Arts]], [[Xbox Game Studios]], [[Bethesda Softworks]], [[Epic Games]], [[Valve Corporation|Valve]], [[Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment|Warner Bros.]], [[Riot Games]], and others.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Asian countries make up 40% of the world's top 10 video gaming markets |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/08/which-countries-have-the-largest-video-gaming-markets/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |date=2022-05-13 |title=Top 10 gaming companies made $126bn revenue last year |language=en-gb |work=Eurogamer.net |url=https://www.eurogamer.net/top-10-gaming-companies-made-126bn-revenue-last-year |access-date=2022-12-14}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are 444 publishers, developers, and hardware companies in [[California]] alone.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=California (CA) |url=https://www.theesa.com/video-game-impact-map/state/california/ |access-date=2022-12-14 |website=ESA Impact Map |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Cuisine===
{{Main|American cuisine}}
{{further|List of American regional and fusion cuisines}}
[[File:Cheeseburger with fries.jpg|thumb|A [[cheeseburger]] served with [[French fries|fries]] and [[coleslaw]]]]

Early settlers were introduced by Native Americans to such indigenous, non-European foods as [[Turkey as food|turkey]], [[sweet potato]]es, [[maize|corn]], [[Cucurbita|squash]], and [[maple syrup]]. They and later immigrants combined these with foods they had known, such as [[wheat flour]],&lt;ref name=&quot;Wheat&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Wheat Info|url=https://www.wheatworld.org/wheat-info/fast-facts/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091011012758/https://www.wheatworld.org/wheat-info/fast-facts/|archive-date=October 11, 2009|website=Wheatworld.org|access-date=January 15, 2015 }}&lt;/ref&gt; beef, and milk to create a distinctive American cuisine.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Traditional Indigenous Recipes|url=https://aihd.ku.edu/recipes/index.html|publisher=American Indian Health and Diet Project|access-date=September 15, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Akenuwa|first=Ambrose|title=Is the United States Still the Land of the Free and Home to the Brave?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7aw5CgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT93|date=July 1, 2015|pages=92–94|publisher=Lulu Press|isbn=978-1-329-26112-9|access-date=November 20, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Homegrown foods are part of a shared national menu on one of America's most popular holidays, [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]], when many Americans make or purchase traditional foods to celebrate the occasion.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mintz1996&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Sidney Wilfred Mintz|title=Tasting Food, Tasting Freedom: Excursions Into Eating, Culture, and the Past|url=https://archive.org/details/tastingfoodtasti00mint_0|url-access=registration|year=1996|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=978-0-8070-4629-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tastingfoodtasti00mint_0/page/134 134]–|access-date=October 25, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; The American [[fast food]] industry, the world's first and largest, is also often viewed as being a symbol of U.S. marketing dominance. Companies such as [[McDonald's]],&lt;ref name=&quot;DeBres2005&quot;&gt;Karen DeBres, &quot;A Cultural Geography of McDonald's UK,&quot; Journal of Cultural Geography, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; [[Burger King]], [[Pizza Hut]], [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]], and [[Domino's Pizza]] among others, have numerous outlets around the world,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Why McDonald's in France Doesn't Feel Like Fast Food|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/01/24/145698222/why-mcdonalds-in-france-doesnt-feel-like-fast-food|last1=Breadsley|first1=Eleanor|website=NPR|date=January 24, 2012|access-date=January 15, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; and pioneered the [[drive-through]] format in the 1940s.&lt;ref name=&quot;drivethru&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=When Was the First Drive-Thru Restaurant Created?|url=https://www.wisegeek.org/when-was-the-first-drive-thru-restaurant-created.htm|website=Wisegeek.org|access-date=January 15, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Characteristic American dishes such as [[apple pie]], [[fried chicken]], [[doughnuts]], [[french fries]], [[macaroni and cheese]], [[ice cream]], [[Pizza in the United States|pizza]], [[hamburgers]], and [[hot dogs]] derive from the recipes of various immigrants.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.bizjournals.com/louisville/news/2020/12/31/consumer-spending-data-kfc-is-the-most-popular.html|title=KFC is America's favorite fried chicken, data suggests|last=Cawthon|first=Haley|date=December 31, 2020|website=BizJournals.com|access-date=May 8, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.pastemagazine.com/food/america/the-history-of-the-pizza/|title=How Pizza Became America's Favorite Food|last=Russell|first=Joan|date=May 23, 2016|website=PasteMagazine.com|access-date=May 8, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]] dishes such as [[burritos]] and [[tacos]] and [[pasta]] dishes freely adapted from [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] sources are widely consumed.&lt;ref name=&quot;IFT&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.newswise.com/articles/what-when-and-where-americans-eat-in-2003|author=Klapthor, James N.|title=What, When, and Where Americans Eat in 2003|publisher=Newswise/Institute of Food Technologists|date=August 23, 2003|access-date=June 19, 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

American [[chef]]s have been influential both in the food industry and in popular culture. Some important 19th-century American chefs include [[Charles Ranhofer]] of [[Delmonico's Restaurant]] in [[New York City|New York]], and [[Bob Payton]], who is credited with bringing American-style pizza to the UK.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-bob-payton-1413990.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090421080253/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-bob-payton-1413990.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 April 2009| title= Obituary: Bob Payton|work= The Independent|access-date= 15 September 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Later, chefs Charles Scotto, Louis Pacquet, John Massironi founded the [[American Culinary Federation]] in 1930, taking after similar organizations across Europe. In the 1940s, Chef [[James Beard]] hosted the first nationally televised cooking show ''I Love to Eat.'' His name is also carried by the foundation and prestigious cooking award recognizing excellence in the American cooking community.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} James Beard Foundation |url=https://www.jamesbeard.org/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |website=www.jamesbeard.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=James Beard, Authority On Food, Dies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/01/24/nyregion/james-beard-authority-on-food-dies.html |quote=James Beard, the bald and portly chef and cookbook writer who was one of the country's leading authorities on food and drink and its foremost champion of American cooking, died of cardiac arrest yesterday at the New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center. He was 81 years old and lived in ... |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=January 24, 1985 |access-date=April 11, 2010 | first=Albin | last=Krebs}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since Beard, many chefs and cooking personalities have taken to television, and the success of the [[Cooking Channel]] and [[Food Network]] have contributed to the popularity of American cuisine. Probably the best-known television chef was [[Julia Child]] who taught French cuisine in her weekly show, [[The French Chef]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Julia Child {{!}} Biography, Cookbooks, &amp; Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Julia-Child|access-date=2021-10-15|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1946, the [[Culinary Institute of America]] was founded by [[Katharine Cramer Angell|Katharine Angell]] and [[Frances Roth]]. This would become the United States' most prestigious culinary school, where many of the most talented American chefs would study prior to successful careers.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Our Story: CIA History {{!}} Culinary Institute of America |url=https://www.ciachef.edu/our-story/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |website=www.ciachef.edu |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FTfbs&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last=Averbuch|first=Bonnie|title=Attention Food Entrepreneurs: School's Back in Business|publisher=[[Food Tank]]|url=https://foodtank.com/news/2015/09/attention-food-entrepreneurs-its-time-to-head-back-to-school/|date=September 2015|access-date=June 19, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Sports===
{{Main|Sports in the United States}}
{{See also|Professional sports leagues in the United States|National Collegiate Athletic Association|United States at the Olympics}}
[[File:Commanders vs. Jaguars (52379056543).jpg|thumb|[[American football]] is the most popular sport in the United States.]]

The most popular spectator sports in the U.S. are [[American football]], [[basketball]], [[baseball]], [[association football|soccer]], and [[ice hockey]], according to a 2017 ''[[Gallup, Inc.|Gallup]]'' poll.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Sports |date=September 25, 2007 |url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/4735/sports.aspx |publisher=Gallup, Inc. |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt; While most major U.S. sports such as baseball and American football have evolved out of European practices, basketball, [[volleyball]], [[skateboarding]], and [[snowboarding]] are American inventions, some of which have become popular worldwide.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Sarah Krasnoff|first=Lindsay|date=December 26, 2017|title=How the NBA went global|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/made-by-history/wp/2017/12/26/how-the-nba-went-global/|access-date=January 24, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Lacrosse]] and [[surfing]] arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate European contact.&lt;ref name=&quot;liss&quot;&gt;Liss, Howard. ''Lacrosse'' (Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1970) pg 13.&lt;/ref&gt; The market for [[professional sports]] in the United States was roughly $69&amp;nbsp;billion in July 2013, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date=June 18, 2008|title=Global sports market to hit $141 billion in 2012|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pwcstudy-idUSN1738075220080618|access-date=July 24, 2013|website=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt;

American football is by several measures the most popular spectator sport in the United States;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author=Krane, David K.|title=Professional Football Widens Its Lead Over Baseball as Nation's Favorite Sport|url=https://www.harrisinteractive.com/Insights/HarrisVault8482.aspx?PID=337|publisher=Harris Interactive|date=October 30, 2002|access-date=September 14, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709111448/https://www.harrisinteractive.com/Insights/HarrisVault8482.aspx?PID=337|archive-date=July 9, 2010}} MacCambridge, Michael (2004). ''America's Game: The Epic Story of How Pro Football Captured a Nation''. New York: Random House. {{ISBN|978-0-375-50454-9}}.&lt;/ref&gt; the [[National Football League]] (NFL) has the highest average attendance of any sports league in the world, and the [[Super Bowl]] is watched by tens of millions globally.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/nfl/story/_/id/27321898/how-nfl-took-america-100-years|title=How the NFL took over America in 100 years|last=Guliza|first=Anthony|date=August 14, 2019|publisher=[[ESPN]]|access-date=May 8, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Baseball has been regarded as the U.S. [[national sport]] since the late 19th century, with [[Major League Baseball]] being the top league. Basketball and [[ice hockey]] are the country's next two most popular professional team sports, with the top leagues being the [[National Basketball Association]] and the [[National Hockey League]], which are also the premier leagues worldwide for these sports. The most-watched [[individual sport]]s in the U.S. are [[golf]] and [[auto racing]], particularly [[NASCAR]] and [[IndyCar]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date=January 16, 2014|title=As American as Mom, Apple Pie and Football? Football continues to trump baseball as America's Favorite Sport|url=https://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris%20Poll%205%20-%202014%20Fave%20Sport_1.16.14.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309053431/https://www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris%20Poll%205%20-%202014%20Fave%20Sport_1.16.14.pdf|archive-date=March 9, 2014|access-date=July 2, 2014|website=Harris Interactive}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|author1=Cowen, Tyler|author2=Grier, Kevin|date=February 9, 2012|title=What Would the End of Football Look Like?|url=https://www.grantland.com/story/_/id/7559458/cte-concussion-crisis-economic-look-end-football|access-date=February 12, 2012|publisher=Grantland/ESPN}}&lt;/ref&gt; On the [[collegiate athletics|collegiate]] level, earnings for the member institutions exceed $1 billion annually,&lt;ref name=&quot;si&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.si.com/college-basketball/2018/03/07/ncaa-1-billion-revenue|title=Sports Illustrated: NCAA Reports $1.1 Billion in Revenues|date=March 7, 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and [[college football]] and [[College basketball|basketball]] attract large audiences, as the [[NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament|NCAA Final Four]] is one of the most watched national sporting events.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date=March 19, 2013|title=Passion for College Football Remains Robust|url=https://www.footballfoundation.org/tabid/567/Article/53380/Passion-for-College-Football-Remains-Robust.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407075223/https://www.footballfoundation.org/tabid/567/Article/53380/Passion-for-College-Football-Remains-Robust.aspx|archive-date=April 7, 2014|access-date=April 1, 2014|publisher=National Football Foundation}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Eight [[Olympic Games]] have taken place in the United States. The [[1904 Summer Olympics]] in [[St. Louis]], [[Missouri]], were the first-ever Olympic Games held outside of Europe.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Schaus|first=Gerald P.|last2=Wenn|first2=Stephen R.|title=Onward to the Olympics: Historical Perspectives on the Olympic Games|date=February 9, 2007|publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]]|page=224|isbn=978-0-889-20505-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Olympic Games will be held in the U.S. for a ninth time when [[Los Angeles]] hosts the [[2028 Summer Olympics]]. [[United States at the Olympics|U.S. athletes]] have won a total of 2,959 medals (1,173 gold) at the [[Olympic Games]], by far the most of any country.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://greatestsportingnation.com/|title=Greatest Sporting Nation|website=greatestsportingnation.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/sports/olympics/the-1000-medals-of-the-united-states/| title = 1,000 times gold – The thousand medals of Team USA – Washington Post| newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=The 10 most fascinating facts about the all-time Winter Olympics medal standings|first=Chris|last=Chase|date=February 7, 2014|work=USA Today|url=https://ftw.usatoday.com/2014/02/winter-olympics-medal-count-sochi-all-time-facts/|access-date=February 28, 2014}} {{cite news|title=With Sochi Olympics approaching, a history of Winter Olympic medals|date=February 6, 2014|first=Dan|last=Loumena|work=Los Angeles Times|url=https://articles.latimes.com/2014/feb/06/sports/la-sp-a-history-of-the-winter-olympic-medals-20140206|access-date=February 28, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In international [[Association football|soccer]], the [[United States men's national soccer team|men's national soccer team]] qualified for [[United States at the FIFA World Cup|eleven World Cups]], while the [[United States women's national soccer team|women's national team]] has [[United States at the FIFA Women's World Cup|won]] the [[FIFA Women's World Cup]] and [[Football at the Summer Olympics|Olympic soccer tournament]] four times each.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Carlisle|first=Jeff|date=April 6, 2020|title=MLS Year One, 25 seasons ago: The Wild West of training, travel, hockey shootouts and American soccer|url=https://www.espn.com/soccer/major-league-soccer/story/4082408/mls-year-one25-seasons-ago-the-wild-west-of-trainingtravelhockey-shootouts-and-american-soccer|access-date=May 5, 2021|publisher=[[ESPN]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; The United States hosted the [[1994 FIFA World Cup]] and will host the [[2026 FIFA World Cup]] along with [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Wamsley |first=Laurel |date=June 16, 2022 |title=The U.S. cities hosting the 2026 World Cup are announced |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/06/16/1105562734/us-cities-hosting-2026-world-cup-announcement |publisher=[[NPR]] |accessdate=April 16, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==See also==
* [[Index of United States–related articles]]
* [[Lists of U.S. state topics]]
* [[Outline of the United States]]
{{clear}} &lt;!--For wide-screen monitors, prevent image above from punching through the ref section. --&gt;

==Notes==
{{notelist
| colwidth =
| notes =
{{efn
| name = pop
| Excludes [[Puerto Rico]] and the other [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated islands]] because they are counted separately in [[U.S. census]] statistics.
 }}
{{efn
| name = time
| See [[Time in the United States]] for details about laws governing time zones in the United States.
 }}
{{efn
| name = drive
| A single jurisdiction, the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], uses left-hand traffic.
 }}
}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Bianchine|first1=Peter J.|last2=Russo|first2=Thomas A.|year=1992|title=The Role of Epidemic Infectious Diseases in the Discovery of America|volume=13|issue=5|pages=225–232|ref=Bianchine|doi=10.2500/108854192778817040|pmid=1483570|journal=Allergy and Asthma Proceedings}}
* {{cite book|last=Blakeley|first=Ruth|date=2009|title=State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South|url=https://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415462402/|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-68617-4|ref=Blakeley}}
* {{cite book|last1=Boyer|first1=Paul S.|last2=Clark Jr.|first2=Clifford E.|last3=Kett|first3=Joseph F.|last4=Salisbury|first4=Neal|last5=Sitkoff|first5=Harvard|last6=Woloch|first6=Nancy|title=The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People|ref=Boyer|year=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9KT3lI76-0cC|publisher=Cengage Learning|page=588|isbn=978-0-618-80161-9}}
* {{cite book|first=Colin G.|last=Calloway|title=New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edYbAZ7ECEoC|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press|JHU Press]]|ref=Calloway1998|page=229|isbn=978-0-8018-5959-5|year=1998}}
* {{cite book|last=Davis|first=Kenneth C.|title=Don't know much about the Civil War|ref=Davis96|publisher=William Marrow and Co.|location=New York|year=1996|url=https://archive.org/details/dontknowmuchabou00davi_1/page/518|isbn=978-0-688-11814-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/dontknowmuchabou00davi_1/page/518 518] }}
* {{cite book|last1=Daynes|first1=Byron W.|last2=Sussman|first2=Glen|title=White House Politics and the Environment: Franklin D. Roosevelt to George W. Bush|ref=Daynes|publisher=[[Texas A&amp;M University Press]]|year=2010|page=320|url=https://archive.org/details/whitehousepoliti0000dayn|url-access=registration|isbn=978-1-60344-254-1|oclc=670419432|quote=Presidential environmental policies, 1933–2009}}
* {{cite book|first1=Jon M|last1=Erlandson|first2=Torben C|last2=Rick|first3=Rene L|last3=Vellanoweth|title=A Canyon Through Time: Archaeology, History, and Ecology of the Tecolote Canyon Area, Santa Barbara County|location=California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GeTv2lmb79UC&amp;pg=PA19|year=2008|publisher=University of Utah Press|isbn=978-0-87480-879-7}}
* {{cite book|first=Brian M.|last=Fagan|title=Ancient Lives: An Introduction to Archaeology and Prehistory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9lqCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA390|date=2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-35027-9}}
* {{cite book|first1=Sylvan G.|last1=Feldstein|first2=Frank J.|last2=Fabozzi|title=The Handbook of Municipal Bonds|ref=Feldstein|publisher=[[John Wiley &amp; Sons]]|year=2011|page=1376|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Juc4fb1Fx1cC|isbn=978-1-118-04494-0}}
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* {{cite book|last=Thornton|first=Russell|title=American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492|volume=186|series=Civilization of the American Indian|year=1987|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9iQYSQ9y60MC&amp;pg=PA49|isbn=978-0-8061-2220-5|page=49}}
* {{cite book|first=Russell|last=Thornton|title=Studying Native America: Problems and Prospects|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_EA-UwvN_HUC&amp;pg=PA34|year=1998|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-16064-7 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Walker Howe |first=Daniel |title=[[What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=9780199726578 |author-link=Daniel Walker Howe}}
* {{cite book|last=Vaughan|first=Alden T.|title=New England Encounters: Indians and Euroamericans Ca. 1600–1850|publisher=North Eastern University Press|year=1999}}
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* {{cite book|last=Winchester|first=Simon|title=The men who United the States|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780062079602|url-access=registration|year=2013|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-0-06-207960-2|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780062079602/page/198 198], 216, 251, 253}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wright |first=Gavin |year=2022 |title=Slavery and the Rise of the Nineteenth-Century American Economy |url=https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.36.2.123 |journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=123–148 |doi=10.1257/jep.36.2.123 |s2cid=248716718 |via=}}
* {{cite book|last=Zinn|first=Howard|author-link=Howard Zinn|title=A People's History of the United States|ref=Zinn|year=2005|publisher=[[Harper Perennial]] Modern Classics|isbn=978-0-06-083865-2|title-link=A People's History of the United States }}
{{refend}}

'''Internet sources'''
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1217752.stm|title=Country Profile: United States of America|ref=BBC18may|work=BBC News|location=London|date=April 22, 2008|access-date=May 18, 2008}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Cohen|first=Eliot A.|ref=Cohen|location=Washington, DC|url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/59919/eliot-a-cohen/history-and-the-hyperpower|title=History and the Hyperpower|website=Foreign Affairs|date=July–August 2004|access-date=July 14, 2006}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Wallander|first1=Celeste A.|year=2003|ref=Wallander2003|title=Western Policy and the Demise of the Soviet Union|journal=[[Journal of Cold War Studies]]|volume=5|issue=4|pages=137–177|doi=10.1162/152039703322483774|s2cid=57560487 }}
* {{cite journal|title=Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens|last1=Gilens|first1=Martin|last2=Page|first2=Benjamin I.|name-list-style=amp|journal=[[Perspectives on Politics]]|date=2014|volume=12|issue=3|pages=564–581|doi=10.1017/S1537592714001595|url=https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/mgilens/files/gilens_and_page_2014_-testing_theories_of_american_politics.doc.pdf|doi-access=free }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box}}
&lt;!-- Please:
1) Follow the [[WP:EL]] guideline where possible and consider discussing on the talk page. The MediaWiki software that powers Wikipedia has several parameters that limit the complexity of a page, thus limiting the number of templates that can be included.
2) Do not turn these bullets into headers! They expand the TOC too much. --&gt;
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20211212224932/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/ United States]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-16761057 United States] from [[BBC News]]
* [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=US Key Development Forecasts for the United States] from [[International Futures]]

; Government
* [https://www.usa.gov/ Official U.S. Government Web Portal]. Gateway to government sites.
* [https://www.house.gov/ House]. Official site of the United States House of Representatives.
* [https://www.senate.gov/ Senate]. Official site of the United States Senate.
* [https://www.whitehouse.gov/ White House]. Official site of the President of the United States.
* [{{SCOTUS URL}} Supreme Court]. Official site of the Supreme Court of the United States.

; History
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080314143240/https://www.nationalcenter.org/HistoricalDocuments.html Historical Documents]. Collected by the National Center for Public Policy Research.
* [https://www.religioustolerance.org/nat_mott.htm U.S. National Mottos: History and Constitutionality]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221119213422/http://www.religioustolerance.org/nat_mott.htm |date=November 19, 2022 }}. Analysis by the Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance.
* [https://www.historicalstatistics.org/index2.html USA]. Collected links to historical data.

; Maps
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091021182322/https://www.nationalatlas.gov/ National Atlas of the United States]. Official maps from the U.S. Department of the Interior.
* {{wikiatlas|the United States}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|148838}}
* [https://www.measureofamerica.org/maps/ Measure of America]. A variety of mapped information relating to health, education, income, and demographics for the U.S.

; Photos
* [https://www.flickr.com/search/?text=USA Photos of the USA]

{{Anchor|Related information}} &lt;!-- Target for Navbox link at See also section --&gt;

{{United States topics}}
{{United States political divisions}}
{{North America topic}}
{{Portal bar|United States|North America|Countries}}
{{Sister bar|auto=yes|voy=United States}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|40|-100|dim:10000000_region:region:US_type:country|name=United States of America|display=title}}

[[Category:United States| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1776]]
[[Category:Countries in North America]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Federal constitutional republics]]
[[Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas]]
[[Category:Former confederations]]
[[Category:G20 nations]]
[[Category:Member states of NATO]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:Transcontinental countries]]</text>
      <sha1>kv9talt3x525ursxjyaoos918eac0tw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Template:Switcher/testcases</title>
    <ns>10</ns>
    <id>32192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>116055</id>
      <parentid>115431</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-28T09:01:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Túrelio</username>
        <id>7126</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>([[c:GR|GR]]) [[c:COM:Duplicate|Duplicate]]: [[File:2016 United States presidential election in Maine - Results by congressional district.svg]] → [[File:United States House of Representatives elections in Maine, 2016 results by district.svg]] Exact or scaled-down duplicate: [[c::File:United States House of Representatives elections in Maine, 2016 results by district.svg]]</comment>
      <origin>116055</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="120002" sha1="n71o2sdhr0fsjovg5vmetkysy7fvs2v" xml:space="preserve">{{Testcases notice &lt;!--|toc=on--&gt;}}

&lt;!-- {{Test case|_collapsible=yes|_showcode=yes|_title=Test1
|param1|param2|name3=value3|...}}

{{Test case|_collapsible=yes|_showcode=yes|_title=Test2
|param1|param2|name3=value3|...}} --&gt;

Switcher uses [[MediaWiki:Gadget-switcher.js]] which is documented at [[User:Jackmcbarn/switcher]]. Apart from {{tl|Switcher}}, the only current use of the gadget may be [[Template:Location map#User selection of multiple maps]].

{{tl|Switcher}} can switch between 20 parameters as of 2 October 2016 where the template is unused and may change behaviour or be deleted. It isn't ready for mainspace and it may require a community discussion whether we want such a template.

== [[Latin alphabet]] ==
{{test case|_output=nowiki|_collapsible=y|_titlecode=y|A|1|  B  |  2  |C|3|D|4|E|5|F|6|G|7|H|8|I|9|J|10|K|11|L|12|M|13|N|14|O|15|P|16|Q|17|R|18|S|19|T|20|default=4}}

== [[Sieve of Eratosthenes]] ==
To find all the prime numbers less than or equal to 30, proceed as follows.

First generate a list of integers from 2 to 30:

&lt;div class=&quot;switcher-container&quot;&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Start with all numbers above 1:
  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30.
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot;&gt;Start with all numbers above 1&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Strike multiples of 2:
  2  3 &lt;s&gt; 4 &lt;/s&gt; 5 &lt;s&gt; 6 &lt;/s&gt; 7 &lt;s&gt; 8 &lt;/s&gt; 9  &lt;s&gt;10&lt;/s&gt; 11 &lt;s&gt;12&lt;/s&gt; 13 &lt;s&gt;14&lt;/s&gt; 15 &lt;s&gt;16&lt;/s&gt; 17 &lt;s&gt;18&lt;/s&gt; 19 &lt;s&gt;20&lt;/s&gt; 21 &lt;s&gt;22&lt;/s&gt; 23 &lt;s&gt;24&lt;/s&gt; 25 &lt;s&gt;26&lt;/s&gt; 27 &lt;s&gt;28&lt;/s&gt; 29 &lt;s&gt;30&lt;/s&gt;.
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot;&gt;Strike multiples of 2&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Strike multiples of 2 and 3:
  2  3 &lt;s&gt; 4 &lt;/s&gt; 5 &lt;s&gt; 6 &lt;/s&gt; 7 &lt;s&gt; 8 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt; 9 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt; 10&lt;/s&gt; 11 &lt;s&gt;12&lt;/s&gt; 13 &lt;s&gt;14 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;15 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;16&lt;/s&gt; 17 &lt;s&gt;18&lt;/s&gt; 19 &lt;s&gt;20 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;21 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;22&lt;/s&gt; 23 &lt;s&gt;24&lt;/s&gt; 25 &lt;s&gt;26 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;27 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;28&lt;/s&gt; 29 &lt;s&gt;30&lt;/s&gt;.
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot;&gt;Strike multiples of 2 and 3&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Strike multiples of 2, 3 and 5 (includes 25):
  2  3 &lt;s&gt; 4 &lt;/s&gt; 5 &lt;s&gt; 6 &lt;/s&gt; 7 &lt;s&gt; 8 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt; 9 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt; 10&lt;/s&gt; 11 &lt;s&gt;12&lt;/s&gt; 13 &lt;s&gt;14 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;15 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;16&lt;/s&gt; 17 &lt;s&gt;18&lt;/s&gt; 19 &lt;s&gt;20 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;21 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;22&lt;/s&gt; 23 &lt;s&gt;24 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;25 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;26 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;27 &lt;/s&gt;&lt;s&gt;28&lt;/s&gt; 29 &lt;s&gt;30&lt;/s&gt;.
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot;&gt;Strike multiples of 2, 3 and 5 (includes 25)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
Remove multiples of 2, 3 and 5:
  2  3     5     7           11    13          17    19          23                29.
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot;&gt;Remove multiples of 2, 3 and 5&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

== Two images in an infobox ==
{{infobox
|image={{switcher
|[[Image:PNG transparency demonstration 1.png|center|100px]]|Dice
|[[Image:White Stars 3.svg|center|100px]]|Stars
}}}}
{{clear right}}
== [[Syrian civil war]] ==
{{test case|_collapsible=y
|[[File:Syrian civil war situation on 30 October 2013.png|250px]]|30 October 2013
| |9 November 2013
| |18 November 2013
| |16 March 2014
| |19 April 2014
|[[File:Syrian civil war 2.png|250px]]|1 May 2014
| |9 May 2014
| |25 May 2014
| |24 September 2014
| |5 October 2014
| |24 November 2014
| |20 December 2014 ???
|[[File:Syrian civil war 01 02 2015.png|250px]]|1 February 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 03 03 2015.png|250px]]|3 March 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 01 04 2015.png|250px]]|1 April 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 04 04 2015.png|250px]]|4 April 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 04 05 2015.png|250px]]|4 May 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 01 06 2015.png|250px]]|1 June 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 26 06 2015.png|250px]]|26 June 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 01 08 2015.png|250px]]|1 August 2015&lt;!--
Limit of 20 parameters reached
|[[File:Syrian civil war 04 09 15.png|250px]]|4 September 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 07 10 2015.png|250px]]|7 October 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 01 11 2015.png|250px]]|1 November 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 01 12 2015.png|250px]]|1 December 2015
|[[File:Syrian civil war 01 01 2016.png|250px]]|1 January 2016
|[[File:Syrian civil war 01 02 2016.png|250px]]|1 February 2016
|[[File:Syrian civil war 11-2-16.png|250px]]|11 February 2016
|[[File:Syrian civil war 01 03 2016.png|250px]]|1 March 2016
|[[File:Syrian civil war 01 04 2016.png|250px]]|1 April 2016
|[[File:Syrian civil war April 15.png|250px]]|15 April 2016
|[[File:Syrian civil war map, May 2016.png|250px]]|16 May 2016
--&gt;
}}

== [[Wikipedia:Main Page history]] ==
&lt;div class=&quot;switcher-container&quot;&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
{| 
|+ '''2011'''
|-
| January|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 January 31|31]]
|-
| February|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 February 28|28]]|| || || 
|-
| March|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 March 31|31]]
|-
| April|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 April 30|30]]|| 
|-
| May|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 May 31|31]]
|-
| June|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 June 30|30]]|| 
|-
| July|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 July 31|31]]
|-
| August|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 August 31|31]]
|-
| September|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 September 30|30]]|| 
|-
| October|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 October 31|31]]
|-
| November|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 November 30|30]]|| 
|-
| December|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2011 December 31|31]]
|}
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot;&gt;2011&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
{|
|+ '''2012'''
|-
| January|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 January 31|31]]
|-
| February|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 February 29|29]]|| || 
|-
| March|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 March 31|31]]
|-
| April|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 April 30|30]]|| 
|-
| May|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 May 31|31]]
|-
| June|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 June 30|30]]|| 
|-
| July|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 July 31|31]]
|-
| August|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 August 31|31]]
|-
| September|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 September 30|30]]|| 
|-
| October|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 October 31|31]]
|-
| November|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 November 30|30]]|| 
|-
| December|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2012 December 31|31]]
|}
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot;&gt;2012&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
{|
|+ '''2013'''
|-
| January|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 January 31|31]]
|-
| February|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 February 28|28]]|| || || 
|-
| March|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 March 31|31]]
|-
| April|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 April 30|30]]|| 
|-
| May|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 May 31|31]]
|-
| June|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 June 30|30]]|| 
|-
| July|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 July 31|31]]
|-
| August|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 August 31|31]]
|-
| September|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 September 30|30]]|| 
|-
| October|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 October 31|31]]
|-
| November|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 November 30|30]]|| 
|- 
| December|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2013 December 31|31]]
|}
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot;&gt;2013&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
{|
|+ '''2014'''
|-
| January|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 January 31|31]]
|-
| February|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 February 28|28]]|| || || 
|-
| March|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 March 31|31]]
|-
| April|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 April 30|30]]|| 
|-
| May|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 May 31|31]]
|-
| June|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 June 30|30]]|| 
|-
| July|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 July 31|31]]
|-
| August|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 August 31|31]]
|-
| September|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 September 30|30]]|| 
|-
| October|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 October 31|31]]
|-
| November|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 November 30|30]]|| 
|- 
| December|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2014 December 31|31]]
|}
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot;&gt;2014&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
{|
|+ '''2015'''
|-
| January|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 January 31|31]]
|-
| February|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 February 28|28]]|| || || 
|-
| March|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 March 31|31]]
|-
| April|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 April 30|30]]|| 
|-
| May|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 May 31|31]]
|-
| June|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 June 30|30]]|| 
|-
| July|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 July 31|31]]
|-
| August|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 August 31|31]]
|-
| September|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 September 30|30]]|| 
|-
| October|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 October 31|31]]
|-
| November|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 November 30|30]]|| 
|- 
| December|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2015 December 31|31]]
|}
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot;&gt;2015&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
{|
|+ '''2016'''
|-
| January|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 January 31|31]]
|-
| February|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 28|28]]||  [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 February 29|29]]|| || 
|-
| March|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 March 31|31]]
|-
| April|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 April 30|30]]|| 
|-
| May|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 May 31|31]]
|-
| June|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 June 30|30]]|| 
|-
| July|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 July 31|31]]
|-
| August|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 August 31|31]]
|-
| September|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 September 30|30]]|| 
|-
| October|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 October 31|31]]
|-
| November|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 November 30|30]]|| 
|- 
| December|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 1|1]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 2|2]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 3|3]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 4|4]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 5|5]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 6|6]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 7|7]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 8|8]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 9|9]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 10|10]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 11|11]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 12|12]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 13|13]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 14|14]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 15|15]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 16|16]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 17|17]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 18|18]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 19|19]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 20|20]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 21|21]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 22|22]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 23|23]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 24|24]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 25|25]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 26|26]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 27|27]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 28|28]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 29|29]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 30|30]]|| [[Wikipedia:Main Page history/2016 December 31|31]]
|}
&lt;span class=&quot;switcher-label&quot; data-switcher-default=&quot;&quot;&gt;2016&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==Div blocks inside parameters==
{{testcase table
| [[File:Maine Presidential Election Results 2016.svg|250px]]
| County results
{{col-start}}
{{col-2}}
'''Clinton'''
{{legend|#b9d7ff|40–50%}}
{{legend|#86b6f2|50–60%}}
{{col-2}}
'''Trump'''
{{legend|#f2b3be|40–50%}}
{{legend|#e27f90|50–60%}}
{{col-end}}
| [[File:Maine Presidential Results 2016 by Municipality.svg|250px]]
| Municipality results
{{col-start}}
{{col-4}}
'''Clinton'''
{{legend|#b9d7ff|40–50%}}
{{legend|#86b6f2|50–60%}}
{{legend|#4389E3|60–70%}}
{{legend|#1666CB|70–80%}}
{{legend|#002B84|90-100%}}
{{col-4}}
'''Trump'''
{{legend|#f2b3be|40–50%}}
{{legend|#e27f90|50–60%}}
{{legend|#CC2F4A|60–70%}} 
{{legend|#D40000|70–80%}}
{{legend|#AA0000|80–90%}}
{{legend|#800000|90-100%}}
{{col-4}}
'''Stein'''
{{legend|#42CA42|60-70%}}
{{col-4}}
'''Tie'''
{{legend|#D4C4DC}}
{{col-end}}
| [[File:United States House of Representatives elections in Maine, 2016 results by district.svg|250px]]
| Congressional district results
{{col-start}}
{{col-2}}
'''Clinton'''
{{legend|#86b6f2|50–60%}}
{{col-2}}
'''Trump'''
{{legend|#e27f90|50–60%}}
{{col-end}}
}}
&lt;!--
{{clear}}
== References ==
{{reflist}}
 --&gt;</text>
      <sha1>n71o2sdhr0fsjovg5vmetkysy7fvs2v</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mbili ya Italy</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>36797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>116053</id>
      <parentid>115105</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-05-28T00:46:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>InternetArchiveBot</username>
        <id>6449</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="202730" sha1="lcldoxnyxagthl256tthxbqeqcufdt1" xml:space="preserve">{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Nkhaniiwemi}}
{{History of Italy}}
{{Culture of Italy}}
Ŵanthu ŵakukhala mu caru ca [[Italy]] ico cili ku [[Europe]] kwa vilimika pafupifupi 850,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Kwambira kale chomene, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Kale, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cikaya ca Ŵaroma ndiposo msumba ukuru wa vigaŵa vya Ufumu wa [[Rome|Roma]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/hannibalswarmili00laze | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/hannibalswarmili00laze/page/29 29] |quote=Italy homeland of the Romans. | title=Hannibal's War: A Military History of the Second Punic War| publisher=University of Oklahoma Press | isbn=9780806130040| last1=Lazenby| first1=John Francis| year=1998}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ItsTDAAAQBAJ&amp;q=italy+metropole+roman+empire&amp;pg=PA45 |title=Contours of the World Economy 1-2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History |isbn=9780199227211 |last1=Maddison |first1=Angus |date=20 September 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ufumu wa Romu ukaŵako mu 753 B.C.E. ndipo ukazgoka charu cha Romu mu 509 B.C.E., apo ufumu wa Romu ukathereskeka. Kufuma apo, boma la Romu likasazga Italy na ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria, Celt, na Greece awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi. Ŵaroma ŵakalongozganga Socii, gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya Chiitaliki, ndipo pamasinda, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kulamulira ku Western Europe, North Africa, na Near East.

Ufumu wa Roma ukamara apo Julius Caesar wakakomeka. Ufumu wa Roma ndiwo ukalongozga vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe na Mediterranean kwa vyaka vinandi, ndipo ukawovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵa kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵasambire vinjeru, sayansi, na luso. Pamanyuma pakuti Roma wabwangandulika mu 476 C.E., Italy yikagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vinandi, m'paka mu 1871 apo charu chikaŵa pamoza. Vyaru vya ku nyanja, comenecomene Venice na Genoa, vikaŵa na cuma cikuru comene cifukwa ca ulendo wa pa nyanja, malonda, na mabanki.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last= Sée|first= Henri|title= Modern Capitalism Its Origin and Evolution|url= http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|work= University of Rennes|publisher= Batoche Books|access-date= 29 August 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131007010542/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|archive-date= 2013-10-07|url-status= dead | quote = The origin and development of capitalism in Italy are illustrated by the economic life of the great city of Florence.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last=Sée|first=Henri|title=Modern Capitalism Its Origin and Evolution|url=http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|work=University of Rennes|publisher=Batoche Books|access-date=29 August 2013|archive-date=7 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131007010542/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/het/see/ModernCapitalism.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chigaŵa chapakati cha Italy chikalutilira kulamulirika na Ŵapapa, apo chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Italy chikalutilira kulamulirika na ŵasilikari ŵa Byzantine, Arab, Norman, Spanish, na Bourbon.&lt;ref name=macSmith70&gt;{{cite book|authorlink=Denis Mack Smith|last=Smith |first=D. Mack |title=Storia della Sicilia medioevale e moderna|year=1970 |publisher=Laterza |location=Bari |language=it|pages=27, 39, 45, 50–51, 98–108, 190–201}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;natgeo&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last1=Jepson|first1=Tim|title=National Geographic Traveler: Italy|date=2012|publisher=National Geographic Books|isbn=9781426208614|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2jihJ0bq4EC&amp;q=trade+routes+italy+new+world&amp;pg=PA28}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nyengo ya kuwelera ku Italy yikathandazgikira mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa chomene vya ŵanthu, sayansi, kusanda vinthu, na luso. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Italy (mwakuyana na Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus, na Amerigo Vespucci) ŵakasanga nthowa ziphya zakulutira ku Far East na ku New World, ndipo ŵakambiska nyengo ya Discovery. Mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha, caru ca Italy cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene nga ni Dante Alighieri, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Niccolò Machiavelli, Galileo Galilei na Raphael.

Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, Giuseppe Garibaldi wakawovwira kuti Italy wakolerane na ufumu wa Sardinia. Ufumu uphya wa Italy, uwo ukakhazikiskika mu 1861, ukasintha vinthu mwaluŵiro na kuzenga ufumu wa vyaru vinyake. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, kumwera kwa Italy kukaŵa ku mizi ndipo kukaŵa ukavu. Mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, Italy wakamalizga kuwungana mwa kupoka Trento na Trieste, ndipo wakapokera mpando wakukhalilira mu wupu wa League of Nations. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakawonanga kuti Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose njawakawaka cifukwa cakuti caru ca Italy cikaŵa na vigaŵa vyose yayi ivyo vikalayizgika na phangano la ku London (1915). Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yacitika pamoza na Nazi Germany na Ufumu wa Japan, ŵasilikari ŵakathereskeka, Mussolini wakakakika na kucimbira, ndipo nkhondo ya mukati mu Italy yikamba.

Pamanyuma pakuti Italy wafwatuka, Social Republic wawa, ndipo Benito Mussolini wakomeka na gulu la Resistance, mu 1946 ŵanthu ŵakakanizga boma la Italy kuti liŵe lacifumu, ndipo likazgoka republiki. Chikulutilira kuŵa na nkhongono pa nkhani ya vya cuma, mitheto, nkhondo, na ndyali mu vilimika vya m'ma 2000.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=Canada Among Nations, 2004: Setting Priorities Straight|date=17 January 2005|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-2836-9|page=85|url={{Google books|nTKBdY5HBeUC|page=|keywords=Canada%20Among%20Nations%2C%202004%3A%20Setting%20Priorities Straight|text=|plainurl=yes}}|access-date=13 June 2016|quote=The United States is the sole world's superpower. France, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom are great powers.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Sterio|first1=Milena|title=The Right to Self-Determination Under International Law: &quot;Selfistans&quot;, Secession, and the Rule of the Great Powers|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon|isbn=978-0-415-66818-7|page=xii (preface)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-QuI6n_OVMYC&amp;q=The%20Right%20to%20Self-determination%20Under%20International%20Law%3A%20%22selfistans%22%2C%20Secession%20and%20the%20Rule%20of%20the%20Great%20Powers|access-date=13 June 2016|quote=The great powers are super-sovereign states: an exclusive club of the most powerful states economically, militarily, politically and strategically. These states include veto-wielding members of the United Nations Security Council (United States, United Kingdom, France, China, and Russia), as well as economic powerhouses such as Germany, Italy and Japan.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Mbili yakwambilila==
{{Main|Prehistoric Italy}}
[[File:Antropomorfi detti astronauti (a) - R 1 - Area di Zurla - Nadro (ph Luca Giarelli).jpg|thumb|Petroglyph ku Valcamonica, Lombardy, ni malo ghakurughakuru chomene pa charu chapasi agho pali ma petroglyph ghakale chomene (cha m'ma 1000 B.C.E.).]]

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakafika ku Monte Poggiolo vyaka 850,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Neanderthal ŵali kusangika ku malo agho ghakusangika kufupi na Roma na Verona vyaka pafupifupi 50,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo ya Paleolithiki ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako vyaka 48,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu Novembala 2011, ku Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit ku England, ŵakachita kafukufuku pa ivyo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ni mino gha mwana wa munthu wa ku Neanderthal. Vinthu ivyo vikakhalapo mu nyengo ya ŵanthu awo ŵakaŵako kale vikusangika mu Lombardy (malibwe agho ghakaŵa mu msumba wa Valcamonica) na mu Sardinia (nuraghe). Cinyake ico cikumanyikwa comene ni ca Ötzi the Iceman, cikozgo ca munthu uyo wakacimbiranga nyama mu mapiri ico cikasangika mu Similaun glacier ku South Tyrol, ca m'ma c. 3400-3100 B.C.E.&lt;ref name=&quot;nytimes.com&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/03/science/fossil-teeth-put-humans-in-europe-earlier-than-thought.html |work=The New York Times |title=Fossil Teeth Put Humans in Europe Earlier Than Thought |date=2 November 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Matera from Piazzetta Pascoli-2930.jpg|thumb|left|Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti nyumba za mu mphanji za ku Sassi ku Matera ndizo zikaŵa zakwamba mu Italy.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amusingplanet.com/2016/04/sassi-di-matera-oldest-continuously.html?m=1 |title=Sassi di Matera |publisher=AmusingPlanet}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
[[File:Dolmenmontebubbonia.jpg|left|thumb|Dolmen of Monte Bubbonia, Sicily]]
Mu nyengo ya mkuwa, ŵanthu ŵa ku Indo-Europe ŵakaluta ku Italy. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakwiza mu vigaŵa pafupifupi vinayi kufuma kumpoto m'paka ku Alps. Ŵanthu ŵakwamba kufuma ku Indo-Europe ŵakaluta ku malo ghanyake m'ma 2000 B.C.E., kufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakizanga na vinthu vya mkuwa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Remedello ndiwo ŵakamba kulamulira chigaŵa cha Po. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira ku malo agha mu nyengo ya Bronze, kwamba m'ma 2000 C.E. m'paka m'ma 2000 C.E. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Padan Plain, Tuscany, na mumphepete mwa nyanja za Sardinia na Sicily.

Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E., kukaŵa chimphepo chachitatu icho chikamba kwiza, icho chikakolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Apennine na ŵanthu ŵa ku Terramare. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Terramare ŵakachitanga pakuyaniska na ivyo ŵakachitanga mu nyengo ya Neolithic vingawoneka kuti vikaŵa vyaunenesko. Ŵakaŵa ŵachali ŵalovi, kweni ŵakaŵa na viŵeto vyakukhora. Ŵakaŵa ŵaluso comene pakupanga visulo, ŵakapanganga mkuŵa mu malibwe na dongo. Kweniso ŵakaŵa ŵalimi, ŵakaliskanga mphoza, mpheska, tirigu, na linoni.&lt;ref name=&quot;EB1911&quot;&gt;{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Terramara|volume=26|pages=658–659|first=John Malcolm|last=Mitchell}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Otzi-Quinson.jpg|thumbnail|''[[Ötzi]]'', a natural mummy discovered in the southern Alps (region of [[Trentino-Alto Adige]]) dating from the 4th millennium BC.]]

Mu nyengo ya Bronze, kufuma kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 m'paka kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito visulo mu Italy. Chikhalidwe cha Proto-Villanova chinali mbali ya chikhalidwe cha Urnfield cha ku Ulaya. Vinthu ivi vikuyana waka na vigaŵa vya Bavaria-Upper Austria na Middle-Danube. Kweni ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti chikafuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Terramare awo ŵakakhalanga mu Dambo la Po. Ŵanthu ŵanyake nga ni Marija Gimbutas, ŵakayaniska mitheto iyi na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakafikira mu caru ici. Ku Sicily, ŵasanga tumalundi tunyake twa m'ma 2000 B.C.E., uto tukuyana waka na uto tikusanga ku Spain, Balearic Islands, Sardinia, na Apulia. Munthu uyo wakabowozga cikaya ici (uyo wakacicema mu Sicily kuti &quot;Dolmens Culture&quot;) wakayaniska cikaya ici na nyengo iyo cikaya ici cikizira ku Sicily.&lt;ref&gt;Salvatore Piccolo, ''cit.'', pp.30-31&lt;/ref&gt;

===Nuragic civilization===
{{Main|Nuragic civilization|Torrean civilization}}

[[File:Nuraghe Su Nuraxi - Barumini - Sardinia - Italy - 01.jpg|thumb|''[[Su Nuraxi]]'' [[nuraghe]], [[Sardinia]], [[Italy]], 2nd millennium BC.]]
Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nuraghe ŵakababikira ku Sardinia na kumwera kwa Corsica. Zina lawo likufuma ku vigongwe vya Nuragic, ivyo vikapangika kufuma ku vikumba vya megalithic ivyo vikazengeka kale. Mazuŵa ghano, ku Sardinia kuli nyumba zakuzengeka na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 7,000.

Palije maukaboni agho ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵako kale, padera pa maukaboni ghachoko waka agho ghakalembeka mu nyengo ya Nuragic. Nkhani izo zili kulembeka zikufuma ku mabuku gha Ŵagiriki na Ŵaroma, ndipo zikuwoneka nga ni nthano.

Chiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga ku Sardinia mu nyengo ya Bronze chikumanyikwa yayi chifukwa palije malemba gha nyengo iyi, nangauli kafukufuku uyo wachitika sonosono apa wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Nuragic ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito alifabeti yakuyana na iyo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ku Euboea.

Eduardo Blasco Ferrer wakati chiyowoyero cha Paleo-Sardinian chikaŵa chakuyana waka na chiyowoyero cha Proto-Basque na Chiiberiya chakale. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti mu Nuragic Sardinia mukaŵa vigaŵa viŵiri panji kujumpha apa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ugas_2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Ugas |first=Giovanni |title=L'Alba dei Nuraghi |publisher=Fabula editrice |year=2005 |isbn=978-88-89661-00-0 |location=Cagliari}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|241–254}}{{Gallery|align=center
|width=160 |lines=5
|File:Monte D'Accoddi 03.JPG|[[Monte d'Accoddi]], 4th millennium BCE.
|File:Età nuragica, giganti di monte prama, xiii-ix secolo ac ca., da cabras, guerriero 05, 01.jpg|[[Giants of Mont'e Prama]]
|File:Nuragic Bronze statuette.jpg|Bronze sculpture of a Nuragic chief from [[Uta, Sardinia|Uta]].
}}

==Iron Age==
{{Main|Iron Age Italy}}
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 700 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya Chifenike.

===Etruscan civilization===
{{Main|Etruscan civilization}}
[[File:Etruscan civilization map.png|thumb|left|Map of Etruscan civilisation.]]

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ŵakamba kukhala mu chigaŵa chapakati cha Italy mu 800 B.C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakamba kumanyikwa mu nyengo yakale. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku Villanova. Kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na DNA ya mitochondrial uyo wakachitika mu 2013, wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ndiwo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha.

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero chinyake. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vili kulembeka mu ciyowoyero ici vyazunulika pa cirwa ca Lemnos mu nyanja ya Aegean. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakagonanga ŵekha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakaŵa na boma ilo likaŵa na visambizgo vya ŵalongozgi ŵa mafuko. Chisopa cha Etruscan chikaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasopanga ŵachiuta ŵatesi, ndipo vinthu vyose ivyo vikuwoneka ŵakaviwonanga kuti ni nkhongono za Chiuta.[[File:Etruscan Painting 1.jpg|thumbnail|[[Etruscan art|Etruscan fresco]] in the [[Tomb of the Leopards]], [[Monterozzi necropolis]], 5th century BC.]]

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan ŵakamba kuthandazgika chomene mu mapiri gha Apenine. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E., matawuni ghanyake ghachoko waka ghakazimwa. Ndipouli, palije kukayika kuti ndyali za ku Etruscan zikayananga na za ku Magna Graecia kumwera. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruria ŵakasambazga comene cifukwa ca kunozga na kuguliska visulo, comenecomene mkuŵa na cisulo. Pa nyengo iyi, Ŵagiriki ŵakasuzgikanga chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece, comenecomene mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 B.C.E., apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Phocean ku Italy ŵakakhazikiskanga vikaya mumphepete mwa nyanja za France, Catalonia, na Corsica. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵa Etruscans ŵanjire mu mtende na ŵa Carthage, awo ŵakasuskananga na Ŵagiriki.&lt;ref name=&quot;historyone&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=Larissa|last=Bonfante|title=Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4QaXZky58FIC&amp;pg=PA58|year=1986|publisher=Wayne State University Press|isbn=0-8143-1813-4|page=58}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;historytwo&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first=John|last=Franklin Hall|title=Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bUhT7i7XhOAC&amp;pg=PA198|year=1996|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-8425-2334-0|page=198}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu 540 B.C.E., Nkhondo ya ku Alalia yikapangiska kuti mazaza gha ŵanthu ghagaŵikane mu vigaŵa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Nangauli nkhondo iyi yikaŵavya uyo wakathereskeka, kweni Carthage wakalutilira kuthandazga ufumu wake pa Ŵagiriki. Kwambira mu hafu yakwamba ya 5 C.E., vinthu vikasintha pa charu chose. Mu 480 B.C.E., Carthage uyo wakaŵa mubwezi wa Etruria, wakathereskeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Magna Graecia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Syracuse.

Pakati pajumpha vyaka vichoko waka, mu 474 B.C.E., Hiero, fumu yankhongono ya ku Syracuse, yikatonda Ŵaetruska pa Nkhondo ya Cumae. Nkhongono ya Etruria pa misumba ya Latium na Campania yikamba kucepa, ndipo yikaŵa mu mawoko gha Ŵaroma na ŵa Samnites. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Gallic ŵakiza ku Etruria kuti ŵathereske ŵanthu ŵa mu dambo la Po na mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Adriatic. Pa nyengo iyi, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kupoka misumba ya ku Etruria. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵaleke kukhala mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto. Mu 500 B.C.E., charu cha Etruria chikapokeka na Ŵaroma.&lt;ref name=&quot;historyone&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;historytwo&quot; /&gt;{{Gallery|align=center
|width=160 |lines=5
|File:Tomba dei Rilievi (Banditaccia).jpg|Necropolis of Banditaccia located in [[Cerveteri]] in [[Lazio]]
|File:Chimera d'arezzo, fi, 03.JPG|[[Chimera of Arezzo]]
|File:Perugia, Museo archeologico Nazionale dell'Umbria, cippo di Perugia.jpg|[[Cippus Perusinus]]
}}

=== Italic peoples ===
{{Main|Italic peoples}}
[[File:Samnite theater of Pietrabbondante.JPG|thumb|[[Samnites|Samnite]] sanctuary complex at [[Pietrabbondante]].]]
[[File:Femmes peucètes dansant, fresque.jpg|thumb|Fresco of dancing [[Peucetians|Peucetian]] women in the [[Tomb of the Dancers]] in [[Ruvo di Puglia]], 4th–5th century BC]]
Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chiitaliki ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa viyowoyero vyakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga Chiitaliki ŵakaŵa Osci, Veneti, Samnites, Latins, na Umbri.

Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Tiber (Latium Vetus), ŵanthu ŵa ku Latin ŵakamba kukhala ku Latial, ndipo kumpoto kwa chigaŵa ichi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Veneti ŵakamba kukhala ku Este. Mu nyengo yeneyiyi, kufuma ku chigaŵa chawo chapakati ku Italy (mu chigaŵa cha Umbria na Sabina mazuŵa ghano), ŵanthu ŵa ku Osco-Umbria ŵakamba kusama mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, kwizira mu ndondomeko ya Ver sacrum, kusazgirako vyaru vinyake, kumwera kwa Latium, Molise na hafu yose ya kumwera kwa chirwa ichi. Ivi vikukolerana na umo ŵanthu ŵa ku Terni ŵakaŵirako, awo ŵakaŵa ŵakuyana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku Hallstatt na La Tène. Malo ghakusungirako ŵakufwa gha ku Umbria ku Terni, agho ghakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ghakaŵa ghakuyana waka na malo ghakusungirako ŵakufwa gha ku Golasecca.

Pambere Ŵagiriki na Ŵafoinike ŵandafike, ŵanthu ŵa ku Sicily ŵakakhalanga kale pa chirwa ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Sicily ndiwo ŵakambiska zina lakuti Sicily.

Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa Italy mu nyengo ya chisulo ŵakaŵa ŵa Ligure. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti cha m'ma 2000 B.C.E., ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa chikuru cha Italy, kusazgapo chigaŵa chikuru cha kumpoto cha Italy na chigaŵa chose cha Tuscany (chigaŵa icho chili kumpoto kwa mlonga wa Arno). Pakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuwona kuti chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu aŵa chikafuma mu nyengo ya Indo-Europe, kanandi ŵakuchiwona kuti ntcha ku malo yayi.

Kuzakafika pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Roma ŵakamba kuŵa na nkhongono. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Latin ŵakati ŵajiwombora ku wuzga wa Etruscan, ŵakamba kulamulira mafuko gha ku Italy. Kufuma apo, pakaŵaso nkhondo pakati pa mafuko gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Nkhondo izo zikalembeka makora comene ni izo zikacitika pakati pa Ŵalatini na Ŵasameni.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Catherine Mason |first=Carl Waldman |title=Encyclopedia of European Peoples |publisher=Infobase Publishing |pages=452–459}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Paumaliro, ŵanthu ŵa ku Latin ŵakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasambiranga Chilatini yayi ŵakamba kusambira Chilatini ndipo ŵakazgoka Ŵaroma. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., mafuko ghanandi gha ku Italy, chomenechomene Marsi na Samnites, ghakagalukira Ŵaroma. Nkhondo iyi yikumanyikwa kuti Nkhondo ya pa Caru. Ŵaroma ŵakati ŵathereska Ŵaroma, ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Italy ŵakapika wanangwa wa kuŵa ŵenekaya ŵa caru ca Roma, kupaturako Ŵacelt ŵa mu Dambo la Po. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵa mu mafuko gha Chilatini ŵakamba kuyowoya Chilatini.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;/&gt;

===Magna Graecia===
{{Main|Magna Graecia}}
[[File:Magna Graecia ancient colonies and dialects-en.svg|thumb|left|Ancient Greek colonies and their [[:w:Ancient Greek dialects|dialect]] groupings in Southern Italy.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |first=Roger D. |last=Woodard |chapter=Greek dialects |title=The Ancient Languages of Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/51 51] |isbn=978-0-521-68495-8 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/51}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{legend|#cea980|NW Greek}}
{{legend|#b5ad96|Achaean}}
{{legend|#eacd85|Doric}}
{{legend|#bebada|Ionian}}]]

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 800 na 700 B.C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece ŵakamba kukhala ku Southern Italy chifukwa cha masuzgo gha ŵanthu (njara, unandi wa ŵanthu, na vinyake). 14–18). Kweniso mu nyengo iyi, Ŵagiriki ŵakakhazikiskanga vikaya vyawo ku malo agho ghakaŵa kutali chomene nga ni kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Nyanja Yiswesi, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Libya, na Massalia (Marseille) ku Gaul. Ŵakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Sicily na kumwera kwa Italy.

Ŵaroma ŵakacemanga cigaŵa ca Sicily na Italy kuti Magna Graecia (Cilatini, &quot;Greece Mukuru&quot;), cifukwa cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Greece. Ŵanthu awo ŵakasanda malo ŵakale ŵakakolerananga yayi pa nkhani yakuti lizgu ili likung'anamura Sicily panji Apulia, Campania na Calabria.

Cifukwa ca ukoloni uwu, cikaya ca Cigiriki cikatolekera ku Italy, mu viyowoyero vya Cigiriki, maluso gha cisopa, na mitheto ya boma lakujiyimira. Nyengo yichoko waka, ŵanthu ŵa ku Greece ŵakamba kukhala ku malo agha. Chiyowoyero chakuzirwa chomene chikaŵa cha Chigiriki cha Chalcidean/Cumaean, icho chikalembeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Etruscan.[[File:Selinunte - Templi Orientali (Temple E) 18.JPG|thumb|Greek temple of [[Hera]], [[Selinunte]], Sicily.]]

Misumba yinandi ya ku Greece yikaŵa yisambazi kweniso yankhongono, nga ni Neapolis (Νεάπολις, Naples, &quot;Msumba Uphya&quot;), Syracuse, Acragas, na Sybaris (Σύβαρις). Matawuni ghanyake gha ku Magna Graecia ghakaŵa Tarentum (Τάρας), Epizephyrian Locri (Λοκροί) Rhegium, Croton, Thurii, Elea, Nola, Ancona, Syessa, Bari, na ghanyake.

Pyrrhus wa ku Epirus wakati watondeka kulekeska ufumu wa Ŵaroma mu 282 B.C.E., kumwera kwa charu ichi kukaŵa pasi pa Ŵaroma ndipo ŵakalutilira kuwukira Ŵaroma. Ufumu wa Byzantium ndiwo ukawusanga pamanyuma pakuti Romu wawira kumanjiliro gha dazi ndipo nanga ni ŵa Lombard ŵakatondeka kuwukhozga, nangauli msumba wa kumwera ukaŵa wawo kufuma apo Zotto wakawusanga mu cigaŵa caumaliro ca vyaka vya m'ma 400 C.E..

==Roman period==
{{Main|Ancient Rome}}

===Roman Kingdom===
{{Main|Founding of Rome|Roman Kingdom}}
[[File:Capitoline she-wolf Musei Capitolini MC1181.jpg|thumb|left|The ''[[Capitoline Wolf]]'' sculpture in the [[Capitoline Museums]]. According to legend, [[founding of Rome|Rome was founded]] in 753 BC by [[Romulus and Remus]], who were raised by a [[She-wolf (Roman mythology)|she-wolf]].]]

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na Ufumu wa Roma, chifukwa palije mabuku agho ghakalembeka pa nyengo iyo. Ndipouli, mdauko wa Ufumu wa Roma ukamba na kukhazikiskika kwa msumba uwu, uwo ukambira mu 753 B.C.E. ndipo ukaŵa na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga pa Phiri la Palatine mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Tiber ku Italy.

Pa malo agha pakaŵa msewu unyake uwo ŵanthu ŵakambukiranga Mlonga wa Tiber. Phiri la Palatine na tumapiri tunyake uto tukazingilizga phiri ili, vikaŵa vyambura kusuzga kuvikilira. Vinthu vyose ivi vikawovwira kuti msumba uwu ukure makora.

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 C.E., mu ufumu wa Romu mukaŵa mafumu 7. Ŵakaŵa na vyaka 243 pa nyengo iyo ŵakalamuliranga, ndipo kufuma waka apo Barthold Georg Niebuhr wakalemberanga Baibolo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuŵamanya yayi.[[File:Veduta degli scavi coi fori neolitici di capanne sul palatino, 02.jpg|thumbnail|Iron Age hut foundations on the [[Palatine Hill]] considered to be the ''[[Casa Romuli]]'', the reputed dwelling-place of [[Romulus]].]]

Ŵagali ŵakaparanya vinthu vinandi ivyo vikalembeka mu mbiri ya Roma apo ŵakapoka msumba uwu mu 390 B.C.E. (Varronian, kuyana na Polybius nkhondo iyi yikachitika mu 387/6) ndipo ivyo vikakhalako vikamara mu nyengo panji kwiba. Pakuti palije ukaboni wakuti ufumu uwu ukaŵako mu nyengo yira, tikwenera kusanda mwakupwelelera nkhani zose za mafumu agha.

Kuyana na nthano ya Roma, msumba uwu ukazengeka pa Epulero 21, 753 B.C.E. na ŵabali ŵaŵiri, Romulus na Remus, awo ŵakaŵa ŵazukuru ŵa Aeneas, fumu ya ku Troya.&lt;ref&gt;Adkins, 1998. page 3.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Roman Republic===
{{Main|Roman Republic}}
{{Further|Roman conquest of Italy}}
[[File:Roman Republic Empire map.gif|thumb|left|Animation showing the growth and division of [[Ancient Rome]], years CE]]

Kuyana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakulemba nga ni Livy ŵakalemba, charu cha Romu chikamba kuwusa mu 509 B.C.E., apo themba laumaliro pa mathemba 7 gha Romu, Tarquin the Proud, likathereskeka na Lucius Junius Brutus. Ndondomeko ya malango yikalongozganga kuti vinthu vileke kwenda makora, kweniso kuti mazaza gha ŵanthu ghapatukane. Ŵeruzgi ŵakuzirwa comene ŵakaŵa ŵalara ŵa boma ŵaŵiri, awo pamoza ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakulongozga ŵasilikari. Ŵalongozgi aŵa ŵakateŵeteranga lumoza na ŵalara ŵa boma, awo pakwamba ŵakaŵa ŵalara ŵa boma, kweni ŵakakura chomene.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 400 B.C.E., Ŵagalileya ŵakamba kuwukira charu cha Romu. Ŵaroma ŵakakora vilwero na kucimbizga Ŵagali, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Camillus. Pachoko na pachoko, Ŵaroma ŵakamba kuwusa ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Italy, kusazgapo Ŵaeturu. Cinthu caumaliro ico cikapangiska kuti Ŵaroma ŵambe kulamulira caru ca Italy cikaŵa apo Tarentum, msumba ukuru wa ku Greece, wakacema Pyrrhus wa ku Epirus kuti wamovwire mu 281 B.C.E., kweni vyose ivi vikacitika yayi.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E., Ŵaroma ŵakakumana na mulwani wakofya chomene. Mu Nkhondo zitatu za ku Punic, msumba wa Carthage ukaparanyika ndipo Ŵaroma ŵakamba kuwusa Hispania, Sicily, na North Africa. Ŵaroma ŵakati ŵathereska ufumu wa Makedoniya na wa Seleucid mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Cifukwa ca kuthereska maufumu gha Ŵagiriki, Ŵaroma na Ŵagiriki ŵakasazgikana, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Romu ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya mizi. Pa nyengo iyi, ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa wankhongono comene ndipo ukaŵa na ŵalwani ŵanandi yayi.[[File:Retrato de Julio César (26724093101) (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Tusculum portrait]], possibly the only surviving sculpture of [[Julius Caesar]] made during his lifetime. Archaeological Museum, [[Turin]], [[Italy]].]]
Malo ghamoza agho ghakaŵa na nthenda iyi ni Spain. Ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ŵakanjira mu Spain kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E., kweni ŵakasuzgika chomene m'paka apo Augusto wakaŵira themba. Msumba wa Numantia uwo ukaŵa wa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Celtiberian ndiwo ukaŵa pakwamba apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakasuskanga Ŵaroma mu vyaka vya m'ma 140 na 130 B.C.E. Numantia wakawa na kubwangandulika mu 133 B.C.E. Mu 105 B.C.E., Ŵaceltiberi ŵakalutilira kuŵa ŵankhongono na ŵakofya mwakuti ŵakachimbizga Cimbri na Teutones kumpoto kwa Spain, nangauli Ŵaroma ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵaroma ku Gaul kumwera, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵaroma awo ŵakaŵasuskanga ŵakafwa 80,000. Kupoka Hispania kukamara mu 19 B.C.E., kweni pakaŵa masuzgo ghanandi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate |publisher=University of California Press |page=400}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Tavares.Forum.Romanum.redux.jpg|thumb|The [[Roman Forum]], the commercial, cultural, and political centre of the city and the Republic which housed the various offices and meeting places of the government.]]

Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 200 B.C.E., mafuko ghanandi gha Cijeremani ghakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo Cimbri na Teuton ndiwo ŵakalongozganga. Ŵanthu ŵa mafuko agha ŵakathereskanga ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakumananga nawo, ndipo ŵakatimbanizganga comene caru ca Italy. Pa Nkhondo ya ku Aquae Sextiae na Vercellae, Ŵajeremani wose ŵakakomeka. Mu nkhondo ziŵiri izi, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Teuton na Ambrones ŵakataya ŵanalume 290,000 (ŵanalume 200,000 ŵakakomeka ndipo 90,000 ŵakakoleka); ndipo ŵa mtundu wa Cimbri ŵakataya ŵanalume 220,000 (ŵanalume 160,000 ŵakakomeka ndipo 60,000 ŵakakoleka).&lt;ref&gt;Livy Ep. 68&lt;/ref&gt;

Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 100 B.C.E., charu ichi chikaŵa mu nyengo ya masuzgo gha ndyali. Mu nyengo iyi, Julius Caesar ndiyo wakaŵa wakuzirwa comene. Caesar wakakolerana na ŵanalume ŵaŵiri awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza comene mu Roma: Marcus Licinius Crassus, uyo wakaŵa movwiri wake, na Pompey, uyo wakaŵa mulwani wa Crassus. Crassus, mwanalume musambazi comene mu Romu, wakaŵa musambazi comene; Pompey wakaŵa na mazaza ghanandi mu wupu wa Senate; ndipo Kesare wakaŵa kazembe na mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari mu Gaul.&lt;ref name=Scullard2&gt;Scullard 1982, chapters VI-VII&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu 53 B.C.E., ufumu wa Crassus ukamara. Crassus wakaŵa muphemaniski pakati pa Caesar na Pompey, ndipo kwambura iyo, ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri aŵa ŵakamba kulimbana kuti ŵatore mazaza. Caesar wakati watonda Nkhondo za ku Gallia, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵakamulumba na kumuchindika, Pompey wakawona kuti ni munthu muwemi yayi. Kuti ivi vileke kucitika, Kesare wakambuka Mlonga wa Rubicon na kuwukira Roma mu 49 B.C.E., ndipo mwaluŵiro wakatonda Pompey. Cifukwa cakuti Kesare ndiyo wakaŵa na mazaza pa ufumu wa Roma, wakayamba kuŵa na mauteŵeti ghanandi, ndipo pamasinda wakazgoka muwusi wankhongono. Wakakomeka mu 44 B.C.E., pa nyengo ya Ides of March, na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kumufwatura. Pakuti Kesare wakakomeka, pakaŵa masuzgo gha ndyali na gha ŵanthu mu Romu. Octavian (mwana wakulera wa Kesare), pamoza na Mark Antony na Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, mubwezi wa Kesare, ŵakambiska ufumu waciŵiri. Mu 36 B.C.E., Lepidus wakafumapo pa udindo wake wati wapusika Octavian ku Sicily. Antony wakakhalanga ku Eguputo na wakutemweka wake, Cleopatra VII. Ŵanthu ŵakawonanga kuti Mark Antony na Cleopatra ŵakaŵa ŵakwendera mphiska cifukwa cakuti wakaŵa fumukazi ya caru cinyake ndipo Antony wakaŵa na umoyo wakukondweska comene.

Pamanyuma pakuti Antony wapeleka vyawanangwa ku Alekizandiriya, Cleopatra wakapika zina lakuti &quot;Fumukazi ya Mathemba&quot;, ndipo ŵana ŵawo ŵakapika mazina gha ufumu ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi ivyo vikaŵa kuti vyatoleka waka. Octavian wakaparanya ŵasilikari ŵa Eguputo mu Nkhondo ya Actium mu 31 B.C.E. Marko Antony na Cleopatra ŵakajikoma, ndipo Octavian ndiyo wakaŵa yekha mulongozgi wa caru.

Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya ku Actium, nyengo ya nkhondo zikuruzikuru za pa nyanja yikamara ndipo Ŵaroma ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja mu Nyanja ya North Sea, Atlantic, Mediterranean, Red Sea, na Black Sea mpaka apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku North Sea ŵakamba kutinkhana na Ŵafrank na Ŵasaxon, kweniso ŵa Borani, Herules na Goths mu Nyanja ya Black Sea.&lt;ref&gt;[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html#ref57] Plutarch, ''Parallel Lives'', ''Life of Antony'', LXXI, 3–5.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Roman Empire===
{{Further|Roman Empire|Roman Italy}}
[[File:Augustus of Prima Porta (inv. 2290).jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Augustus of Prima Porta]], 1st century AD, depicting [[Augustus]], the first [[Roman emperor]]]]

Mu 27 B.C.E., Octavian ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi yekha wa Ŵaroma. Pakuŵa mulongozgi wa Ŵaroma, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora chomene mu ufumu wa Ŵaroma, uwo ukatora vyaka 40. Mu caka ici, wakamba kumanyikwa na zina lakuti Augusto. Ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuwona kuti nyengo iyi ndiyo Ufumu wa Roma ukambira. Nangauli boma likaŵa la boma la Republican, kweni Augusto ndiyo wakaŵa na mazaza ghose. Wupu wa Senate ukamupa udindo wapadera wa Proconsular imperium, uwo ukamupa mazaza pa ŵalongozgi wose ŵa ŵasilikari.

Vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa pafupi na mphaka, uko ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakaŵa, vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Augusto. Vigaŵa ivi vikachemekanga vigaŵa vya ufumu. Vigaŵa vyamtende ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa ŵalara ŵa boma vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵalara ŵa boma. Ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ŵakaŵa ŵanandi comene (ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 50) cifukwa ca nkhondo za mukati mwa caru.

Apo vigaŵa vikapangikanga mu Meditereniyani yose, ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa na mazaza ghakupambanapambana, ndipo ukaŵa na mazaza ghakulongozga vigaŵa (&quot;Domina Provinciarum&quot;, kung'anamura kuti &quot;muwusi wa vigaŵa&quot;, kung'anamura vigaŵa vyose ivyo vikaŵa kuwaro kwa Italy), kweniso mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 C.E., ufumu wa Roma ukaŵa na mazaza pa charu chose chapasi.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb6OAQAAQBAJ&amp;dq=Rectrix+mundi+omnium+terrarum+parens&amp;pg=PA97|title= Altri nomi e appellativi relazionati allo status dell'Italia in epoca romana|date= 20 November 2013|publisher= Bloomsbury|isbn= 9781472519801|access-date=20 November 2021|language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.abebooks.it/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=22910180903&amp;searchurl=sortby%3D20%26tn%3Ditalia%2Bomnium%2Bterrarum%2Bparens&amp;cm_sp=snippet-_-srp1-_-title1|title=Antico appellativo dell'Italia romana: ''Italia Omnium Terrarum Parens''|access-date=20 November 2021|language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt; Chifukwa cha udindo uwu, mu nyengo ya mtende, ŵalara ŵa boma la Roma ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito mazaza gha ŵapolisi (Imperium domi) m'malo mwa ŵasilikari (Imperium militiae). Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kusopa kweniso ndalama.[[File:Colosseo 2020.jpg|thumb|The [[Colosseum]] in [[Rome]], built in the 1st century]]
Mu muwuso wa Augusto, mabuku gha Ŵaroma ghakakura chomene. Ŵanthu nga ni Vergil, Horace, Ovid, na Rufus ŵakalemba mabuku ghanandi, ndipo ŵakaŵa ŵabwezi ŵa Augusto. Pamoza na Maecenas, wakawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na mtima wa kutemwa caru, nga ni buku la Virgil lakuti Aeneid, kweniso wakawovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na mtima wa kutemwa caru. Mabuku agho ghakalembeka mu nyengo iyi ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya Ŵaroma, ndipo ghakaŵa ghakale chomene. Augustus nayo wakalutilira kusintha kalendara iyo Kesare wakakhumbanga, ndipo mwezi wa Ogasiti ukuchemeka na zina lake. Ufumu wa Ŵaroma ukaŵa pa mtende kwa vyaka 200, ndipo vinthu vikendanga makora.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/447447/Pax-Romana |title=Pax Romana |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Roman Empire Trajan 117AD.png|thumb|{{legend|#b23938|The [[Roman Empire]] at its greatest extent under [[Trajan]] in AD 117}}]]

Nangauli ufumu uwu ukaŵa wankhongono, kweni ukalimbikira yayi kuti usanuzge ufumu wake. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 100 na 200, ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ŵakalwanga nkhondo na mafuko gha Chijeremani agho ghakaŵa kumpoto na Ufumu wa Parthiya uwo ukaŵa kumafumiro gha dazi. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵanthu ŵakugaluka (nga ni Ŵahebere ku Yudeya) (70) na nkhondo za paŵekha (nga ni mu 68 C.E., mu chaka cha mathemba ghanayi) ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵasilikari ŵaŵawovwire. Nkhondo za vilimika 70 za Ŵayuda na Ŵaroma izo zikacitika mu hafu yaciŵiri ya vilimika vya mu handiredi lakwamba na hafu yakwamba ya vilimika vya mu handiredi laciŵiri, zikaŵa zakusuzga comene. Ŵayuda 1,356,460 ŵakakomeka pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Ŵayuda. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Ŵayuda (115-117), yikakoma Ŵayuda ŵakujumpha 200,000. Ndipo Nkhondo Yachitatu ya Ŵayuda (132-136), yikakoma Ŵayuda ŵakujumpha 580,000. Ŵayuda ŵakaweleramo yayi ku suzgo lawo m'paka apo boma la Israyeli likapangikira mu 1948.

Themba Theodosius I likati lafwa (395 C.E.), Ufumu wa Roma ukagaŵikana. Ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kukaŵa masuzgo gha vyachuma na ndyali, kweniso ŵasilikari ŵa Ŵabarabiya ŵakizanga kanandi waka, ntheura msumba wa Mediolanum ukasamukira ku Ravenna. Mu 476, Odoacer wakathereska Romulus Augustulus, themba laumaliro la ku Western. Kwa vyaka vichoko waka, Italy yikalutilira kulamulirika na Odoacer. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yicoko waka kufuma apo Ŵalombardi ŵakanjilira mu caru ici, ndipo pati pajumpha vilimika 1,300, caru ca Italy cikaŵa pasi pa muwusi yumoza.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict [3 volumes] |date=2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=113}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Middle Ages==
{{Main|Italy in the Middle Ages|Italian city-states}}
[[File:Iron Crown.JPG|thumb|The [[Iron Crown of Lombardy]], for centuries a symbol of the [[King of Italy|Kings of Italy]]]]

Muwuso wa Odoacer ukamara apo Ŵagoth ŵakugalukira caru ca Italy. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, ŵasilikari ŵa Justinian ŵakanjira mu Italy kuti ŵambeso kulamulira Ŵaroma. Ivi vikawovwira kuti fuko linyake la Cijeremani, la Lombard, liŵe na mazaza pa vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Italy. Mu 751 Ŵalombardi ŵakathereska Ravenna, na kumazga muwuso wa Byzantine kumpoto kwa Italy. Pakuwona kuti ŵa Lombard ŵambaso kuwukira, Papa wakapempha wovwiri ku ŵa Frank.&lt;ref&gt;Cristina La Rocca, ed. ''Italy in the Early Middle Ages: 476-1000'' (2002).&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:BattagliaLegnano.jpg|thumbnail|left|The defense of the [[Carroccio]] during the [[battle of Legnano]] (by [[Amos Cassioli]], 1860).]]

Mu 756 ŵasilikari ŵa Frank ŵakathereska Ŵalombardi ndipo ŵakazomerezga kuti Ŵapapa ndiwo ŵalongozgenge chigaŵa chikuru cha Italy. Mu 800, Papa wakaphakazga Charlemagne kuŵa fumu ya Ufumu wa Roma mu tchalitchi la St. Peter. Charlemagne wakati wafwa (814), ufumu uphya ukaparanyika. Ici cikapangiska kuti mu Italy muŵe suzgo la mazaza. Ivi vikachitika pamoza na kuwuka kwa cisopa ca Ciisilamu mu caru ca Arabia, kumpoto kwa Africa, na ku Middle East. Kumwera, ufumu wa Umayyad na wa Abbasid ndiwo ukambukira. Ku mpoto, boma likamba kuŵa na nkhongono. Mu 852 C.E., Ŵasarayeni ŵakatora msumba wa Bari na kuzenga ufumu. Mu 902 C.E., Ŵasilamu ŵakamba kulamulira Sicily, ndipo ŵakalutilira kulamulira chilumba ichi kufuma mu 965 m'paka mu 1061. Mu vyaka ivi, boma la Italy likamba kujilongozga. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 C.E., malonda ghakamba kuweleramo. Ŵapapa ŵakaŵaso na mazaza ndipo ŵakamba kulimbana na Ufumu wa Ŵaroma.

Mphindano iyi yikamara mu 1122 apo ŵakalemba chikalata chakuchemeka Concordat of Worms, nangauli mu vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe masuzgo ghakaŵako m'paka kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Ku mpoto, ŵa Lombard ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵaŵe ŵakujiyimira paŵekha kufuma ku Ufumu wa Ŵaroma. Kumwera, Ŵanormani ŵakatora vigaŵa vya Ŵalombardi na Ŵabyzantine, ndipo ŵakawuskapo maboma ghaŵiri agha pa chirwa ichi.&lt;ref&gt;Holger Berwinkel,  &quot;Legnano, Battle of (1176).&quot; in Gordon Martel ed ''The Encyclopedia of War'' (2011) ch 27.&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Tranquillo da cremona, Marco Polo alla Corte del Gran Khan, 1863.PNG|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Marco Polo]] at the court of [[Kublai Khan]] (painting by [[Tranquillo Cremona]], 1863).]]

Kweniso misumba yinyake iyo yikaŵa yakujiyimira yekha yikathereskeka. Mu nyengo yeneyiyi, Ŵanormani nawo ŵakamazga muwuso wa Ŵasilamu mu Sicily. Mu 1130, Roger II wa ku Sicily wakamba kuwusa Ufumu wa Sicily. Roger II ndiyo wakaŵa fumu yakwamba ya Sicily ndipo wakawovwira kuti vinthu vyose ivyo vikathereskeka na Ŵanormani mu Southern Italy viŵe ufumu umoza. Mu 1155, Fumu Manuel Komnenos yikayezga kuwukira kumwera kwa Italy, kweni yikathera yayi. Ufumu wa Sicily uwo ukaŵa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Normandy ukakhala m'paka mu 1194 apo ufumu wa Hohenstaufen ukamba kulamulira Sicily. Ufumu wa Sicily ukaŵa pasi pa mafumu ghakupambanapambana m'paka mu ma 1800.
[[File:Le Repubbliche Marinare.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Map and coats of arms of the [[Maritime republics]]]]

Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1200 na 1300, charu cha Italy chikaŵa na ndyali zapadera chomene. Pakuti mu vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe mukaŵavya maboma agho ghakaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu, boma likamba kulamulira mu misumba. Pakuti tchalitchi likaŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu wose kweniso ufumu ukaŵa kutali chomene, misumba yinandi iyo yikaŵa yakujiyimira payekha yikamba kwenda makora chifukwa cha malonda.

Vikawonekanga nga kuti misumba ya ku Italy yikasintha na kwamba kuchita malonda. Nanga ni misumba na vyaru vya kumpoto vikaŵa na ŵamalonda ŵanandi, comenecomene ŵa ku Venice. Pakuyaniska na maufumu gha ŵamazaza, maboma gha ku Italy ghakaŵa na wanangwa wa ndyali, ndipo ivi vikawovwira kuti sayansi na luso visinthe.

Mu nyengo iyi, misumba yinandi ya ku Italy yikaŵa na maboma nga ni Florence, Lucca, Genoa, Venice, na Siena. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1300 na 1400, misumba iyi yikazgoka malo ghakurughakuru gha vyamalonda na gha ndalama mu Europe.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=de Sismondi|first=Simonde|title=Storia delle Repubbliche Italiane nel Medioevo.|publisher=Avanzini e Torraca Editori|year=1968|language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Castello di reggio calabria, esterno 01.jpg|thumb|[[Aragonese Castle (Reggio Calabria)|Aragonese Castle]] in [[Reggio Calabria]]]]

Chifukwa chakuti misumba ya ku Italy nga ni Venice yikaŵa pakati pa vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi na vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, yikazgoka malo ghakwendeskera malonda gha pa caru cose na gha banki. Milan, Florence, na Venice, pamoza na misumba yinyake yinandi ya ku Italy, yikawovwira comene pa nkhani ya ndalama.

Mu nyengo yeneyiyo pera, mu Italy mukaŵa vyaru vya ku nyanja nga ni Venice, Genoa, Pisa, Amalfi, Ragusa, Ancona, Gaeta na Noli. Kwambira mu 10 m'paka mu 13 C.E., misumba iyi yikazenga ngalaŵa zinandi kuti zijivikilire kweniso kuti zikagwiliskirenge ntchito malonda mu Meditereniyani. Vyaru vya ku nyanja, chomenechomene vya Venice na Genoa, vikazgoka vipata vikuru vya ku Europe vyakwendera malonda na vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi. Mu vyaka vyapakati, chigaŵa cha Savoy chikakura na kunjilira mu chigaŵa ichi, ndipo Florence wakazgoka msumba wa malonda na ndalama..&lt;ref&gt;Armando Lodolini ''Le repubbliche del mare'', Roma, Biblioteca di storia patria, 1967.&lt;/ref&gt;{{Gallery|align=center
|width=160 |lines=5
|File:Italy Lothar II.svg|Italian [[Kingdom of the Lombards|Lombard kingdom]] (781–1014).
|File:Aghlabids Dynasty 800 - 909 (AD).svg|[[Emirate of Sicily]] (831–1072).
|File:Republik Venedig Handelswege01.png|Trade routes and colonies of the [[Genoese colonies|Genoese]] &lt;small&gt;(red)&lt;/small&gt; and [[Stato da Màr|Venetian]] &lt;small&gt;(green)&lt;/small&gt; empires
}}

== Kuwukaso ==
{{Main|Italian Renaissance}}
[[File:'David' by Michelangelo Fir JBU005.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Michelangelo's David]], one of the symbols of Italian Renaissance.]]

Ku Italy ndiko kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga mu nyengo ya Renaissance.

Kuumaliro wa vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., chigaŵa chapakati na kumwera kwa Italy, icho kale chikaŵa pakati pa Ufumu wa Roma na Magna Graecia, chikaŵa chikavu chomene kuluska kumpoto. Msumba wa Romu ukaŵa wakubwanganduka, ndipo boma la Papal States likaŵa na malango ghacoko. Cifukwa cimoza nchakuti Papa wakasamira ku Avignon, France. Naples, Sicily, na Sardinia vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵeneco kwa nyengo yitali. Njira za malonda za ku Italy izo zikendanga pa nyanja ya Meditereniyani na kunyake, zikaŵa zikuru comene pakwendeska vinthu. Mu nyengo iyi, misumba iyo yikaŵa mu Italy yikakura chomene ndipo yikaŵa na mazaza ghanandi mwakuti yikaŵa yakujiyimira pawekha.

Mu 1348, ku Italy kukaŵa nthenda ya Black Death iyo yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi pa ŵanthu ŵatatu. Kuwelera kwa ŵanthu na suzgo la vyachuma kukapangiska kuti misumba, malonda, na vyachuma viwelerepo, ndipo ivi vikakhozga chomene nyengo ya Humanism na Renaissance (Vyaka vya m'ma 15-16 C.E.) apo Italy yikaŵaso likuru la ŵanthu ŵa ku Western.[[File:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour.jpg|thumb|''The [[Vitruvian man]]'' by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], representing the ideal human proportions as described by Roman architect [[Vitruvius]], is a quintessential masterpiece of the Renaissance.]]
[[File:Florence Duomo from Michelangelo hill.jpg|thumb|The [[Santa Maria del Fiore]] cathedral in [[Florence]], which has the biggest brick dome in the world,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.tripleman.com/index.php?showimage=737 |title=The Duomo of Florence &amp;#124; Tripleman |publisher=tripleman.com |access-date=25 March 2010 |archive-date=6 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091206202243/http://www.tripleman.com/index.php?showimage=737 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.brunelleschisdome.com/ |title=Brunelleschi's Dome |publisher=Brunelleschi's Dome.com |access-date=25 March 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt; and is considered a masterpiece of Italian architecture and world architecture.]]
[[File:La nascita di Venere (Botticelli).jpg|thumb|Botticelli's [[The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)|''The Birth of Venus'']], ca. 1482–85.]]

Nyengo iyi yikumanyikwa kuti Renaissance cifukwa cakuti yikaŵa nyengo ya &quot;kuweleramo&quot; mu vinthu vya cuma na vya ku misumba, kweniso ya luso na sayansi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti vinthu vikasintha chomene chifukwa cha mabuku ghakale agho ŵanthu ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakaluwa kwa vyaka vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamira ku Italy kufuma ku Ufumu wa Roma.

Nyengo ya kuwelera ku Italy yikamba ku Tuscany, mu msumba wa Florence. Kufuma apo, ukafika kumwera, ndipo ukakhwaska chomene msumba wa Romu, uwo ukazengekaso na ŵapositole. Mutaliyana wakamba kuwuka mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga mu nyengo ya Renaissance vikafuma ku Florence na kuluta ku vyaru vyapafupi nga ni Siena na Lucca. Mulimo wa kuzenga na kupenta wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Tuscany ukaŵa wakovwira chomene ku misumba yose ya kumpoto na pakati pa Italy.

Nyengo ya kuwelera ku Italy yikaŵa yakukondweska comene pa nkhani ya vya cuma. Venice na Genoa ndiwo ŵakamba kuchita malonda agha, pakwamba ŵakaŵa vyaru vya ku nyanja ndipo pamanyuma ŵakamba kuchita malonda agha mu vigaŵa vinyake. Vifukwa vinyake ivyo vikapangiska kuti vinthu ivi viŵeko ni umo nyanja za ku Venice zikaŵira zakukhora pa nkhondo, unandi wa ŵanthu, na umo mabungwe ghakapangikira. Republic of Venice ndiyo yikaŵa msumba wakwamba wa vya ndalama pa caru cose, uwo ukayamba kuzengeka pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 900 na 1400. Mabondi ghakusinthika ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya ku Italy (nga ni Venice na Genoa) mu nyengo ya kuumaliro wa vyaka vyapakati na kuuyambiro wa nyengo ya Renaissance.&lt;ref name=Coispeau2016&gt;{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yor4DAAAQBAJ |title=Finance Masters: A Brief History of International Financial Centers in the Last Millennium|last=Coispeau|first=Olivier|date=2016-08-10|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=9789813108844|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Literature, philosophy, and science===
Nkhani za mabuku gha mu nyengo ya Renaissance zikwamba na Petrarch (uyo wakumanyikwa chomene chifukwa cha soneti ya Il Canzoniere kweniso chifukwa cha buku ilo wakalemba) kweniso mubwezi wake Giovanni Boccaccio (uyo wakalemba buku la The Decameron). Ŵaluso ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyikwa comene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵakaŵa Luigi Pulci (Morgante), Matteo Maria Boiardo (Orlando Innamorato), na Ludovico Ariosto (Orlando Furioso).

Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakasambira vya nyengo ya kuwuka kwa Yesu, nga ni Niccolò de' Niccoli na Poggio Bracciolini, ŵakapenja mabuku gha ŵanthu awo ŵakalemba mabuku nga ni Plato, Cicero, na Vitruvius. Mu nyengo ya Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira, mabuku gha Ŵagiriki na Ŵagiriki (nga ni Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, na Ptolemy) kweniso gha ŵasayansi Ŵachihelamu ghakasangika mu vyaru vya Cikhristu. Ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵa Chigiriki ŵa mu nyengo iyi ŵakaŵa ŵasembe ŵaŵiri ŵa ku Seminara ku Calabria. Ŵakaŵa Barlaam wa ku Seminara na msambiri wake Leonzio Pilato wa ku Seminara. Barlaam wakamanyanga comene Cigiriki ndipo ndiyo wakasambizganga Petrarch na Giovanni Boccaccio. Leonzio Pilato wakang'anamulira Giovanni Boccaccio mabuku gha Homer mu Cilatini.

Kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Baldassare Castiglione wakalemba buku lakuti The Book of the Courtier, ilo likulongosora umo munthu wakuwonekera, apo Niccolò Machiavelli wakalemba buku lakuti The Prince. Kweniso likakolerananga yayi na visambizgo vya Chikatolika na visambizgo vya ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizganga vya ndyali.&lt;ref name=counter&gt;{{Harvcoltxt|Bireley|1990}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{#tag:ref|Although he makes many references to classical sources, these references do not include the customary deference to [[Aristotle]] which was to some extent approved by the church in his time. {{Harvcoltxt|Strauss|1958|p=222}} says that &quot;Machiavelli indicates his fundamental disagreement with Aristotle's doctrine of the whole by substituting &quot;[[Chance (Ancient Greek concept)|chance]]&quot; (''caso'') for &quot;[[Nature (philosophy)|nature]]&quot; in the only context in which he speaks of &quot;the beginning of the world.&quot; Strauss gives evidence that Machiavelli was knowingly influenced by [[Democritus]], whose philosophy of nature was, like that of [[modern science]], [[materialism|materialist]].&quot;|group=nb}}

===Architecture, sculpture, and painting===
Pa nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na ŵanthu nga ni Giotto di Bondone, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, na Titian.

Ndimo viliriso na vyakuzenga, nga ni Brunelleschi, Leone Alberti, Andrea Palladio, na Bramante. Ŵakalemba vya tchalitchi la Florence Cathedral, St. Ku Rome kuli Tchalitchi la Petrosi, ndipo ku Rimini kuli Tempio Malatestiano. Paumaliro, kampani ya Aldine Press, iyo yikapangika na Aldo Manuzio, iyo yikachitanga ntchito yake ku Venice, yikamba kulemba mabuku mu Chigiriki chakale.

Kweni nangauli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgikanga na vinthu vya ku malo agha, kweni ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakuwona kuti nyengo iyi yikaŵa yakwamba kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu Italy (chifukwa cha kujura nthowa zakwendakwenda za ku Atlantic na kuwukira vyaru vinyake) kweniso kuti pakaŵavya vinandi ivyo vikachitika pa nkhani ya sayansi.

===Age of Discovery===
[[File:Italian explorers.jpg|thumb|Italian explorers and navigators from the dominant maritime republics played a key role in ushering the [[Age of Discovery]] and the [[European colonization of the Americas]]. Clockwise from top left: [[Christopher Columbus]], [[John Cabot]], [[Amerigo Vespucci]],  and [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]]]]
Kuwa kwa msumba wa Constantinople kukapangiska kuti ŵasayansi na mabuku gha Cigiriki ghasamire ku Italy, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa Cigiriki na Ciroma ŵambeso kusopa. Ŵalongozgi awo ŵakalongozganga ŵanthu nga ni Federico da Montefeltro na Papa Pius II, ŵakakhumbanga kukhazikiska misumba yiwemi iyo munthu ndiyo wakweruzgira vinthu vyose. Pico della Mirandola wakalemba buku lakuti Oration on the Dignity of Man, ilo likuwoneka kuti ndilo likawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na wanangwa wakusankha. Leonardo Bruni wakaŵa wakwamba kugaŵa mdauko wa ŵanthu mu vigaŵa vitatu: Kale, mu vyaka vyapakati na mazuŵa ghano. Cinthu caciŵiri ico cikacitika cifukwa ca kuwa kwa msumba wa Constantinople cikaŵa kwamba kwa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakamanyanga vinandi.

Ŵalendo ŵa ku Italy ŵakakhumbanga kusanga nthowa yinyake yakuyira ku India kuti ŵajumphe Ufumu wa Ottoman. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene ŵakaŵa: Christopher Columbus (Cristoforo Colombo), uyo wakambiska vyaru vinyake mu Spain, ndipo wakamanya kuti charu cha New World chilipo ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kuchisanga. John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto), uyo wakaluta ku England, ndiyo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kukendera charu cha North America mu 1497. Amerigo Vespucci, uyo wakaluta ku Portugal, wakalongora mu 1501 kuti charu chiphya (mwakudumura Brazil) chikaŵa cha ku Asia yayi nga umo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghaniranga pakwamba.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url={{Google books|1qsuAAAAYAAJ |page=PA13 |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |title=The Life and Voyages of Verrazzano |last=Greene |first=George Washington |publisher=Folsom, Wells, and Thurston |year=1837 |location=Cambridge University |page=13 |author-link=George Washington Greene |access-date=18 August 2017 |via=Google Books}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Incessant warfare===
[[File:Italy in 1499.png|thumb|left|The Italian Peninsula in 1499.]]

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, kumpoto kwa Italy na kumpoto kwa Italy vikagaŵikana mu misumba yinandi iyo yikaŵa pa nkhondo, yikuru chomene yikaŵa Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, Mantua, Verona, na Venice. Mu nyengo ya ŵapositole, kumpoto kwa Italy kukagaŵikana cifukwa ca kulimbana kwa nyengo yitali pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Papa na ŵa Ufumu wa Roma. Msumba uliwose ukaŵa ku chigaŵa chimoza panji chinyake, kweni ukagaŵikana pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri, ŵa Guelph na Ghibellines.

Nkhondo pakati pa vyaru vikaŵa vyacilendo yayi, ndipo ŵalwani ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakalutanga waka ku caru ca Italy. Ndyali za mu nyengo ya Renaissance zikamba kufuma mu nyengo iyi. Kwambira mu ma 1300, ŵasilikari awo ŵakateŵeteranga ŵasilikari ŵakuguliskika ŵakaŵanga ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, misumba iyo yikaŵa na mazaza chomene yikamba kulamulira misumba yinyake iyo yikaŵa pafupi nayo. Florence wakathereska Pisa mu 1406, Venice wakathereska Padua na Verona, ndipo Duchy of Milan yikathereska vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vikaŵa kufupi, kusazgapo Pavia na Parma.&lt;ref&gt;Jensen 1992, p. 64.&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Uccello Battle of San Romano Uffizi.jpg|thumb|''[[The Battle of San Romano]]'' by [[Paolo Uccello]] (ca. 1438–40).]]
Mu nyengo yakwambilira ya muwuso wa Renaissance, ŵanthu ŵakarwanga nkhondo pa mtunda na pa nyanja. Pa caru capasi, nkhondo izi zikacitikanga na ŵasilikari ŵakucemeka condottieri, ŵasilikari awo ŵakafuma mu vyaru vya ku Europe, comenecomene ku Germany na Switzerland. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuŵika umoyo wawo pangozi, ntheura nkhondo yikamba kuŵa yakuzingilizga, ndipo ŵakachitanga waka vinthu vinyake. Kweniso ŵasilikari awo ŵakagwiranga nchito pa vigaŵa vyose viŵiri ŵakakhumbanga kuti nkhondo yileke kumara. Kweniso ŵantchito awo ŵakagwiranga nchito na ŵasilikari ŵakaŵasuzganga comene. Para vyawoneka kuti boma ndakuthemba comene pa ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakayezgekanga comene kuti ŵacitenge ŵekha vinthu.

Ku nyanja, misumba ya ku Italy yikatumanga ŵasilikari ŵanandi ku nkhondo. Ŵalwani ŵakwamba ŵakaŵa Pisa, Genoa, na Venice, kweni ŵati ŵambana kwa nyengo yitali, Ŵagenuwa ŵakamazga nkhondo iyi. Venesia wakaŵa mulwani wankhongono comene, ndipo apo ufumu wa Genoese ukakhiranga mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, msumba uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja. Pakuzgora ku kofya kufuma ku vigaŵa vyakutali, kwamba kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Venice wakamba kukhumba chomene kuwusa malo agha apo nyengo ya kuwuka kwa Ŵ Venetian yikambanga.

Pa caru capasi, Florence, Milan, na Venice ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene pa nkhondo izo zikacitika kwa vyaka vinandi, ndipo maufumu ghatatu agha ghakaleka mphindano zawo na kuzomerezga Mtende wa Lodi mu 1454. Mtende uwu ukatora vilimika 40, ndipo cifukwa cakuti Venice ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa nyanja, mu vilimika vyose vya m'ma 1500, kukaŵa mtende. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400, ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda nga ni Niccolò Da Conti (1395-1469) ŵakaluta ku vyaru vya kumwera kwa Asia na kuwerako.

===Italian Wars===
[[File:Habsburg Map 1547.jpg|thumbnail|Italy and the [[Habsburg Empire]] in 1547.]]

Nkhondo za ku Italy zikamba mu 1494 apo charu cha France chikapoka charu cha Italy. Nkhondo iyi yikamba chifukwa cha mphindano pakati pa ufumu wa Milan na Ufumu wa Naples. Themba la Ufumu wa Roma, Charles V, likathereska Ŵaciroma pa Nkhondo ya ku Pavia (1525) kweniso pa Nkhondo ya Cognac (1526-30). Paumaliro, pamasinda pa nkhondo zinandi izo zikaŵa zambura umaliro, mu 1559, ku Cateau-Cambrésis, France likapangana kuti lileke kukolerana na ivyo likayowoyanga.

Mu 1499, Ŵaturuki ŵakaparanya chigaŵa chikuru cha Venice (kweni msumba wura yayi), ndipo mu 1509 ŵa League of Cambrai ŵakambaso kuwukira na kupoka vinthu. Mu 1528, misumba yinandi ya Apulia na Abbruzzi yikaŵa kuti yapokeka. Cinthu ciheni comene ico cikacitika pa Meyi 6, 1527, apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany ŵakacimbizga msumba wa Roma. Nyengo yitali iyo Florence yikazingilizgika (1529-1530) yikapangiska kuti mizi iyo yikaŵa kufupi na msumba uwu yiparanyike, malonda ghake ghakutumizga vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake ghatimbanizgike, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakayora chuma chawo. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni gha ku Italy ŵakakhira na hafu. Makampani agho ghakapanganga weya na silika mu Lombardy ghakawa apo ŵasilikari ŵaheni ŵakaparanya vyakulimira vyawo. Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakwiya comene cifukwa cakuti ŵakawotcha caru.&lt;ref&gt;John Julius Norwich, ''The Italians: History, Art and the Genius of a People'' (1983) p 165-66.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Kufuma ku Nkhondo ya ku Kananizgako Chikhristu Mpaka ku Nkhondo ya Napoleon ==
{{Main|History of Italy (1559–1814)}}
[[File:Doktorschnabel 430px.jpg|thumb|upright|150px|[[Plague doctor]] attire for protection from the Black death, Rome, 1656.]]
Mdauko wa Italy pamanyuma pa mtende wa Cateau-Cambrésis ukaŵa wa ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Kumpoto kukaŵa ufumu wa Austrian Habsburgs, ndipo kumwera kukaŵa ufumu wa Spain. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo za ku Europe za m'ma 1700, kumwera kukaŵa kwa ŵa Bourbon ŵa ku Spain ndipo kumpoto kukaŵa kwa nyumba ya Habsburg-Lorraine. Mu nyengo ya Napoleon, caru ca Italy cikapokeka na caru ca France ndipo cikagaŵikana mu vyaru vinandi. Pa ungano wa ku Vienna (1814), vinthu vikaŵa nga umo vikaŵira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, kweni vikasinthika mwaluŵiro chifukwa cha umoza wa Italy.

Chuma cha ku Italy chikamba kunangika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1600 na 1700. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 1600, vinthu vikamba kunangika mu Italy. Mu 1600, cigaŵa ca kumpoto na ca pakati pa Italy cikaŵa cimoza mwa vigaŵa vya ku Europe ivyo vikaŵa na mafakitale ghanandi. Ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga makora chomene. Kuzakafika mu 1870, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cakulopwa comene pa nkhani ya vya cuma. Nkhondo, kugaŵikana kwa ndyali, unandi wa ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira nchito, na kusintha kwa malonda gha caru cose kuya ku mpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe na America, vikaŵa vyakuzirwa comene.&lt;ref&gt;Carlo M. Cipolla, “The Decline of Italy: The Case of a Fully Matured Economy.” abFZxxxx ''Economic History Review'' 5#2 1952, pp. 178–187. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2591055 online]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=45|isbn=9781107507180}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===17th century===
[[File:Piazza Mercatello durante la peste del 1656 - Spadaro.jpg|thumb|230px|left|Contemporary engraving of Naples during the [[Naples Plague]] in 1656]]
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, vinthu vikasintha comene mu Italy. Vinthu ivi vikaŵa nga ni nkhongono za Papa izo zikasazgikira mu caru ici ndiposo umo Tchalitchi la Katolika likacitira pa nyengo iyo pakaŵa kusintha kwa visopa. Nangauli ku Italy kukaŵa vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakumanya vya sayansi na luso, nga ni ivyo Galileo wakabowozga pa nkhani ya sayansi ya vya mu mlengalenga na sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi.

Nangauli ku Italy kukafuma ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasanda malo nga ni Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, na Giovanni da Verrazzano, kweni ŵanthu ŵakasanga malo ghanyake ghapachanya chomene mu charu ichi. Kweniso, cifukwa cakuti Spain yikacitako Nkhondo ya Vyaka Makumi Ghatatu (1618-48), iyo yikagwiliskirika nchito na misonkho iyo yikaŵa pa malo ghake gha ku Italy, yikapangiska kuti malonda na vyakurya vya ku Italy vileke kwenda makora.

Nthenda iyi yikathandazgaso mu Italy. Nthenda ya muliri iyo yikawira kumpoto kwa Italy mu 1630, chomenechomene ku Milan na Venice, yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 1 miliyoni. Nthenda ya muliri ya mu 1656 yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 43 peresenti mu Ufumu wa Naples. Ŵanthu ŵakumanya mdauko ŵakugomezga kuti kuchepa kwa unandi wa ŵanthu mu misumba ya ku Italy ndiko kukachitiska kuti caru ici cileke kuŵa malo ghakurughakuru gha malonda na ndyali. Kuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira, mu 1500 GDP ya Italy yikaŵa 106% ya GDP ya France, kweni mu 1700 yikaŵa 75% pera.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Maddison|first1=Angus|title=Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History|url=https://archive.org/details/contoursworldeco00madd|url-access=limited|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-922720-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/contoursworldeco00madd/page/n393 379], table A.4|edition=1st}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===18th century===
[[File:Battle of Bitonto by Giovanni Luigi Rocco.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Bitonto]] by Giovanni Luigi Rocco]]
Nkhondo ya ku Spain (1701-1714) yikamba cifukwa ca nyifwa ya fumu yaumaliro ya ku Spain, Charles II, uyo wakapeleka chiharo chose ku fumu ya ku Spain, Philip, Duke of Anjou. Pakuwona kuti caru ca France cili na mazaza pa vyaru vinandi vya ku Europe, ku The Hague kukalembeka phangano la Grand Alliance pakati pa Austria, England, Republic of the Netherlands, na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa na mazaza ghacoko. Wupu uwu ukathereska &quot;Party of the Two Crowns&quot; ya ku France na Spain, ndipo pa phangano la Utrecht na Rastatt, caru ca Italy (Milan, Naples na Sardinia) cikapelekeka ku Austria kufuma ku Spain. Ndipouli, Spain wakayezgaso kutora malo mu Italy na kupoka ufumu wa France mu Nkhondo ya Quadruple Alliance (1718-1720), kweni wakathereskeka. Chifukwa cha phangano la Hague, Spain wakazomera kuleka ivyo Italy yikakhumbanga, apo Duke Victor Amadeus II wa ku Savoy wakazomera kusinthiska Sicily na Austria, na kutorako cirwa ca Sardinia, ndipo pamanyuma pake wakacemeka Themba la Sardinia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Spain ŵakapoka Naples na Sicily pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Bitonto mu 1738.

===Age of Napoleon===
[[File:Italy 1796.svg|thumb|left|Italy before the Napoleonic invasion (1796).]]
{{Further|Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars}}
At the end of the 18th century, Italy was almost in the same political conditions as in the 16th century; the main differences were that [[Austria]] had replaced Spain as the dominant foreign power after the [[War of Spanish Succession]] (though the [[War of the Polish Succession]] resulted in the re-installment of the Spanish in the south, as the [[House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies]]), and that the dukes of [[Savoy]] (a mountainous region between Italy and France) had become kings of [[Sardinia]] by increasing their Italian possessions, which now included Sardinia and the north-western region of [[Piedmont]].

This situation was shaken in 1796, when the French [[Army of Italy (France)|Army of Italy]] under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] invaded Italy, with the aims of forcing the [[First Coalition]] to abandon [[Sardinia]] (still in the hands of the Coalition [[Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)|Kingdom of Sardinia]]) and forcing Austria to withdraw from Italy. The first battles came on 9 April, between the French and the Piedmontese, and within only two weeks [[Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia]] was forced to sign an armistice. On 15 May the French general then entered Milan, where he was welcomed as a liberator. Subsequently, beating off Austrian counterattacks and continuing to advance, he arrived in the [[Veneto]] in 1797. Here occurred the [[Veronese Easters]], an act of rebellion against French oppression, that tied down Napoleon for about a week.
[[File:Manin's abdication.jpg|thumb|A portrait painting the [[fall of the Republic of Venice]] (1797): the abdication of the last [[Doge of Venice|Doge]], [[Ludovico Manin]]]]

Napoleon wakathereska vigaŵa vinandi vya Italy mu zina la French Revolution mu 1797-99. Wakasazgirako maboma ghakale na kugaŵira maboma gha Austria. Wakambiska vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa na malango ghaphya na kuwuskapo wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Ufumu wa Cisalpine wa Napoleon ukaŵa ku Milan. Msumba wa Genoa ukazgoka charu cha Jamhuri, ndipo chigaŵa chake chikazgoka charu cha Liguria. Boma la Romu likapangika kufuma pa vinthu ivyo vikaŵa vya papa apo papa wakatumika ku France. Boma la Naples likaŵa pafupi na Naples, kweni likakhalako myezi yinkhondi pera pambere ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵandaliwukire. Mu 1805, wakambiska ufumu wa Italy, ndipo iyo wakaŵa fumu ndipo mwana wake waciŵiri wakaŵa mwimiliri. Kweniso, caru ca France cikapangiska kuti caru ca Netherlands ciŵe ca Batavian Republic, ndipo ca Switzerland cikazgoka ca Helvetic Republic. Vyaru vyose ivi vikaŵa vyakulongozgeka na France, ndipo vikeneranga kupeleka ndalama zinandi ku Paris, kweniso kovwira nkhondo za Napoleon. Ndyali na maboma gha mu vyaru ivi ghakaŵa ghaphya, ndipo ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito nthowa ya metric. Ŵayuda ŵakaleka kukhala mu misasa ya ŵanthu awo ŵakasopanga ŵangoza. Belgium na Piedmont vikazgoka vigaŵa vya France.&lt;ref&gt;Alexander Grab, ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe'' (2003) pp 62–65, 78–79, 88–96, 115–17, 154–59&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Italy c 1810.png|thumb|left|Political map of Italy in the years around 1810]]

Mu 1805, pamanyuma pakuti France yawina nkhondo ya Third Coalition na kukolerana na boma la Pressburg, Napoléon wakapoka malo gha Veneto na Dalmatia, ndipo wakaghaŵika mu ufumu wa Italy. Mu chaka chenechicho, boma laciŵiri, la Ligurian Republic (ilo likaŵa laciŵiri kwa Republic of Genoa), likakanizgika kuti lijibatane na France. Mu 1806, wakathereska ufumu wa Naples na kuwupeleka kwa munung'una wake ndipo kufuma apo (kufuma mu 1808) kwa Joachim Murat, pamoza na kutolera ŵadumbu ŵake Elisa na Paolina ku ŵakaronga ŵa Massa-Carrara na Guastalla. Mu 1808, wakasazgirako Marche na Tuscany ku Ufumu wa Italy.

Mu 1809, Bonaparte wakawukira Rome, cifukwa ca mphindano na papa, uyo wakamufumiska mu mpingo, ndiposo kuti wasungilire boma lake, wakathemba Papa wakwamba ku Savona ndipo pamanyuma ku France.

Pamanyuma pa Russia, vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe vikakolerana na kuthereska Napoleon pa Nkhondo ya ku Leipzig, ndipo pamanyuma pake vyaru vya Italy ivyo vikaŵa ŵabwezi ŵake, pamoza na Murat, vikamuleka kuti waŵe mubwezi wa Austria. Pakuti wakathereskeka pa nkhondo ya ku Paris pa Epulero 6, 1814, Napoléon wakaleka ufumu wake ndipo wakatumika ku Elba. Pa ungano wa ku Vienna (1814), vinthu vikaŵa nga umo vikaŵira mu 1795, ndipo Italy yikagaŵikana pakati pa Austria (ku mpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi na Lombardy), Ufumu wa Sardinia, Ufumu wa Sicily (ku mpoto na Sicily), na Tuscany, Papal States na vyaru vinyake vichoko. Ndipouli, maufumu ghakale nga ni Venice na Genoa ghakaŵavya, Venice ghakaŵa gha Austria, ndipo Genoa ghakaŵa gha Ufumu wa Sardinia.[[File:Flag of Repubblica Cispadana1.jpg|thumb|upright|Flag of the [[Cispadane Republic]], which was the first [[Flag of Italy|Italian tricolour]] adopted by a sovereign Italian state (1797)]]

Apo Napoléon wakacimbira na kuwelera ku France (mazuŵa 100), wakapokaso wovwiri wa Murat, kweni Murat wakatondeka kukhorweska Ŵataliyani kuti ŵarwe na Napoléon. Ntheura maufumu gha ku Italy ghakawa, ndipo nyengo ya kuwuskako ufumu wa Italy yikamba. Piedmont, Genoa, na Nice vikaŵa pamoza, nga ni Sardinia (iyo yikapangiska Savoy), apo Lombardy, Veneto, Istria, na Dalmatia vikaŵaso ku Austria. Ŵaduki ŵa ku Parma na Modena ŵakambaso kuwusa, ndipo Ufumu wa Papal na wa Naples ukawelera ku ufumu wa Bourbon. Vinthu vya ndyali na vyakuthupi ivyo vikacitika mu nyengo ya kuwuskako ufumu wa Italy (1815-1835) vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambuke mu caru cose ca Italy. Vyose ivi vikapangiska kuti Ufumu uphya wa Italy uŵeko.

Frederick Artz wakadidimizgapo uwemi uwo Ŵaitaliya ŵakasanga cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya ku France:
:Kwa vilimika pafupifupi makumi ghaŵiri, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakaŵa na malango ghawemi comene, msonkho wakwenelera, vinthu vikaŵayenderanga makora pa vya cuma, kweniso ŵakaŵa ŵakupulikira comene pa nkhani za cisopa na vinjeru.... Ku vigaŵa vyose, mphindano zauzimu, za cuma, na zauzimu zikaŵa kuti zalekeka ndipo Ŵacitaliya ŵakamanya kuti ŵali na caru cimoza..&lt;ref&gt;Frederick B. Artz, ''Reaction and Revolution: 1814–1832 '' (1934) pp 142–43&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu nyengo ya Napoleon, mu 1797, boma la Italy la Cispadane, ilo likaŵa na mazaza pa caru cose, likamba kutolera ndembera ya ku Italy. Zuŵa ili likucemeka kuti Zuŵa la Tricolour. Mu 1789, ŵakalembapo maluŵa gha ku Italy agho ghakaŵa na mitundu yitatu.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Tarozzi|first1=Fiorenza|last2=Vecchio|first2=Giorgio |title=Gli italiani e il tricolore|year=1999|publisher=Il Mulino|language=it|isbn=88-15-07163-6|pages=67–68}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Unification (1814–1861)==
{{Main|Italian unification}}
[[File:Italian-unification.gif|thumb|Animated map of the Italian unification from 1829 to 1871]]

The ''[[Risorgimento]]'' was the political and social process that unified different states of the [[Italian peninsula]] into the single nation of Italy.

It is difficult to pin down exact dates for the beginning and end of Italian reunification, but most scholars agree that it began with the end of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic]] rule and the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815, and approximately ended with the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1871, though the last [[irredentism|&quot;città irredente&quot;]] did not join the [[Kingdom of Italy]] until the Italian victory in [[World War I]].

As Napoleon's reign began to fail, other national monarchs he had installed tried to keep their thrones by feeding those nationalistic sentiments, setting the stage for the revolutions to come. Among these monarchs was the viceroy of Italy, [[Eugène de Beauharnais]], who tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to the Kingdom of Italy, and [[Joachim Murat]], who called for Italian patriots' help for the unification of Italy under his rule.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=1815 |title=Proclamation of Rimini |url=http://www.regione.piemonte.it/cultura/risorgimento/immagine/00402.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080126164906/http://www.regione.piemonte.it/cultura/risorgimento/immagine/00402.htm |archive-date=26 January 2008 |access-date=21 February 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following the defeat of Napoleonic France, the [[Congress of Vienna]] (1815) was convened to redraw the European continent. In Italy, the Congress restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, either directly ruled or strongly influenced by the prevailing European powers, particularly Austria.
[[File:Garibaldi (1866).jpg|150px|thumb|left|[[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times&lt;ref name=&quot;scholar and patriot&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url={{Google books|iWK7AAAAIAAJ |page=PA133 |keywords=Garibaldi+one+of+the+greatest+generals+of+modern+time |text= |plainurl=yes}}|title=Scholar and Patriot|publisher=Manchester University Press|via=Google Books}}&lt;/ref&gt; and as the &quot;Hero of the Two Worlds&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;Garibaldi on Encyclopædia Britannica&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi |title=Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian revolutionary) |access-date=6 March 2014 | url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226091529/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/225978/Giuseppe-Garibaldi |archive-date=26 February 2014 }}&lt;/ref&gt; who commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led to Italian unification.]]
[[File:Giuseppe Mazzini.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Giuseppe Mazzini]], highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement.]]

Mu 1820, ŵanthu ŵa ku Spain ŵakagaluka cifukwa ca kususkana na boma lawo. Pakulongozgeka na ŵa Spain (awo mu 1812, ŵakapanga dango lawo), gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Sicily ŵaŵiri, ilo likalongozgekanga na Guglielmo Pepe, Carbonaro (munthu wa mu gulu lakubisika la Republican), likagaluka, ndipo likathereska chigaŵa cha Sicily. Themba Ferdinand I likazomera kuti paŵe dango liphya. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakakolerana nawo yayi ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Austria ŵakathereskeka. Ferdinand wakawuskapo dango la boma ndipo wakamba kutambuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵakugaluka. Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerana na kusintha kwa vinthu ku Sicily, kusazgapo msambiri Michele Amari, ŵakacimbizgika.

Mulongozgi wa gulu la ku Piedmont ilo likawukira boma la Italy mu 1821, wakaŵa Santorre di Santarosa, uyo wakakhumbanga kuwuskapo Ŵaciotiriya na kuwunganya Italy pasi pa nyumba ya Savoy. Nkhondo ya ku Piedmont yikambira ku Alessandria, uko ŵasilikari ŵakamba kuvwara vikhuni vyakututuŵa, vyambura kufipirwa, na vyakututuŵa. Themba Charles Albert, ilo likaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari, likakhazikiska dango liphya kuti likondweske ŵasilikari. Kweni themba likati lawerako, likakana dango ili ndipo likapempha wovwiri ku wupu wa Holy Alliance. Ŵasilikari ŵa Di Santarosa ŵakathereskeka, ndipo munthu uyo wakakhumbanga kuzgoka wasinthusi wakacimbilira ku Paris.

Pa nyengo iyo, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti nkhondo ya kuwunganya caru ca Italy yikaŵa yakwimikana comene na Ufumu wa Austria na mbumba ya Habsburgs, cifukwa ŵakalongozganga kumpoto kwa Italy uko ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakayowoyanga Citaliyana. Ufumu wa Austria ukakanizga mtima wa kutemwera caru uwo ukakuranga mu caru ca Italy, kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake vya ufumu wa Habsburg. Franz Metternich, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa boma la Austria, ndipo wakaŵa na mazaza pa ungano wa ku Vienna, wakayowoya kuti zina lakuti Italy ni &quot;mazgu ghakung'anamura malo&quot;.

Kweniso ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na mtundu wawo, ndipo panji ntchito yakumanyikwa chomene iyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene mtundu wawo ni I Promessi Sposi ya Alessandro Manzoni. Ŵanyake ŵakuwona kuti buku ili likususka waka muwuso wa Austria. Buku ili likalembeka mu 1827, ndipo mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo likasintha chomene. Mu Baibolo la 1840 la I Promessi Sposi, ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito chiyowoyero cha Tuscan, icho chikaŵa chiyowoyero icho mulembi wakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵasambire.

Awo ŵakakolerana na umoza uwu ŵakasuskika na Tchalitchi la Katolika, chomenechomene ŵakati ŵayezgayezga kuti ŵaŵe mu wupu wa Papal States. Pa nyengo iyo, papa Pius IX wakafipanga mtima kuti para waleka mazaza ghake mu cigaŵa ici, Ŵakatolika ŵa ku Italy ŵazamutambuzgika.

Nanga ni awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti caru cose ciŵe cimoza, ŵakakolerana yayi umo boma ili licitirenge. Vincenzo Gioberti, wasembe wa ku Piedmont, wakakhumbanga kuti caru cose ca Italy ciŵe pasi pa muwuso wa Papa. Buku lake lakuti, Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians, likafuma mu 1843. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵakakhumbanga kuti mu Italy muŵe boma la ŵanthu wose, kweni paumaliro, themba na nduna yikuru ndiyo ŵakaŵa na mazaza ghakukolerana na ŵamazaza ŵa mu Italy.[[File:Image-Inno di Mameli 2.jpg|thumb|[[Holograph]]ic copy of 1847 of ''[[Il Canto degli Italiani]]'', the Italian [[national anthem]] since 1946]]

Gulu linyake la ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kusintha vinthu likaŵa la Carbonari (awo ŵakawotchanga makala), gulu lakubisika ilo likapangika kumwera kwa Italy kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1800. Gulu ili likafuma mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakufuma mu magulu gha pakati na ŵavinjeru. Pamanyuma pakuti ungano wa ku Vienna wagaŵa chigaŵa cha Italy pakati pa maufumu gha ku Europe, gulu la Carbonari likasazgikira mu caru ca Papal States, Ufumu wa Sardinia, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Duchy of Modena, na Ufumu wa Lombardy-Venetia.

Ŵalwani aŵa ŵakaŵawopanga comene mwakuti ŵamazaza ŵakapeleka dango lakuti waliyose uyo wakwiza ku maungano gha Carbonari wakomeke. Ndipouli, wupu uwu ukalutilira kuŵako ndipo ndiwo ukambiska masuzgo ghanandi gha ndyali mu Italy kwambira mu 1820 m'paka apo caru cikaŵa pamoza. Gulu la Carbonari likadumura kuti Napoleon III wakomeke cifukwa ca kutondeka kukolerana na Italy, ndipo likakhala pacoko kuti limukome mu 1858. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa gulu ili ŵakaŵa mu gulu ili. (Manyani kuti: Apo wakaŵa muwukirano, Napoleon III wakarwanga ku chigaŵa cha 'Carbonari.')

Pa nyengo iyi, mu 1847, sumu ya Il Canto degli Italiani, iyo yikaŵa sumu ya fuko la Italy kwambira mu 1946, yikamba kwimbika pa wumba. Il Canto degli Italiani, yakulembeka na Goffredo Mameli na kwimbika na Michele Novaro, yikumanyikwaso na zina lakuti Inno di Mameli, kufuma pa mazgu gha uyo wakalemba sumu iyi, panji Fratelli d'Italia, kufuma pa mazgu ghakwamba.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Maiorino |first1=Tarquinio|last2=Marchetti Tricamo|first2=Giuseppe |last3=Zagami |first3=Andrea |title=Il tricolore degli italiani. Storia avventurosa della nostra bandiera|year=2002 |publisher=Arnoldo Mondadori Editore|language=it|isbn=978-88-04-50946-2|page=18}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Statuto fondamentale del regno.pdf|page=27|thumb|left|[[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] assumes the title of [[king of Italy]] with the [[Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy|law n. 4671 of 17 March 1861 of the Kingdom of Sardinia]], that sanctioned the birth of the unified [[Kingdom of Italy]]]]

Ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵakumanyikwa comene awo ŵakacitanga vinthu mwakutalulira mu gulu ili ŵakaŵa Giuseppe Mazzini na Giuseppe Garibaldi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga fundo za boma lakwamba ŵakaŵa Count of Cavour na Victor Emmanuel II, uyo pamasinda wakaŵa fumu yakwamba ya Italy.

Mazzini wakajalirika mu jele chifukwa cha ivyo wakacitanga. Apo wakaŵa mu jere, wakawona kuti caru ca Italy cingaŵa cakukolerana ndipo wakalemba pulogiramu yake ya kukhazikiska caru cakufwatuka, cakukolerana na boma la Roma. Mazzini wakati wafuma mu jele mu 1831, wakaluta ku Marseille, uko wakambiska gulu liphya la ndyali lakucemeka La Giovine Italia. Gulu liphya ili likaŵa na mazgu ghakuti &quot;Chiuta na Ŵanthu&quot;, ndipo likakhumbanga kuti Italy wakoleranenge.

Ufumu wa Italy ukaŵako cifukwa ca kuyezgayezga kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakolerananga na nyumba ya Savoy.

Ufumu wa Sardinia ukaŵa wa vyamalonda kwambira mu 1830. Dango lakwamba, la Statuto Albertino, likapelekeka mu 1848, mu chaka icho kukaŵa viwawa. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵasilikari ŵa Austria nawo ŵakamba nkhondo yakwamba ya ku Italy. Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, vinthu vikasintha ndipo ufumu wa Sardinia ukathera.

Garibaldi, uyo wakababikira mu msumba wa Nice (uyo panyengo iyo ukaŵa ku Ufumu wa Sardinia), wakacitako chigaluka mu Piedmont mu 1834, ndipo wakeruzgika kuti wakomeke. Wakakhalako vyaka 14, ndipo wakachitako nkhondo zinandi.

Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo za 1848, mulongozgi wa gulu ilo likakhumbanga kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cimoza wakaŵa Giuseppe Garibaldi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakamutemwanga comene. Garibaldi ndiyo wakalongozganga gulu la ku Italy ilo likakhumbanga kuti caru cose ciŵe cimoza, kweni ufumu wa kumpoto kwa Italy wa nyumba ya Savoy mu ufumu wa Piedmont-Sardinia uwo ukalongozgekanga na Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, nawo ŵakakhumbanga kukhazikiska boma la Italy. Nangauli ufumu uwu ukaŵa kuti ulije kukolerana na ufumu wa Roma (uwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Italy), kweni ukalimbana na Austria mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Italy. Kuyana na phangano la Plombières, ufumu wa Sardinia ukapeleka Savoy na Nice ku France, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Niçard ŵafumemo mu caru cawo. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mabungwe ghakuzirwa agho ghakawovwira kuti Italy wambe kukolerana, nga ni Britain na France mu Nkhondo ya ku Crimea.

Mu 1871, Giuseppe Garibaldi wakasankhika kuŵa mulara wa boma ku Nice, uko wakayezga kukhozgera kuti msumba wake uŵe chigaŵa cha Italy, kweni ŵakamukanira kuyowoya. Cifukwa ca kukana, pakati pa 1871 na 1872 kukaŵa vivulupi mu msumba wa Nice, ivyo vikaciskika na Garibaldini ndipo vikacemekanga &quot;Niçard Vespers&quot;, ivyo vikakhumbanga kuti msumba uwu na vigaŵa vyake viŵikike mu Italy. Ŵanthu 15 ŵa ku Nice awo ŵakacitako cigaluka ici ŵakeruzgika.&lt;ref&gt;Giuseppe André, ''Nizza negli ultimi quattro anni'', Nice, Editore Gilletta, 1875, pp. 334-335 (In Italian).&lt;/ref&gt;

===Southern question and Italian diaspora===
{{See also|Brigandage in Southern Italy after 1861|Italian diaspora}}
[[File:Carmine Crocco1.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Carmine Crocco]]]]

Kumwera kwa charu ichi (Mezzogiorno) vinthu vikenda makora yayi. Mulimo wa kuwunganya na kusinthiska vinthu ukapangiska kuti kumpoto na kumwera kwa Italy kuŵe kugaŵikana. Ŵanthu ŵakasuskanga vyaru vya kumwera kuti ni &quot;vyakukhalira kumanyuma&quot; ndiposo vyautesi, kweni nadi, pakuyaniska na vyaru vya kumpoto kwa Italy, &quot;uko kukaŵa kukhalira kumanyuma, nyengo zose kukaŵanga vinthu vinyake ivyo vikawovwiranga&quot;. Mbunenesko kuti pakeneranga kuŵa vifukwa vyakupulikikwa vyakupatulira kumwera nga umo vikaŵira na Italy. Chigaŵa chose cha kumwera kwa Naples chikaŵa na masuzgo ghanandi gha vyachuma na gha ŵanthu. Ndipouli, masuzgo ghanandi gha ndyali gha ku South na lumbiri lwake lwa kuŵa &quot;wakukhazikika&quot; panji wauleŵi (kuyana na ndyali) ghakaŵako cifukwa ca boma liphya (ilo likababika cifukwa ca kukhumba kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cakukhora) ilo likapatuska ŵanthu ŵa ku South na kuŵakanizga kuyowoyapo pa nkhani zakuzirwa. Ndipouli, vinthu vikaŵa vyakusuzga, dongo likaŵa lambura vipambi vinandi, nkhorongo yikakhalanga makora yayi, makampani ghanandi ghakakhalanga waka pa malo ghake chifukwa cha msonkho ukuru, malo ghakuru ghakaŵa ghambura kulongozgeka makora, ŵalimi ŵanandi ŵakaŵa na malo ghacoko comene, kweniso kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambura nchito kweniso ucigeŵenga.&lt;ref name=&quot;Roland Sarti 2004 pp 567&quot;&gt;Roland Sarti, ''Italy: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present'' (2004) pp 567–568&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Map of the Italian Diaspora in the World.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Map of the [[Italian diaspora]] in the world]]
[[File:Émigration italienne par régions 1876-1915.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Emigration of Italians from 1876 to 1915]]

Cavour wakaghanaghana kuti suzgo likuru likaŵa boma liheni, ndipo wakagomezganga kuti lingamazgikaso para malango gha ku Piedmont ghangalondezga. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kunanga vinthu, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo iyo yikatora vilimika pafupifupi 10. Nkhondo iyi yikafika paheni comene comene ku Basilicata na kumpoto kwa Apulia, ndipo yikalongozgekanga na Carmine Crocco na Michele Caruso. Nkhondo ya ku South America yikati yamara, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakaluta ku United States na South America. Ŵanyake ŵakasamira ku misumba ya kumpoto ya vyamalonda nga ni Genoa, Milan, na Turin, ndipo ŵakatumizga ndalama kukwawo.

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakasamira ku vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kuzingilizga charu cha Italy mu 1880, vyaka 20 pamanyuma pakuti charu ichi chazakaŵa pamoza. Ukavu ukaŵa cifukwa cikuru ico ŵanthu ŵakasamukiranga ku vyaru vinyake, comenecomene cifukwa ca kusoŵerwa kwa malo. Mu chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Italy vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi. M'paka m'ma 1860 m'paka m'ma 1950, chigaŵa chikuru cha Italy chikaŵa ku mizi ndipo chikaŵa na matawuni ghachoko waka.

Cinthu cinyake ico cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakhalenge mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Italy, nchakuti vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pa umoyo wa ŵanthu. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵambe kusama ndipo cikapangiska kuti miwiro yiphya yisame mu vyaru vinandi kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, comenecomene ku America. Kusama kwa ndalama kukapangiska kuti pa caru cose paŵe nchito zinandi za ŵanthu ŵambura maluso ndipo kukacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵasamire mu vyaru vinyake kuti ŵagure &quot;ganyu na cingwa&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book| last1=Pozzetta|first1=George E.|title=Pane e Lavoro: The Italian American Working Class|date=1980| publisher=Multicultural History Society of Ontorio|location=Toronto}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:2016 - Vittoriano (Rome) 07.jpg|thumb|upright|One of the two braziers that burn perpetually on the sides of the [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)|tomb of the Italian Unknown Soldier]] at [[Altare della Patria]] in [[Rome]]. At their base there is a plaque bearing the inscription ''Gli italiani all'estero alla Madre Patria'' (&quot;Italians abroad to the Motherland&quot;)''.'']]

Mu nyengo ya ku Italy, charu ichi chikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca kupasuka kwa muwuso wa ŵasilikari na kugaŵa malo, ŵalimi ŵacokoŵacoko ŵa kumwera ŵakeneranga yayi kuŵa na malo ghawo panji malo agho ŵangagwirako nchito na kusangapo candulo. Ŵanandi ŵakaŵavya malo, ndipo malo ghakaŵa ghacoko na ghacoko, ndipo ghakaŵa ghambura kupambika makora, cifukwa caru cikagaŵikanga pakati pa ŵahaliri.

Pakati pa 1860 na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, ŵanthu 9 miliyoni ŵa ku Italy ŵakafumapo pa ŵanthu 16 miliyoni awo ŵakaluta ku caru cinyake, ndipo ŵanandi ŵakaluta ku North panji South America. Kafukufuku munyake wakulongora kuti kufuma mu 1876 m'paka 1914, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakwana 14 miliyoni. Pa ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakafumanga mu caru cawo mu 1876 m'paka 1900, ŵanthu pafupifupi 220,000 ŵakafumanga mu caru ici. Pambere chaka cha 1900 chindafike, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy ŵakafumanga kumpoto na pakati pa Italy. Pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakafuma mu Italy pakati pa 1870 na 1914, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵatatu ŵakaŵa ŵanalume awo ŵakaŵa na maluso ghakupambanapambana. Ŵalimi ndiwo ŵakaŵa hafu ya ŵanthu wose awo ŵakafumanga mu vyaru vinyake pambere chaka cha 1896 chindafike.

Ŵalendo ŵakalutilira kukhozga ubwezi wawo na caru cawo nanga ni para ŵafuma. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakafuma mu vyaru vinyake ŵakapeleka vyawanangwa kuti ŵakazenge Altare della Patria (1885~1935), chigaŵa cha chikumbusko cha Themba Victor Emmanuel II la ku Italy. Ng'anamuro la ntharika ya moto uwo ukubuka kwamuyirayira likukolerana na vimanyikwiro vya moto uwu. Moto uwo ukubuka kwamuyirayira ukulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakukumbuka sembe ya msilikari wambura kumanyikwa na kukolerana na caru cawo.&lt;ref name=&quot;fiamma&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Il mito della &quot;lampada perenne&quot; |url=http://www.toscanaoggi.it/Cultura-Societa/Il-mito-della-lampada-perenne |access-date=12 February 2018 |language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Liberal period (1861–1922)==
{{Main|Kingdom of Italy}}
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| footer = [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] and [[Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour]], leading figures in the Italian unification, became respectively the [[King of Italy|1st king]] and [[Prime Minister of Italy|1st Prime Minister]] of unified Italy
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Pa 17 Malichi, 1861, caru ca Italy cikazgoka boma la ŵanthu, apo vyaru vinandi vya pa cigaŵa ici vikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa fumu Victor Emmanuel II wa nyumba ya Savoy, uyo wakalamuliranga Piedmont. Ŵanthu awo ŵakambiska kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cimoza ŵakaŵa Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, nduna yikuru ya boma la Victor Emmanuel, na Giuseppe Garibaldi, mulara wa ŵasilikari na munthu wakuzirwa comene. Mu 1866, Otto von Bismarck, nduna yikuru ya ku Prussia, wakaphalira Victor Emmanuel II kuti waŵe mubwezi wa Ufumu wa Prussia. Pakuwezgera, Prussia wakazomerezga Italy kuti wapoke Venice. Themba Emmanuel likazomera ndipo Nkhondo Yachitatu ya ku Italy yikamba. Cifukwa ca kutonda ku Austria, caru ca Italy cikapoka Venice. Cinthu cimoza ico cikapangiska kuti caru ca Italy cileke kukolerana cikaŵa Roma.

Mu 1870, caru ca France cikamba nkhondo ya ku France na Prussia ndipo cikawezga ŵasilikari ŵake ku Rome, uko ŵakaleka kuti papa waŵe na mazaza. Italy wakawukira boma la Papa. Ŵakazomerezga kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cimoza, ndipo msumba ukuru wa caru ici ukafumako ku Florence kuya ku Roma.

Vinyake mwa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa vyakuti vinganjira mu ufumu wa Italy (terre irredente), nga ni Trentino-Alto Adige na Julian March, vikaŵamo yayi mu ufumu uwu m'paka mu 1918 apo Italy yikathereska Austria-Hungary mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Pa cifukwa ici, nyengo zinyake awo ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakuyowoya kuti nyengo ya kuwungana yikamara mu 1871, kusazgapo ivyo vikacitika kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose (1915-1918), ndipo yikamara na phangano la nkhondo la Villa Giusti pa Novembala 4, 1918. Fundo iyi yikulongosoreka makora chomene pa nyengo ya kuwungana kwa Roma.&lt;ref&gt;Arnaldi, Girolamo. ''Italy and Its Invaders.'' Harvard University Press, 2005. p. 194. {{ISBN|0-674-01870-2}}.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.risorgimento.it/index.php?section=museo|title=Museo Centrale del Risorgimento di Roma|website=Istituto per la storia del Risorgimento italiano|access-date=6 July 2018|language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Marco Minghetti.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Marco Minghetti]]]]

Ku Northern Italy, mulimo wa kupanga vinthu na kuzgora vinthu vinyake kuŵa viphya ukamba kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakhalanga ku mizi ya kumwera, ndipo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakachimbilira ku vyaru vinyake kukapenja umoyo uwemi. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 1 miliyoni ŵa ku Italy ŵakasamukira ku vyaru vinyake vya ku Europe nga ni France, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, na Luxembourg, kweniso ku America.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, boma laparamendi likakura comene. Dango la ku Sardinia ilo likalembeka mu 1848, likapelekaso wanangwa ku ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Ufumu wa Italy mu 1861.

Ndyali za ku Italy zikagaŵikana pakati pa magulu ghakupambanapambana gha kumalyero na kumalyero, ivyo vikapangiska kuti maboma ghaŵe mu suzgo. Mu 1876, Minghetti wakataya mazaza ndipo wakasinthika na Agostino Depretis, uyo wakamba kulamulira mu 1880s, kweni wakalutilira kuyezga kukhozga ŵakususka kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza.

===Depretis===
[[File:Agostino Depretis.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Agostino Depretis]].]]

Depretis wakamba uteŵeti wake pakuŵa nduna yikuru mwa kwamba kughanaghana vya ndyali, zina lake Trasformismo. Fundo ya Trasformismo yikaŵa yakuti boma likwenera kusankha ŵandyali ŵakuzika na ŵakwenelera kufuma mu vigaŵa vyambura kupindikana. Depretis wakapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa vyake ŵamuvotere usange ŵakukhumba kuti Depretis waŵawovwire. Mu 1876, pakaŵa ŵimiliri ŵanayi pera awo ŵakasankhika kufuma ku chigaŵa chakumanjiliro. Ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti Depretis wakathereskeka cifukwa ca nkharo yake ya nkhaza. Depretis wakathereska ŵanthu ŵankhaza, nga nkhukanizga maungano gha pa wumba, kupeleka ŵanthu &quot;ŵakofya&quot; ku vigaŵa vyakutali mu Italy, na kwendera ndyali. Depretis wakapangiska malango agho ghakaŵa na mphindano pa nyengo iyo, nga nkhulekeska kukakika chifukwa cha ngongoli, kuŵika sukulu ya pulayimale kuti yiŵe yaulere kweniso yakukhumbikwa.

Boma lakwamba la Depretis likamara mu 1877 apo wakafumiskanga nduna yake ya mukati. Boma laciŵiri la Depretis likamba mu 1881. Mu 1882, Depretis wakakhumbanga kusazgirako wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy wa kusankha, kusazgirako misonkho iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakeneranga kupeleka. Mu 1887, Depretis wakafumiskika pa udindo wake pamanyuma pa vilimika vinandi vya kutondeka kwa ndyali.

===Crispi===
[[File:Francesco Crispi crop.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Francesco Crispi]]]]
[[Francesco Crispi]] (1818–1901) was Prime Minister for a total of six years, from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896. Historian R.J.B. Bosworth says of his foreign policy that Crispi:&lt;blockquote&gt;Pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled until the days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friends with his suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies. His policies were ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colonial ambitions in East Africa. Crispi's lust for territory there was thwarted when on 1 March 1896, the armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian forces at Adowa, ... In what has been defined as an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life (he was perhaps a trigamist) and personal finances...were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=R.J.B.|last=Bosworth|title=Italy and the Wider World: 1860–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VL1vjYQRR-0C&amp;pg=PA29|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=29|isbn=978-1-134-78088-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[File:Poster FIAT by Giovanni Carpanetto.png|thumb|140px|1899 [[Fiat|FIAT]] advertisement]]
Crispi wakaŵa mu nduna ya Depretis ndipo nyengo yinyake wakaŵa wa Garibaldi. Mu 1887 m'paka 1891, Crispi wakafipiranga mtima chomene kuvikilira Italy ku Austria-Hungary. Crispi wakalimbikiranga ntchito ya kuzenga Italy kuŵa ufumu wankhongono wa pa caru cose kwizira mu kunjizga ndarama za nkhondo, kukhozgera kutandazgika kwa caru, na kuyezga kuti Germany yikondwe nayo nangauli wakajibatika ku Triple Alliance iyo yikaŵa na Germany na Austria-Hungary mu 1882. Apo wakawovwiranga Italy kuti waŵe wakukhora, wakalutilira kusintha vinthu ndipo wakaŵa na mazaza, nyengo yinyake wakakhumbanga kuti boma liŵike dango lakukanizga vyaru vinyake. Nangauli Crispi wakaŵa wankhongono, kweni wakasintha vinthu vinyake nga ni Dango la vya Umoyo wa Ŵanthu la mu 1888 na kukhazikiska makhoti kuti boma liwezge masuzgo.

Ŵanthu ŵa viŵeto awo ŵakakhumbikwiranga wovwiri ŵakakhuŵara comene cifukwa ca kuŵika mtima comene pa ndyali. Ŵalongozgi ŵa ndyali na ŵa visopa vinyake ŵakakhumbanga kuti boma lisande umo lingawovwilira vyakurya mu Italy. Kafukufuku uyo wakamba mu 1877 ndipo wakafumiskika pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri, wakalongora kuti vyakurya vikendanga makora yayi, kuti ŵeneco ŵa malo ŵakarya ndalama izo ŵakasanganga pa malo ghawo ndipo ŵakovwira comene yayi kuti malo ghawo ghamere makora. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya pasi ŵakakwiya comene cifukwa ca kugaŵikana kwa malo agho ghakaŵa gha ŵanthu wose. Ŵanandi awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu minda iyi ŵakaŵa ŵalimi yayi, kweni ŵantchito ŵacoko waka awo ŵakagwiranga nchito kwa cilimika cimoza. Ŵalimi ŵambura ndalama ŵakakhalanga na vyakurya vichoko waka, matenda ghakathandazgikanga mwaluŵiro, ndipo kukaŵa nthenda zakwambukira, kusazgapo nthenda yikuru ya kolera iyo yikakoma ŵanthu pafupifupi 55,000.

Boma la Italy likatondeka kumazga makora suzgo ili cifukwa ca ndalama zinandi izo boma la Depretis likagwiliskiranga nchito. Charu cha Italy nacho chikasuzgika comene cifukwa cakuti mu ma 1870 na ma 1880, ŵakapanganga mpheska zinandi comene. Pa nyengo iyi, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cakuluska comene pa vyakurya vyose mu Europe, kweni cifukwa ca kuwelera kwa vyakurya ku France mu 1888, kumwera kwa Italy kukaŵa na vyakurya vinandi comene.{{sfn|Smith|1997|page=139}}[[File:Giovanni Giolitti 2.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Giovanni Giolitti]].]]
[[File:Vittoriano Altare della Patria 2013-09-16.jpg|thumb|The [[Victor Emmanuel II Monument]] in Rome, a national symbol of Italy celebrating the first king of the unified country, and resting place of the [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)|Italian Unknown Soldier]] since the end of World War I. It was inaugurated in 1911, on the occasion of the 50th [[anniversary of the unification of Italy]]]]

===Giolitti===
Kufuma mu 1901 m'paka 1914, Giovanni Giolitti ndiyo wakalamuliranga ndyali na mbiri ya Italy. Pakwamba, wakasangana na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo Crispi wakacita. Ndipo pa nyengo yakwamba iyi apo ŵakuru na ŵasungwana ŵakakumananga, Giolitti wakawovwira kuti vinthu viŵe viphya mu ndyali pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na 1900. Kulekerathu kukanizga ŵanthu, kweni kuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵacite viyezgo, ndiposo kuti ŵaleke kugwira nchito, kweni kuti ŵaleke kuŵa ŵankhaza panji ŵa ndyali.

Ivyo Giolitti wakacita vikakhwaska comene umoyo wa ŵanthu na nchito, ŵanalume wose ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kusankha, njanji na makampani gha inshuwalansi vikaŵa vya caru cose, ngongoli ya boma yikakhira, vinthu vyapasi vikamba kwenda makora, ndipo makampani ghakamba kupanga vinthu. Mu vyaru vinyake, ŵanthu ŵakamba kufumako ku Germany na Austria na Hungary na kwamba kukolerana na France, Great Britain, na Russia. Kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 C.E., caru ca Italy cikaŵa na ufumu wake. Likatora ufumu wa Somalia. Boma la Ethiopia likathera yayi pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italy na Ethiopia mu 1895-1896. Mu 1911, boma la Giolitti likatuma ŵasilikari ŵake kuti ŵakakome Libya. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka, charu cha Italy chikapoka charu cha Libya (chenechicho chikaŵa ku Tripolitania na Cyrenaica) na virwa vya Dodecanese. Ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ŵakakhumbanga kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe na mazaza pa Nyanja ya Meditereniyani mwa kutora caru ca Greece na dera la Dalmatia ilo lili mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Adriatic, kweni ŵakaŵikapo mtima yayi.

Mu Juni 1914, boma likakanaso ŵanthu ŵakumanjilira kumalyero ŵati ŵakoma ŵanthu ŵatatu awo ŵakasuskanga ŵasilikari. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanjiliro ŵakasuska ndipo chipani cha Italian Socialist Party chikapharazga kuti ŵanthu wose mu Italy ŵali mu viwawa. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kusuzgika chomene na vinthu vyambura urunji ivyo vikachitikanga mu misumba yikuruyikuru na mizi yichoko. Ndipouli, pati pajumpha mazuŵa ghaŵiri pera, ungano uwu ukaleka, nangauli nkhondo yikalutilira.{{sfn|Bosworth|2005|page=49}}

=== World War I and failure of the liberal state===
{{See also|Italian entry into World War I|Italian Front (World War I)|Military history of Italy during World War I|Italian Campaign (World War I)}}
[[File:Trento 3 novembre 1918.jpg|thumb|left|Italian cavalry in [[Trento]] on 3 November 1918, after the victorious [[Battle of Vittorio Veneto]]. The Italian victory in this battle&lt;ref name=&quot;victory&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Burgwyn |first=H. James |title=Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1997 |page=4 |isbn=0-275-94877-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Schindler |first=John R. |title=Isonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2001 |page=303 |isbn=0-275-97204-6}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Mack Smith |first=Denis |title=Mussolini |publisher=Knopf |year=1982 |page=[https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack/page/31 31] |isbn=0-394-50694-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/mussolini0000mack/page/31 }}&lt;/ref&gt; marked the [[Armistice of Villa Giusti|end of the war on the Italian Front]], secured the dissolution of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] and contributed to the [[Armistice with Germany|end of the World War I]] just one week later.&lt;ref name=Luden&gt;{{cite book |quote=...&amp;nbsp;[[Erich Ludendorff|Ludendorff]] wrote: ''In Vittorio Veneto, Austria did not lose a battle, but lose the war and itself, dragging Germany in its fall. Without the destructive battle of Vittorio Veneto, we would have been able, in a military union with the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, to continue the desperate resistance through the whole winter, in order to obtain a less harsh peace, because the Allies were very fatigued. |last=Paoletti |first=Ciro |title=A Military History of Italy |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2008 |page=150 |isbn=978-0-275-98505-9}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

Italy yikanjira mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose mu 1915 na cilato ca kumalizga umoza wa chalo: pa cifukwa ici, kunjilirapo kwa Italy mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose kukuwonekaso nga ni Nkhondo Yacinayi ya ku Italiya ya Kujiyimira paŵekha, mu kawonekero ka historiographical ako kakulongora kuti nkondo iyi yikaŵa umaliro wa kuwungana kwa Italy, uko kukacitika nkhondo ya nkhondo iyo yikayamba mu 1848 na Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italiya.

Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose (1914-1918) yikaŵa cakucitika cambura kunozgekera ico cikapangiska kuti ŵambe kusopa pamoza na Germany na Austria. Kwa myezi yinkhondi na umoza, caru ca Italy cikaŵa cambura kuvikilira, cifukwa cakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Triple Alliance ŵakaŵanga na mulimo wa kuvikilira caru. Mu 1915, ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy ŵakanjira mu nkhondo iyi nangauli ŵakakhumbanga yayi kunjilirapo. Charu cha Italy chikaŵa chikuru kweniso chikaŵa mukavu. Wupu wa Triple Alliance ukaŵa wakuzirwa viŵi yayi ku Italy panji ku Austria. Ŵanalume ŵaŵiri, nduna yikuru Antonio Salandra na nduna ya vyaru vinyake Sidney Sonnino ndiwo ŵakasankhanga vinthu vyose, nga ni umo vikaŵira mu ndyali za ku Italy. Ŵakacitanga vinthu mwakubisilizga, ndipo pamasinda ŵakalembeska themba, kweni ŵasilikari na ŵalongozgi ŵa ndyali ŵakamanyanga yayi. Ŵakapangana na vigaŵa vyose viŵiri kuti ŵasangane ndalama zinandi, ndipo ŵakasanga ndalama kufuma ku ŵasilikari ŵa Entente, awo ŵakakhumbanga kuŵalayizga vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Ufumu wa Austria-Hungary, kusazgapo Tyrol na Trieste, kweniso kuti Albania waŵe chigaŵa chakutetezgeka. Russia wakakana kupeleka Dalmatia ku Italy. Britain yikaŵa yakunozgeka kupeleka wovwiri na ngongoli kuti yikope ŵanthu 36 miliyoni ŵa ku Italy kuŵa ŵabwezi ŵaphya awo ŵakasuzganga Austria kumwera.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lowe |first1=C.J. |year=1969 |title=Britain and Italian Intervention 1914–1915 |journal=Historical Journal |volume=12 |issue=3|pages=533–548 |doi=10.1017/s0018246x00007275|s2cid=162738142 }}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Liberazione di Trieste.jpg|thumb|Italian troops landing in [[Trieste]], 3 November 1918]]
Mu Meyi 1915, pakapharazgika phangano la ku London. Salandra wakafumapo pa udindo wake, kweni pakaŵavya munthu uyo wakawovwira kuti paŵe ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ŵanandi ŵa ndyali, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Italy, ŵakasuskanga nkhondo, kusazgapo Ŵakatolika ŵanandi. Malipoti agho ghakafuma ku Italy ghakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵakawopanga nkhondo, ndipo ŵakakondwanga yayi na malo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi ŵakawonanga nkhondo kuŵa soka, nga ni chilangalanga, njara, panji nthenda yakofya. Ŵamalonda ŵanandi ŵakasuskanga, cifukwa ŵakawopanga kuti boma lingaŵakanizga kuguliska vinthu na misonkho yinandi, kweniso kuti ŵangaluza malonda ghawo. Vikaŵa nga vingachitika yayi kuti ŵasintheso ivyo ŵakadumura, cifukwa ŵasilikari ŵa Triple Alliance ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuti Italy wawelere, ndipo ufumu wa themba ukaŵa pangozi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakolerana na nkhondo ŵakafuma mu misewu, ŵakachemerezganga kuti: &quot;Tiyeni, tiyeni, tiyeni!&quot; Benito Mussolini, uyo wakaŵa mulembi wa Socialist Party, wakaŵa mulongozgi, kweni ŵakamucimbizga mu chipani ndipo ŵanthu ŵacoko waka ndiwo ŵakamulondezga. Padera pa caru ca Russia, ici cikaŵa cipani cimoza pera ku Europe ico cikasuskanga nkhondo. Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yankhaza comene cifukwa ca ndyali, kutondeka, kukhuŵara, na ucindere wa ŵamazaza.&lt;ref&gt;Martin Clark, ''Modern Italy: 1871–1995'' (1996) pp 180–85&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Denis Mack Smith, ''Italy: A Modern History'' (1969)  pp 292–305.&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Sacrario militare di Redipuglia agosto 2014.JPG|thumb|The [[Redipuglia War Memorial]] of [[Fogliano Redipuglia|Redipuglia]], with the tomb of [[Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta (1869–1931)|Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta]] in the foreground, nicknamed the ''Undefeated Duke'' for having reported numerous victories in the [[First World War]] without ever being defeated on the battlefield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/savoia-aosta-emanuele-filiberto-di-duca-d-aosta_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/|title=SAVOIA AOSTA, Emanuele Filiberto di, duca d'Aosta|access-date=23 November 2021|language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt; This War Memorial is the resting place of 100,187 Italian soldiers killed between 1915 and 1917 in the [[Battles of the Isonzo|eleven battles]] fought on the Karst and [[Isonzo front]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.turismofvg.it/Monumenti-e-Siti-Storici/Sacrario-Militare-di-Redipuglia|title=Il più grande Sacrario Militare Italiano}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

Italy wakanjira mu nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵakukwana 875,000, kweni ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵambura kulongozgeka makora ndipo ŵakaŵavya vilwero vikuru vya nkhondo.

Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakatondeka kumazga nkhondo iyi, cifukwa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Austria ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nkhondo iyi. Mu 1916, caru ca Italy cikapharazga nkhondo ku Germany, ndipo ici cikapeleka wovwiri ukuru ku Ŵaustria. Ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakukwana 650,000 ŵakafwa ndipo 950,000 ŵakapwetekeka, apo chuma chikakhumbikwiranga wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake kuti chileke kunangika.

Pambere nkhondo yindambe, boma likaŵikako mahara yayi ku nkhani za ŵantchito, kweni sono likakhumbikwiranga kunjilirapo kuti liŵawovwire. Pakuti chipani chikuru cha Socialist chikakhumbanga yayi kovwira nkhondo, ŵanthu ŵakachitanga viwawa kanandi waka ndipo ŵakakolerananga viŵi yayi, comenecomene mu vigaŵa vya Piedmont na Lombardy. Boma likakhazikiska malipiro ghapachanya, ndipo likaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵantchito ŵagwirenge lumoza ntchito.

Makampani ghakurughakuru ghakakura comene. Ŵantchito ŵa Ansaldo ŵakakwera kufuma pa 6,000 kufika pa 110,000, ndipo ŵakapanga vilwero 10,900, ndege za nkhondo 3,800, ngaraŵa za nkhondo 95, na mabomba 10 miliyoni. Pa kampani ya Fiat, ŵantchito ŵakakwera kufuma pa 4,000 kufika pa 40,000. Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa ndalama, ndalama zikakwera chomene. Malipiro gha ŵantchito ghakakwera, kweni gha ŵalimi ghakakwera yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo vikachitikanga ku mizi, cifukwa cakuti ŵanalume ŵanandi ŵakagwiranga nchito, nchito mu mafakitale zikaŵavya, malipiro ghakakweranga pacoko, ndipo kusinthasintha kwa vinthu kukaŵa kuheni comene.

Nkhondo iyi yikaŵa yakumalizga nkhondo ya ku Italy, yikapangiska kuti Ufumu wa Austria na Hungary uparanyike, ndipo yikawovwira kuti Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yimare pakati pajumpha masabata ghaŵiri. Ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 651,000 ŵa ku Italy ŵakafwa pa nkhondo ya pa caru cose. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakafwa cifukwa ca kusoŵa cakurya ŵakakwana 589,000.

Nkhondo yikati yamara, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, nduna yikuru ya Italy, wakakumana na David Lloyd George, nduna yikuru ya Britain, Georges Clemenceau, nduna yikuru ya France, na Woodrow Wilson, nduna yikuru ya United States, ku Versailles, kuti ŵadumbiskane umo mphaka za ku Europe zikwenera kuŵikikira mwakuti nkhondo ya ku Europe yileke kucitika.[[File:Promised Borders of the Tready of London.png|thumb|right|Territories promised to Italy by the [[Treaty of London (1915)]], i.e. [[Trentino-Alto Adige]], [[Julian March]] and [[Dalmatia]] (tan), and the [[Snežnik (plateau)|Snežnik Plateau]] area (green)]]

Pa nyengo iyi, Wilson wakalayizga kuti mitundu yose ya ku Europe yizamuŵa na wanangwa wa kupanga vyaru vyawo. Pa cifukwa ici, phangano la Versailles likapeleka yayi Dalmatia na Albania ku Italy nga umo phangano la London likayowoyera. Kweniso, Britain na France ŵakaghanaghana kuti ŵagaŵane vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Germany. Charu cha Italy chikapokako yayi malo kufuma apo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukaparanyikira, nangauli boma la United Kingdom na France likapeleka ulongozgi ku Italy pa nyengo ya nkhondo, kweni vyaru ivi vikagaŵikana pakati pawo. Nangauli vikaŵa nthena, kweni Orlando wakazomera kusaina phangano la Versailles, ilo likakwiyiska boma lake. Phangano la Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) na la Rapallo (1920) likapeleka mwaŵi wakuti Trentino Alto-Adige, Julian March, Istria, Kvarner kweniso msumba wa Zara mu Dalmatia, viŵikike mu ufumu wa Italy. 
[[File:The celebration of the birthday of the Italian King Vittorio Emanuele III on November 11, 1918.jpg|thumb|Residents of [[Fiume]] cheering D'Annunzio and his ''Legionari'' in September 1919, when Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a total population of 35,839 inhabitants]]

Cifukwa ca kukwiya comene na mtende uwu, Gabriele D'Annunzio, mulembi wa sumu wa ku Italy, wakalongozga ŵasilikari ŵambura kukondwa na nkhondo na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru cawo kuti ŵapange boma la Fiume mu Seputembala 1919. Cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakamutemwanga comene, ŵakamuthya kuti Il Duce (&quot;Mulongozgi&quot;), ndipo wakagwiliskira nchito ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa na malaya ghamdima apo wakawukiranga Fiume. Muwuso wa Duce na yunifomu ya ŵasilikari ŵa malaya ghaswesi vikapokelereka pamanyuma na gulu la Fascist la Benito Mussolini. Ivyo boma la Italy likakhumbanga vikafika ku vigaŵa vyose vya ndyali, kusazgapo Ŵafarisi ŵa Mussolini. Ivyo D'Annunzio wakayowoyanga vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Croatia ŵambe kumutemwa.

Pamasinda, phangano la Rome (1924) likapangiska kuti msumba wa Fiume uŵe wa Italy. Charu cha Italy chikapokera yayi vigaŵa vinyake ivyo chikalayizgika na phangano la ku London (1915), nga ni Dalmatia, ntheura ŵanthu ŵakatenge chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa chakupwetekeka. Benito Mussolini ndiyo wakambiska chisopa cha Chiitaliya icho chikachemekanga Fascism. Ŵakumanya vya mdauko ŵakuwona kuti kutonda uku ni &quot;nthoto ya ndyali&quot;, iyo yikugwiliskirika nchito na ŵasilikari ŵa Fashisti kuti ŵakhozge ufumu wa Italy na kubisa ivyo boma la Italy likacita pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Italy nayo wakaŵa na malo ghakukhazikika mu wupu wa League of Nations.&lt;ref&gt;G.Sabbatucci, ''La vittoria mutilata'', in AA.VV., ''Miti e storia dell'Italia unita'', Il Mulino, Bologna 1999, pp.101-106&lt;/ref&gt;

==Fascist regime, World War II, and Civil War (1922–1946)==
===Rise of Fascism into power===
{{Main|Italian Fascism}}
[[File:Mussolini mezzobusto.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Benito Mussolini]], who titled himself [[Duce]] and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|ruled the country from 1922 to 1943]]]]

Mu 1914, Benito Mussolini wakacimbizgika mu chipani ca Italian Socialist Party cifukwa cakuti wakacema Italy kuti wanjire mu nkhondo na Austria-Hungary. Pambere Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yindambe, Mussolini wakasuskanga kujilemba usilikari, wakasuskanga umo Italy wakawuskiranga Libya, ndipo wakaŵa mulembi wa nyuzipepara ya Socialist Party, Avanti!, kweni pamanyuma pake wakacemerezga kuti paŵe kusintha kwambura kuzunura nkhondo ya magulu. Mu 1914, Mussolini wakasanga ndalama ku Ansaldo (kampani yakupanga vilwero) na makampani ghanyake kuti wapange nyuzipepara yake, Il Popolo d'Italia. Ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakakhumbanga kuti Italy wanjire mu nkhondo. Pamanyuma, nkhondo yikati yamara, buku ili likazgoka nyuzipepara yakuzomerezgeka na boma. Mu nyengo ya nkhondo, Mussolini wakateŵetera mu ŵasilikari ndipo wakapwetekeka kamoza.

Nkhondo yikati yamara na phangano la Versailles mu 1919, Mussolini wakambiska wupu wakuchemeka Combat League. Pakwamba, ŵanthu awo ŵakalondezganga fundo za chipani cha Socialist Party ŵakasuskanga fundo za chipani ichi. Mu nyengo yakwambilira, gulu ili likaŵa na pulogiramu yakutemwera kumazere, ilo likayowoyerathu kuti kuzamuŵa kusintha kwa ndyali, ŵanakazi ŵazamunjira mu maungano, kuzamuŵa wanangwa wa kusankha (kanyengo kanyake mu 1925) kweniso kuti katundu wa ŵanthu wose wazamupambana. Ŵakapambanaso na Ŵasilikari ŵaciŵiri aŵa cifukwa ŵakasuskanga boma lakuyuzga ŵanthu. Mussolini wakati &quot;tikutemwa wanangwa wa waliyose, nanga ni wa ŵalwani ŵithu&quot;. Pa 15 Epulero, 1919, Ŵafarisi ŵakamba nkhaza za ndyali apo gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la Fasci di Combattimento likapoka ofesi ya Avanti!.[[File:Kingdom of Italy 1924 map.svg|thumbnail|The Kingdom of Italy in 1924.]]

Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, nyengo iyo yikamanyikwanga kuti Biennio Rosso (vyaka viŵiri vyakuthwa) yikacitika mu vilimika viŵiri vyati vyalondezga Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose mu nyengo ya suzgo la vya cuma, kusoŵa nchito kwa ŵanthu ŵanandi, na kuleka kukhazikika kwa ndyali. Mu 1919-1920, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵamalonda, ŵantchito ŵakachitanga viyezgelero, kweniso ŵakachitanga viyezgo kuti ŵajikorenge. Ku Turin na Milan, mabungwe gha ŵantchito ghakaŵako ndipo ŵantchito ŵanandi ŵakagwira nchito mu mafakitale. Kuwukira uku kukasazgikira ku vigaŵa vya minda ya mu Padan ndipo kukaŵa na viwawa vya ŵanthu ŵa ku mizi, viwawa vya ku mizi, na nkhondo za ŵasilikari pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa ku mphepo na ŵa ku mphepo.

Kufuma nyengo yira, gulu la Fasci di Combattimento la Benito Mussolini likagwiliskira nchito makora fundo za ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy na kukhumba kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu caru. Mu 1920, nduna yikuru Giolitti yikasankhikaso kuti yiwovwirepo pa suzgo ilo likaŵa mu Italy, kweni nduna yake yikaŵa yambura nkhongono ndipo yikaŵa pangozi chifukwa cha ŵakususka ŵa chipani cha Socialist. Giolitti wakagomezganga kuti Ŵachifasita ŵangakanizgika ndipo ŵangaŵawovwira kuvikilira ufumu ku ŵasilikari. Mu 1921, Ŵafarisi ŵakatonda yayi, kweni boma la Giolitti likathera yayi kuwunganya ŵanthu ŵanandi kuti ŵalongozge. Ŵasilikari ŵa Fascist ŵakakana ivyo Giolitti wakaŵaphalira ndipo ŵakakolerana na ŵasilikari ŵanyake kuti ŵathereske boma lake.{{sfn|Bosworth|2005|page=112}}[[File:March on Rome.jpg|thumb|left|[[Benito Mussolini]] during the [[March on Rome]] in 1922.]]
Mu Okutobala 1922, Mussolini wakapharazga kuti boma la Italy lipelekenge mazaza ku chipani cha Fascist. Nangauli pakaŵavya uyo wakazomera, kweni gulu la ŵanthu 30,000 ŵakamba ulendo utali kujumpha mu Italy kuluta ku Roma (March on Rome). Ŵafarisi ŵakakhumbanga kuti Luigi Facta, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru wa boma ili, wafumeko pa udindo wake.

Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa Italy ŵakaŵa na vilwero viwemi comene kuluska ŵasilikari ŵa Fascist, kweni boma la Italy na Themba Victor Emmanuel III ŵakaŵa mu suzgo yikuru. Themba likakhumbikwiranga kusankhapo gulu limoza pakati pa magulu ghaŵiri agho ghakaŵa pa mphindano mu Italy ilo likate lilongozgenge boma. Wakasankha Ŵafasisi.[[File:Giacomo Matteotti crop.jpg|thumb|150px|Socialist leader [[Giacomo Matteotti]] was murdered a few days after he openly denounced Fascist violence during the 1924 elections.]]
Wakati waŵa na mazaza, Mussolini wakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru na ŵakutemwa vya wanangwa. Mu 1923, muwuso wa Mussolini ukazomerezga dango la Acerbo, ilo likapeleka vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya mipando ku chipani icho chikapokera mavoti 25. Chipani cha Fascist chikagwiliskira ntchito nkhaza na kofya ŵanthu kuti chiŵe na mazaza pa maungano gha mu 1924. Mubali Giacomo Matteotti, uyo wakaŵa mu chipani cha Socialist, wakakomeka wati wapempha kuti mavoti ghaleke kuchitika cifukwa ca vinthu vyambura kwenelera. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ichi ŵakakolerana na ivyo vikachitika.

Mu vilimika vinayi vyakulondezgapo, Mussolini wakawuskapo vinthu vyose ivyo vikakanizganga mazaza ghake. Pa Disembala 24, 1925, wakalemba dango ilo likati ndiyo yekha wakeneranga kulongozga mu nyumba ya ufumu. Maboma gha vigaŵa ghakalekeka, ndipo ŵalara ŵa boma (awo ŵakachemekanga kuti &quot;Podestà&quot;) ŵakamba kulamulira m'malo mwa ŵeneco. Mu 1928, magulu ghose gha ndyali ghakakanizgika, ndipo maungano gha boma ghakasintha na maungano gha ŵanthu wose.

Christopher Duggan, wakugwiliskira nchito mabuku ghake na makalata, kweniso maofesi gha ŵapolisi, ndipo wakuti Mussolini wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamovwira. Mussolini wakawuska ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamususka mu Italy, ndipo wakalutilira kutchuka nangauli ŵasilikari ŵakamususka mu 1940. Duggan wakati muwuso wake ukagwiliskira ntchito makora mazaza gha Mussolini ndipo ukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na nkharo yiwemi.&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Duggan, ''Fascist Voices: An Intimate History of Mussolini's Italy'' (2012) [https://www.amazon.co.uk/Fascist-Voices-Intimate-History-Mussolinis/dp/1847921035/ excerpt]&lt;/ref&gt;

In summary, historian [[Stanley G. Payne]] says that Fascism in Italy was:
:A primarily political dictatorship. The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself. Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years. The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy. ... The Fascist militia was placed under military control. The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well. The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders, nor was a major new police elite created. There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience. Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed. The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Stanley G.|last=Payne|title=A History of Fascism, 1914–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_MeR06xqXAC&amp;pg=PA122|year=1996|publisher=U of Wisconsin Press|page=122|isbn=978-0-299-14873-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===End of the Roman question===
[[File:Group of Vatican and Italian government notables posing at the Lateran Palace before the signing of the treaty.jpg|thumb|Vatican and Italian delegations prior to signing the [[Lateran Treaty]]]]

Wakati waŵa na mazaza, Mussolini wakakolerana na ŵanthu ŵakutemwa caru na ŵakutemwa vya wanangwa. Mu 1923, muwuso wa Mussolini ukazomerezga dango la Acerbo, ilo likapeleka vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya mipando ku chipani icho chikapokera mavoti 25. Chipani cha Fascist chikagwiliskira ntchito nkhaza na kofya ŵanthu kuti chiŵe na mazaza pa maungano gha mu 1924. Mubali Giacomo Matteotti, uyo wakaŵa mu chipani cha Socialist, wakakomeka wati wapempha kuti mavoti ghaleke kuchitika cifukwa ca vinthu vyambura kwenelera. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani ichi ŵakakolerana na ivyo vikachitika.

Mu vilimika vinayi vyakulondezgapo, Mussolini wakawuskapo vinthu vyose ivyo vikakanizganga mazaza ghake. Pa Disembala 24, 1925, wakalemba dango ilo likati ndiyo yekha wakeneranga kulongozga mu nyumba ya ufumu. Maboma gha vigaŵa ghakalekeka, ndipo ŵalara ŵa boma (awo ŵakachemekanga kuti &quot;Podestà&quot;) ŵakamba kulamulira m'malo mwa ŵeneco. Mu 1928, magulu ghose gha ndyali ghakakanizgika, ndipo maungano gha boma ghakasintha na maungano gha ŵanthu wose.

Christopher Duggan, wakugwiliskira nchito mabuku ghake na makalata, kweniso maofesi gha ŵapolisi, ndipo wakuti Mussolini wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamovwira. Mussolini wakawuska ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamususka mu Italy, ndipo wakalutilira kutchuka nangauli ŵasilikari ŵakamususka mu 1940. Duggan wakati muwuso wake ukagwiliskira ntchito makora mazaza gha Mussolini ndipo ukapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na nkharo yiwemi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|title=A History of Western Society|year=2010|url=https://archive.org/details/sourcesofwestern0000unse|url-access=registration|publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's|page=900|edition=Tenth}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Foreign politics===
{{Further|Italian Empire|Italian irredentism}}
[[File:RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg|thumb|left|Italian ethnic regions claimed by the [[Italian irredentism]] in the 1930s:
* Green: [[Italian irredentism in Nice|Nice]], [[Italian irredentism in Switzerland|Ticino]] and [[Italian irredentism in Dalmatia|Dalmatia]]
* Red: [[Italian irredentism in Malta|Malta]]
* Violet: [[Italian irredentism in Corsica|Corsica]]
* [[Italian irredentism in Savoy|Savoy]] and [[Corfiot Italians#Corfiot Italians and the Risorgimento|Corfu]] were later claimed]]

Lee wakalongosora fundo zikuruzikuru zitatu za Mussolini. Cakwamba cikaŵa kulondezga fundo za ndyali za boma la Liberal. Ku Italy kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu viŵe makora mu vyaru vya Balkan na kumpoto kwa Africa. Kufuma waka apo ŵakathereskekera ku Ethiopia mu 1896, ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵatore charu ichi. Caciŵiri nchakuti ŵakakhuŵara comene cifukwa ca nyifwa ya ŵanthu ŵanandi mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Vyaru vinyake, comenecomene Poland na Yugoslavia, vikapokera vinandi comene, ndipo Italy yikajiwona kuti yacita upusikizgi. Cacitatu, Mussolini wakalayizga kuti wawezgerengepo ufumu wakale wa Roma.

Chisopa cha ku Italy icho chikuchemeka Fascism chikukolerana na chisopa cha ku Italy ndipo chikukhumba kumalizga mulimo wa Risorgimento. Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Italy, Ŵafarisi ŵakatenge Dalmatia ni charu cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy, kusazgapo awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku South Slavic, ŵakachimbizgika mu Dalmatia na kuluta ku wuzga ku Italy. Mussolini wakamanya kuti Dalmatia wakaŵa na mitheto ya ku Italy kwa vyaka vinandi, nga umo vikaŵira na Istria, kwizira mu Ufumu wa Roma na Republic of Venice. Kumwera kwa Italy, Ŵasilikari ŵa Fashisti ŵakatenge caru ca Malta, ico cikaŵa ca Britain, na Corfu, ico cikaŵa ca Greece, kumpoto ŵakatenge ni Switzerland, ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakatenge ni Corsica, Nice na Savoy, ivyo vikaŵa vya France. Boma la Fascist likalemba mabuku ghakulongosora vya caru ca Corsica. Boma la Nazi likalemba mabuku ghakulongosora vya msumba wa Nice, agho ghakalongosoranga kuti msumba uwu ukaŵa wa ku Italy cifukwa ca mbiri yake, mtundu wake, na ciyowoyero cake.&lt;ref name=&quot;Davide Rodogno 2006. P. 88&quot;&gt;Davide Rodogno. ''Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation during the Second World War''. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006. P. 88.&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Italy aims Europe 1936.png|thumb|Ambitions of fascist Italy in Europe in 1936.&lt;br/&gt;Legend:{{Legend|#073A09|Metropolitan Italy and dependent territories;}}{{Legend|#0F7612|[[Client state]]s;}}{{Legend|#083A39|Claimed territories to be annexed;}}{{Legend|#107776|Territories to be transformed into client states.}} [[Albania]], which was a client state, was considered a territory to be annexed.]]

Mussolini wakalayizga kuti wazamuwezgerapo ufumu wa Italy kuŵa wankhongono comene mu Europe, kuzengaso &quot;Ufumu wa Ŵaroma&quot; na kuwusa pa Nyanja ya Meditereniyani. Pakupharazga, Ŵafarisi ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito mazgu gha Ŵaroma ghakuti &quot;Mare Nostrum&quot; (Cilatini, &quot;Nyanja Yithu&quot;) pakulongosora nyanja ya Mediterranean. Pa cifukwa ici, muwuso wa Ŵafasisi ukacitanga ndyali za ku Europe. Mu 1923, caru ca Greece ca Corfu cikapokeka na Italy pamanyuma pakuti Tellini wakomeka. Mu 1925, Albania wakakhwaskika comene na caru ca Italy cifukwa ca phangano la Tirana. Kweni vinthu vikaŵa makora yayi ku France. Boma la Nazi likakhumbanga kuwina vigaŵa vya France ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy. Apo muwuso wa Nazi ukakuranga, boma la Italy likamba kufipa mtima comene na umo boma la Germany lingakhwaskira caru ici. Cifukwa ca kwenjerwa cifukwa ca kupanikizgika kwa caru ca Germany, caru ca Italy cikakolerana na France na United Kingdom mu Stresa Front, iyo yikaŵako mu 1935 m'paka 1936. Boma la Nazi likalutilira kukhumba Dalmatia, ntheura likalutilira kutinkha Yugoslavia.

Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo ya Caru na Caru ya ku Spain, iyo yikacitika pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa chipani ca Socialist Republicans na Nationalists awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Francisco Franco, caru ca Italy cikatuma vilwero na ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 60,000 kuti ŵawovwire ŵasilikari ŵa chipani ici. Ivi vikawovwira kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵanjire mu virwa vya ku Spain. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy likaponyapo sitima za nkhondo na vyakuponyera maji 91. Kweniso, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Spain ŵakatimba ngalaŵa za Republican 48 na 44 za ŵamalonda ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake.&lt;ref&gt;Clodfelter 2017: 338&lt;/ref&gt;

During all the 1930s, Italy strongly pursued a policy of naval rearmament; by 1940, the [[Regia Marina]] was the fourth largest navy in the world.

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R69173, Münchener Abkommen, Staatschefs.jpg|thumb|left|alt=[[Neville Chamberlain|Chamberlain]], [[Édouard Daladier|Daladier]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], Mussolini, and Italian Foreign Minister Count Ciano, as they prepared to sign the Munich Agreement|From left to right, Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini and Italian Foreign Minister [[Count Ciano]] at the signing of [[Munich Agreement]].]]

Mussolini na Adolf Hitler ŵakakumana kakwamba mu Juni 1934, apo nkhani ya kujiyimira paŵekha ya Austria yikaŵa mu suzgo. Mussolini wakakhumbanga kuti Nazi Germany yileke kuŵa na mazaza pa caru ca Europe. Kuti ivi vichitike, wakalimbana na ivyo boma la Germany likakhumbanga kuchita kuti likore charu cha Austria pamanyuma pa kukoma Engelbert Dollfuss. Nyengo zose ŵanthu ŵakalongoranga kuti Mussolini na Hitler ŵakaŵa paubwezi wakukhora, kweniso kuti visopa vyautesi vya ku Italy vikaŵa vyakuyana na vya ku Germany. Nangauli visambizgo vyose viŵiri vikaŵa vyakuyana, kweni wose ŵakakanizgana, ndipo ŵalongozgi wose ŵaŵiri ŵakakwesananga kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa caru cose.

Mu 1935, Mussolini wakakhumbanga kuwukira Ethiopia; Ŵaitaliya 2,313 na Ŵaetiyopiya 275,000 ŵakafwa. Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Italy na Ethiopia yikapangiska kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe cambura kukolerana na vyaru vinyake, cifukwa cakuti France na Britain vikathera luŵiro kwa Mussolini. Boma la Nazi likaŵa ilo likawovwira Italy. Pamasinda pakuti wupu wa League of Nations wamususka, Italy wakafumamo mu wupu uwu pa Disembala 11, 1937, ndipo Mussolini wakati wupu uwu ni &quot;malo ghakusoperapo&quot;. Pa nyengo iyi, Mussolini wakaŵa na mwaŵi yayi wa kwendera lumoza na Hitler pa nkhani za ndyali, ntheura wakaleka kukhozgera boma la Austria. Mu 1938, Hitler wakambiska nkhondo yakucemeka Anschluss. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Mussolini wakakhozgera fundo za ku Germany pa nkhani ya Sudetenland, cigaŵa ca Czechoslovakia ico cikakhalanga ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Germany. Mu 1938, Mussolini wakawovwira kuti mu Italy ŵaŵike malango ghakususkana na Ŵayuda. Mu Malichi 1939, Germany yikati yapoka Czechoslovakia, Mussolini wakawukira Albania cifukwa cakuti wakawopanga kuti ŵanthu ŵamuwonenge nga ni muwuso waciŵiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa Axis. Pa Epulero 7, 1939, Italy yikawukira Albania na kuzgora charu ichi kuŵa chigaŵa cha Italy.[[File:Hitler and Mussolini June 1940.jpg|thumb|Mussolini and Hitler in June 1940.]]

As war approached in 1939, the Fascist regime stepped up an aggressive press campaign against France claiming that Italian people were suffering in France. This was important to the alliance as both regimes mutually had claims on France, Germany on German-populated Alsace-Lorraine and Italy on the mixed Italian and French populated Nice and Corsica. In May 1939, a formal alliance with Germany was signed, known as the Pact of Steel. Mussolini felt obliged to sign the pact in spite of his own concerns that Italy could not fight a war in the near future. This obligation grew from his promises to Italians that he would build an empire for them and from his personal desire to not allow Hitler to become the dominant leader in Europe. Mussolini was repulsed by the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreement where Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to partition the Second Polish Republic into German and Soviet zones for an impending invasion. The Fascist government saw this as a betrayal of the Anti-Comintern Pact, but decided to remain officially silent.{{sfn|Smith|1997|page=401}}

===World War II and fall of Fascism===
{{Main|Military history of Italy during World War II|Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy}}
[[File:ProgettoImperoItaliano.jpg|thumb|left|Map of ''Great Italy'' according to the 1940 fascist project in case Italy had won the [[Second World War]] (the orange line delimits metropolitan Italy, the green line the borders of the enlarged [[Italian Empire]])]]

Apo boma la Germany likapoka Poland pa Seputembala 1, 1939, ndipo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikamba, Mussolini wakasankha kuleka kurwa nkhondo, nangauli wakayowoya kuti wakovwira Hitler. Pakunozga vyakuti ŵarwe nkhondo, Mussolini na boma la Fascist ŵakaghanaghana kuti caru ca Italy ciŵe na vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya Africa na Middle East kuti viŵe mu ufumu wawo. Themba na mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari, Pietro Badoglio, ŵakalutilira kukayikira, ndipo ŵakachenjezga Mussolini kuti caru ca Italy cilije magaleta ghakurughakuru, vilwero vya nkhondo, na ndege zakukwana nkhondo yitali. Mussolini na boma la Nazi ŵakalondezga ulongozgi uwu, ndipo ŵakalindilira mpaka apo Germany yikawukira France mu Juni 1940 (Nkhondo ya ku France) pambere ŵandambe kunjilirapo.

Cifukwa cakuti kutondeka kwa caru ca France kukaŵa kwakuwonekerathu, Italy wakanjira mu nkhondo pa Juni 10, 1940, kufiska ivyo wakalayizga ku Wupu wa Steel. Mussolini wakaghanaghana kuti wapoke luŵiro Savoy, Nice, Corsica, na vyaru vya ku Africa nga ni Tunisia na Algeria ku Ŵafulentshi, kweni Germany wakalembapo phangano la kuleka nkhondo (22 June: Second Armistice at Compiègne) na Marshal Philippe Pétain. Ici cikakwiyiska boma la Nazi. Mu cihanya ca 1940, Mussolini wakalangura kuti ŵaponye mabomba pa caru ca Palestina na kupoka caru ca British Somaliland. Mu Seputembala, wakalangura kuti ŵanjire mu Eguputo; nangauli pakwamba vinthu vikenda makora, kweni ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakachimbizgika na Ŵanandi (wonani Operation Compass). Hitler wakeneranga kunjilirapo na kutuma ŵasilikari ŵa Afrika Corps ŵa Jenerale Erwin Rommel, awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa nkhondo ya ku North Africa. Pa Okutobala 28, Mussolini wakawukira Greece kwambura kufumba Hitler, uyo wakapulika vya nkhondo ya ku Greece na Italy cifukwa ca kuŵazga mu nyuzipepara ya mulenji. Mussolini wakayezga kukhozga mubwezi wake mwa kuyowoya kuti waŵenge ku Athens mu masabata ghaŵiri kufuma apo Greece yikaparanyikira. Ndipouli, ŵasilikari ŵa Royal Air Force ŵakakanizga ŵasilikari ŵa Italy kuti ŵanjire mu Albania.[[File:Impero_italiano.svg|thumb|The [[Italian Empire]] (red) before World War II. Pink areas were annexed/occupied for various periods between 1940 and 1943 (the [[Italian Concession of Tientsin|Tientsin concession]] in China is not shown).]]

Hitler wakawovwira Mussolini apo wakawukira Ŵagiriki kufuma ku Balkan. Nkhondo ya ku Balkans iyo yikapangiska kuti Yugoslavia yidumulike na kuthereskeka kwa Greece. Pa nyengo iyi, Italy wakapoka vyaru vya kumwera kwa Slovenia, Dalmatia, Montenegro, na kukhazikiska vyaru vya Croatia na Greece. Kuzakafika mu 1942, caru ici cikaŵa pa ngozi cifukwa cakuti cuma cake cikaleka kusintha cifukwa ca nkhondo, ndipo misumba ya ku Italy yikaponyekanga mabomba na ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari awo ŵakakolerananga nawo. Kweniso, nangauli Rommel wakacitanga vinthu vinandi, kweni nkhondo ya ku North Africa yikamba kutondeka kuumaliro wa 1942. Ŵakati ŵathereskeka pa nkhondo ya El Alamein, caru cikamara.

Kuzakafika mu 1943, caru ca Italy cikaŵa kuti cikutondeka pa vigaŵa vyose. Mu Janyuwale wa chaka chenechicho, hafu ya ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakarwanga nkhondo mu Soviet Union ŵakakomeka, nkhondo ya ku Africa yikatondeka, caru ca Balkan cikalutilira kuŵa cambura kukhazikika, ndipo Ŵataliyana ŵakakhumbanga kuti nkhondo yimare. Mu Julayi 1943, ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakanjira mu Sicily kuti ŵathereske Italy ku nkhondo. Pa Julayi 25, Mussolini wakathereskeka na wupu wa Great Council of Fascism ndipo wakakakika na themba Victor Emmanuel III, uyo wakasora Jenerale Pietro Badoglio kuŵa nduna yikuru. Badoglio wakawuskapo vigaŵa vyaumaliro vya muwuso wa Fascist mwa kukanizga chipani cha National Fascist Party, ndipo wakalemba phangano la kuleka nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa ŵasilikari.{{sfn|Smith|1997|pages=412–413}}[[File:El Alamein Italian prisoners 1942.jpg|thumb|left|Italian prisoners in El Alamein, November 1942.]]

Donald Detwiler notes that &quot;Italy's entrance into the war showed very early that her military strength was only a hollow shell. Italy's military failures against France, Greece, Yugoslavia and in the African Theatres of war shook Italy's new prestige mightily.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Donald S.|last1=Detwiler|first2=Charles B.|last2=Burdick|first3=Jürgen|last3=Rohwer|title=World War II German Military Studies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XfzAAAAMAAJ|year=1979|page=96|isbn=978-0-8240-4313-1}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historians have long debated why Italy's military and its Fascist regime were so remarkably ineffective at an activity – war – that was central to their identity.  MacGregor Knox says the explanation, &quot;was first and foremost a failure of Italy's military culture and military institutions.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=MacGregor|last=Knox|title=Hitler's Italian Allies: Royal Armed Forces, Fascist Regime, and the War of 1940–1943|url=https://archive.org/details/hitlersitalianal00knox|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge UP|page=[https://archive.org/details/hitlersitalianal00knox/page/10 10]|isbn=978-1-139-43203-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Norman Polmar and Thomas B. Allen argue that &quot;the Regia Aeronautica failed to perform effectively in modern conflict. Although the Italian Air Force had been in action in the conquest of Ethiopia and the Spanish Civil War, it was totally unprepared for combat...in June 1940. At the time Italy had about 2,500 military aircraft in service.  Only 11,000 more were produced during the next three years, far fewer than any of the other major belligerents.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first1=Norman|last1=Polmar|first2=Thomas B.|last2=Allen|title=World War II: the Encyclopedia of the War Years, 1941–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=30gRAGjXrIIC&amp;pg=PA421|year=2012|page=421|isbn=978-0-486-47962-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;  James Sadkovich gives the most charitable interpretation of Italian failures, blaming inferior equipment, overextension, and inter-service rivalries. Its forces had &quot;more than their share of handicaps.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;James J. Sadkovich, &quot;Understanding Defeat: Reappraising Italy's Role in World War II,&quot; ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (1989) 24#1 pp. 27–61  [https://www.jstor.org/stable/260699 online].&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Croatia-41-45.gif|thumb|upright=1.3|Division of Yugoslavia after its invasion by the [[Axis powers]].
{{legend|#339966|Areas annexed by Italy: the area constituting the [[province of Ljubljana]], the area merged with the [[province of Fiume]] and the areas making up the [[Governorate of Dalmatia]]}}
{{legend|#ff0000|[[Independent State of Croatia]]}}
{{legend|#0000ff|Area occupied by [[Nazi Germany]]}}
{{legend|#996666|Areas occupied by [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920-1946)|Kingdom of Hungary]]}}]]

About Italian troops in El Alamein, Italian Defence ministry chief of staff [[Luigi Binelli Mantelli]] said: &quot;The spirit of service and cohesion are fundamental elements for the operational capacity of the armed forces ... The ([[185th Paratroopers Division Folgore|Folgore]]) Paratroopers have always shown this. El Alamein was a battle that was lost with great honour, facing up to overwhelmingly superior firepower with poor weapons but with great spirit and capacity to resist and to hold up high the honour of Italy&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Alamein&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ansa.it/english/news/politics/2014/10/31/el-alamein-lost-with-great-honour_a6aedfe0-da47-45c6-b8c9-07bd0d1c6203.html |website= ANSA.it|title=El Alamein 'lost with great honour'|date= 31 October 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; British historian John Bierman said that the Italian tank regiment &quot;fought with great audacity, just as the [[Ariete]] artillery regiment did&quot;. According to American historian John W. Gordon, the British special forces were so impressed by the methods and tactics of the Italian desert corps &quot;that they actually copied them&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Alamein&quot;/&gt; German General [[Erwin Rommel]] praised the Italians on several occasions, describing their as &quot;extraordinary, courageous, disciplined, but badly commanded and equipped.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Arrigo Petacco, ''[[iarchive:larmataneldesert0000peta|L'armata nel deserto. Il segreto di El Alamein]]'', Mondadori, 2002, {{ISBN|88-04-50824-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; Writing about the fighting at the First Battle of El Alamein, he stated: &quot;The Italians were willing, unselfish and good comrades in the frontline. There can be no disputing that the achievement of all the Italian units, especially the motorised elements, far outstripped any action of the Italian Army for 100 years. Many Italian generals and officers earned our respect as men as well as soldiers&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Rommel &amp; Pimlott (1994), p. 128&lt;/ref&gt; During the Second Battle of El Alamein the 7th Bersaglieri Regiment exhibited a strong regimental spirit in the fight for Hill 28 that impressed Rommel to comment positively.&lt;ref&gt;Jon E. Lewis (1999), The Mammoth Book of True War Stories, p. 318&lt;/ref&gt; On a plaque dedicated to the Bersaglieri that fought at Mersa Matruh and Alamein, Rommel wrote: &quot;The German soldier has impressed the world; the Italian [[Bersagliere]] has impressed the German soldier.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.ardito2000.it/ELALAMEIN2.html|title=El Alamein 2|publisher=Ardito2000 website|language=it|access-date=19 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722023911/http://www.ardito2000.it/ELALAMEIN2.html|archive-date=22 July 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Civil War, Allied advance, and Liberation===
{{Further|Italian Civil War|Liberation of Italy}}
[[File:Quattrogiornate.jpg|thumb|left|Insurgents celebrating the liberation of Naples after the [[Four days of Naples]] (27–30 September 1943).]]

Although other European countries such as [[Norway]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[France]] also had partisan movements and [[Wartime collaborationism|collaborationist]] governments with [[Nazi Germany]], armed confrontation between compatriots was most intense in Italy, making the Italian case unique.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|first=Renzo|last=De Felice|title=Rosso e Nero |trans-title=Red and Black |year=1995|publisher=Baldini &amp; Castoldi|isbn=88-85987-95-8|language=it|page=22}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1965, the definition of &quot;civil war&quot; was used for the first time by fascist politician and historian [[Giorgio Pisanò]] in his books,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.istitutobiggini.it/storia_pisano.pdf Storia della guerra civile in Italia]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;See the books from Italian historian [[Giorgio Pisanò]] ''Storia della guerra civile in Italia'', 1943–1945, 3 voll., Milano, FPE, 1965 and the book ''L'Italia della guerra civile'' (&quot;Italy of civil war&quot;), published in 1983 by the Italian writer and journalist [[Indro Montanelli]] as the fifteen volume of the ''Storia d'Italia'' (&quot;History of Italy&quot;) by the same author.&lt;/ref&gt; while [[Claudio Pavone]]'s book ''Una guerra civile. Saggio storico sulla moralità della Resistenza'' (''A Civil War. Historical Essay On the Morality Of the Resistance''), published in 1991, led to the term &quot;[[Italian Civil War]]&quot; being used more frequently by Italian{{#tag:ref|See as examples [[Renzo De Felice]] and [[Gianni Oliva]].|group=nb}} and international&lt;ref&gt;See as examples the [http://www.societasalutediritti.com/rassegnastampa/20052507MILZAPIERRE.htm interview] to French historian [[Pierre Milza]] on the ''Corriere della Sera'' of 14 July 2005 (in Italian) and the [https://archive.today/20120904173354/http://www.ifz-muenchen.de/index.php?id=280&amp;type=1&amp;L=3class=l lessons] of historian [[Thomas Schlemmer]] at the University of Munchen (in German).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Payne |first=Stanley G. |title=Civil War in Europe, 1905-1949 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2011|isbn=9781139499644 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zP4ikZ_o3V8C|page=202}}&lt;/ref&gt; historiography.
[[File:01 partigiani a milano1.jpg|thumb|[[Italian resistance movement|Italian anti-fascist partisans]] in Milan during the [[Italian Civil War]], April 1945]]

Soon after being ousted, Mussolini was rescued by a German commando in [[Gran Sasso raid|Operation Eiche]] (&quot;Oak&quot;). The Germans brought Mussolini to northern Italy where he set up a Fascist puppet state, the [[Italian Social Republic]] (RSI). Meanwhile, the Allies advanced in southern Italy. In September 1943, [[Four days of Naples|Naples]] rose against the occupying German forces. The Allies organized some royalist Italian troops into the [[Italian Co-Belligerent Army]], while other troops continued to fight alongside Nazi Germany in the ''Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano'', the [[National Republican Army]]. In addition, a large [[Italian resistance movement]] started a long [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]] against the German and Fascist forces. As a consequence, the country descended into [[Italian Civil War|civil war]], with the Italian Co-belligerent Army and the resistance movement, supported by the Allies, contended the Social Republic's forces and its German allies. The Germans, often helped by Fascists, committed several [[War crimes of the Wehrmacht|atrocities]] against Italian civilians in occupied zones, such as the [[Ardeatine massacre]] and the [[Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre]]. The Kingdom of Italy declared war on Nazi Germany on 13 October 1943;&lt;ref name=italyswitchesstayinwar&gt;{{cite news|url=https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/13/oct-13-1943-italy-switches-sides-in-world-war-ii/|title=Oct. 13, 1943 {{!}} Italy Switches Sides in World War II|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=13 October 2011|access-date=29 August 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/italy-declares-war-on-germany|title=Italy declares war on Germany|publisher=History.com|access-date=30 August 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; tensions between the Axis Powers and the Italian military were rising following the failure to defend Sicily, with New York Times correspondent Milton Bracker noting that &quot;Italian hatred of the Germans unquestionably grew as the fighting spirit waned, and episodes between German and Italian soldiers and civilians before and after the armistice have shown pretty clearly a complete and incontrovertible end of all sympathy between the former Axis partners.&quot;&lt;ref name=italyswitchesstayinwar /&gt;

On 16 October, the Rastenburg Protocol was signed with Nazi Germany. In accordance with this protocol, the RSI was allowed to raise [[Division (military)|division]]-sized military formations. This allowed Graziani to raise four RSI divisions totalling 52,000 men. In July 1944, the first of these divisions completed training and was sent to the front. Recruiting military forces was difficult for the RSI, as most of the Italian army had been interned by German forces in 1943, many Italians had been [[Italian military internees|conscripted into forced labour in Germany]] and few wanted to fight on Nazi Germany's side after 8 September 1943. The RSI became so desperate for soldiers that it granted convicts freedom if they would join the army and the sentence of death was imposed on anyone who opposed being conscripted.{{sfn|Smith|1983|p=308}} Autonomous military forces in the RSI also fought against the Allies including the notorious ''[[Decima Flottiglia MAS]]'' under command of Prince [[Junio Valerio Borghese]]. Borghese held no allegiance to Mussolini and even suggested that he would take him prisoner if he could.{{sfn|Smith|1983|p=308}}

On 4 June 1944, the German occupation of Rome came to an end as the Allies advanced. As the Allies advanced north, they encountered increasingly difficult terrain, as mountains offered excellent defensive positions to Axis forces. The final Allied victory over the Axis in Italy did not come until the spring offensive of 1945, after Allied troops had breached the [[Gothic Line]], leading to the surrender of German and Fascist forces in Italy on 2 May shortly before Germany finally surrendered ending World War II in Europe on 8 May. It is estimated that between September 1943 and April 1945, some 60,000 Allied and 50,000 German soldiers died in Italy.{{#tag:ref|In ''Alexander's Generals'' Blaxland quotes 59,151 Allied deaths between 3 September 1943 and 2 May 1945 as recorded at AFHQ and gives the breakdown between 20 nationalities: United States 20,442; United Kingdom, 18,737; France, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Senegal and Belgium 5,241; Canada, 4,798; India, Pakistan, Nepal 4,078; Poland 2,028; New Zealand 1,688; Italy (excluding irregulars) 917; South Africa 800; Brazil 275; Greece 115; [[Jewish Brigade|Jewish volunteers]] from the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate in Palestine]] 32. In addition, 35 soldiers were killed by enemy action while serving with pioneer units from Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, Seychelles, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Lebanon, Cyprus and the West Indies&lt;ref name=&quot;Blax11&quot;&gt;Blaxland (1979), p. 11&lt;/ref&gt;|group=nb}}
[[File:Litorale 1.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Changes to the Italian eastern border from 1920 to 1975.
{{legend|#ffff00|The [[Austrian Littoral]], later renamed [[Julian March]], which was assigned to Italy in 1920 with the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1920)|Treaty of Rapallo]] (with adjustments of its border in 1924 after the [[Treaty of Rome (1924)|Treaty of Rome]]) and which was then ceded to Yugoslavia in 1947 with the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Treaty of Paris]]}}
{{legend|#10FF20|Areas annexed to Italy in 1920 and remained Italian even after 1947}}
{{legend|#00fa9a|Areas annexed to Italy in 1920, passed to the [[Free Territory of Trieste]] in 1947 with the Paris treaties and definitively assigned to Italy in 1975 with the [[Treaty of Osimo]]}}
{{legend|#eee8aa|Areas annexed to Italy in 1920, passed to the Free Territory of Trieste in 1947 with the Paris treaties and definitively assigned to Yugoslavia in 1975 with the Osimo treaty}}]]

During World War II, [[Italian war crimes]] included [[extrajudicial killing]]s and [[ethnic cleansing]]&lt;ref name=&quot;JamesBurgwyn_2004&quot;&gt;James H. Burgwyn (2004). [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rmis/2004/00000009/00000003/art00005 General Roatta's war against the partisans in Yugoslavia: 1942] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054155/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rmis/2004/00000009/00000003/art00005 |date=21 September 2013}}, Journal of Modern Italian Studies, Volume 9, Number 3, pp. 314–329(16)&lt;/ref&gt; by the deportation of about 25,000 people, mainly Jews, Croats, and Slovenians, to the [[List of Italian concentration camps|Italian concentration camps]], such as [[Rab concentration camp|Rab]], [[Gonars concentration camp|Gonars]], [[Monigo]], [[Renicci di Anghiari]] and elsewhere. [[Yugoslav Partisans]] perpetrated their own crimes against the local ethnic Italian population ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]) during and after the war, including the [[foibe massacres]]. In Italy and Yugoslavia, unlike in Germany, few war crimes were prosecuted.&lt;ref name=&quot;RoryCarroll_2001&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20130716012326/http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2001/jun/25/artsandhumanities.highereducation Italy's bloody secret] (archived by [[WebCite]]), written by [[Rory Carroll]], Education, [[The Guardian]], June 2001&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Pedaliu_JContHistory&quot;&gt;[[Effie Pedaliu]] (2004) {{JSTOR|4141408?}} Britain and the 'Hand-over' of Italian War Criminals to Yugoslavia, 1945–48. Journal of Contemporary History. Vol. 39, No. 4, Special Issue: Collective Memory, pp. 503–529&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;oliva06&quot;&gt;[[Gianni Oliva|Oliva, Gianni]] (2006) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110720023109/http://www.libreriauniversitaria.it/si-ammazza-troppo-poco-crimini/libro/9788804551294 ''«Si ammazza troppo poco». I crimini di guerra italiani. 1940–43''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720023109/http://www.libreriauniversitaria.it/si-ammazza-troppo-poco-crimini/libro/9788804551294|date=20 July 2011}}, Mondadori, {{ISBN|88-04-55129-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;blpp2004&quot;&gt;Baldissara, Luca &amp; Pezzino, Paolo (2004). ''Crimini e memorie di guerra: violenze contro le popolazioni e politiche del ricordo'', L'Ancora del Mediterraneo. {{ISBN|978-88-8325-135-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 25 April 1945 the [[National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy]] proclaimed a general insurrection in all the territories still occupied by the Nazi-fascists, indicating to all the partisan forces active in Northern Italy that were part of the Volunteer Corps of Freedom to attack the fascist and German garrisons by imposing the surrender, days before the arrival of the Allied troops; at the same time, the National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy personally issued legislative decrees,&lt;ref&gt;There are three fundamental decrees that seal the legislative work, already active since 1944: ''All powers to CLNAI''; ''Decree for the administration of justice''; ''Of socialization''.&lt;/ref&gt; assuming power &quot;in the name of the Italian people and as a delegate of the Italian Government&quot;, establishing among other things the death sentence for all fascist hierarchs,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.associazioni.milano.it/isec/ita/cronologia/crono25apr.htm|title=Fondazione ISEC - cronologia dell'insurrezione a Milano - 25 aprile|access-date=14 February 2022|language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Surrender or die!&quot; was the rallying call of the partisans that day and those immediately following. Today the event is commemorated in [[Italy]] every 25 April by the [[Liberation Day (Italy)|Liberation Day]], [[National Day]] introduced on 22 April 1946, which celebrates the liberation of the country from [[fascism]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url =http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=1946-04-24&amp;atto.codiceRedazionale=046U0185&amp;elenco30giorni=false |title =DECRETO LEGISLATIVO LUOGOTENENZIALE 22 aprile 1946, n. 185|access-date =28 April 2015| language=Italian}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mussolini was captured on 27 April 1945, by [[Partito Comunista Italiano|communist]] [[Italian partisans]] near the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] border as he tried to escape Italy. On the next day, he was executed for high treason, as sentenced in absentia by a tribunal of the [[National Liberation Committee|CLN]]. Afterwards, the bodies of Mussolini, his mistress, and about fifteen other Fascists were taken to [[Milan]] where they were displayed to the public. Days later on 2 May 1945, the German forces in Italy surrendered. The government of Badoglio had remained in being for some nine months. On 9 June 1944, he was replaced as Prime Minister by the 70-year-old anti-fascist leader [[Ivanoe Bonomi]]. In June 1945 Bonomi was in turn replaced by [[Ferruccio Parri]], who in turn gave way to [[Alcide de Gasperi]] on 4 December 1945. Finally, De Gasperi supervised the transition to a Republic following the abdication of Vittorio Emanuele III on 9 May 1946, the one-month-long reign of his son [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]] (&quot;King of May&quot;) and the [[Italian constitutional referendum, 1946|Constitutional Referendum]] that abolished the monarchy; De Gasperi briefly became acting Head of State as well as Prime Minister on 18 June 1946, but ceded the former role to Provisional President [[Enrico de Nicola]] ten days later.

===Anti-fascism against Mussolini's regime===
{{see also|Anti-fascism}}
[[File:Flag of the Arditi del Popolo Battalion.svg|thumb|left|Flag of ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]'', an axe cutting a ''[[fasces]]''. ''Arditi del Popolo'' was a militant [[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] group founded in 1921]]

In Italy, Mussolini's [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] regime used the term ''[[Anti-fascism|anti-fascist]]'' to describe its opponents. Mussolini's [[secret police]] was officially known as the [[Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism]]. During the 1920s in the [[Kingdom of Italy]], anti-fascists, many of them from the [[labor movement]], fought against the violent [[Blackshirts]] and against the rise of the fascist leader Benito Mussolini. After the [[Italian Socialist Party]] (PSI) signed a [[Pact of Pacification|pacification pact]] with Mussolini and his [[Fasci Italiani di Combattimento|Fasces of Combat]] on 3 August 1921,&lt;ref&gt;Charles F. Delzell, edit., ''Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945'', New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; and trade unions adopted a legalist and pacified strategy, members of the workers' movement who disagreed with this strategy formed ''[[Arditi del Popolo]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |url=https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf |title=Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919-22 |access-date=23 September 2021 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319044401/https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Italian General Confederation of Labour]] (CGL) and the PSI refused to officially recognize the anti-fascist militia and maintained a non-violent, legalist strategy, while the [[Communist Party of Italy]] (PCd'I) ordered its members to quit the organization. The PCd'I organized some militant groups, but their actions were relatively minor.&lt;ref&gt;[https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919-22] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319044401/https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/17283245.pdf|date=19 March 2022}}, Antonio Sonnessa, in the ''[[European History Quarterly]]'', Vol. 33, No. 2, 183-218 (2003)&lt;/ref&gt; The Italian anarchist [[Severino Di Giovanni]], who exiled himself to Argentina following the 1922 [[March on Rome]], organized several bombings against the Italian fascist community.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://anarchist_century.tripod.com/timeline.html |title=Anarchist Century |publisher=Anarchist_century.tripod.com |access-date=7 April 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; The Italian liberal anti-fascist [[Benedetto Croce]] wrote his ''[[Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals]]'', which was published in 1925.&lt;ref&gt;David Ward ''Antifascisms: Cultural Politics in Italy, 1943–1946''&lt;/ref&gt;{{page needed|date=June 2020}} Other notable Italian liberal anti-fascists around that time were [[Piero Gobetti]] and [[Carlo Rosselli]].&lt;ref&gt;James Martin, 'Piero Gobetti's Agonistic Liberalism', ''History of European Ideas'', '''32''', (2006), pp. 205–222.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Concentrazione_di_azione_antifascista.jpg|thumb|1931 badge of a member of [[Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana]]]]
[[Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana]] ({{lang-en|Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration}}), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in [[Nérac]], France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled ''La Libertà''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Pugliese |first1=Stanislao G. |last2=Pugliese |first2=Stanislao |title=Fascism, Anti-fascism, and the Resistance in Italy: 1919 to the Present |date=2004 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |isbn=978-0-7425-3123-9 |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sDyqHO2LVosC&amp;pg=PA10 |access-date=11 June 2020 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Tollardo |first1=Elisabetta |title=Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922-1935 |date=2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-349-95028-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A6JlDQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA152 |page=152 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Scala |first1=Spencer M. Di |title=Renewing Italian Socialism: Nenni to Craxi |date=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-536396-8 |pages=6–8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8gGaCQDLUsC&amp;pg=PA6 |access-date=11 June 2020 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Flag of Giustizia e Liberta.svg|thumb|Flag of [[Giustizia e Libertà]], anti-fascist movement active from 1929 to 1945]]

[[Giustizia e Libertà]] ({{lang-en|Justice and Freedom}}) was an Italian [[anti-fascist]] [[resistance movement]], active from 1929 to 1945.&lt;ref name=jam&gt;James D. Wilkinson (1981). ''The Intellectual Resistance Movement in Europe''. Harvard University Press. p. 224.&lt;/ref&gt; The movement was cofounded by [[Carlo Rosselli]],&lt;ref name=jam/&gt; [[Ferruccio Parri]], who later became [[Prime Minister of Italy]], and [[Sandro Pertini]], who became [[President of Italy]], were among the movement's leaders.&lt;ref&gt;Stanislao G. Pugliese (1999). ''Carlo Rosselli: socialist heretic and antifascist exile''. Harvard University Press. p. 51.&lt;/ref&gt; The movement's members held various political beliefs but shared a belief in active, effective opposition to fascism, compared to the older Italian anti-fascist parties. ''Giustizia e Libertà'' also made the international community aware of the realities of fascism in Italy, thanks to the work of [[Gaetano Salvemini]].

Many Italian anti-fascists participated in the [[Spanish Civil War]] with the hope of setting an example of armed resistance to [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s dictatorship against Mussolini's regime; hence their motto: &quot;Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.collettiva.it/rubriche/buona-memoria/2023/05/07/news/_oggi_in_spagna_domani_in_italia_-2984121/|title=&quot;Oggi in Spagna, domani in Italia&quot;|access-date=12 May 2023|language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Between 1920 and 1943, several anti-fascist movements were active among the [[Slovenes]] and [[Croats]] in the territories annexed to Italy after [[World War I]], known as the [[Julian March]].&lt;ref&gt;[[Milica Kacin Wohinz]], [[Jože Pirjevec]], ''Storia degli sloveni in Italia : 1866–1998'' (Venice: Marsilio, 1998)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Milica Kacin Wohinz, ''Narodnoobrambno gibanje primorskih Slovencev : 1921–1928'' (Trieste: Založništvo tržaškega tiska, 1977)&lt;/ref&gt; The most influential was the militant insurgent organization [[TIGR]], which carried out numerous sabotages, as well as attacks on representatives of the Fascist Party and the military.&lt;ref&gt;[[Milica Kacin Wohinz]],  ''Prvi antifašizem v Evropi'' (Koper: Lipa, 1990)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Mira Cenčič, ''TIGR : Slovenci pod Italijo in TIGR na okopih v boju za narodni obstoj'' (Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1997)&lt;/ref&gt; Most of the underground structure of the organization was discovered and dismantled by the [[Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism]] (OVRA) in 1940 and 1941,&lt;ref&gt;Vid Vremec, Pinko Tomažič in drugi tržaški proces 1941 (Trieste: Založništvo tržaškega tiska, 1989)&lt;/ref&gt; and after June 1941 most of its former activists joined the [[Slovene Partisans]].

During [[World War II]], many members of the [[Italian resistance]] left their homes and went to live in the mountains, fighting against Italian fascists and [[Nazi Germany|German Nazi]] soldiers during the [[Italian Civil War]]. Many cities in Italy, including [[Turin]], [[Naples]] and [[Milan]], were freed by anti-fascist uprisings.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://darbysrangers.tripod.com/id102.htm |title=Intelligence and Operational Support for the Anti-Nazi Resistance |publisher=Darbysrangers.tripod.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Republican era (1946–present)==
{{Main|History of the Italian Republic}}

===Birth of the Republic===
{{Main|1946 Italian institutional referendum}}
[[File:Umberto II, 1944.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Umberto II]], the last [[King of Italy]], was exiled to Portugal.]]

Much like [[Japan]] and [[Germany]], the aftermath of World War II left Italy with a destroyed economy, a divided society, and anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime for the previous twenty years. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation|year=1970|title=Italia|encyclopedia=Dizionario enciclopedico italiano|volume=VI|page=456|publisher=[[Treccani]]|language=it}}&lt;/ref&gt; Following Victor Emmanuel III's abdication, his son, the new king [[Umberto II of Italy|Umberto II]], was pressured by the threat of another civil war to call a [[Italian constitutional referendum, 1946|Constitutional Referendum]] to decide whether Italy should remain a monarchy or become a republic. On 2 June 1946, the republican side won 54% of the vote and Italy officially became a republic. All male members of the [[House of Savoy]] were barred from entering Italy, a ban which was only repealed in 2002.

Under the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947]], [[Istria]], [[Kvarner Gulf|Kvarner]], most of the [[Julian March]] as well as the [[Dalmatia]]n city of [[Zadar|Zara]] was annexed by [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] causing the [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]], which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 local ethnic [[Italians]] ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic [[Istro-Romanians]], choosing to maintain Italian citizenship.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |first=Benedetta |last=Tobagi |url=http://www.treccani.it/scuola/lezioni/storia/la_repubblica_italiana.html |title=La Repubblica italiana &amp;#124; Treccani, il portale del sapere |publisher=Treccani.it |access-date=28 January 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; 
[[File:Alcide de Gasperi 2.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Alcide De Gasperi]], [[List of Prime Ministers of Italy|first]] republican [[Prime Minister of Italy]] and one of the [[Founding fathers of the European Union|Founding Fathers of the European Union]]]]

Later, the [[Free Territory of Trieste]] was divided between the two states. Italy also lost all of its colonial possessions, formally ending the [[Italian Empire]]. In 1950, [[Italian Somaliland]] was made a [[Trust Territory of Somaliland|United Nations Trust Territory]] under Italian administration until 1 July 1960. The Italian border that applies today has existed since 1975, when [[Trieste]] was formally re-annexed to Italy.

The [[Italian general election, 1946|General Elections of 1946]], held at the same time as the Constitutional Referendum, elected 556 members of a [[Constituent Assembly of Italy|Constituent Assembly]], of which 207 were [[Democrazia Cristiana|Christian Democrats]], 115 [[Partito Socialista Italiano|Socialists]] and 104 [[Partito Comunista Italiano|Communists]]. A [[Italian Constitution|new constitution]] was approved, setting up a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] democracy. In 1947, under American pressure, the communists were expelled from the government. The [[Italian general election, 1948]] saw a landslide victory for Christian Democrats, that dominated the system for the following forty years.

====Marshall Plan aid from the United States====
[[File:Римський договір.jpg|thumb|left|The signing ceremony of the [[Treaty of Rome]] on 25 March 1957, creating the [[European Economic Community|EEC]], forerunner of the present-day [[European Union|EU]].]]

Italy joined the [[Marshall Plan]] (ERP) and [[NATO]]. By 1950, the economy had largely stabilized and started booming.&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Duggan, ''  Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796'' (2008) ch 27&lt;/ref&gt; In 1957, Italy was a founding member of the [[European Economic Community]], which later transformed into the European Union (EU).

The Marshall Plan's long-term legacy was to help modernize Italy's economy. How Italian society built mechanisms to adapt, translate, resist, and domesticate this challenge had a lasting effect on the nation's development over the subsequent decades.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last1 = Ellwood | first1 = David W. | year = 2003 | title = The Propaganda of the Marshall Plan in Italy in a Cold War Context | journal = Intelligence and National Security | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 225–236 | doi = 10.1080/02684520412331306820 | s2cid = 153463824}}&lt;/ref&gt; After Fascism's failure, the United States offered a vision of modernization that was unprecedented in its power, internationalism, and invitation to emulation. However Stalinism was a powerful political force. The ERP was one of the main ways that this modernization was operationalized. The old prevailing vision of the country's industrial prospects had been rooted in traditional ideas of craftsmanship, frugality and thrift, which stood in contrast to the dynamism seen in automobiles and fashion, anxious to leave behind the protectionism of the Fascist era and take advantage of the opportunities offered by rapidly expanding world trade.

By 1953, industrial production had doubled compared with 1938 and the annual rate of productivity increase was 6.4%, twice the British rate. At [[Fiat Automobiles|Fiat]], automobile production per employee quadrupled between 1948 and 1955, the fruit of an intense, Marshall Plan-aided application of American technology (as well as much more intense discipline on the factory-floor).  Vittorio Valletta, Fiat's general manager, helped by trade barriers that blocked French and German cars, focused on technological innovations as well as an aggressive export strategy. He successfully bet on serving the more dynamic foreign markets from modern plants built with the help of Marshall Plan funds. From this export base he later sold into a growing domestic market, where Fiat was without serious competition.  Fiat managed to remain at the cutting edge of car manufacturing technology, enabling it to expand production, foreign sales, and profits.&lt;ref&gt;Francesca Fauri, &quot;The Role of Fiat in the Development of the Italian Car Industry in the 1950s&quot; ''Business History Review'' 1996 70(2): 167–206.  [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3116880 in Jstor]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Economic miracle===
[[File:Roma 1998 08 14 Fiat 600.jpg|thumb|left|[[Fiat 600]], iconic middle-class dream car and status symbol of the 1950-60s.]]
{{Main|Italian economic miracle}}

In the 1950s and 1960s the country enjoyed prolonged economic boom, which was accompanied by a dramatic rise in the standard of living of ordinary Italians.&lt;ref&gt;Modern Italy 1871–1995 by Martin Clark&lt;/ref&gt; The so-called [[Italian economic miracle]] lasted almost uninterruptedly until the &quot;[[Hot Autumn]]'s&quot; massive strikes and social unrest of 1969–70, that combined with the later [[1973 oil crisis]], gradually cooled the economy, that has never returned to its heady post-war growth rates.

It has been calculated that the Italian economy experienced an average rate of growth of GDP of 5.8% per year between 1951 and 1963, and 5.0% per year between 1964 and 1973.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book| first1=Nicholas |last1=Crafts |first2=Gianni |last2=Toniolo | title = Economic growth in Europe since 1945| url=https://archive.org/details/economicgrowtheu1945craf_729| url-access=limited| publisher=Cambridge University Press| year=  1996| page = [https://archive.org/details/economicgrowtheu1945craf_729/page/n452 428]| isbn = 0-521-49627-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Italian rates of growth were second only, but very close, to the [[West Germany|German]] rates, in Europe, and among the [[OEEC]] countries only Japan had been doing better.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book| first=Ennio |last=Di Nolfo| title = Power in Europe? II: Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy, and the Origins of the EEC 1952–57| publisher=de Gruyter| year=  1992| location = Berlin| page = 198| isbn = 3-11-012158-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Between 1955 and 1971, around 9 million people are estimated to have been involved in inter-regional migrations in Italy, uprooting entire communities.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book| first=Paul| last=Ginsborg| title = A history of contemporary Italy| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan| year=  2003| location = New York| page = 219| isbn = 1-4039-6153-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; Emigration was especially directed to the factories of the so-called &quot;industrial triangle&quot;, a region encompassed between the major manufacturing centres of [[Milan]] and [[Turin]] and the seaport of [[Genoa]].

The needs of a modernizing economy demanded new transport and energy infrastructures. Thousands of kilometres of railways and highways were completed in record times to connect the main urban areas, while dams and power plants were built all over Italy, often without regard for geological and environmental conditions. Strong urban growth led to uncontrolled urban sprawl.

The natural environment was constantly under threat by wild industrial expansion, leading to ecological disasters like the [[Vajont Dam]] inundation and the [[Seveso disaster|Seveso]] chemical accident. The boom had also a huge impact on Italian society and culture. The pervasive [[influence of mass media]] and [[consumerism]] on society has often been fiercely criticized by intellectuals like [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] and film directors like [[Dino Risi]], [[Vittorio De Sica]] and [[Ettore Scola]], that stigmatized selfishness and immorality that characterized miracle's years.

===Years of Lead===
{{Main|Years of lead (Italy)}}
[[File:Stragedibologna-2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bologna massacre|Attack]] of the far-right terrorist group [[Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari|NAR]] at the [[Bologna]] railway station on 2 August 1980, which caused the death of 85 people.]]

During the 1970s, Italy saw an unexpected escalation of political violence. From 1969 to 1980, repeated neofascist outrages were launched such as the [[Piazza Fontana bombing]] in 1969. Red Brigades and many other groups decided on armed attacks as a revolutionary strategy. They carried out urban riots, as in Rome and Bologna in 1977. Known as the [[History of Italy (1970s-1980s)|Years of Lead]], this period was characterised by widespread social conflicts and terrorist acts carried out by extra-parliamentary movements. The assassination of the leader of the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] (DC), [[Aldo Moro]], led to the end of a &quot;[[historic compromise]]&quot; between the DC and the [[Italian Communist Party|Communist Party]] (PCI). In the 1980s, for the first time, two governments were managed by a Republican ([[Giovanni Spadolini]] 1981–82) and a Socialist ([[Bettino Craxi]] 1983–87) rather than by a Christian Democrat.&lt;ref&gt;Alessandra Diazzi and Alvise Sforza Tarabochia, ''The Years of Alienation in Italy: Factory and Asylum Between the Economic Miracle and the Years of Lead'' (2019), pp 1-40.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Richard Drake, &quot;Italy in the 1960s: A Legacy of Terrorism and Liberation.&quot; ''South central review'' 16 (1999): 62-76. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3190077 online]&lt;/ref&gt;

At the end of the Lead years, the PCI gradually increased their votes thanks to [[Enrico Berlinguer]]. The [[Italian Socialist Party|Socialist Party]] (PSI), led by [[Bettino Craxi]], became more and more critical of the Communists and of the [[Soviet Union]]; Craxi himself pushed in favour of US President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s positioning of [[Pershing II]] missiles in Italy.

===Second Republic (1992–present)===

Italy faced several terror attacks between 1992 and 1993, perpetrated by the [[Sicilian Mafia]] as a consequence of several life sentences pronounced during the &quot;[[Maxi Trial]]&quot;, and of the new anti-mafia measures launched by the government. In 1992, two major dynamite attacks killed the judges [[Giovanni Falcone]] (23 May in the [[Capaci bombing]]) and [[Paolo Borsellino]] (19 July in the [[Via D'Amelio bombing]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.corriere.it/International/english/articoli/2012/03/08/borsellino.shtml |title=New Arrests for Via D'Amelio Bomb Attack |publisher=corriere.it |date=8 March 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; One year later (May–July 1993), tourist spots were attacked, such as the [[Via dei Georgofili bombing|Via dei Georgofili]] in Florence, [[Via Palestro massacre|Via Palestro]] in Milan, and the Piazza [[San Giovanni in Laterano]] and Via San Teodoro in Rome, leaving 10 dead and 93 injured and causing severe damage to cultural heritage such as the [[Uffizi Gallery]]. The Catholic Church openly condemned the Mafia, and two churches were bombed and an anti-Mafia priest shot dead in Rome.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipezzimancanti.it/download/Tagliavia%20sentenza.pdf|title=Sentenza del processo di 1º grado a Francesco Tagliavia per le stragi del 1993}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.parlamento.it/application/xmanager/projects/parlamento/Reso.steno.26.3.2012Int..pdf|title=Audizione del procuratore Sergio Lari dinanzi alla Commissione Parlamentare Antimafia – XVI LEGISLATURA (PDF).}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Echadas_de_Monedas.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bettino Craxi]], viewed by many as the symbol of [[Tangentopoli]], Leader of the [[Italian Socialist Party|Socialist Party]] and Prime Minister from 1983 to 1987, is greeted by a salvo of coins as a sign of loathing by protesters.]]

From 1992 to 1997, Italy faced significant challenges as voters disenchanted with political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organised crime's considerable influence collectively called the political system [[Tangentopoli]]. As Tangentopoli was under a set of judicial investigations by the name of [[Mani pulite]] (Italian for &quot;clean hands&quot;), voters demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms. The Tangentopoli scandals involved all major parties, but especially those in the government coalition: between 1992-94 the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|DC]] underwent a severe crisis and was dissolved, splitting up into several pieces, among whom the [[Italian People's Party (1994–2002)|Italian People's Party]] and the [[Christian Democratic Center]]. The [[Italian Socialist Party|PSI]] (along with other minor governing parties) completely dissolved.&lt;ref&gt;Sarah Waters,  &quot;'Tangentopoli' and the emergence of a new political order in Italy.&quot; ''West European Politics'' (1994): 17#1 pp:169–182.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Donald Sassoon, &quot;Tangentopoli or the democratization of corruption: Considerations on the end of Italy's first republic.&quot; ''Journal of Modern Italian Studies'' (1995) 1#1 pp: 124–143.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Italian general election, 1994|1994 general election]] also swept media magnate [[Silvio Berlusconi]] (Leader of &quot;[[Pole of Freedoms]]&quot; coalition) into office as Prime Minister. Berlusconi, however, was forced to step down in December 1994 when his [[Lega Nord]] partners withdrew support. The Berlusconi government was succeeded by a [[technical government]] headed by Prime Minister [[Lamberto Dini]], which left office in early-1996.

At the [[Italian general election, 1996|1996 general election]], [[Romano Prodi]] led a centre-left coalition to victory. Prodi's first government became the third-longest to stay in power before he narrowly lost a vote of confidence, by three votes, in October 1998. A new government was formed by [[Democrats of the Left]] leader and former Communist [[Massimo D'Alema]], but in April 2000, following poor performance by his coalition in regional elections, D'Alema resigned.

The succeeding centre-left government, including most of the same parties, was headed by [[Giuliano Amato]] (social-democratic), who previously served as Prime Minister from 1992 to 1993 and again from April 2000 until June 2001.

That same year, a centre-right coalition [[Italian general election, 2001|formed the government]] and [[Silvio Berlusconi]] was able to regain power and keep it for a complete five-year mandate; becoming the longest-serving government in post-war Italy. Berlusconi participated in the US-led [[multinational coalition in Iraq]].
{{multiple image
 |align=right|direction=horizontal
| image1 = Romano Prodi 1999 (cropped).jpg
| width1 = 122
| image2 = Silvio Berlusconi 1996.jpg
| width2 = 131
| caption1 = [[Romano Prodi]], Prime Minister from 1996 to 1998 and from 2006 to 2008, and long-time leader of the [[Centre-left coalition (Italy)|centre-left coalition]]
| caption2 = [[Silvio Berlusconi]], Prime Minister from 1994 to 1995, from 2001 to 2006 and from 2008 to 2011, and long-time leader of the [[Centre-right coalition (Italy)|centre-right coalition]]
}}
The [[Italian general election, 2006|2006 general election]] returned Prodi to government, leading an all-encompassing centre-left coalition of 11 parties ([[The Union (political coalition)|The Union]]). Prodi won with only a narrow majority in the Senate, also due to the new proportional [[electoral law]] introduced by Berlusconi and [[Roberto Calderoli|Calderoli]] in 2005. In the first year of his government, Prodi followed a cautious policy of economic liberalisation and reduction of public debt. His government, in loss of popularity, was anyway sacked by the end of support from centrist MPs led by [[Clemente Mastella]].

Berlusconi won the [[Italian general election, 2008|2008 general election]], with the [[People of Freedom]] party (fusion of his previous [[Forza Italia]] party and of Fini's [[National Alliance (Italy)|National Alliance]]) against [[Walter Veltroni]] of the [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]]. Italy was among the countries hit hardest by the [[Great Recession]] of 2008–09 and the subsequent [[European debt crisis]]. The national economy shrunk by 6.76% during the whole period, totalling seven quarters of recession.&lt;ref name=&quot;OECD&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?queryid=350 |title=Quarterly Growth Rates of real GDP, change over previous quarter |publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] |access-date=8 February 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2010, Berlusconi's party saw the splintering of [[Gianfranco Fini]]'s new faction, which formed a parliamentary group and voted against him in a no-confidence vote on 14 December 2010. Berlusconi's government was able to avoid no-confidence thanks to support from sparse MPs, but has lost a consistent majority in the lower Chamber. In November 2011, the Italian bond yield was 6.74 per cent for 10-year bonds, nearing a 7% level where Italy is thought to lose access to financial markets.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|first1=Barry|last1=Moody|first2=James|last2=Mackenzie|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-idUSTRE7A72NG20111108|title=Berlusconi to resign after parliamentary setback|date=8 November 2011|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=8 February 2015|archive-date=18 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918220156/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/08/us-italy-idUSTRE7A72NG20111108|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; On 12 November 2011, Berlusconi eventually resigned, and the famous economist [[Mario Monti]] was sworn in as Prime Minister at the head of a [[technocracy|technocratic]] government. As a shock therapy to avoid the debt crisis and kick-start economic growth, Monti's [[national unity government]] launched a massive programme of [[austerity measures]]; that reduced the deficit but precipitated the country in a [[double-dip recession]] in 2012 and 2013, receiving criticism from numerous economists.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Krugman|first1=Paul|title=Austerity, Italian-Style|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/25/opinion/krugman-austerity-italian-style.html|access-date=26 November 2017|work=The New York Times|date=24 February 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|last1=Orsi|first1=Roberto|title=The Demise of Italy and the Rise of Chaos|date=8 October 2013 |url=http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/eurocrisispress/2013/10/08/the-demise-of-italy-and-the-rise-of-chaos/|publisher=[[London School of Economics]]|access-date=26 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:2015 sicily.jpg|thumb|left|Asylum seekers arrive in [[Sicily]], 2015. The [[Arab Spring]] and the [[Syrian Civil War|Syrian War]] created factors that led to a [[European migrant crisis|migrant crisis]] that saw hundreds of thousands of boat-dwellers seeking refuge in Italy and other Mediterranean countries.]]

On 24 and 25 February 2013, a [[Italian general election, 2013|general election]] was held; a centre-left coalition led [[Pier Luigi Bersani]], Leader of the [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]], won a slight majority in the Chamber of Deputies but did not control the Senate. The election was characterised by the surprise success of the [[anti-establishment]] [[Five Star Movement]], founded by former comedian [[Beppe Grillo]], which came second with 25.5% of votes. On 24 April, President Napolitano gave to the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party, [[Enrico Letta]], the task of forming a government, having determined that Bersani could not form a government. Letta formed a short-lived [[Grand coalition (Italy)|grand coalition]] government, supported also by [[The People of Freedom]] of [[Silvio Berlusconi]] and [[Civic Choice]] of [[Mario Monti]]. Letta's cabinet lasted until 22 February 2014 (for a total of 300 days), as the government fell apart after the Democratic Party retired its support of Letta in favour of [[Matteo Renzi]], the 39-year-old mayor of Florence and nicknamed &quot;''Il Rottamatore''&quot; (The scrapper), who formed a new [[Renzi Cabinet|government]] with the support of some centrist parties. The Cabinet was the youngest government of Italy up to date, with an average age of 47 years and the first in which the number of female ministers was equal to the number of male ministers. The government implemented numerous reforms, including changes to the [[Italian electoral law|electoral system]], a relaxation of labour and employment laws with the intention of boosting economic growth, a thorough reformation of the [[public administration]] and the introduction of [[Civil union|same-sex civil union]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/videos/2015-09-29/italy-prime-minister-matteo-renzi-on-senate-reform|title= Italy Prime Minister Mattro Renzi on Senate Reform|publisher= [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]]|access-date= 29 September 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, Renzi resigned after losing a [[Italian constitutional referendum, 2016|constitutional referendum]] in December 2016, and was succeeded by [[Paolo Gentiloni]]. The centre-left Cabinets were plagued by the aftermath of the [[European debt crisis]] and the [[European migrant crisis]], which fuelled support for populist and right-wing parties.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Fear of migrants feeds growth of Italy's far-right |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/fear-of-migrants-feeds-growth-of-italy-s-far-right-1.3393398 |access-date=10 June 2021 |publisher=[[The Irish Times]] |date=17 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Covid-19 San Salvatore 09.jpg|thumb|Exhausted nurse takes a break in an Italian hospital during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Italy|COVID-19 emergency]].]]

The [[Italian general election, 2018|2018 general election]] resulted in a [[hung parliament]] once again, which led to an unlikely [[Conte I Cabinet|populist government]] between the anti-establishment Five Star Movement and Salvini's [[Lega (political party)|Lega]], led by [[Giuseppe Conte]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/24/opinion/populists-rome-five-star-movement.html |title=Opinion – The Populists Take Rome |work=The New York Times |date=24 May 2018 |access-date=2 June 2018 |via=NYTimes.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, after only fourteen months,  the League withdrew its support to Conte, who subsequently allied with the Democratic Party and other smaller left-wing parties to form a new Cabinet.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Italy's Conte forms coalition of bitter rivals, booting far-right from power |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190905-italy-coalition-conte-five-star-populists-democrats |access-date=9 September 2019 |work=France 24 |date=5 September 2019 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=New Italian government formed, allying M5S and the centre-left {{!}} DW {{!}} 4 September 2019 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/new-italian-government-formed-allying-m5s-and-the-center-left/a-50287864 |access-date=9 September 2019 |work=Deutsche Welle |date=4 September 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2020, Italy was severely hit by the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Italy|COVID-19 pandemic]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.salute.gov.it/nuovocoronavirus Nuovo coronavirus], ''Minsitero della Salute''&lt;/ref&gt; From March to May 2020, Conte's government imposed a [[2020 Italy coronavirus lockdown|national lockdown]] as a measure to limit the spread of COVID-19.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51810673 |title=Italy extends emergency measures nationwide}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news |last1=Beaumont |first1=Peter |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/10/from-confidence-to-quarantine-how-coronavirus-swept-italy |title=From confidence to quarantine: how coronavirus swept Italy |date=10 March 2020 |work=The Guardian|access-date=12 March 2020 |last2=Sample |first2=Ian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; The measures, despite being widely approved by public opinion,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last1=De Feo |first1=Gianluca |title=Sondaggio Demos: gradimento per Conte alle stelle |url=https://www.youtrend.it/2020/03/20/sondaggio-demos-gradimento-per-conte-alle-stelle/ |website=YouTrend |access-date=22 March 2020 |language=it-IT |date=20 March 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; were also described as the largest suppression of [[constitutional right]]s in the history of the republic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Blog {{!}} Coronavirus, la sospensione delle libertà costituzionali è realtà. Ma per me ce la stiamo cavando bene |url=https://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2020/03/18/coronavirus-la-sospensione-delle-liberta-costituzionali-e-realta-ma-per-me-ce-la-stiamo-cavando-bene/5739296/ |access-date=22 March 2020 |work=Il Fatto Quotidiano |date=18 March 2020 |language=it-IT}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Un uomo solo è al comando dell'Italia, e nessuno ha niente da ridire |url=https://www.linkiesta.it/2020/03/italia-coronavirus-conte-uomo-solo-al-comando/ |access-date=4 March 2020 |work=Linkiesta |date=24 March 2020 |language=it-IT}}&lt;/ref&gt; With more than 100,000 confirmed fatalities, Italy was one of the countries with the highest total number of deaths in the [[COVID-19 pandemic|worldwide coronavirus pandemic]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Italy mourns its 100,000 dead as third wave builds |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/coronavirus/2021/0318/1204668-corovirus-global/ |access-date=10 June 2021 |agency=[[Raidió Teilifís Éireann]] |date=18 Mar 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; The pandemic caused also a [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic|severe economic disruption]], which resulted in Italy being one of the most affected countries.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.agi.it/economia/news/2020-04-14/coronavirus-fmi-crisi-economica-8331041/ L'Italia pagherà il conto più salato della crisi post-epidemia], AGI&lt;/ref&gt; In February 2021, these extraordinary circumstances brought to the formation of a [[Draghi Cabinet|national coalition government]] led by former President of the European Central Bank [[Mario Draghi]]. On 13 February 2021, he was sworn in as Prime Minister. The [[Draghi Cabinet|Draghi cabinet]] had support across the broad political spectrum.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Mario Draghi sworn in as Italy's new prime minister |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56049115 |work=BBC News |date=13 February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; In January 2022, President [[Sergio Mattarella]] was re-elected to serve a second consecutive seven-year term.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Sergio Mattarella: At 80, Italy president re-elected on amid successor row |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60183929 |work=BBC News |date=29 January 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 21 July 2022, following a [[2022 Italian government crisis|government crisis]] which ended with FI, League and the M5S deciding to withdraw their support to the government, Prime Minister Draghi resigned. President [[Sergio Mattarella]] consequently dissolved the Parliament&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/elections-legislature-italy-802d6ab0965feebf4e3f7bda1659df42 | title=Italy heads to early election after Draghi's coalition fails | website=[[Associated Press]] | date=21 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and called a [[2022 Italian general election|snap election]], which resulted in the [[Centre-right coalition (Italy)|centre-right coalition]] gaining an absolute majority of seats.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|date=27 September 2022|title=Italy's far-right Meloni begins tricky government talks|url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220927-italy-s-far-right-meloni-begins-tricky-government-talks |access-date=2 October 2022|work=France 24|publisher=Agence France-Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 22 October 2022, [[Giorgia Meloni]] was sworn in as Italy's first female prime minister. Her [[Brothers of Italy]] party formed a right-wing government with the far-right [[Lega (political party)|League]] and centre-right of ex-prime minister [[Silvio Berlusconi|Silvio Berlusconi's]] party.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Who is Giorgia Meloni? The rise to power of Italy's new far-right PM |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-63351655 |work=BBC News |date=21 October 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Duchy of Urbino]]
* [[Genetic history of Italy]]
* [[History of Capri]]
* [[History of Naples]]
* [[History of Rome]]
* [[History of Sardinia]]
* [[History of Sicily]]
* [[History of the Republic of Venice]]
* [[History of Trentino]]
* [[History of Tuscany]]
* [[History of Verona]]
* [[Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia]]
* [[List of consorts of Montferrat]]
* [[List of consorts of Naples]]
* [[List of consorts of Savoy]]
* [[List of consorts of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]]
* [[List of consorts of Tuscany]]
* [[List of Italian queens]]
* [[List of Italian inventions and discoveries]]
* [[List of kings of the Lombards]]
* [[List of Milanese consorts]]
* [[List of Modenese consorts]]
* [[List of monarchs of Naples]]
* [[List of monarchs of Sardinia]]
* [[List of monarchs of Sicily]]
* [[List of monarchs of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]]
* [[List of Parmese consorts]]
* [[List of presidents of Italy]]
* [[List of prime ministers of Italy]]
* [[List of queens of the Lombards]]
* [[List of Roman and Byzantine Empresses]]
* [[List of rulers of Tuscany]]
* [[List of Sardinian consorts]]
* [[List of Sicilian consorts]]
* [[List of State Archives of Italy]]
* [[List of viceroys of Naples]]
* [[List of viceroys of Sicily]]
* [[Milan]]
* [[Military history of Italy]]
* [[Politics of Italy]]
{{div col end}}

==Vyakulemba==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==Ukaboni==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Vyakulemba vinyake ==

===Surveys===
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* Duggan, Christopher. ''The Force of Destiny: A History of Italy Since 1796'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0618353674 excerpt and text search]
* Hearder, Henry, and D. P. Waley; ''A Short History of Italy: From Classical Times to the Present Day'' (1963) [https://web.archive.org/web/20080621180349/http://www.questia.com/read/1149043 online edition]
* Holmes, George. ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Italy'' (2001) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0192854445 excerpt and text search]
* Killinger; Charles L. ''The History of Italy'' (2002) [https://www.questia.com/read/101544720 online edition]
* Smith, Denis Mack. ''Modern Italy: A Political History'' (1997)
* {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Denis Mack |title=Mussolini: A Biography |date=1983 |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0394716589}}

===Geography and environment===
* Armiero, Marco, and Marcus Hall, eds.  ''Nature and History in Modern Italy'' (Ecology and History Series) (Ohio University Press, 2010) 295 pp.&amp;nbsp;{{ISBN|978-0-8214-1916-8}}  [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=31962 online review]
* [[Lorenzo Arnone Sipari|Arnone Sipari, Lorenzo]], ed. ''Scritti scelti di Erminio Sipari sul Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo (1922–1933)'' (Nature and Parks series) (Trento, 2011) 349 pp.&amp;nbsp;{{ISBN|978-88-97372-05-9}}
* Delano-Smith, Catherine. ''Western Mediterranean Europe: A Historical Geography of Italy, Spain, and Southern France Since the Neolithic'' (1980)

===Ancient===
* Cary, M. and H. H. Scullard. ''A History of Rome: Down to the Reign of Constantine'' (3rd ed. 1996), 690pp
* Forsythe, Gary. ''A Critical History of Early Rome'' (2005) 400pp
* Grant, Michael. ''History of Rome'' (1997)
* Heather, Peter. ''The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians'' (2006) 572pp
* Scullard, H. H. ''A History of the Roman World 753–146 BC'' (5th ed. 2002), 596pp
* Zuppardo, Emanuele and Piccolo, Salvatore (Günther Hölbl preface). ''Terra Mater: Sulle Sponde del Gela greco'', Gela, Betania (2005), 175pp

===Medieval===
* Abulafia, David. ''Italy in the Central Middle Ages: 1000–1300'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2004) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199247048 excerpt and text search]
* Bullough, Donald A. ''Italy and Her Invaders'' (1968)
* Herlihy, David, Robert S. Lopez, and Vsevolod Slessarev, eds., ''Economy, Society and Government in Medieval Italy'' (1969)
* Hyde, J. K. ''Society and Politics in Medieval Italy'' (1973)
* La Rocca, Cristina. ''Italy in the Early Middle Ages: 476–1000'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198700482 excerpt and text search]
* Smith, Denis Mack. ''Medieval Sicily, 800–1713'' (1968)
* Tobacco, Giovanni. ''The Struggle for Power in Medieval Italy: Structures of Political Power'' (1989)
* Wickham, Chris. ''Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society, 400–1000'' (1981)

===Renaissance===
* {{cite book |first=John Rigby |last=Hale |author-link=John Rigby Hale |year=1981 |title=A concise encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance |publisher=Thames &amp; Hudson |location=London |oclc=636355191}}.
* Kohl, Benjamin G. and Allison Andrews Smith, eds. ''Major Problems in the History of the Italian Renaissance'' (1995).
* Najemy, John M. ''Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550'' (The Short Oxford History of Italy) (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198700407 excerpt and text search]
* White, John. ''Art and Architecture in Italy, 1250–1400'' (1993)

===Early modern===
* Cochrane, Eric. ''Italy, 1530–1630'' (1988) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605071133/http://www.questia.com/read/52710416?title=Italy%201530-1630 online edition]
* Carpanetto, Dino, and Giuseppe Ricuperati. ''Italy in the Age of Reason, 1685–1789'' (1987) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605071159/http://www.questia.com/read/55015369?title=Italy%20in%20the%20Age%20of%20Reason,%201685-1789 online edition]
* Marino, John A. ''Early Modern Italy: 1550–1796'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198700423 excerpt and text search]
* Roberts, J.M. &quot;Italy, 1793–1830&quot; in C.W. Crawley, ed. ''The New Cambridge Modern History: IX. War and Peace in an age of upheaval 1793–1830'' (Cambridge University Press, 1965) pp 439–461. [https://archive.org/details/newcambridgemode0009unse online]
* Venturi, Franco. ''Italy and the Enlightenment'' (1972)
* Woolf, Stuart. ''A History of Italy, 1700–1860'' (1988)

===Risorgimento===
* Beales. D.. and E. Biagini, ''The Risorgimento and the Unification of Italy'' (2002)
* Clark, Martin. ''The Italian Risorgimento'' (Routledge, 2014)
* Collier, Martin, ''Italian Unification, 1820–71'' (Heinemann, 2003); textbook, 156 pages
* {{cite book | title = Italy in the nineteenth century: 1796–1900 | editor-last = Davis | editor-first = John A. | year = 2000 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = London | url = https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=115250399}}
* Farmer, Alan. &quot;How was Italy Unified?&quot;, ''History Review'' 54, March 2006
* Hearder, Harry. ''Italy in the Age of the Risorgimento 1790–1870'' (1983) [https://www.amazon.com/Italy-Age-Risorgimento-1790-Longman/dp/0582491460 excerpt]
* Holt, Edgar.  ''The Making of Italy 1815–1870,'' (1971).
* Laven, David. ''Restoration and Risorgimento: Italy 1796–1870'' (2012)
* Pearce, Robert, and Andrina Stiles. ''Access to History: The Unification of Italy 1789–1896'' (4th rf., Hodder Education, 2015), textbook. [https://books.google.com/books?id=IFiGCgAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT3 excerpt]
* Riall, Lucy. ''Risorgimento: The History of Italy from Napoleon to Nation State'' (2009)
* Riall, Lucy. ''The Italian Risorgimento: State, Society, and National Unification'' (Routledge, 1994) [https://www.questia.com/library/103783059/the-italian-risorgimento-state-society-and-national online]
* Riall, Lucy. ''Garibaldi: Invention of a hero'' (Yale UP, 2008).
* {{cite journal | last1 = Riall | first1 = Lucy | year = 1998 | title = Hero, saint or revolutionary? Nineteenth-century politics and the cult of Garibaldi | journal = Modern Italy | volume = 3 | issue = 2| pages = 191–204 | doi=10.1080/13532949808454803| s2cid = 143746713 }}
* Ridley, Jasper. ''Garibaldi'' (1974), a standard biography.
* Smith, Denis Mack. ''Cavour'' (1985)
* Smith, Denis Mack. ''Victor Emanuel, Cavour, and the Risorgimento'' (Oxford UP, 1971)
* Stiles, A. ''The Unification of Italy 1815–70'' (2nd edition, 2001)
* {{cite book|last=Thayer |first=William Roscoe |title=The Life and Times of Cavour vol 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zfwNAQAAMAAJ |year=1911}} old interpretations but useful on details; vol 1 goes to 1859; [https://books.google.com/books?id=sK_CnX3-ZMQC volume 2 online covers 1859–62]

===Since 1860===
{{Further|Economic history of Italy#Further reading}}
* Alexander, J. ''The hunchback's tailor: Giovanni Giolitti and liberal Italy from the challenge of mass politics to the rise of fascism, 1882-1922'' (Greenwood, 2001).
* {{cite book|last=Bosworth |first=Richard J. B. |title=Mussolini's Italy |year=2005}}
* Burgwyn, H. James. ''Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918-1940'' (Greenwood, 1997),
* Cannistraro, Philip V. ed. ''Historical Dictionary of Fascist Italy'' (1982)
* Chabod, Federico. ''Italian Foreign Policy: The Statecraft of the Founders, 1870-1896'' (Princeton UP, 2014).
* Clark, Martin. ''Modern Italy: 1871–1982'' (1984, 3rd edn 2008)
* {{cite book |last=Clodfelter |first=M. |title=Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015 |publisher=McFarland |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |year=2017 |edition=4th |isbn=978-0786474707 }}
* De Grand, Alexander. ''Giovanni Giolitti and Liberal Italy from the Challenge of Mass Politics to the Rise of Fascism, 1882–1922'' (2001)
* De Grand, Alexander. ''Italian Fascism: Its Origins and Development'' (1989)
* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (12th ed. 1922) comprises the 11th edition plus three new volumes 30-31-32 that cover events 1911–1922 with very thorough coverage of the war as well as every country and colony. Included also in 13th edition (1926) [[s:1922 Encyclopædia Britannica|partly online]]
** [https://books.google.com/books?id=CMYUAAAAQAAJ full text of vol 30 ABBE to ENGLISH HISTORY online free]
*  Gilmour, David.''The Pursuit of Italy: A History of a Land, Its Regions, and Their Peoples'' (2011). [https://www.amazon.com/Pursuit-Italy-History-Regions-Peoples/dp/0374533601/ excerpt]
* Ginsborg, Paul. ''A History of Contemporary Italy, 1943–1988'' (2003). [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1403961530 excerpt and text search]
* Lyttelton, Adrian. ''Liberal and Fascist Italy: 1900–1945'' (Short Oxford History of Italy) (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198731981 excerpt and text search]
* McCarthy, Patrick ed. ''Italy since 1945'' (2000).
* Overy, Richard. ''The road to war'' (4th ed. 1999, {{ISBN|978-0-14-028530-7}}), covers 1930s; pp 191–244.
* {{cite book|last=Smith |first=D. Mack |title=Modern Italy: A Political History |year=1997 |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=0-472-10895-6}}
* Toniolo, Gianni. ''An Economic History of Liberal Italy, 1850–1918'' (1990)
* Toniolo, Gianni, ed. ''The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy since Unification'' (Oxford University Press, 2013) 785 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=43490 online review]; [http://eh.net/?s=Toniolo another online review]
* Williams, Isobel. ''Allies and Italians under Occupation: Sicily and Southern Italy, 1943–45'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). xiv + 308 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=43968 online review]
* Zamagni, Vera. ''The Economic History of Italy, 1860–1990'' (1993) 413 pp.&amp;nbsp;{{ISBN|0-19-828773-9}}.

=== Kulemba mbiri ===
* {{cite journal | last1 = Azzi | first1 = Stephen Corrado | date = 11 February 2009 | title = The Historiography of Fascist Foreign Policy | journal = Historical Journal | volume = 36 | issue = 1| pages = 187–203 | jstor=2639522 | doi=10.1017/s0018246x00016174| s2cid = 159720673 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bernhard | first1 = Patrick | year = 2014 | title = Renarrating Italian Fascism: New Directions in the Historiography of a European Dictatorship | journal = Contemporary European History | volume = 23 | issue = 1| pages = 151–163 | doi=10.1017/s0960777313000556| s2cid = 145319131 }}
* Boardman, Jonathan. ''Umbria: A Cultural History'' (Signal Books; 2012). Charts a complex history of literature, religion, art, migration, and industry.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Dipper | first1 = Christof | year = 2015 | title = Italian Contemporary Historiography. A Snapshot | journal = Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte | volume = 63 | issue = 3| page = 351 | doi=10.1515/vfzg-2015-0021| s2cid = 147390477}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Ferrari | first1 = Paolo | year = 2015 | title = The memory and historiography of the First World War in Italy | journal = Comillas Journal of International Relations | volume = 2 | issue = 2| pages = 117–126 | doi = 10.14422/cir.i02.y2015.009 | doi-access = free}}
* Foot, John. ''Italy's Divided Memory'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 262 pages; 2010). Describes regional, political, and other divisions in Italian public memory of history.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Musi | first1 = Aurelio | year = 2013 | title = Modern Italy in French, English and American historiography | journal = Nuova Rivista Storica | volume = 97 | issue = 3| pages = 909–952}}
* Pasquino, Gianfranco. &quot;Political History in Italy,&quot; ''Journal of Policy History'' (2009) 21#3 pp 282–97, on 20th century historians; covers Italian politics after World War II, and works of Silvio Lanaro, Aurelio Lepre, and Nicola Tranfaglia. Also discusses rise of the Italian Communist party, the role of the Christian Democrats in Italian society, and the development of the Italian parliamentary Republic. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/315859/summary summary]
* {{cite journal|last=Ramm |first=Agatha |title=The Risorgimento in Sicily: Recent Literature |journal=English Historical Review |date=1972 |volume=87 |issue=345 |pages=795–811 |doi=10.1093/ehr/lxxxvii.cccxlv.795|jstor=562204}}
* Rao, Anna Maria. &quot;Napoleonic Italy: Old and New Trends in Historiography.&quot; in Ute Planert, ed., ''Napoleon's Empire'' (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016). pp 84–97.

== Vigaŵa vya kuwalo ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722042803/http://www.miol.it/stagniweb/foto6.asp?File=mappe_va&amp;Tipo=index&amp;Righe=50&amp;Col=4 Detailed Maps of the History of Italy]
* [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Italy:_Primary_Documents History of Italy: Primary Documents]
* [http://www.italyrevisited.org/ Italy Revisited (historical photo archives)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20240708092045/https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23766 Collection: Italy in 19th Century Photography] from the [[University of Michigan Museum of Art]]
* [https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1148/the-dolmens-of-sicily Salvatore Piccolo, The Dolmens of Sicily] from the [[World History Encyclopedia]]
{{Italy topics}}
{{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}}
{{History of Europe}}
{{European history by country}}
{{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}}
{{Authority control}}

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    <title>Mbili ya South Africa</title>
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      <text bytes="133235" sha1="g7k9n56d36iaodqdkn0nrr08wlyax4r" xml:space="preserve">{{short description|South African history}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2018}}
{{History of South Africa}}
{{Culture of South Africa}}
{{SouthAfrica state}}
{{Infobox flag
| Name = Republic of South Africa
| Article =
| Image = Flag of South Africa.svg
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| Design = The flag of Republic of South Africa was adopted on 26 April 1994. It replaced the flag that had been used since 1928, and was chosen to represent multiculturalism and ethnic diversity in the country's new, post-apartheid democratic society.
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Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakamba kukhala ku [[South Africa]] vyaka vyakujumpha 100,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mbiri yakale ya charu cha South Africa yili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri: nyengo ya malibwe na nyengo ya visulo. Viŵaro vya viŵeto vya [[Australopithecine]] vikusangika ku Taung na mu mphanji za malibwe gha malibwe gha limestone ku Sterkfontein, Swartkrans na Kromdraai. Mu 1999, wupu wa Unesco ukati malo agha ntchiharo cha pa charu chose.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/History#ref1003524 |title=South Africa - History |publisher=Britannica |date=2020-10-11 |access-date=2020-10-18}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku South Africa ŵakaŵa Khoisan, Khoekhoe, na San. Kufuma waka mu 1000 B.C.E., ŵanthu awo ŵakafuma ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi na vyapakati ku Africa ŵakamba kusama. Ŵanyake ŵakakhalanga kwaŵekha, kweni ŵanyake ŵakaŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa mitundu yiŵiri panji kujumpha apa: Khoisan, Bantu, English, Afrikaners, Austronesians, East Asians na South Asians.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kusanda mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Africa mu ma 1300. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400 na 1500, ŵanthu ŵa ku Portugal ŵakenda mumphepete mwa nyanja ya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa, ŵakalemba na kupanga mapu gha mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mu 1488, ŵakazingilira Cape of Good Hope. Mu 1652, kampani ya Dutch East India Company yikakhazikiska malo gha malonda mu tawuni ya Cape Town pasi pa muwuso wa Jan van Riebeeck. Ŵantchito ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhazikika mu tawuni iyi ŵakamba kumanyikwa na zina lakuti Free Burghers.

Pamanyuma pakuti ŵa ku Britain ŵanjira mu charu cha Cape Colony mu 1795 na 1806, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasamukira mu vyaru vinyake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.geskiedenis.sariemarais.com/groot%20trek.html |title=Sarie Marais.Com Geskiedenis |publisher=Geskiedenis.sariemarais.com |access-date=2020-10-18 |archive-date=28 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628124326/http://www.geskiedenis.sariemarais.com/groot%20trek.html |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;Vinthu ivyo vikasangika mu chigaŵa ichi mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 vikawovwira kuti chigaŵa ichi chiŵe pa malo ghapacanya pa caru cose. Kweniso vinthu ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer na Ufumu wa Britain.

Pamanyuma pa kutondeka kwa ma Boers mu Nkhondo ya Anglo-Boer panji South African War (1899-1902), Union of South Africa yikapangika nga ni boma la Britain pa 31 May 1910 mu ndondomeko ya South Africa Act 1909, iyo yikasazga maboma ghanayi gha Britain: Cape Colony, Colony of Natal, Transvaal Colony, na Orange River Colony. Mu 1934, charu ichi chikaŵa pasi pa Ufumu wa Britain. Ufumu wa ufumu uwu ukamara pa 31 May 1961, ndipo ukasinthika na boma la republic.

Kwamba mu 1948 mpaka mu 1994, ndyali za ku South Africa zikayendeskeka na mtundu wa Afrikaner. Mu 1948, boma likakhazikiska vyakuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambana na mitundu yinyake ŵachitenge vinthu mwakupambana. Pa Epulero 27, 1994, pamanyuma pa vilimika vinandi vya kulimbana, kulimbana na ŵasilikari, na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose awo ŵakasuskanga apartheid, chipani chakwamba cha ŵanthu ŵafipa, African National Congress (ANC) chikathereska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose pa chisankho chakwamba cha demokilase mu charu ichi. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, African National Congress ndiyo yikulongozga charu cha South Africa, pamoza na South African Communist Party na Congress of South African Trade Unions.

== Mbiri yakwambilira (pambere 1652) ==
{{Main|Early history of South Africa}}

=== Nkhani za mu nyengo yakale ===
{{see|People of Africa}}
Ŵasayansi awo ŵakufufuza ivyo vikachitika pambere ŵanthu ŵandambe kulemba mbiri yawo, ŵamanya kuti charu icho sono chikuchemeka South Africa chikaŵa pakati pa malo agho ŵanthu ŵakasambira. Vinthu ivi vikaŵako vyaka 2.5 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala mu malo agha vyaka pafupifupi 125,000 ivyo vyajumpha mu nyengo ya malibwe, nga umo vikulongosorekera na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga mu mphanji za mu mlonga wa Klasies. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa DNA awo ŵakafuma ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa. Kumwera kwa Africa kukaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu, awo ŵakafuma ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Africa.

Pulofesa Raymond Dart wakabowozga chiwangwa cha mwana munyake wa vyaka 2.51 mu 1924, uyo wakaŵa wakwamba kusanga Australopithecus africanus. Mu 1938, Robert Broom wakasanga hominid munyake wakukhora chomene, zina lake Paranthropus robustus, ku Kromdraai, ndipo mu 1947, wakasanga vinyama vinyake vya Australopithecus africanus ku Sterkfontein. Mu 2002, ku mphanji ya Blombos, ŵakasanga malibwe agho ghakaŵa na vithuzithuzi vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikalembeka vyaka 70,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Ici cikulongosoreka kuti nchakuwonerapo cakwambilira ca luso lwakupatulika panji luso lwaciyelezgelo ilo likaŵako na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1753326.stm | work=BBC News | title='Oldest' prehistoric art unearthed | date=10 January 2002}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, vyamoyo vinyake vinandi vya mtundu uwu vyawoneka. Cinyake ico nchakale comene ni Little Foot, cinthu ca viwangwa vya malundi vya munthu uyo wali na vyaka vyapakati pa 2.2 na 3.3 miliyoni. Clarke. - Kasi? Cinyake ico ŵakasanga ni Australopithecus sediba uyo wali na vyaka 1.9 miliyoni. Mu 2015, ŵanthu ŵakamanya kuti kuli mtundu unyake wa Homo naledi uwo ukasangika kufupi na Johannesburg. Ŵanji ŵakuti ni cinthu cakuzirwa comene ico ŵasayansi ŵasanga mazuŵa ghano.&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150910-homo-naledi-human-ancestor-species-reaction-science/ ''National Geographic'', &quot;New Human Ancestor Elicits Awe—and Many Questions&quot;], 10 September 2015. Accessed 20 September 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

===San na Khoikhoi===
Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalako mu nyengo iyi ŵakamanyikwanga kuti mba fuko la San na Khoikhoi. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakucemeka Khoisan, zina ilo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakulemba kufuma ku mazina gha mafuko agha. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoisan awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Africa ndiwo ŵakamba kupatukana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo sapiens awo ŵalipo sono. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakumanya kuti ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto cha kumwera kwa Africa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|vauthors=Chen YS, Olckers A, Schurr TG, Kogelnik AM, Huoponen K, Wallace DC |title= mtDNA variation in the South African Kung and Khwe, and their genetic relationships to other African populations|doi=10.1086/302848|year=2000|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=66|issue=4|pages=1362–83|pmid=10739760|pmc=1288201}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title= History of click-speaking populations of Africa inferred from mtDNA and Y chromosome genetic variation|pmid= 17656633|url= http://www.africandna.com/ScienPapers%5CHistory_of_Click-Speaking_Populations_of_Africa.pdf|year= 2007|last1= Tishkoff|first1= SA|last2= Gonder|first2= MK|last3= Henn|first3= BM|last4= Mortensen|first4= H|last5= Knight|first5= A|last6= Gignoux|first6= C|last7= Fernandopulle|first7= N|last8= Lema|first8= G|last9= Nyambo|first9= TB|last10= Ramakrishnan|first10= U.|last11= Reed|first11= F. A.|last12= Mountain|first12= J. L.|volume= 24|issue= 10|pages= 2180–95|doi= 10.1093/molbev/msm155|journal= Molecular Biology and Evolution|display-authors= 8|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110420053808/http://www.africandna.com/ScienPapers%5CHistory_of_Click-Speaking_Populations_of_Africa.pdf|archive-date= 20 April 2011|df= dmy-all|doi-access= free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|vauthors=Schlebusch CM, Naidoo T, Soodyall H |title=SNaPshot minisequencing to resolve mitochondrial macro-haplogroups found in Africa|doi=10.1002/elps.200900197|year=2009|journal=Electrophoresis|volume=30|issue=21|pages=3657–64|pmid=19810027|s2cid=19515426}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San na Khoikhoi ŵakupambana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake chifukwa cha ntchito izo ŵakuchita. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San ŵakakhalanga mu mizi, kweni Khoikhoi ŵakaliskanga viŵeto. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakumanya yayi uko ŵakafuma.&lt;ref&gt;Karim Sadr, [https://web.archive.org/web/20151120051616/http://www.karimsadr.com/resources/Sadr%202008%20SAH.pdf ''Invisible Herders: The Archaeology of Khoekhoe Pastoralists,''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120051616/http://www.karimsadr.com/resources/Sadr%202008%20SAH.pdf|date=20 November 2015}} [[University of the Witwatersrand|University of Witwatersrand]], South Africa&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;C. Garth Sampson, [https://web.archive.org/web/20200124165250/http://www.nieu-bethesda.com/images/stories/history/prehistoricherders.pdf ''Prehistoric Livestock Herders in the Upper Seacow River Valley'']{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakufukura vinthu vyakale ŵali kusanga mu malo agha vikulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakamba kukhala mu malo agha vyaka pafupifupi 2,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500 na kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1600, ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa ku Europe kufika ku Cape, ŵakakumana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵa ku England na ku Netherlands awo ŵakendanga pa nyanja, ŵakamba kusinthiska visulo na ng'ombe na mberere. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti cifukwa cakuti pakaŵa viŵeto vinandi, mu ma 1700, kampani ya Dutch East India Company yikakhazikiska malo agho sono ni msumba wa Cape Town.

Mu 1652, kampani ya Dutch East India Company yikati yakhazikiska malo agha, Khoikhoi ŵakamba kulimbana na Ŵachidachi pa nkhani ya malo. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kwiba ng'ombe na kwiba viŵeto. Nkhondo yakwamba ya Khoikhoi na Dutch yikacitika mu 1659, yachiŵiri mu 1673, ndipo yacitatu mu 1674 na 1677. Pa nyengo iyo ŵakathereskekera na kuchimbizgika ku Cape Peninsula na vigaŵa vyakuzingilizga, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi ŵakakomeka na nthenda ya nthomba iyo yikamba kwiza na ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands.&lt;ref&gt;SA History Online, [http://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/smallpox-epidemic-strikes-cape Smallpox epidemic strikes Cape]&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ===
{{Main|Bantu peoples of South Africa}}
[[File:Makuleke1.JPG|thumb|Nkhulaŵiska mu malo agho mukaŵa maji ghanandi gha Mlonga wa Luvuvhu (kumalyero) na Mlonga wa Limpopo (kutali na kumazere)]]
Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ndiwo ŵakamba kusama mu charu cha Africa.&lt;ref&gt;''Molecular Biology and Evolution'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20110416143255/http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/26/7/1581.abstract &quot;Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages&quot;] (Abstract). Oxford Journals. 30 March 2009. Accessed 11 July 2015&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu ŵakafika kumwera kwa Africa kufuma ku Congo cha m'ma 400 B.C.E. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakiza mu chigaŵa cha Khoikhoi, ndipo ŵakachichizga ŵanthu ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi kuti ŵasamire ku malo ghakomira. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵali kufuma ku mitundu ya Nguni (Ŵazulu, Ŵachixhosa, Ŵaswazi, na Ŵandebele) ŵakakhalanga kufupi na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu icho sono chikuchemeka South Africa.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|title=Queen Victoria's Enemies 1: Southern Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/queenvictoriasen02knig|url-access=limited|last=Knight|first=Ian|publisher=Osprey|year=1989|isbn=085045901X|editor-last=Windrow|editor-first=Martin|location=Great Britain|pages=[https://archive.org/details/queenvictoriasen02knig/page/n3 3]–4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo sono ŵakuchemeka Ŵasotho na Ŵatswana (Ŵatswana, Ŵapedi, na Ŵasotho) ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa cha Highveld, apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Venda, Lemba, na Tsonga ŵakakhalanga kumpoto kwa charu cha South Africa.

Ufumu wa Mapungubwe, uwo ukaŵa kufupi na mphaka ya kumpoto kwa charu cha South Africa, apo milonga ya Limpopo na Shashe yikukumana na Zimbabwe na Botswana, ukaŵa ufumu wakwamba wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ku Southern Africa pakati pa AD 900 na 1300. Ufumu uwu ndiwo ukaŵa ukuru comene pa caru cose pambere ukanalekeka cifukwa ca kusintha kwa nyengo mu vyaka vya m'ma 1400. Ŵakuzenga ŵakacitanga vinthu vyachisulo, mkuŵa, na golide kuti ŵajitozgere pakukongozga na malonda. Ufumu uwu ukaŵa na mazaza pa malonda agho ghakachitikanga mu vipata vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa, ku Arabia, India na China, kweniso kumwera kwa Africa, ndipo ukaŵa usambazi chifukwa cha kusinthana golide na njovu na vinthu vinyake nga ni vyakununkhira vya ku China na malibwe gha ku Persia.

Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga chiyowoyero cha Bantu na chiyowoyero cha Khoisan ŵakamanyanga yayi umo ŵanthu aŵa ŵakenderananga, nangauli pali ukaboni wakuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakolerana na chiyowoyero chawo.

=== Kuwusa kwa chikoloni ===

==== Ntchito ya Portugal ====
{{See also|Portugal in the Age of Discovery|Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India|l2=Discovery of the sea route to India|Bartolomeu Dias|Vasco da Gama|Portuguese Empire}}
[[File:Bartolomeu Dias, South Africa House (cut).JPG|thumb|right|Cikozgo ca Bartolomeu Dias pa ofesi ya South Africa ku London. Wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kuzingilira kumwera kwa Africa.]]
Munthu munyake wa ku Portugal, zina lake Bartolomeu Dias, ndiyo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kusanda mumphepete mwa nyanja ya South Africa mu 1488, apo wakakhumbanga kusanga nthowa yakwendera ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mu Novembala 1497, ngalaŵa za ku Portugal, izo vikalongozgekanga na Vasco da Gama, zikenda pa mtunda wa mtunda utali chomene. Pa Disembala 16, ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakajumpha mu Mlonga wa Great Fish mumphepete mwa kumafumiro gha dazi kwa South Africa, uko Dias wakawerako. Da Gama wakathya nyanja iyo wakajumphangapo kuti Natal, kung'anamura Khisimasi. Ngalaŵa ya Da Gama yikalutanga kumpoto ku Zanzibar ndipo pamanyuma yikafika kumafumiro gha dazi.&lt;ref&gt;Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, ''Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration'', New York: Norton 2006, pp. 177–178.{{ISBN|0-393-06259-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many Portuguese words are still found along the coast of South Africa including Saldanha, Algoa, Natal, Agulhas, Benguela and Lucia.

==== Ntchito ya Netherlands ====
{{See also|:Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery|l1=Dutch Republic in the Age of Discovery|:Category:Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company|l2=Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company|Dutch East India Company|l3=Dutch East India Company (VOC)|First Dutch Expedition to Indonesia|Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia|Brouwer Route|Jan Huyghen van Linschoten}}
[[File:Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie spiegelretourschip Amsterdam replica.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Chithuzi cha munthu waku East India wa Dutch East India Company/United East Indies Company (VOC). Gulu la Dutch East India Company ndilo likawovwira chomene pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakasandanga vinthu (cha m'ma 1590 m'paka 1720) kweniso pa nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakalembanga mapu (cha m'ma 1570 m'paka 1670).]]

==Chikoloni cha Dutch (1652–1815)==
{{Main|Dutch Cape Colony}}
{{See also|History of South Africa (1652–1815)|Economic history of South Africa|Military history of South Africa|Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars|Dutch Empire|7=:Category:Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company|l7=Maritime history of the Dutch East India Company|8=:Category:Military history of the Dutch East India Company|l8=Military history of the Dutch East India Company|9=:Category:Dutch exploration in the Age of Discovery|l9=Dutch Republic in the Age of Discovery}}
{{See also|History of Cape Town|Stellenbosch|Swellendam|Graaff-Reinet|Franschhoek|Huguenots in South Africa|Cape Dutch|Dorsland Trek|Afrikaner nationalism|Christianity in South Africa|Afrikaner Calvinism|Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa|Cape Dutch architecture|Roman-Dutch law|South African wine}}
[[File:Aernout Smit Table Bay, 1683 William Fehr Collection Cape Town.jpg|thumb|right|Kuwona Table Bay na sitima za Dutch East India Company (VOC), c. 1683.]]
[[File:Jan van Riebeeck.jpg|thumb|right|Jan van Riebeeck, Mulara wakwamba wa Dutch East India Company]]
[[File:Vignoble de Groot Constantia Afrique du Sud.jpg|thumb|right|Groot Constantia ndiyo ni malo ghakale comene ghakusungirako mpheska ku South Africa. Vinyo wa ku South Africa (wa vinyo wa mu caru ciphya) ni cinthu cinyake cakuzirwa comene ico ŵanthu ŵa mu nyengo ya VOC ŵakaleka. Mbiri ya vyachuma ya South Africa yikamba mu nyengo ya VOC.]]
Mu 1652, kampani ya Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, panji VOC) yikadumura kuti yikhazikiske malo ghakukhazikika ku Cape. VOC, yimoza mwa vyaru vikuruvikuru vya ku Europe ivyo vikendanga mu nthowa ya vyakununkhira, yikaŵa na khumbo la kuzenga malo agha yayi. Pa chifukwa ichi, gulu lichoko waka la VOC ilo likalongozgekanga na Jan van Riebeeck likafika ku Table Bay pa 6 Epulero 1652.

Ŵasilikari ŵa VOC ŵakakhalanga ku Cape kuti ŵapeleke vyakurya ku ngaraŵa zawo. Cape na VOC ŵakeneranga kukora ŵalimi ŵa ku Netherlands kuti ŵakhazikiske minda iyo yikapelekanga vyakurya ku ngaraŵa izo zikendanga pafupi na malo agha. Gulu lichoko waka la ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha, likakura comene ndipo ŵakamba kusanuzga minda yawo kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari na ŵalimi ŵa VOC awo ŵakatondeka kuwelera ku Holland apo ŵakamalizganga nchito yawo. Wupu wa VOC ukatozgaso ŵazga 71,000 kufuma ku India, Indonesia, East Africa, Mauritius, na Madagascar.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/africa/south-africa/articles/the-untold-stories-of-slavery-at-cape-towns-iziko-slave-lodge/|title=The Untold Stories of Slavery at Cape Town's Iziko Slave Lodge|last=Collinson|first=Lee-Shay|date=9 February 2017|website=Culture Trip}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Jan Van Riebeeck Statue Cape Town.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Statue of Jan van Riebeeck|statue]] of [[Jan van Riebeeck]], the founder of [[Cape Town]], in Heerengracht Street.]]
[[File:Cape Town, Castle of Good Hope - panoramio.jpg|right|thumb|Castle of Good Hope (Kasteel de Goede Hoop mu ChiDutch), Cape Town. Msumba wa Kaapstad/Cape Town ukazengeka mu 1652.]]

Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa tchalitchi la Dutch Reformed Church, kweni pakaŵaso Ŵachijeremani ŵanyake awo ŵakaŵa ŵa tchalitchi la Lutheran. Mu 1688, Ŵachidachi na Ŵachijeremani ŵakalongozgana na Ŵaguenot ŵa ku France, Ŵaprotesitanti ŵa chisopa cha Calvin awo ŵakacimbiranga nthambuzgo za cisopa mu France mu nyengo ya Fumu ya Katolika, Fumu Louis XIV.

Van Riebeeck wakawonanga kuti ntchiheni chomene kugwiliskira ntchito ŵazga awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vya Khoi na San, ntheura VOC yikamba kutolera ŵazga ŵanandi chomene kufuma ku vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Indonesia. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, van Riebeeck na VOC ŵakamba kugwiliskira ntchito ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khoikhoi na San. Ŵana awo ŵakababika pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands na ŵazga ŵa ku Khoi-San na ku Malaŵi ŵakachemekanga kuti Cape Coloureds na Cape Malays. Ŵanandi awo ŵakababika na ŵazga aŵa ŵakazgoka ŵazungu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakuchemeka kuti &quot;ŵatuŵa&quot; ŵali kufuma ku mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo ŵakamba kukhala ku Cape pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe na ŵazga ŵa ku Asia na ku Africa. Simon van der Stel, kazembe wakwamba wa caru ca Dutch, uyo wakaŵa wakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca kupanga vinyo la ku South Africa, nayo wakaŵa wa mafuko ghakupambanapambana.&lt;ref&gt;F Wallis, ''Nuusdagboek: Feite en Fratse oor 1000 Jaar'' Cape Town: Human &amp;Rousseau 2000&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ukoloni wa Britain, Mfecane na Boer Republics (1815-1910) ==

=== Britain ku Cape ===
{{Main|British Cape Colony|History of South Africa (1815–1910)}}
[[File:Punch Rhodes Colossus.png|thumb|upright|Rhodes Colossus Cecil Rhodes wakwendendeka &quot;Cape to Cairo&quot;]]
Mu 1787, pambere Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku France yindachitike, gulu linyake la ku Netherlands ilo likamanyikwanga na zina lakuti Patriot Party, likayezga kuwuskapo boma la William V. Nangauli chigaluka ichi chikaphyoka, kweni chikaŵaso na nkhongono pamanyuma pakuti France yanjira mu Netherlands mu 1794/1795. Ŵalwani aŵa ŵakapharazga kuti charu cha Batavia chili pafupi na France. Pakuzgora, mulara wa boma uyo wakakhalanga ku England, wakalemba Makalata gha Kew, ndipo wakaphalira ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa kuti ŵajipeleke ku ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Kufuma apo, mu 1795 Ŵanung'una ŵakakora Cape kuti ŵaleke kunjira mu mawoko gha Ŵafarisi. Mu 1803, ŵa ku Netherlands ŵakawezga msumba uwu.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=South Africa - British occupation of the Cape {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Africa/British-occupation-of-the-Cape |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mu 1805, ŵa ku Britain ŵakatora Cape iyi mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za Napoleon.

Nga mba Dutch awo ŵakaŵa pambere iwo ŵandaŵeko, Ŵabritishi nawo ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuluta ku Cape Colony. Mulimo wawo wakwamba ukaŵa wakuti mu 1806 ŵakanjizge ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe mu ciyowoyero na mitheto ya ku Britain. Mu 1806, dango la ku Cape likazomerezga kuti charu ichi chikhalilire na &quot;wenelero na wanangwa uwo chikaŵa nawo&quot;, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti charu cha South Africa chileke kwendera fundo za Ufumu wa Britain. Mu 1815, pa ungano wa ku Vienna, Britain yikazomera kuti ndiyo yili na mazaza pa chigaŵa ichi. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Netherlands ŵafumeko ku Britain. Pakati pajumpha nyengo, mu 1820, boma la Britain likaciska ŵanthu pafupifupi 5,000 awo ŵakasamukira ku Britain (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya malonda) kuti ŵafume mu Britain. Ŵanandi awo ŵakakhazikika mu 1820 ŵakakhala ku Grahamstown na Port Elizabeth.

Ndondomeko ya Britain yakukhwaskana na South Africa yikasintha apo maboma ghakalondezgana, kweni mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 vyose vikakhumbikwanga kuvikilira nthowa ya malonda iyo yikalutanga ku India. Kweni cifukwa ca nkhondo izo zikacitika pa mphaka na Ŵaburu, ŵanthu aŵa ŵakamba kutinkha boma la Britain.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

=== Ku Europe, ŵanthu ŵakasanda malo gha mukati ===
Mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Dutch East India Company, zina lake Robert Jacob Gordon, wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakendera mu vigaŵa vinyake vya mu charu ichi apo wakalongozganga ŵasilikari ŵa Dutch pa Cape of Good Hope, kufuma mu 1780 m'paka mu 1795. Ivyo Gordon wakacita pakati pa 1777 na 1786, vili kulembeka mu mabuku gha masausandi ghanandi agho ghakucemeka Gordon Atlas, kweniso mu magazini ghake agho ghakasangika mu 1964.

Pakwamba, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhalanga mwamtende na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa. Ndipouli, pakaŵa mphindano ya malo, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti mu 1779 paŵe nkhondo ya viŵeto.

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain, David Livingstone na William Oswell, ndiwo ŵakayamba kwendera mu chipalamba cha Kalahari mu 1849. Pamanyuma, wupu wa Royal Geographical Society ukamupa mendulo ya golide Livingstone cifukwa ca kusanga Nyanja ya Ngami mu mapopa.&lt;ref&gt;Norbert C. Brockman, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150708065808/http://www.dacb.org/stories/southafrica/livingstone1_david.html ''An African Biographical Dictionary''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708065808/http://www.dacb.org/stories/southafrica/livingstone1_david.html |date=8 July 2015 }}, Santa Barbara, California 1994. Accessed 7 July 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Nkhondo na kusazgikira kwa vinthu mu caru ca Zulu ===
{{Main|Zulu people|Difaqane}}
[[File:Shaka's Empire map.svg|thumb|400px|Kuwuka kwa Ufumu wa Zulu{{color box|#aa4400}} mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Shaka, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake ŵakachimbira mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera kwa Africa. Ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira nkhondo ya ku Zulu {{color box|#ffb380}} Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa Soshangane, Zwangendaba, Ndebele, Hlubi, Ngwane, na Mfengu. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakakakika pakati pa Ufumu wa Zulu na ŵa Voortrekkers na Ufumu wa Britain {{color box|#F08080}} nga ni Xhosa {{color box|#008000}}.]]
Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Zulu ŵali mu fuko la Nguni ndipo pakwamba ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko lichoko chomene ilo lili kumpoto kwa KwaZulu-Natal.

M'ma 1820 kukaŵa nyengo ya masuzgo ghakuru chifukwa cha kusazgikira kwa ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Zulu, uwo ukasinthanga muwuso wa mafuko gha mu Africa na maufumu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya Chisotho ŵakumanya nyengo iyi kuti ni difaqane (&quot;kusama mwakuchichizgika&quot;); ndipo awo ŵakuyowoya Chisulu ŵakuyichema kuti mfecane (&quot;kuswa&quot;).

Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya vinandi vyakukhwaskana na ivyo vikupangiska nthenda iyi. Fundo yinyake njakuti ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga ŵazga kufuma ku Delgoa Bay ku Mozambique, kumpoto kwa Zululand. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakusanda mdauko ŵakumanya kuti Mfecane yikaŵa nkhani ya vinthu ivyo vikacitika pambere Ufumu wa Zulu undaŵeko. Kweni pakaŵa vinthu vinandi ivyo vikacitika pambere Shaka Zulu wandafike pa mazaza.

Mu 1818, mafuko gha Nguni mu charu cha Zululand ghakazenga ufumu pakati pa Mlonga wa Tugela na Pongola. Shaka wakazenga ŵasilikari ŵanandi, ndipo wakaleka kulondezga mitheto ya mafuko. Kufuma apo, wakambiska ntchito yikuru yakupharazga, kukoma panji kuzgora ŵazga awo ŵakamususkanga mu vigaŵa ivyo wakapoka. Ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakalangika chomene.

Shaka Zulu mu vyakuvwara vya nkhondo vya Ŵazulu

Ŵazulu ŵakapangiska kuti mafuko ghanandi gha ku mizi ghafumemo mu vigaŵa vyawo na kwamba kuwusa vigaŵa vinyake. Ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe vyaru vinandi, chomenechomene vya Sotho (lero ni Lesotho) na Swaziland. Ivi vikapangiska kuti mitundu yinyake nga ni Matebele, Mfengu, na Makololo yikanjire pamoza.

Mu 1828 Shaka wakakomeka na ŵakuru ŵake Dingaan na Umhlangana. Dingaan uyo wakaŵa na maluso ghacoko waka, wakazgoka fumu, ndipo wakalutilira kulamulira ŵanthu. Kweniso Dingaan wakayezga kukolerana na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Britain awo ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Natal, kweni vinthu vikamba kunangika. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu 1 miliyoni panji 2 miliyoni ŵakafwa na mphepo ya Mfecane.&lt;ref name=&quot;Walter1969&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Walter, Eugene Victor |year=1969 |title=Terror and Resistance: A Study of Political Violence, with Case Studies of Some Primitive African Communities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k-3mmwEACAAJ|isbn=9780195015621 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite periodical|author=Charters, R. A. |year=1839 |title=Notices Of The Cape And Southern Africa, Since The Appointment, As Governor, Of Major-Gen. Sir Geo. Napier |periodical=United Service Journal and Naval and Military Magazine|location=London |publisher=Henry Colburn |volume=1839, Part III |issue=September, October, November|pages=19–25, 171–179, 352–359, page 24}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th edition&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Hanson2007&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Hanson, Victor Davis |year=2001 |title=Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGr16-CxpH8C|location=New York |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-42518-8|page=313}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ŵanthu ŵa Boer na vyaru vyawo ===
{{Main|Boer Republics}}
Mu 1806, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Cape Colony awo ŵakayowoyanga Ciholanji ŵakamba kwenda mu tumagulu. Paumaliro, mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Boer ŵakasamukira ku malo ghanyake. Cifukwa cimoza ico ŵakafumira mu cigaŵa ca Cape ni cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga Cingelezi. Chisopa chikaŵa chakuzirwa comene mu mitheto ya ŵanthu ŵa mu caru ici, ndipo Baibolo na maungano gha mpingo vikacitikanga mu Ciholandi. Mwakuyana waka, sukulu, makhoti, na malonda mpaka apo ŵa ku Britain ŵakiza, vyose vikacitikanga mu ciyowoyero ca ku Netherlands. Dango la ciyowoyero likapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugomezgana, kweniso kuti ŵaleke kukhorwa.

Nkhani ya ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku trekboers

Cifukwa cinyake ico ŵalimi ŵazungu awo ŵakayowoyeranga Ciholanji ŵakafumiranga ku Cape ni cifukwa cakuti boma la Britain likamazga wuzga pa Zuŵa la Kufwatuka, pa Disembala 1, 1838. Ŵalimi ŵakadandawuranga kuti ŵangakwaniska yayi kuwezgerapo ŵazga ŵawo kwambura kutaya ndalama zinandi.&lt;ref&gt;SA History.org [http://www.sahistory.org.za/topic/slavery-south-africa ''Slavery in South Africa''] Accessed 23 April 2015&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵalimi ŵakaguliska ŵazga ndalama zinandi. Ŵenecho ŵa ŵazga awo ŵakagura ŵazga pa ngongoli panji kuŵapeleka nga mbukaboni wa ngongoli, ŵakasuzgikanga comene. Britain yikapeleka ndalama zakukwana 1 200 000 British Pounds ku ŵakukhazikika ŵa ku Netherlands, pa cigaŵa cakuti ŵalimi ŵa ku Netherlands ŵapeleke ivyo ŵakukhumba ku Britain ndiposo kuti mtengo wa ŵazga uŵe wakukwana kanandi waka na ndalama izo ŵakapika. Ici cikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Netherlands ŵaleke kukhorwa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagomezganga kuti boma la Cape Colony likapoka ndalama izo ŵakeneranga kupeleka kuti ŵazga ŵawo ŵafwatuke. Awo ŵakapika ndalama, ŵakeneranga kukapempha ku Britain mwekha panji kwizira mwa munthu munyake. Ndalama izo ŵantchito ŵakatoranga zikaŵa zakuyana waka na za muzga yumoza, ntheura awo ŵakakhumbanga muzga yumoza pera ŵakapokeranga kanthu yayi.&lt;ref name=&quot;krugerp&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Kruger|first=Paul|title=Memoirs of Paul Kruger|year=1902|publisher=George R Morang and Co|location=Canada|page=[https://archive.org/details/memoirsofpaulkru00kruguoft/page/n26 3]|isbn=9780804610773 |url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofpaulkru00kruguoft}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Charu cha South Africa ====
{{Main|South African Republic}}
[[File:Flag of Transvaal.svg|thumb|left|200px|[[Flag of the South African Republic]], often referred to as the ''Vierkleur'' (meaning four-coloured)]] Charu cha South Africa (Dutch: Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek panji ZAR, kuti chileke kupambanika na charu cha South Africa), kanandi chikuchemeka Transvaal ndipo nyengo zinyake Republic of Transvaal. Chikaŵa boma lakujiyimira palokha ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake ŵakalimanya. Ufumu wa Britain ukazomera kuti charu ichi ntchakujiyimira paŵekha apo ukachita phangano la Sand River Convention pa 17 January 1852. Boma ili likathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Britain pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Boer ndipo likalutilira kuŵa lakujiyimira palokha m'paka pa 31 May 1902. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo iyi, caru ca South Africa cikacemeka Transvaal Colony.&lt;ref&gt;Boereafrikana.com [http://www.boereafrikana.com/Geskiedenis.htm ''Geskiedenis'']. Accessed 6 June 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Boma la Free State ====
{{Main|Orange Free State}}
[[File:Flag of the Orange Free State.svg|thumb|200px|[[Flag of the Orange Free State|Flag of the Republic of the Orange Free State]]]]Boma la Orange Free State likafuma mu ufumu wa Britain uwo ukaŵa na mazaza pa Mlonga wa Orange. Britain, cifukwa ca masuzgo agho yikaŵa nagho cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya ku Crimean ku Europe, yikawezga ŵasilikari ŵake mu 1854, apo Boers ŵakayowoya kuti malo agha pamoza na malo ghanyake gha mu cigaŵa ici ni caru ca Boer, ico ŵakacema Orange Free State. Mu Malichi 1858, pamanyuma pa kulimbana pa malo, kwiba viŵeto, na kuwukira, boma la Orange Free State likapharazga nkhondo ku ufumu wa Basotho. Nkhondo zinandi zikacitika pakati pa Ŵaburu na Ŵasotho mu vilimika 10 vyakulondezgapo.&lt;ref&gt;Cameron, T. (ed) ''An Illustrated History of South Africa''. Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 1986, pp. 137, 138, 143, 147–9, 169. {{ISBN|0715390511}}&lt;/ref&gt; Zina lakuti Orange Free State likasinthikaso kuŵa Orange River Colony, ilo likapangika na Britain pamanyuma pakuti likapoka charu ichi mu 1900. Mu 1904, chigaŵa ichi chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 400,000. Kweni mu 1910, chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Orange Free State.

====Natalia====
{{Main|Natalia Republic}}
Natalia yikaŵa boma la ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer ilo likamara nyengo yichoko waka, ndipo likakhazikiskika mu 1839 na ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer Voortrekkers awo ŵakafuma ku Cape Colony. Mu 1824, gulu la ŵanalume 25 awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Mulara F. G. Farewell, ŵakafuma ku Cape Colony ndipo ŵakakhazikika kumpoto kwa nyanja ya Bay of Natal. Mu 1838, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer Voortrekkers ŵakakhazikiska boma la Natalia mu chigaŵa ichi. Mu usiku wa pa 23 m'ma 1842, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakawukira msasa wa Voortrekker ku Congella. Ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Britain ŵakawelera ku Durban, uko ŵakazingilizga. Munthu munyake wakwendeska malonda, zina lake Dick King, na muteŵeti wake, Ndongeni, awo pamasinda ŵakazgoka vinkhara vya ŵanthu, ŵakachimbira na kuluta ku Grahamstown, mtunda wa makilomita 600 mu mazuŵa 14 kuti ŵakakhozge ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Ŵasilikari ŵakiza ku Durban pati pajumpha mazuŵa 20, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵakathera. Mu 1844, ŵa Boer ŵakazomera kuti ŵanjireso mu ufumu wa Britain. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Natalia Boers awo ŵakakana kuzomerezga Ufumu wa Britain, ŵakenda mu mapiri gha Drakensberg kuti ŵakakhale mu vigaŵa vya Orange Free State na Transvaal.&lt;ref&gt;''The Voortrekkers: A history of the Voortrekkers Great Trek 1835–1845'',
[https://web.archive.org/web/20150622110948/http://www.voortrekker-history.co.za/trekkers_leave_great_trek.php#.VYGAKPmqqko Voortrekkers leave Natal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622110948/http://www.voortrekker-history.co.za/trekkers_leave_great_trek.php#.VYGAKPmqqko |date=22 June 2015 }} Accessed 17 June 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

===Cape Colony===
{{main|Cape Colony|Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope}}
[[File:Sir Harry G W Smith.jpg|thumb|Harry Smith]]
Pakati pa 1847 na 1854, Harry Smith, kazembe wa Cape Colony, wakapoka malo agho ghakaŵa kumpoto kwa malo agho ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain na Dutch ŵakakhalanga.

Smith wakalutilira kusazgirako malo gha Cape Colony ndipo wakasangana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Orange River awo ŵakakondwa yayi na ivyo ŵakachitanga. Mu 1848, ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Mounted Rifles ŵakathereska ŵanthu ŵa ku Boomplaats. Kweniso kukolerana na ufumu wa Britain kukapangiska kuti mu 1850 paŵe nkhondo pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa.

Kwambira m'ma 1800, Cape of Good Hope, iyo yikaŵa chigaŵa chikuru chomene kumwera kwa Africa, yikamba kujiyimira payekha. Mu 1854, boma ili likapika mazaza ghakwendeskera malango, ndipo likachemeka Cape Parliament.

Mu 1872, pamanyuma pa kulimbana kwa nyengo yitali, boma ili likaŵa na ŵalara na nduna yikuru. Kweni Cape Cape yikaŵa chigaŵa cha Ufumu wa Britain, nangauli yikaŵa yakujiyimira.

Charu cha Cape Colony chikaŵa chachilendo chomene kumwera kwa Africa chifukwa malango ghake ghakakanizganga ŵanthu kusankhana mitundu, ndipo mwakupambana na vyaru vya Boer, ŵanthu ŵakasankhiranga mu vyaru vinyake.

Pakwamba, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora pa nkhani ya vyachuma. Ndipouli, cifukwa cakuti ŵa ku Britain ŵakakhumbanga kuti caru ca kumwera kwa Africa ciŵe mu wupu wa Britain, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana ŵakamba kutinkhana. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵanthu ŵakasanga malibwe gha dayamondi pafupi na Kimberley na golide mu Transvaal, ndipo pamasinda vinthu vikamba kwenda makora yayi. Pakuŵa Nduna Yikuru ya Cape, Rhodes wakathereska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana, ndipo ndyali zake zikambiska Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Boer.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|title=A New History of Southern Africa|author=Neil Parsons|isbn=0333570103|publisher=Macmillan, London|year=1993|url=https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofsout0000pars}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Natal===
{{Main|Colony of Natal}}
[[File:Indians arriving in South Africa.jpg|thumb|Ŵantchito ŵa ku India ŵakiza ku Durban]]
Mu 1654, ŵazga ŵa ku India awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Dutch, ŵakiza ku South Africa.

Kuumaliro wa 1847, apo boma la Britain likakolerana na boma la Boer la Natalia, pafupifupi ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Boer ŵakafumamo mu charu ichi. Ŵanji awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Britain, ndipo pakati pa 1849 na 1851 pakafika ŵanthu 5,000.

Kuzakafika mu 1860, ŵazga ŵakalekeka mu 1834, ndipo mu 1843, ŵakati ŵanjira mu charu cha Natal (lero ni KwaZulu-Natal), ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakawelera ku India kuti ŵamazge suzgo la ŵantchito. Mu caka ici, ngaraŵa yakucemeka SS Truro yikafika mu dowoko la Durban na ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 300.

Mu vilimika 50 vyakulondezgapo, ŵateŵeti na ŵantchito ŵa ku India ŵakukwana 150,000 ŵakafika, kweniso &quot;Ŵaindiya ŵanandi&quot; awo ŵakaŵa na wanangwa wa kwenda.

Kuzakafika mu 1893, apo loya kweniso munthu wakulimbikira vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu, Mahatma Gandhi, wakafika mu tawuni ya Durban, mu Natal mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku India kuluska ŵazungu. Nkhondo ya Gandhi yakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu yikaŵa yakutondeka; m'paka mu 1994, apo boma la South Africa likamba kulamulira ŵanthu mwaurunji, ŵanthu ŵa ku India ŵakasuzgikanga na malango ghanandi agho ghakaŵasuzganga.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Indianness Reconfigured, 1944-1960: The Natal Indian Congress in South Africa - The O'Malley Archives |url=https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv02730/05lv02914/06lv02917.htm |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=omalley.nelsonmandela.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ŵanthu ŵa ku Griqua ===
{{Main|Griqua people}}
[[File:Nicolaas Waterboer - Griqua leader and politician of the Cape Colony.jpg|thumb|Nicolaas Waterboer, muwusi wa Griqualand, 1852-1896]]
Kuumaliro wa ma 1700, ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Colony ŵakamba kuŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana awo ŵakachemekanga &quot;ŵanthu ŵa mitundu&quot; awo ŵakaŵa ŵana ŵa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana pakati pa ŵanalume ŵa ku Dutch, ŵanakazi ŵa Khoikhoi, na ŵazga ŵanakazi awo ŵakafuma ku vyaru vya ku Dutch. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana aŵa ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵakwamba ŵa mtundu wa Griqua.

Ŵakaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa muzga munyake zina lake Adam Kok, ndipo &quot;ŵanthu ŵa mitundu&quot; aŵa ŵakamba kwenda kumpoto, kujumpha mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka Northern Cape Province. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ulendo wa vikoko vya Griqua uwu &quot;njimoza mwa vinthu vyakuzizwiska chomene vya m'ma 1800&quot;. Pa ulendo wawo utali, ŵakalongozgana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa San na Khoikhoi, ŵanthu ŵa mafuko gha ku Africa, kweniso ŵazungu ŵanyake awo ŵakagaluka. Mu 1800, ŵakamba kwambuka mphaka ya kumpoto iyo yikaŵa mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Orange, ndipo ŵakafika ku malo ghambura ŵanthu, agho ŵakaghacemanga kuti Griqualand.

Mu 1825, Dr. John Philip, uyo wakaŵa mulaŵiliri wa London Missionary Society ku Southern Africa, wakakhuŵilizga gulu la ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Griqua kuti ŵasamire ku malo ghakucemeka Philippolis, agho ghakaŵa malo gha upharazgi ku San. Philip wakakhumbanga kuti ŵamunyumba ya Griqua ŵavikilire ofesi ya ŵamishonale ku vigeŵenga vya mu chigaŵa ichi. Kweniso ŵakakhumbanga kuti iyi yiŵe linga lakukhora kuti ŵanthu ŵatuŵa awo ŵakakhalanga ku Cape Colony ŵaleke kwiza kumpoto. Cifukwa ca mphindano pakati pa ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Griqua na awo ŵakakhalanga ku malo agha, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakatumika ku malo agha mu 1845. Ici cikaŵa kwamba kwa vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri vya kucitako vinthu vya ku Britain mu cigaŵa ici.&lt;ref&gt;Karel Schoeman, ''The British Presence in the Transorange 1845–1854'', Human &amp; Rosseau, Cape Town, 1992, p.11, {{ISBN|0-7981-2965-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu 1861, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa Philippolis Griquas ŵakaluta ku malo ghanyake kuti ŵaleke kukakika na boma la Orange Free State. Ŵakasamukira kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Quathlamba (uko sono ni mapiri gha Drakensberg), ndipo ŵakakhala mu malo ghakucemeka &quot;Nomansland&quot;. Kufuma apo, mu 1874 charu cha East Griqualand chikapokeka na Britain, ndipo mu 1879 chikazgoka chigaŵa cha Cape Colony.

Griqualand wakwambilira, kumpoto kwa Mlonga wa Orange, wakatoleka na Britain ndipo wakacemeka Griqualand West pamanyuma pakuti mu 1871 ŵakasanga malibwe gha daimondi ghanandi ku Kimberley.

Nangauli pakaŵavya mphaka izo zikalembeka, kweni mulongozgi wa Griqua, Nicolaas Waterboer, wakati malo agha ghakaŵa gha Griqua. Maboma gha Boer gha Transvaal na Orange Free State nagho ghakakwesananga kuti ghaŵe na malo agha, kweni Britain ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa malo agha. Mu 1878, Waterboer wakalongozga gulu lakugalukira maboma, ndipo ŵakamukora na kumujalira mu caru cinyake.&lt;ref&gt;EJ Verwey: ''New Dictionary of South African Biography'', Vol I, Human Sciences and Research (HSRC) Press, Pretoria: 1995&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Nkhondo na Ŵachixhosa ===
Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamanyanga yayi mphaka za charu chawo na malo agho ŵakakhalanga. Kwa Moshoeshoe, mulongozgi wa BaSotho wa ku Lesotho, ntchawanangwa cha mahachi na viŵeto.&lt;ref&gt;Paul Germond, ''Chronicles of Basutoland'', Morija (Lesotho): Morija Sesuto Books, 1967, pp. 144f, 252–53&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Elizabeth Eldredge, ''A South African Kingdom'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp. 48–9, {{ISBN|052144067X}}&lt;/ref&gt;Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakakhalanga kumwera kwa Africa ŵakagomezganga kuti munthu uyo wakupeleka msonkho uwu ndiyo wakugura na kuŵa mweneko wa malo. 

Apo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakambanga kupanga minda yikuruyikuru mu charu chose kuti ŵasange malo ghakutowa ghakuryapo, ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu awo ŵakasamukira kumwera kufuma ku Central Africa, ŵakaŵasuska. Nkhondo izo zikacitika pa mphaka zikamanyikwa kuti Nkhondo za Xhosa (izo zikayowoyeka mu nyengo yira kuti Nkhondo za Kafir panji Nkhondo za Cape Frontier). &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Surgeon-General SIR CHARLES MacDONAGH CUFFE, K.C.B., LL.D|journal=BMJ|volume=2|issue=2859|year=1915|pages=589|issn=0959-8138|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.2859.589-b|pmc=2303193}}&lt;/ref&gt;Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa South Africa, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer na ŵa mtundu wa Xhosa ŵakalimbananga mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Great Fish, ndipo mu 1779 Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Ŵa Xhosa yikamba. Kwa vyaka pafupifupi 100, Ŵachixhosa ŵakarwa nkhondo na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi. Mu Nkhondo yacinayi ya Ŵa Xhosa, iyo yikacitika kwambira mu 1811 m'paka mu 1812, ŵamazaza ŵa Britain ŵakacicizga Ŵa Xhosa kuti ŵambuke Mlonga Ukuru wa Somba na kuzenga vigongwe mumphepete mwa mphaka iyi.

Kuŵikapo mtima kwa ŵasilikari ŵa Britain pa vyachuma mu vigaŵa vya kumwera kwa Africa kwambira mu 1820, ndipo comenecomene pamanyuma pa kusanga dayamondi yakwamba ku Kimberley na golide mu Transvaal, kukacitiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kukhumba malo na ŵantchito ŵa ku Africa.

Mu 1818 mphindano pakati pa ŵalongozgi ŵa Xhosa ŵaŵiri, Ndlambe na Ngqika, zikamara apo Ngqika wakathereskeka, kweni ŵa ku Britain ŵakalutilira kumumanya Ngqika kuŵa mulongozgi mukuru. Wakalomba wovwiri ku Britain kuti wawovwire Ndlambe, uyo wakawezgera mu 1819 pa Nkhondo ya Cinkhondi ya ku Frontier.

==== Nkhondo na Ŵazulu ====
[[File:Cetshwayo-c1875.jpg|thumb|200px|Fumu [[Cetshwayo kaMpande|Cetshwayo]] (ca. 1875)]]Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu cha South Africa, mu chigaŵa icho ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Boer ŵakachemanga kuti Natalia. Ŵanthu ŵakamba kwiba ng'ombe, ndipo gulu la ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Piet Retief ŵakakomeka.

Pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Retief ŵakomeka, Ŵaburu ŵakajivikilira ku Ŵazulu pa Mlonga wa Ncome pa Disembala 16, 1838. Ŵasilikari ŵakukwana 5,000 ŵa mtundu wa Zulu ndiwo ŵakaŵa pa nkhondo iyi. Ŵaburu ŵakamba kujikora pa mtunda pa Mlonga wa Ncome, ndipo ŵakakanizgika na magaleta ghawo. Ŵasilikari ŵa mtundu wa Zulu pafupifupi 3,000 ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyo yikachemeka kuti Nkhondo ya Mlonga wa Ndopa.&lt;ref&gt;Ngubane, Jordan K. ''An African Explains Apartheid''. New York: Praeger, 1970. pp.40–41&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Donald R Morris, ''The Washing of the Spears'', London: Cardinal, 1973, p.148-50 {{ISBN|0 351 17400 1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu 1879, ufumu wa Zulu ukatoleka na ufumu wa Britain. Fumu Carnarvon yikati yafika makora pa Canada, ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ndyali izo zikachitanga nthena, pamoza na ŵasilikari, zingawovwira maufumu gha mu Africa, vigaŵa vya mafuko, na vyaru vya Ŵaburu mu South Africa.

Mu 1874, Henry Bartle Frere wakatumika ku South Africa kuŵa mwimiliri wa Ufumu wa Britain kuti wakacite mulimo uwu. Pa masuzgo agha pakaŵa boma la South Africa na ufumu wa Zululand. Frere, kwambura kuzomerezgeka na boma la Britain, ndipo wakakhumbanga kutimbanizga nkhondo na Ŵazulu, wakapeleka ulongozgi kwa Themba Cetshwayo pa Disembala 11, 1878. Kufuma apo, Bartle Frere wakatuma Fumu Chelmsford kuti yikawukire caru ca Zululand. Nkhondo iyi yikumanyikwa cifukwa ca nkhondo zinandi zakuthiska ndopa, kusazgapo kutonda kwa Ŵazulu pa Nkhondo ya ku Isandlwana, kweniso cifukwa cakuti yikaŵa cinthu cakuzirwa comene mu nyengo ya ufumu wa caru cose.

Kuwina kwa Ŵazulu, uko kukaŵa umaliro wa wanangwa wa mtundu wa Ŵazulu, kukacitika na wovwiri wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na Ŵazulu. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kupanga minda yikuru ya shuga mu chigaŵa icho sono chikuchemeka KwaZulu-Natal Province.

==== Nkhondo na Basotho ====
[[File:King Moshoeshoe of the Basotho with his ministers.jpg|thumb|Themba Moshoeshoe pamoza na ŵapharazgi ŵake]]
Kwambira mu ma 1830, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufuma ku Cape Colony ŵakambuka Mlonga wa Orange ndipo ŵakamba kufika ku chigaŵa chakumwera cha Lower Caledon Valley, uko kukaŵa ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto ŵa Basotho. Mu 1845, ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain ŵakasazga phangano na ŵanthu ŵa ku Moshoeshoe. Pakaŵavya mphaka pakati pa malo agho kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa na ufumu wa Moshoeshoe, ntheura pakaŵa nkhondo. Moshoeshoe wakaghanaghananga kuti wakupeleka malo ghakuliskako viŵeto ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi mwakuyana na dango la ku Africa lakuti ŵanthu ŵaŵikenge malo ghawo mu malo gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu charu ichi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa ivi ŵakakhumbanga yayi kuŵa pasi pa mazaza gha Moshoesoe kweniso pakati pa Ŵafrika.&lt;ref&gt;David B Coplan, ''Unconquered Territory: Narrating the Caledon Valley'', Journal of African Cultural Studies, Vol 13, No 2, December 2000, p.192&lt;/ref&gt;

Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain, awo pa nyengo iyo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa icho chikaŵa pakati pa milonga ya Orange na Vaal, ŵakawona kuti ntchakukhumbikwa kupanga mphaka na kugaŵa chigaŵa ichi. Ivi vikapangiska kuti Ŵasotho na Ŵanandi ŵa ku Britain ŵathereskeke na ŵasilikari ŵa Moshoeshoe pa nkhondo ya Viervoet mu 1851.

Pakupeleka cilango ku Basotho, kazembe na mulongozgi wa Cape Colony, George Cathcart, wakatuma ŵasilikari ku Mlonga wa Mohokare. Cifukwa cakuti wakakana kulipira ndalama zose, mu 1852 ku Berea Plateau kukawuka nkhondo, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakakomeka comene. Mu 1854, ŵa ku Britain ŵakapeleka chigaŵa ichi ku Ŵaburu. Malo agha pamoza na ghanyake ghakazgoka Republic of the Orange Free State.&lt;ref&gt;Information department, Government of Lesotho, [https://web.archive.org/web/20061107030932/http://www.lesotho.gov.ls/about/default.php ''About Lesotho'']. Accessed 1 May 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

Kufuma mu 1858 m'paka 1868, pakaŵa nkhondo pakati pa ufumu wa Basotho na boma la Orange Free State. Mu nkhondo izo zikacitika pamanyuma pake, boma la Orange Free State likayezga kwambura kucitapo kanthu kuti lipoke msumba wa Thaba Bosiu, apo Ŵasotho ŵakacitanga nkhondo mu vigaŵa vya Free State. Vyaru vinandi na malo ghakuliskako viŵeto vikaparanyika. Pa 15 Okutobala, 1858, Moshoeshoe wakalemba phangano la mtende. Mu 1865, nkhondo yikambaso. Pamanyuma pa kupempha wovwiri ku ufumu wa Britain, Moshoeshoe wakalemba phangano la Thaba Bosiu mu 1866, apo Basotho ŵakapeleka malo ghanandi ku Orange Free State. Pa Malichi 12, 1868, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Britain yikati Ufumu wa Basotho ni boma la Britain ilo likuvikilirika na Ufumu wa Britain. Nkhondo pakati pa Orange Free State na Basotho yikamara.&lt;ref&gt;James S Olson, Robert S Shadle (eds.) ''Historical Dictionary of the British Empire'', Greenwood Press: Westport, Connecticut 1996, p.118 {{ISBN|0-313-27917-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pamanyuma, charu ichi chikachemeka Basutoland ndipo pasono chikuchemeka Lesotho.

==== Nkhondo na Ŵandebele ====
[[File:G.S. Smithard; J.S. Skelton (1909) - The Voortrekkers.jpg|thumb|Boer ''Voortrekkers'' depicted in an early artist's rendition]]Mu 1836, apo ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Boer Voortrekkers (ŵapayiniya) ŵakafika ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu cha South Africa, ŵakakumana na gulu la ŵanthu ŵakuchemeka Ndebele. Nkhondo zinandi zikacitika, ndipo Mzilikazi wakathereskeka. Wakafumamo mu chigaŵa ichi na kuluta na ŵanthu ŵake kumpoto ku malo agho pamasinda ghakazgoka chigaŵa cha Matabele ku Southern Rhodesia (uko sono ni Zimbabwe).

Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Ndebele awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana ŵakasangana na ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Voortrekkers, chomenechomene mu chigaŵa icho pamanyuma chikazgoka Northern Transvaal. Mu Seputembala 1854, ŵanthu 28 ŵa mtundu wa Boer awo ŵakaŵapa mulandu wa kwiba ng'ombe ŵakakomeka pa ngozi zitatu. Mokopane na ŵalondezgi ŵake ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵanthu ŵaheni ŵizenge na kuŵawukira. Kuumaliro wa Okutobala, ŵasilikari ŵa Boer awo ŵakakhozgekanga na ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Kgatla ŵakazingilizga mphanji. Pakati pajumpha masabata ghatatu, ŵanthu 1,000 na 3,000 ŵakafwa mu mphanji. Awo ŵakapona ŵakakoleka na kuzgoka ŵazga.&lt;ref&gt;Isabel Hofmeyr, ''We Spend Our Years as a Tale that is Told: Oral Historical Narrative in a South African Chiefdom''. Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg: 1993, pp.109–111&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Nkhondo na Ŵapedi ====
Nkhondo za ku Bapedi, izo zikumanyikwaso kuti Nkhondo za ku Sekhukhune, zikaŵa zinkhondo zitatu zakupambanapambana izo zikachitika pakati pa 1876 na 1879 kwimikana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Bapedi awo ŵakaŵa pasi pa Themba Sekhukhune I, mu chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Kweniso pakaŵa mphindano cifukwa cakuti Sekhukhune wakakana kuzomerezga ŵanthu awo ŵakapenjanga golide kuti ŵapenje golide mu caru ico iyo wakawonanga kuti nchakujiyimira yekha. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Sekhukhune ya 1876 yikacitika na Ŵaburu, ndipo nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ku Sekhukhune ya 1878/1879 yikacitika na ŵa ku Britain.&lt;ref&gt;H W Kinsey,[http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol025hk.html &quot;The Sekukuni Wars&quot;], ''South African Military History Journal'',
Vol 2 No 5 – June 1973. Accessed 28 June 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

Pa nyengo ya nkhondo yaumaliro, Sekukuni (uyo wakalembekangaso Sekhukhune) na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakabisama mu mphanji ya mu mapiri. Paumaliro wakajipeleka ku ŵasilikari ŵa ku Boer na ku Britain pa 2 December 1879. Sekhukhune, ŵamumbumba yake na ŵasilikari ŵanyake ŵa Bapedi ŵakajalirika mu jele ku Pretoria kwa vyaka viŵiri. Ŵakasanga yayi golide mu vigaŵa ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa ufumu wa Roma.&lt;ref&gt;SA History Online, [http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/king-sekhukhune ''King Sekhukhune'']. Accessed 29 June 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kusanga dayamondi ===
[[File:CecilRhodes.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Cecil John Rhodes, wakayambiska De Beers Consolidated Mines ku Kimberley]]Malibwe ghakwamba agho ghakasangika pakati pa 1866 na 1867 ghakaŵa gha mu malo agho ghakaŵa kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Orange. Kuzakafika mu 1869, dayamondi ŵakayisanga kutali na mlonga uliwose, mu malibwe ghakukhoma ghakucemeka blueground, agho pamasinda ghakacemekanga kimberlite. Malo agha ghakaŵa na mphaka zambura kupulikikwa makora kweniso ŵanthu ŵakakwesananga pa nkhani ya malo. Boma la South Africa (Transvaal), Orange Free State Republic, na mtundu wa Griqua awo ŵakaŵa na mitundu yakupambanapambana awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Nicolaas Waterboer ndiwo ŵakakhumbanga malo agha.&lt;ref&gt;Dougie Oakes, ''Illustrated History of South Africa: The Real Story'', Reader's Digest:Cape Town 1992, p.166 {{ISBN|9781874912279}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kazembe wa Cape Colony, Henry Barkly, wakapangiska ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhumbanga kuŵa na boma kuti ŵapulikire ivyo mweruzgi wakadumura, ntheura Robert W. Keate, mulaŵiliri mulara wa boma la Natal, wakapempheka kuti waŵe mweruzgi. Keate wakapeleka katundu uyu ku Griqua. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Waterboer, ŵakawopa kuti ŵangakumana na boma la Orange Free State, ndipo ŵakapempha wovwiri ku Britain. Kufuma apo, mu 1871, Griqualand yikazgoka koloni lakwimira ufumu ndipo yikachemeka Griqualand West.

Mu 1877, charu cha Griqualand West chikapelekeka ku boma la Cape Colony. Ŵagiriki ŵakasangirapo candulo cilicose yayi cifukwa ca kukoloneska panji kukolerana na caru cawo. Ŵakapokerapo yayi usambazi wa dayamondi uwo ukasangika ku Kimberley. Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵa ku Griqua ŵakaŵasuska.

Kuzakafika m'ma 1870 na 1880, migodi ya Kimberley yikapanganga dayamondi pafupifupi 95 peresenti pa caru cose.&lt;ref&gt;Diamond Museum, Cape Town, [https://web.archive.org/web/20230709194130/https://www.capetowndiamondmuseum.org/about-diamonds/south-african-diamond-history/ ''History of Diamonds'']. Accessed 1 June 2015&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵanthu ŵakamba kupenja golide na vinthu vinyake chifukwa cha usambazi uwo ŵakasanganga ku Kimberley. Vinthu ivyo vikasangika ku Cape Colony kufuma ku Kimberley vikapangiska kuti mu 1872 Cape Colony yipike udindo wa boma, chifukwa yikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain yayi. Usambazi uwo ukafuma ku migodi ya dayamondi ya ku Kimberley, uwo ukakwera katatu kufuma mu 1871 m'paka mu 1875, ukakhozga chomene ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape Colony.

Mu 1888, Cecil John Rhodes, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa migodi ku Britain, wakawovwira kukhazikiska De Beers Consolidated Mines ku Kimberley, pamanyuma pakuti wagura na kusazga migodi iyi na ndalama izo mbumba ya Rothschild yikapeleka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kunozga dayamondi ku Kimberley ŵakakondwanga comene cifukwa ca nchito iyi. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakuti usambazi uwo ukapangika ku Kimberley ndiwo ukambiska nkhondo ya ku Africa iyo yikacitika mu 1902.&lt;ref&gt;Christopher Oldstone-Moore, [http://www.wright.edu/~christopher.oldstone-moore/imperiallecture.htm The Imperialist Venture], Wright State University. Accessed 24 May 2015&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Stacey Greer,[http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/lessons/view_lesson.php?id=21 South African Diamond Mines 1970s] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524154746/http://historyproject.ucdavis.edu/lessons/view_lesson.php?id=21 |date=24 May 2015 }}, University of California, Davis. Accessed 24 May 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kusanga golide ===
{{Main|Witwatersrand Gold Rush}}
[[File:Johannesburg, South Africa (1896).jpg|thumb|300px|right|Johannesburg pambere kulije migodi ya golide iyo yikapangiska kuti uŵe msumba wamoyo]]Nangauli pali nkhani zinandi, kweni palije ukaboni wakukhorweska wakuti mbanjani awo ŵakasanga golide panji umo likasangikira kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ku Witwatersrand, mu chigaŵa cha Transvaal.&lt;ref&gt;P Holz, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150527205302/http://www.heritageportal.co.za/article/greatest-discovery-them-all ''The Greatest Discovery of them all''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527205302/http://www.heritageportal.co.za/article/greatest-discovery-them-all |date=27 May 2015 }}, (originally published in Guide Book, Geological Society of South Africa). Accessed 27 May 2015.&lt;/ref&gt; Mu Febuluwale 1886, ŵanthu ŵakasanga golide mu famu yinyake ku Witwatersrand. Ndipouli, kupaturako malo ghacoko waka, malo agho kukaŵa golide ghanandi ghakaŵa kuti ghabenekelereka na malibwe ghanandi. Pakakhumbikwanga ndalama zinandi na maluso gha ma injiniya kuti ŵasange na kufumiska golide mu malo ghakupambanapambana agho ghakaŵa pasi pa charu.&lt;ref&gt;Extract from ''New History of South Africa'', by Hermann Giliomee and Bernard Mbenga (eds.) [https://web.archive.org/web/20131101083245/http://newhistory.co.za/Part-3-Chapter-8-The-story-of-gold-Johannesburg-an-instant-city/ Chapter 8, &quot;The story of gold&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101083245/http://newhistory.co.za/Part-3-Chapter-8-The-story-of-gold-Johannesburg-an-instant-city/ |date=1 November 2013 }}. Accessed 27 May 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

Pakati pajumpha vilimika viŵiri kufuma apo ŵakasangira golide ku Witwatersrand, ŵakazenga mabungwe ghanayi ghakwendeska migodi. Yachiŵiri yikapangika na Hermann Eckstein mu 1887, ndipo pamanyuma yikamba kucemeka Rand Mines. Pamanyuma pake, Cecil Rhodes na Charles Rudd ŵakaluta na kampani yawo ya Gold Fields of South Africa. Rhodes na Rudd ŵakaŵa kuti ŵasanga ndalama zinandi cifukwa ca kuguliska dayamondi ku Kimberley.&lt;ref&gt;Goldavenue.com [https://web.archive.org/web/20110421002356/http://info.goldavenue.com/Info_site/in_arts/in_civ/in_rush_safrica.html ''South African Gold Rush: 1885''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110421002356/http://info.goldavenue.com/Info_site/in_arts/in_civ/in_rush_safrica.html |date=21 April 2011 }} Accessed 30 May 2015.&lt;/ref&gt; Mu 1895, ndalama zinandi zikaguliskika mu migodi ya golide ya ku Witwatersrand. Vinthu ivi ndivyo vikawovwiranga chomene pa malonda pa charu chose.

Pa ŵamalonda ŵakumanyikwa 25 ŵa ku vyaru vinyake awo ŵakagwiranga nchito ya kunozga migodi ya golide ku Witwatersrand, 15 ŵakaŵa Ŵayuda, 11 ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Germany panji Austria, ndipo 9 ŵakaŵa Ŵayuda. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe awo ŵakaŵa Ŵayuda, ŵakakopeka na malonda agho ghakacitika cifukwa ca kusanga golide. Ŵayuda awo ŵakakhalanga mu South Africa mu 1880 ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 4,000. Kweni mu 1914, ŵakaŵa kuti ŵakukwana 40,000. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku Lithuania.

Kweni umo wakulemba mbiri munyake wakayowoyera, ŵanthu awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu migodi iyi ŵakaŵa &quot;ŵakofya, ŵankhaza, ndiposo ŵakusuzga&quot;, ntheura ŵakaŵatemwanga yayi ŵanthu ŵafipa ŵa ku Africa. Kulemba ŵantchito ŵa mitundu yinyake kukaŵa kwakusuzga, nangauli ŵakapika malipiro ghawemi. Pakati pa 1903, pa ŵanthu 90,000 ŵa fuko lakuda awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu vyamalonda mu 1899, ŵakakhalapo hafu pera. Ŵakapangana kuti ŵambe kutolera ŵantchito ŵa ku China awo ŵakaŵa ŵakunozgeka kugwira nchito pa malipiro ghacoko comene kuluska ŵa ku Africa. Ŵanthu ŵakwamba 1,000 ŵa ku China ŵakiza mu Juni 1904. Mu Janyuwale 1907, ŵanthu 53,000 ŵa ku China ŵakagwiranga nchito mu migodi ya golide.&lt;ref&gt;Jones (1995), p.53&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Anglo-Boer ===
{{Main|First Boer War}}
[[File:South Africa late19thC map.png|thumb|right|Malo gha mu chigaŵa mu nyengo ya nkhondo za Anglo-Boer:
&lt;br /&gt;{{colorbox|green}} [[South African Republic]]/Transvaal&lt;br /&gt;{{colorbox|orange}} [[Orange Free State]]&lt;br /&gt;{{colorbox|blue}} British [[Cape Colony]]&lt;br /&gt;{{colorbox|red}} [[Natalia Republic]]]]Mu 1877, boma la Britain likakolerana na boma la Transvaal Boer apo likakhumbanga kukolerana na vyaru vinyake vya kumwera kwa Africa. Nkhondo yakwamba ya Anglo-Boer, iyo yikumanyikwaso kuti Boer Insurrection, yikamba mu 1880.&lt;ref&gt;Rayne Kruger, ''Goodbye Dolly Gray: The story of the Boer War'', London: Pimlico 1996, p.7 {{ISBN|978-0-7126-6285-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;Nkhondo iyi yikamara mwaluŵiro chomene apo ŵakawina nkhondo ya Majuba Hill (27 February 1881).

Charu ichi chikamba kujithemba ndipo chikachemekanga Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (&quot;South African Republic&quot;). Paul Kruger, yumoza wa ŵalongozgi ŵa ciwukirano ici, wakaŵa purezidenti wa ZAR mu 1883. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵa ku Britain, awo ŵakawonanga kuti ŵakutondeka pa nkhondo ya ku Majuba, ŵakalutilira kukhumba kukolerana na vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa. Ŵakawona kuti iyi yikaŵa nthowa yiwemi yakucitira vinthu na ŵanthu ŵacenje awo ŵakaŵa ŵanandi comene mu cigaŵa ici, kweniso kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa na vilato vyawo mu cigaŵa ici.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Southern Africa - European and African interaction in the 19th century {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Southern-Africa/European-and-African-interaction-in-the-19th-century |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nkhondo za Anglo-Boer zikacitika cifukwa ca mphindano yakuti ni mtundu wuli uwo ukeneranga kulamulira migodi ya golide ya ku Witwatersrand. Usambazi ukuru wa migodi iyi ukaŵa mu mawoko gha &quot;ŵakaronga ŵa ku Europe&quot; awo ŵakalongozganga ŵantchito ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ŵantchito ŵakwendeska migodi, ŵantchito ŵakumanya kupanga vinthu, na ŵantchito ŵantchito awo Ŵaburu ŵakaŵachemanga kuti &quot;uitlander&quot;. Ŵalendo aŵa ŵakasuskanga cifukwa cakuti ŵakaŵakananga mwaŵi wa kwimilira mu nyumba za malango na wa kuvota. Kweniso ŵakadandawuranga kuti boma likucedwa kupeleka malaisensi na vikalata, kweniso kuti boma likucita makora yayi vinthu.

Mu 1895, gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakateŵeteranga mu kampani ya Cecil John Rhodes yakuchemeka Rhodesian Charter Company ndipo ŵakalongozgekanga na Kaputeni Leander Starr Jameson ŵakanjira mu ZAR na cilato cakuti ŵambiske chigaluka pa cirwa ca Witwatersrand na kukhazikiska boma la Britain. Nkhondo iyi yikamanyikwa kuti Jameson Raid. Nkhondo iyi yikamara apo ŵasilikari ŵa Boer ŵakaŵawukira. Pulezidenti Kruger wakaghanaghananga kuti boma la Cape Colony ilo likalamuliranga na Cecil John Rhodes ndilo likakolerana na chigaluka ichi. Kruger wakachita phangano na boma la Orange Free State, ilo likaŵa pafupi na charu cha Boer. Ici cikapangiska kuti nkhondo yaciŵiri ya Anglo-Boer yileke kwambaso.

=== Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Anglo-Boer ===
{{Main|Second Boer War}}
[[File:Hobhouse.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Emily Hobhouse wakachitanga kampeni yakususkana na vinthu viheni ivyo vikachitikanga mu misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu ku South Africa.]]

Mu 1899, pakaŵaso mphindano pakati pa Britain na Boers, ndipo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵazungu 60,000 awo ŵakakhalanga ku Witwatersrand ŵaŵe na wanangwa wa kuvota. Pambere ivi vindacitike, boma la Pulezidenti Paul Kruger likazomerezganga yayi kuti ŵalendo ŵagwirenge nchito iyi. Kruger wakakana ivyo Britain likakhumbanga ndipo wakacema ŵasilikari ŵa Britain kuti ŵafumemo mu caru ca South Africa. Ŵanandi ŵakakana, ndipo Kruger wakaŵaphalira kuti ŵarwe nawo nkhondo. Nkhondo yachiŵiri iyi, iyo yikumanyikwaso kuti Nkhondo ya ku South Africa, yikatora nyengo yitali kuluska yakwamba. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakaŵa mu caru ici ŵakaŵa ŵanandi comene kuluska ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru viŵiri ivi. Kuzakafika mu Juni 1900, msumba wa Pretoria, uwo ukaŵa waumaliro pa misumba yikuruyikuru ya Ŵaburu, ukajipeleka. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵa ku Boer awo ŵakaŵa na mtima wakununkha ŵakalutilira kulimbana na ŵasilikari kwa vyaka viŵiri. Ŵaburu ŵakalutilira kurwa nkhondo.

Mwanakazi munyake wa ku Britain, zina lake Emily Hobhouse, wakaluta ku misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu ku South Africa ndipo wakalemba lipoti ilo likasuska vinthu viheni ivyo vikacitikanga. Kuzakafika mu 1902, ŵanakazi na ŵana 26,000 ŵa ku Boer ŵakaŵa kuti ŵafwa cifukwa ca matenda ndiposo kulekelereka mu misasa.&lt;ref&gt;Owen Coetzer, ''Fire in the Sky: The destruction of the Orange Free State 1899–1902'', Johannesburg: Covos Day, 2000, pp.82–88 {{ISBN|0-620-24114-4}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Nkhondo ya Anglo-Boer yikakhwaska mafuko ghose mu South Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose yiŵiri ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake kuti ŵaŵawovwire pa nkhondo. Kafukufuku wakulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵafipa yayi. Ŵanandi ŵakaŵikika mu malaro ghambura mazina. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake 17,182 ŵakafwa na matenda mu misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu ku Cape pera. Ŵalara ŵa misasa ya ŵakayidi ŵakalembanga yayi nyifwa za ŵanthu ŵafipa.&lt;ref&gt;Nosipho Nkuna, [http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol113nn.html &quot;Black involvement in the Anglo–Boer War, 1899–1902&quot;], ''Military History Journal of the South African Military History Society'', Vol 11 No 3/4 – October 1999. Accessed 6 June 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

Kufuma apo nkhondo yikambira mu Okutobala 1899 m'paka apo kukakhazikiskikira mtende pa Meyi 31, 1902, nkhondo iyi yikakoma ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu wa Roma ŵakukwana 22,000 na ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Republican 7,000. Mu phangano la mtende ilo likacemeka kuti Treaty of Vereeniging, maboma gha ŵa Boer ghakazomera muwuso wa Britain, ndipo ŵa Britain ŵakajipeleka kuti ŵazengeso malo agho ŵakaŵa na mazaza pawo.

== Mgwilizano wa charu cha South Africa (1910-1948) ==
{{Main|History of South Africa (1910–1948)|Union of South Africa}}
[[File:Uniegebou in Pretoria, Suid-Afrika c1925.jpeg|thumb|Union Buildings, boma la boma, Pretoria, c. 1925]]

Mu vyaka vyakulondezgapo nkhondo za Anglo-Boer, Britain yikamba kuwunganya vyaru vinayi ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Britain, kusazgapo vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la Boer, kuŵa charu chimoza chakujiyimira paŵekha. Ivi vikachitika mu 1909, apo Dango la South Africa Act likazomerezga kuti charu cha Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal, na Orange Free State viŵe charu chimoza. Kuyana na dango ili, wupu uwu ukazgoka chigaŵa chakujiyimira paŵekha cha Ufumu wa Britain. Ŵalara ŵa boma ŵakasuzganga ŵanthu mu zina la boma. Vyaru vya British High Commission nga ni Basutoland (sono ni Lesotho), Bechuanaland (sono ni Botswana), na Swaziland (sono ni Eswatini) vikalutilira kulamulirika na Britain.&lt;ref&gt;Leonard M. Thompson, ''A history of South Africa'' (Yale University Press, 2001).&lt;/ref&gt;

Pakati pa malango ghanyake ghakofya agho ghakaŵa ghakususkana na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake, kusazgapo dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ŵaleke kuvota, Nyumba ya Malango ya ku South Africa yikapanga dango lakuti mu 1913 malo gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake ghaŵe gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Ŵazungu, awo ŵakaŵa 20 peresenti ya ŵanthu, ŵakaŵa na 90 peresenti ya malo. Dango lakukhwaskana na malo liŵenge libwe lapakona la kusankhana mitundu kwa vyaka 90.&lt;ref name=&quot;Natives' Land Act&quot;&gt;&quot;[http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1913-06-19.htm 19 June 1913 Native Land Act] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101014095049/http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1913-06-19.htm |date=14 October 2010 }}&quot;, ''This day in history'', publish date unknown (accessed 20 December 2007).&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:DFMalanPortret.jpg|thumb|upright|Daniel François Malan, mulongozgi wa National Party kufuma mu 1934 mpaka 1953]]

Mulara wa ŵasilikari Louis Botha ndiyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa boma lakwamba la wupu uphya uwu, ndipo Jan Smuts wakaŵa wachiŵiri wake. Chipani chawo cha South African National Party, icho pamasinda chikachemekanga South African Party panji SAP, chikalondezganga fundo yakuti ŵazungu ŵakoleranenge na Britain. Ŵa Boer awo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono chomene ŵakajipatura pasi pa muwuso wa Jenerale Barry Hertzog, ndipo ŵakambiska National Party (NP) mu 1914. Chipani cha National Party chikavikiliranga ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika, ndipo chikachiskanga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yiŵiri kuti ŵaŵe ŵakupambana, kweniso kuti ŵaŵe ŵakujiyimira ŵekha.&lt;ref&gt;Thompson, ''A history of South Africa'' (2001).&lt;/ref&gt;

Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhorwa yayi na umo Britain yikagwilira ntchito mu vyaru vya ku Europe ŵakamba kugaluka mu Seputembala 1914. Ŵanthu ŵakagaluka ŵakamara, ndipo mulara wa ŵasilikari yumoza ŵakamuphalira kuti wakomeke.

Mu 1924, chipani cha National Party, icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene, chikamba kuwusa pamoza na chipani cha Labour. Chiyowoyero cha Afrikaans, icho kale chikawonekanga nga ni chiyowoyero cha ku Netherlands, chikanjira m'malo mwa chiyowoyero cha Dutch. Mu 1925, Cingelezi na Ciholandi vikaŵa viyowoyero viŵiri vya boma.

Wupu wa South Africa ukamara pa referendum pa 5 Okutobala 1960, apo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakazomera kufumamo mu wupu wa British Commonwealth.

=== Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose ===
{{Main|Jan Smuts|Military history of South Africa during World War I}}
[[File:British Empire 1921 IndianSubcontinent.png|thumb|300px|Ufumu wa Britain ukaŵa pa mapu pa nyengo iyo ukaŵa pa malo ghapacanya comene m'ma 1910 na m'ma 1920. (India wakuwoneka makora mu viyuni.) Ku South Africa, pakati, kuli pakati pa vigaŵa viŵiri vya Ufumu.]]
Apo Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikambanga, caru ca South Africa cikakolerana na Britain na ŵasilikari ŵanyake kuti ŵarwe na ufumu wa Germany. Mulara wa boma, Louis Botha, na mulara wa boma, Jan Smuts, wose ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Boer. Gulu linyake la ŵasilikari ŵa South Africa likakana kurwa nkhondo na Ŵachijeremani kweniso ŵalwani ŵanyake ŵa boma. Pa Okutobala 14, 1914, boma likapharazga dango lakukanizga nkhondo, ndipo ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Louis Botha na Jan Smuts ŵakathereska ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira boma. Ŵalongozgi ŵa gulu la ŵakugaluka ŵakaŵeruzga, ŵakaŵapa ndalama zinandi, na kuŵakaka vyaka 6 m'paka 7.&lt;ref name=&quot;google2012&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=Bill Nasson|title=Springboks On The Somme – South Africa in the Great War 1914 – 1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0kv8HfrLUoC|year=2012|publisher=Penguin |isbn=9780143027164}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana mitundu. Ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene pa nkhondo iyi. Kweniso ŵanthu ŵa ku India (ŵakulongozgeka na Mahatma Gandhi) ŵakakolerana na nkhondo iyi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Afrika ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana, ndipo ŵanyake nga ni Botha na Smuts ŵakaŵa na udindo ukuru pa nkhondo ya Britain. Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakhalanga ku mizi ŵakakana fundo iyi. Wupu wa ŵantchito ukagaŵikana. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mitundu yinyake awo ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni ghakurughakuru ŵakakolerana na nkhondo iyi chifukwa ŵakagomezganga kuti yingaŵawovwira kuti ŵaŵe na umoyo uwemi. Ŵanyake ŵakatenge fundo iyi njambura kuzirwa pa nkhani ya wanangwa wawo. Ŵanandi ŵakateŵeteranga mu mawupu gha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake mu vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa na France.&lt;ref name=&quot;google2012&quot; /&gt;

Ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu caru ici ŵakaŵa pafupifupi 6 miliyoni. Pakati pa 1914 na 1918, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 250,000 ŵa mitundu yose ŵakateŵetera mu caru cawo. Ŵanandi ŵakateŵeteranga mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 3,000 ŵakamba kuteŵetera mu gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Britain. Vikuwoneka kuti pa ŵanalume wose ŵazungu awo ŵakaŵa ŵacekuru kuti ŵanjire usilikari, pafupifupi 50 peresenti ndiwo ŵakateŵeteranga pa nyengo ya nkhondo iyi. Ŵachikuda 83,000 na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana na ŵa ku Asia 2,500 nawo ŵakateŵeteranga ku German South-West Africa, East Africa, Middle East, panji ku Western Front ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 7,000 ŵa ku South Africa ŵakakomeka, ndipo pafupifupi 12,000 ŵakapwetekeka.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Great Britain. War Office|url=http://archive.org/details/statisticsofmili00grea|title=Statistics of the military effort of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914-1920|date=1922|publisher=London H.M. Stationery Off|others=Robarts - University of Toronto}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵanthu 8 ŵa ku South Africa ndiwo ŵakapokera Victoria Cross, uyo ni mphumphu ya nkhondo yapachanya chomene ya Ufumu wa Britain. Nkhondo ya ku Delville Wood na kubira kwa sitima ya nkhondo yakucemeka SS Mendi, ndivyo vikaŵa vyakofya comene.

[[File:Botha and Smuts in uniforms, 1917.jpg|thumb|right|Ŵalongozgi ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa Smuts (kumalyero) na Botha ŵakaŵa ŵa mu British Imperial War Cabinet mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose.]]Ŵanthu 25,000 ŵa ku South Africa ŵakalembeka ntchito na British War Cabinet kuti ŵagwirenge nchito mu South African Native Labour Contingent (SANLC). 21,000 ŵa iwo ŵakatumika ku France kuti ŵakateŵetere nga ni ŵantchito ŵa ku French ports. Pa 21 February 1917, ŵanthu 616 ŵa mu gulu la 5th Battalion la SANLC ŵakabira mu nyanja apo sitima ya nkhondo ya SS Mendi, iyo ŵakendangamo kuluta ku France, yikaswa ngalaŵa yinyake kufupi na Isle of Wight. Nkhondo ya ku Mendi yikaŵa yimoza mwa masoka ghakofya comene mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Boma la South Africa likapeleka yayi mendulo ya nkhondo ku ŵasilikari ŵa fuko lakuda ndipo mendulo yapadera iyo Themba George V likapeleka ku &quot;ŵasilikari ŵa mu caru ici&quot; awo ŵakateŵeteranga Ufumu, iyo ni British War Medal mu mkuŵa, yikazomerezgeka yayi ndipo yikapelekeka yayi ku SANLC.

Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana awo ŵakakolerana na nkhondo iyi ŵakakwiya chomene apo ku South Africa kukaŵavya uyo wakazomerezga kuti ŵazungu ŵambe kulamulira.

Boma la Britain likapokera wovwiri ukuru comene kufuma ku South Africa. Vinyake ivyo vikaŵa mu vyaru viŵiri vya ku Africa ivyo vikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵa Germany vikaŵa mu mawoko gha South Africa pera panji na wovwiri ukuru wa South Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose ŵakawovwira ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake kuti ŵarwe na Ufumu wa Ottoman. Maboti gha ku South Africa agho ghakaŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Africa ghakaŵa ghakukhumbikwa comene pakurwa nkhondo pa caru cose. Pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Royal Navy ŵakasanganga malo ghakupumulirapo na kugwiliskira nchito mafuta, ŵakate ŵakwaniskenge kukolerana na boma la Britain.

Ku South Africa ndiko kukafuma golide wakukwana vigaŵa viŵiri pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ufumu wa Britain. Apo nkhondo yikambanga, ŵalara ŵa Bank of England ku London ŵakakolerana na South Africa kuti ŵaleke kupeleka golide ku Germany, ndipo ŵakacicizga ŵeneco ŵa migodi kuti ŵaguliske ku British Treasury pera, pa mtengo uwo ukanozgeka na Treasury. Ivi vikawovwira kuti ŵagure vilwero na vyakurya ku United States na vyaru vinyake.&lt;ref&gt;Russell Ally, &quot;War and gold—the Bank of England, the London gold market and South Africa's gold, 1914–19,&quot; ''Journal of Southern African Studies'' (1991) 17#2 pp 221–38 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2637235 in JSTOR]&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose ===
{{Main articles|Military history of South Africa during World War II}}
Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, maboti gha ku South Africa, nga ni Cape Town, Durban, na Simon's Town, ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene ku ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain. Wupu wa South Africa wakuwona vya mlengalenga (Special Signals Service) ukawovwira chomene pakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye malo agho kuli mawoko gha mlengalenga. Kuzakafika mu Ogasiti 1945, ŵasilikari ŵa South African Air Force pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na Dutch awo ŵakaŵa ku South Africa, ŵakakora ngalaŵa za ŵalwani 17, kovwira ŵanthu 437 awo ŵakapona ku maboti agho ghakanjira mu nyanja.&lt;ref&gt;Andre Wessels, ''South African Military History Journal'', Vol. 11 No. 5, June 2000, South African Military History Society.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;John Keene 1995&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author=John Keene|title=South Africa in World War II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_iN6AAAAIAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Human &amp; Rousseau|isbn=978-0-7981-3388-3}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Simonstown Harbour.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vyakupambanapambana ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito dowoko la Simon's Town na msasa wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa.]]

Ŵanthu pafupifupi 334,000 ŵa ku South Africa ŵakajipeleka kuti ŵateŵetere ŵasilikari nyengo zose. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, pafupifupi 9,000 ŵakafwa. Pa Juni 21, 1942, ŵasilikari pafupifupi 10,000 ŵa ku South Africa, awo ŵakimiranga chigaŵa chimoza pa vigaŵa vitatu vya ŵasilikari wose ŵa ku South Africa, ŵakakoleka na ŵasilikari ŵa German Field Marshal Rommel mu msumba wa Tobruk, ku Libya. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa ndege za nkhondo ŵa ku South Africa ŵakateŵeteranga mu Royal Air Force pa Nkhondo ya Britain, kusazgapo Adolph &quot;Sailor&quot; Malan uyo wakalongozga 74 Squadron ndipo wakaparanya ndege 27 za ŵalwani.&lt;ref&gt;Alfred Price, ''Spitfire Mark V Aces, 1941–45''. Oxford: Osprey Publishing 1997, p. 65. {{ISBN|978-1-85532-635-4}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Mulara Jan Smuts ndiyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari wa ku Britain pera uyo wakapemphanga ulongozgi kwa Winston Churchill, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya Britain. Smuts wakacemeka ku Imperial War Cabinet mu 1939 pakuŵa munthu mulara comene wa ku South Africa uyo wakatemwanga nkhondo. Pa 28 May 1941, Smuts wakasankhika kuŵa Field Marshal wa British Army, ndipo wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku South Africa kuŵa na udindo uwu. Nkhondo yikati yamara, Smuts wakimilira South Africa ku San Francisco apo ŵakalembanga chikalata cha United Nations Charter mu Meyi 1945. Nga ni umo wakacitira mu 1919, Smuts wakaciska ŵimiliri kuti ŵapange wupu wankhongono wa pa caru cose kuti usungilire mtende. Smuts wakalembaso phangano la mtende la ku Paris, ilo likapeleka mtende mu Europe. Ntheura wakaŵa yekha uyo wakalembeska phangano ili.&lt;ref name=&quot;John Keene 1995&quot;/&gt;

==== Ŵanthu ŵakutemwa Germany na Nazi ====
Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, mu 1914, ku South Africa kukacitika nkhondo yakususkana na boma la South West Africa. Wakawelera mu 1923, ndipo wakalutilira kugwira nchito ku South Africa nga ni mswiri wa boma la Germany.

Mu 1896, Kaiser Wilhelm wa ku Germany wakakwiyiska Britain mwa kutuma malumbo kwa mulongozgi wa boma la Boer Paul Kruger pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Kruger ŵakakora gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa British South Africa Company awo ŵakacitanga nkhondo na kuwukira, ndipo ŵakathera. Germany ndiyo yikapelekanga vilwero ku Ŵabowa pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya Anglo-Boer. Boma la Kaiser Wilhelm likanozga vyakuti maboma ghaŵiri gha Boer ghagure futi za Mauser na mabomba ghanandi gha gunpowder. Kampani ya ku Germany yakucemeka Ludwig Loewe, iyo pamasinda yikamanyikwa kuti Deutsche Waffen-und Munitionfabriken, yikapeleka futi 55,000 ku Ŵaburu mu 1896.&lt;ref&gt;Paul Scarlata, [http://www.shootingtimes.com/long-guns/longgun_reviews_st_boermodel_201007/ The 1893/95 &quot;Boer Model&quot; Mauser]. Accessed 21 May 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1940, gulu la Nazi la Ossewa Brandwag (OB) likaŵa na ŵanthu 500,000, kusazgapo John Vorster, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya boma, na Hendrik van den Bergh, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵapolisi. Nyengo yichoko waka, gulu la Boerenasie (Boer Nation) na magulu ghanyake agho ghakatinkhanga Ŵayuda, ghakaŵakolerana nawo. Nkhondo yikati yamara, gulu la OB likaŵa limoza mwa magulu ghakwimikana na boma agho ghakaŵa mu chipani cha National Party.

Gulu la South African Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging panji AWB (lakuyowoya kuti Afrikaner Resistance Movement), gulu la nkhondo la Nazi ilo likafuma mu ma 1970, ndipo likaŵa lakugwira ntchito m'paka pakati pa ma 1990, likagwiliskiranga ntchito ndembera iyo yikuyana chomene na swastika.&lt;ref&gt;Anti-defamation League, [http://www.adl.org/combating-hate/hate-on-display/c/triskele.html Hate on Display], Accessed 25 April 2015&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:File:Afrikaner Weerstandsbewegung flag.svg|AWB neo-Nazi insignia]]&lt;/ref&gt; Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, AWB yikayezga kutimbanizga kusintha kwa chalo ku demokilase. Pamanyuma pa maungano ghakwamba gha vyaru vinandi mu 1994, ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵakakolerana na AWB. Pa 11 March 1994, mamembala mazana ghanandi gha AWB ghakaŵa chigaŵa cha gulu la ŵasilikari awo ŵakanjira mu chigaŵa cha Bophuthatswana, mu chiyezgo chakutondeka kukhozga mulongozgi wake wambura kutemweka, Chief Lucas Mangope. Mulongozgi wa AWB Eugène Terre'Blanche wakakomeka na ŵantchito ŵa mu famu pa 3 Epulero 2010.

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mu Afrika awo ŵakaŵa ŵakujiyuyura ŵakaŵa ŵakugomezgeka ndipo ŵakakolerananga yayi na ivyo AWB yikachitanga.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191439/http://sun025.sun.ac.za/portal/page/portal/Arts/Departemente1/geskiedenis/docs/coming_to_terms_with_past_present.pdf Wessel Visser, ''Coming to terms with the past and the present: Afrikaner experience and reaction to the &quot;new&quot; South Africa''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191439/http://sun025.sun.ac.za/portal/page/portal/Arts/Departemente1/geskiedenis/docs/coming_to_terms_with_past_present.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}, (Seminar lecture presented at the Centre of African Studies, University of Copenhagen, 30 September 2004), p.2. Accessed 3 May 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:The Union of South Africa, Its Land and Its People (1956), Encyclopedia Britannica Films, Inc..webm|thumb|Buku la Encyclopedia Britannica lakulongosora vya South Africa kufuma mu 1956]]

== Nyengo ya apartheid (1948-1994) ==
{{Main|Apartheid}}

=== Malango gha katangale ===
Ndondomeko ya kusankhana mitundu yikafuma ku malango gha vyaru vinyake agho ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵa Dutch mu ma 1700, ndipo ghakalutilira na kusazgikira mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Britain.

Kwambira mu 1948, maboma gha National Party ghakazomerezga na kusazgirako ndondomeko ya kusankhana mitundu na kukana wanangwa wa ŵanthu kuŵa dango la apartheid, ilo likamara mu 1991. Pa nyengo iyi, dango lakuzirwa chomene likaŵa la Homeland Citizens Act la mu 1970. Dango ili likakhozga chomene dango la Native Land Act la mu 1913, ilo likaŵa lakuti &quot;vigaŵa vyakupatulika&quot;. Chikazomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa ŵafumiskike mu matawuni gha ku South Africa na South West Africa (lero ni Namibia) na kuluta ku malo agho ŵanthu ŵakughacemanga kuti &quot;Bantustans&quot; panji &quot;makaya ghakwambilira&quot; gha mafuko gha ŵanthu ŵafipa gha ku South Africa. Ndondomeko yeneyiyi yikagwiraso nchito ku South West Africa, uko South Africa yikalutilira kuŵa na mazaza gha League of Nations pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose. Ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakakolerana na muwuso wa apartheid ŵakayezga kuzomerezga fundo ya bantustan mwa kuyowoya kuti boma la Britain likagaŵa India mu 1947.&lt;ref&gt;Susan Mathieson and David Atwell, &quot;Between Ethnicity and Nationhood: Shaka Day and the Struggle over Zuluness in post-Apartheid South Africa&quot; in ''Multicultural States: Rethinking Difference and Identity'' edited by David Bennett {{ISBN|0-415-12159-0}} (Routledge UK, 1998) p.122&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Bantustans in South Africa.svg|thumb|300px|right|Mapu gha caru ca ŵanthu ŵafipa ku South Africa paumaliro wa muwuso wa apartheid mu 1994]]

Nangauli vinthu vikuruvikuru vikacitika mu nyengo iyi, kweni apartheid ndiyo yikaŵa yikuru comene pa nkhani za mdauko wa mu nyengo iyi, kusazgapo nkhondo zaciwawa na nkhondo za mu caru ca South Africa. Kuzakafika mu 1987, ndalama zose izo zikagwiliskirika pa nkhondo zikaŵa pafupifupi 28% ya bajeti ya boma.

Pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa Soweto mu 1976 na kukanizgika kwa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ma Joint Management Centres (JMCs) agho ghakacitanga milimo yawo mu vigaŵa 34 ivyo boma likati ni vyakofya comene ghakazgoka cinthu cakuzirwa comene pa ndondomeko ya kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Ŵapolisi na ŵasilikari awo ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa JMC pakatikati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1980 ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa vyakucita pa vigaŵa vyose, kwambira ku nduna mpaka ku boma.&lt;ref&gt;Desiree Hansson, &quot;Changes in counter-revolutionary state strategy in the decade 1979–89&quot;, in Desiree Hansson and Dirk van Zyl Smit (eds.), ''Towards Justice?: Crime and state control in South Africa'', Cape Town: Oxford University Press 1990, pp.45–50 {{ISBN|0 19 570579 3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===UN embargo===
Pa Disembala 16, 1966, wupu wa United Nations General Assembly ukadumura kuti apartheid ni &quot;kwananga kwa ŵanthu&quot;. Pa Novembala 30, 1973, wupu wakulongozga ukazomerezga fundo ya mtundu wa apartheid. Pulogiramu iyi yikamba kugwira nchito pa Julayi 18, 1976. Pa Okutobala 23, 1984, wupu wa UN Security Council ukazomera fundo iyi. Ungano uwu ukati muwuso wa apartheid ukaŵa wambura kuzomerezgeka na dango kweniso ukaŵa waupusikizgi cifukwa ukaswa Dango la Wupu wa United Nations.&lt;ref&gt;John Dugard, [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cspca/cspca.html ''Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid''], New York: UN Office of Legal Affairs, 2013. Accessed 26 July 2015&lt;/ref&gt;Pa Novembala 12, 1974, wupu wa UN ukafumiska kale South Africa mu wupu uwu. Pa Novembala 4, 1977, Wupu wa Wupu Wakulongozga ukaŵika dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kugura na kuguliska vilwero ku vyaru vinyake. Charu ichi chikazomerezgekaso mu wupu wa UN mu 1994 pamanyuma pakuti cazgoka caru ca demokilase. Boma la Apartheid la South Africa likakolerana na ivyo UN likadumura kuti ŵathereske ŵasilikari ŵa Israyeli. Vipolopolo vyakukwana 400 vya M-113A1 na futi za 106 mm vyambura kuponyamo ŵanthu ivyo vikapangika mu United States vikapelekeka ku South Africa kwizira mu Israyeli.&lt;ref&gt;International Defence and Aid Fund, ''The Apartheid War Machine'', London, 1980.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kukoma ŵanthu kwambura mulandu ===
Pakati pa ma 1980, ŵapolisi na ŵasilikari ŵakakomanga ŵanthu awo ŵakususkana na boma. Kuzakafika pakati pa 1987, wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu (Human Rights Commission) ukamanya kuti mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakukwana 140 awo ŵakakomeka cifukwa ca ndyali. Nakuti tingamanya yayi unandi wa awo ŵali kufwa. Ŵapharazgi ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kulemba, kujambura panji kujambula vinthu ivi, apo boma likaŵa na pulogiramu yake yakubisira ŵanthu uthenga wautesi. Pa nyengo yeneyira, magulu gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vyawo ghakachitanga nkhaza pa ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi na ŵalongozgi awo ŵakakanizganga apartheid. Boma likati ivi vikacitika cifukwa ca nkhaza za ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake.&lt;ref&gt;Peter Harris, &quot;The role of rightwing vigilantes in South Africa&quot;, in ''States of Terror'', Catholic Institute of International Relations, London: 1989, pp. 2–3 {{ISBN|1-85287-019-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Komiti ya Unenesko na Kuphemana (TRC) yikati yasanga kuti gulu lakubisika la ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi awo ŵakaŵa kale panji awo ŵachali kuteŵetera, kanandi ŵakukolerana na ŵanthu ŵakunyoloka, ŵakacitanga vinthu ivyo vingawoneka nga ni kwambiska vivulupi. Pakati pa 1960 na 1994, kuyana na ma statistics gha Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Inkatha Freedom Party yikaŵa na mulandu wa nyifwa za ŵanthu 4,500, ŵapolisi ŵa South African Police 2,700, ndipo ANC pafupifupi 1,300.

Kukwambilira kwa 2002, ŵapolisi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakatondeska gulu la ŵanthu ŵazungu ilo likakhumbanga kuwukira boma. Ŵanthu ŵakukwana makumi ghaŵiri, kusazgapo ŵalaraŵalara ŵa ŵasilikari ŵa South Africa ŵakakakika cifukwa ca mulandu wa upusikizgi na kukoma ŵanthu, pamanyuma pa kuphulika kwa bomba mu Soweto. Ŵapolisi ŵakakanizga boma kuwukira boma, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kughanaghana kuti boma la demokilase ilo likaŵako mu 1994 ndakuzomerezgeka yayi.

Pakumalizga mulimo wake mu 2004, Komiti iyi yikapeleka mazina gha ŵanthu 300 ku National Prosecuting Authority (NPA) kuti yikayezge na kuŵeruzga. Ni vigaŵa vichoko waka ivyo vikaŵa na milandu.&lt;ref&gt;Ranjeni Munusamy, [http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2013-03-25-the-trcs-unfinished-business-old-wounds-new-oppressor/#.VTj-SNKqqkr Unfinished business of the TRC], ''Daily Maverick'' 23 March 2013. Accessed 23 April 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Paul Seils, [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/paul-seils/political-pardons-would-d_b_6810864.html Political pardons would damage the legacy of South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission], ''Huffington Post'', 6 March 2015. Accessed 25 April 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ntchito za nkhondo mu vyaru vya ku mphepete ===
{{see also|South African Border War|Angolan Civil War}}

Paumaliro wa muwuso wa apartheid, ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa ŵakakanizganga maboma ghapafupi, kovwiranga ŵanthu ŵakususka boma, kunanga vinthu, na kuwukira malo gha ANC. Vyaru ivi, ivyo vikaŵa vyakukolerana na vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa, vikacemekanga kuti Frontline States: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, ndipo kwambira mu 1980, Zimbabwe.&lt;ref&gt;M Evans, [http://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/Fronline%20States.pdf The Frontline States], ''Zambezia'' (1984/5), Vol XII, University of Zimbabwe. Accessed 11 April 2016.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Scott Thomas, ''The Diplomacy of Liberation: Foreign relations of the ANC since 1960'', London: I B Taurus 1996, p.18 {{ISBN|1850439931}}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:SADF-Operations 4.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Ŵabali ŵa gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa parachute la 44 ŵakendeskanga nkhondo ya ku mphaka ya South Africa.]]

Kukwambilira kwa Novembala, 1975, pamanyuma pakuti Portugal yapeleka wanangwa ku Angola, caru ico kale cikaŵa mu Africa, nkhondo yikamba pakati pa UNITA na MPLA. Kuti UNITA yileke kuparanyika na kukhozga muwuso wa boma laubwezi, South Africa yikanjilirapo pa 23 Okutobala, kutuma ŵasilikari pakati pa 1,500 na 2,000 kufuma ku Namibia kuya kumwera kwa Angola kuti ŵarwe na MPLA. Pakuzgora ku nkhondo ya South Africa, Cuba wakatuma ŵasilikari 18,000 mu ciphalizgano cikuru ico cikacemekanga kuti Operation Carlota. Ku Cuba, pakwamba MPLA yikaŵa na ŵapharazgi ŵa nkhondo ŵakukwana 230. Kuwukira kwa Cuba kukawovwira kuti SADF na UNITA vileke kunjilirapo na kukhozga muwuso wa MPLA mu Angola. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 10, ŵasilikari 36,000 ŵa ku Cuba ŵakatumika mu caru cose kuti ŵawovwire MPLA kulimbana na UNITA. Nkhondo ya mukati mu Angola yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu 550,000 ŵafwe. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafwa pakati pa 1992 na 1993, pamanyuma pakuti nkhondo ya ku South Africa na Cuba yamara.&lt;ref&gt;Inge Tvedten, Angola: Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;SIPRI Yearbook: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[Victoria Brittain]], ''Hidden Lives, Hidden Deaths: South Africa's crippling of a continent'', London: Faber 1990, p. 2, {{ISBN|0571142168}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

Pakati pa 1975 na 1988, ma SADF ghakalutilira kunjilira mu Angola na Zambia kuti ŵaparanyenge maofesi gha PLAN agho ghakaŵa pa mphaka na Namibia kweniso kuti ŵawovwire UNITA. Nkhondo ya mabomba iyo yikapangika na ŵasilikari 200 ŵa ku South Africa pa 4 May 1978 ku Cassinga kumwera kwa Angola, yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 700 ŵa ku South West Africa ŵakomeke, kusazgapo ŵasilikari ŵa PLAN na ŵanakazi na ŵana ŵanandi. Mulara wa gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa parachute ku South Africa, Koloneli Jan Breytenbach, wakati &quot;ŵasilikari ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi ŵakuti agha ndigho ghakaŵa ghakuru comene kufuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose&quot;. Boma la Angola likati ciŵiya ico cikaŵa pa nkhondo iyi cikaŵa msasa wa ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo. Pa Meyi 6, 1978, wupu wa United Nations Security Council ukadumura kuti caru ca South Africa nchakucita cinthu ciheni. Pa Ogasiti 23, 1981, ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa ŵakanjiliraso mu Angola na wovwiri wa CIA. Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Angola, apo likagomezganga kuti charu cha South Africa chaŵawukira, likakhozgeka na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Cuba pamoza na ŵasilikari ŵa PLAN na ANC, awo wose ŵakaŵa na vilwero vyakufuma ku Soviet Union. Gulu la ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakalongozganga vinthu vya ndyali, ŵakagwiranga lumoza nchito na ŵasilikari ŵa ku America, Britain, na West Germany.

Ku South Africa na ku Cuba, wose ŵakatonda nkhondo ya ku Cuito Cuanavale, iyo yikulongosoreka kuti &quot;njakofya comene mu Africa kufuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose&quot;. Ndipouli, ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa ŵakataya mazaza ghawo pa nkhondo kweniso luso lawo. Kuŵapo kwa South Africa mu Angola kukamara pamanyuma pa kusazga phangano la United Nations ilo likamanyikwa kuti New York Accords pakati pa maboma gha Angola, Cuba na South Africa, ilo likapangiska kuti ŵasilikari wose ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵafumemo mu Angola kweniso kuti South Africa nayo wafumemo mu South West Africa (lero ni Namibia), uko UN yikuwona kuti kuli na ŵasilikari ŵambura kuzomerezgeka kwambira mu 1966.&lt;ref&gt;UN General Assembly, res n° 2154 (XXI), 17 November 1966. Available at http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/21/ares21.htm [Recovered 1 October 2015]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;United Nations, [http://peacemaker.un.org/namibia-genevaprotocol88 UN Resolution 435 of 1978] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518081735/http://peacemaker.un.org/namibia-genevaprotocol88 |date=18 May 2015 }} Accessed 1 May 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu ma 1980, chalo cha South Africa chikapelekaso wovwiri ku gulu la Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (RENAMO) mu charu cha Mozambique, apo likarwa nkhondo na boma la FRELIMO.&lt;ref&gt;B Turok (ed), ''Witness from the Frontline: Aggression and resistance in southern Africa'', London: Institute for African Alternatives, 1990 {{ISBN|1 870425 12X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Edgerton, Robert B, Africa's armies: from honor to infamy: a history from 1791 to the present (2002) p.109&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&quot;B&amp;J&quot;: Jacob Bercovitch and Richard Jackson, ''International Conflict: A Chronological Encyclopedia of Conflicts and Their Management 1945–1995'' (1997).&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kulimbana na apartheid ===

[[File:Murder at Sharpeville 21 March 1960.jpg|thumb|Chithuzi cha kuphana kwa ku Sharpeville mu March 1960]]Ŵanthu awo ŵakachitanga vinthu mwakukolerana na mtundu wa Afrikaans, ŵakaŵa waka ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wakufipa yayi. Mu ma 1950, gulu linyake la ŵasilikari la Torch Commando likapangika, ndipo ŵakalongozgekanga na ŵasilikari awo ŵakarwa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa Axis mu Europe na North Africa. Pa nyengo iyo gulu ili likaŵa na ŵanthu 250,000, likaŵa gulu likuru comene la ŵanthu ŵatuŵa awo ŵakasuskanga boma. Kufika mu 1952, moto uwo ukaŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵatuŵa ukazimwika, apo gulu la Torch Commando likamara chifukwa cha malango gha boma agho ghakaŵa pasi pa Dango la Kukanizga Chikomyunizimu, 1950. Pamanyuma, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu gulu la Torch Commando ŵakazgoka ŵalongozgi ŵa gulu la African National Congress.&lt;ref&gt;''Sunday Times'' (Johannesburg), ''Insight'' section. 1 November 1998&lt;/ref&gt;

Kwamba mu 1940 m'paka mu 1960, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana na apartheid. Pamanyuma pa kukomeka kwa ŵanthu 69 mu Sharpeville mu Malichi 1960, na kukhazikiska boma la vyakofya, na kukanizga maboma gha anti-apartheid nga ni African National Congress (ANC), Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), na Communist Party of South Africa. Wupu wa ANC, Umkhonto weSizwe (MK, kung'anamura Mkondo wa Mtundu) ukayowoya kuti nkhaza ni zaurunji chifukwa cha kujivikilira na nkhondo yaurunji. Kwambira mu ma 1960 m'paka mu 1989, MK wakacitanga viheni vinandi na kuwukira ŵasilikari na ŵapolisi. Komiti ya Unenesko na Kuphemana yikati mu 2003, nangauli ANC yikayowoya kuti yikurwa waka nkhondo na ŵapolisi, &quot;ŵanandi awo ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi ŵakaŵa ŵanthu bweka&quot;.

Gulu lakufwatuka ku vyaru likapambana mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 apo gulu la &quot;Africanist&quot; mukati mwa ANC likakananga kuti pakaŵe mgwirizano pakati pa ANC na Communist Party of South Africa. Ŵalongozgi ŵa chipani cha Communist mu South Africa ŵakaŵa ŵazungu.&lt;ref&gt;Apartheid Museum, Johannesburg [https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172619/http://www.apartheidmuseum.org/sites/default/files/files/downloads/Learners%20book%20Chapter4.pdf Resistance to Apartheid] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923172619/http://www.apartheidmuseum.org/sites/default/files/files/downloads/Learners%20book%20Chapter4.pdf |date=23 September 2015 }} Accessed 26 April 2015&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵa Africanists ŵakafumako ku ANC na kupanga Pan-Africanist Congress na gulu lake la ŵasilikari lakucemeka Poqo, ilo likamba kugwira nchito comene mu vigaŵa vya Cape. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990, Poqo wakachemeka kuti Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA). Gulu ili likachitanga ukhuluku kuti lisange ndalama na vilwero. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafwa panji kupwetekeka na mabandi agha. Mu 1993, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu ŵambura mulandu awo ŵakacitiranga nkhaza ŵazungu cikakwera. APLA yikakana kuti ivyo ŵakacita vikaŵa vyakusankhana mitundu, ndipo yikati vikacitikanga kwimikana na boma la apartheid cifukwa ŵatuŵa wose, kuyana na PAC, ŵakacitanga nawo ndyali ya apartheid. Ŵanthu 11 ŵakafwa ndipo 58 ŵakapwetekeka pa ngozi iyo yikacitikira tchalitchi la Cikhristu ku Cape Town mu 1993.&lt;ref&gt;South African Broadcasting Corporation and South African History Archive,[http://sabctrc.saha.org.za/glossary/apla_attacks.htm Truth Commission Special Report: APLA attacks.] Accessed 26 April 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

Ŵasambiri ŵanandi na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakachimbilira ku vyaru vyapafupi, comenecomene ku Botswana, kuti ŵaleke kukakika pamanyuma pa kuwukira kwa Soweto pa Juni 16, 1976, ŵakapanga malo ghakutowa ghakusankhira ŵasilikari ŵa ANC na PAC. Kuwukira uku kukacitika cifukwa ca malango gha boma agho ghakakanizga ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa ku Africa kuti ŵaŵazgenge mu ciyowoyero ca ciAfrikaans. Chigaluka ichi chikafika mu charu chose. Apo nkhondo iyi yikamara, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakomeka na kupwetekeka.

Mu 1983, gulu la United Democratic Front (UDF) likapangika na ŵanthu pafupifupi 400. Pa nyengo iyo UDF yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene mu 1987, yikaŵa na mawupu pafupifupi 700 na ŵanthu pafupifupi 3,000,000. Ŵakachita nkhaza zinandi izo zikamanyikwanga kuti &quot;kuleka kuwusa&quot;. Ŵakakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chipani cha opposition, comenecomene ŵa Inkatha Freedom Party, ndipo nyengo zinyake ŵakaŵawotcha ŵamoyo. Pakati pa African National Congress (ANC) na UDF pakaŵa ubwezi wakukhora, wakuthemba pa fundo yakuyana ya Freedom Charter. Pamanyuma pa kukanizgika kwa milimo yake, mu 1988 UDF yikasinthika na Mass Democratic Movement, wupu uwo ukaŵa na magulu ghakwimikana na apartheid.

Ŵakayidi 130 ŵa ndyali ŵakakomeka pa khuni la mphinjika mu jele la Pretoria Central pakati pa 1960 na 1990. Ŵanthu awo ŵakakakika ŵakaŵa ŵa Pan Africanist Congress na United Democratic Front.&lt;ref&gt;News24.com [http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/remains-of-83-hanged-prisoners-to-be-exhumed-from-kgosi-mampuru-ii-20160323 Remains of hanged prisoners to be exhumed.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323061434/http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/remains-of-83-hanged-prisoners-to-be-exhumed-from-kgosi-mampuru-ii-20160323 |date=23 March 2016 }} Accessed 25 March 2016.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Nyengo ya apartheid (1994~pano) ==
{{Main|History of South Africa (1994–present)}}
[[File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Frederik W. de Klerk]] and [[Nelson Mandela]], two of the driving forces in ending apartheid]]
Nkhondo ya Soviet Union mu ma 1980 yikati yamara, African National Congress (ANC) yikakolerana na South African Communist Party, ndipo yikaleka kugomezga Soviet Union kuti yipelekenge vilwero na wovwiri wa ndyali. Kweniso cikang'anamuranga kuti boma la apartheid lingalekaso yayi kukolerana na apartheid na kuzomerezgeka kwake na kuvikilira visambizgo vya Cikristu na civilisation cifukwa ca rooi gevaar, kung'anamura &quot;soka liswesi&quot; panji kofya kwa cikomyunizimu. Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vikakanizgika kukhala pa thebulu la kudumbiskirana, ndipo mu Juni 1991, malango ghose gha katangale ghakalekeka.&lt;ref&gt;United Nations Yearbook 1992 [https://books.google.com/books?id=BTdmYFgvyi0C&amp;dq=apartheid+laws+rescinded&amp;pg=PA108 Apartheid laws rescinded] UN Dept of Public Information, Accessed 3 May 2015&lt;/ref&gt; Pakuwona umo ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake na vyaru vinyake ŵakasuskira apartheid mu ma 1980, kusazgapo nkhondo, vivulupi vya ŵanthu, ndyali na visambizgo vyautesi vya caru cose, kweniso kuyuzgika na gulu lakususka apartheid pa caru cose, Pulezidenti F. W. de Klerk wakapharazga vya kuwuskapo dango lakukanizga African National Congress, Pan Africanist Congress na South African Communist Party, kweniso kufwatura Nelson Mandela uyo wakaŵa mu jele pa Febuluwale 2, 1990, pamanyuma pa kukhala mu jele vyaka 27. Pa ungano wa ŵanthu wose uwo ukacitika pa 17 Malici 1992, ŵanthu ŵacenje ŵakavota 68% kuti ŵaŵe na demokilase. Pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana kwa nyengo yitali mu wupu wa Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), pa Julayi 26, 1993, ŵakalemba dango ilo likapeleka wanangwa ku vyaru vyose.

Kufuma pa 26 m'paka pa 29 Epulero, 1994, ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakavota pa mavoti ghakwamba. Gulu la African National Congress ndilo likathereska, ndipo likaluska chomene gulu la National Party na la Inkatha Freedom Party. Chipani cha Democratic Party na Pan Africanist Congress, pamoza na ŵanyake, vikaŵa vyakwimikana na boma mu nyumba ya malango yakwamba ya caru ici. Nelson Mandela wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti pa 9 Meyi 1994 ndipo wakapangiska boma la wupu wa National Unity, ilo lili na ANC, National Party na Inkatha. Pa 10 Meyi 1994 Mandela wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti muphya wa South Africa mu Pretoria pamoza na Thabo Mbeki na F. W. De Klerk kuŵa vice-president wake. Boma la National Unity likamara paumaliro wa pharalamende yakwamba mu 1999, apo ANC yikaŵa chipani pera pa mazaza uku yikukolerana na Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) na South African Communist Party. Pamanyuma pa kudumbiskana comene, kweniso pamanyuma pa maungano gha mawupu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu, ŵanthu ŵekhaŵekha na ŵanthu bweka, Nyumba ya Malamulo yikapanga dango liphya la malango mu 1996. Ŵakalekeska chilango cha nyifwa, ŵakamba kunozga malo na kugaŵira ŵanthu malo, ndipo ŵakaŵika malango ghakwendeskera ntchito.

Gulu la ANC likaŵa na mazaza chifukwa cha fundo za Socialist izo zikalembeka mu chikalata cha wanangwa. Chikalata ichi chikati &quot;usambazi wa caru cithu, uwo mbusambazi wa ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa, uzamuwezgeka ku ŵanthu. Mubali Nelson Mandela, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ANC, wakayowoya mu mazgu ghake pa 25 January 1990 kuti: &quot;Ndondomeko ya ANC njakuti migodi, mabanki, na vyamaseŵero viŵe vya boma, ndipo tingakwaniska yayi kusintha maghanoghano ghithu pa nkhani iyi&quot;.

Pamanyuma pa kutonda kwa ANC mu 1994, suzgo la ukavu likamara yayi. Boma la ANC, likasintha fundo zake ndipo likamba kulondezga fundo za ŵanthu awo ŵakutemwa vinthu viphya. Msonkho wa usambazi wa ŵanthu ŵasambazi comene ukaseŵeka kuti uŵawovwire kusanga ndalama zakwendeskera vinthu vyawo. Makampani ghakurughakuru ghakazomerezgekanga kusamukira ku vyaru vinyake. Kuyana na Solomon Johannes Terreblanche, nkhwantha ya vya cuma ya ku South Africa, boma likapeleka mwaŵi ku ŵamalonda ŵaheni cifukwa ca &quot;masuzgo agho ghazamuŵapo mu miwiro yakunthazi&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Solomon Johannes Terreblanche, ''Lost in Transformation'', Johannesburg: KMM Review Publishing, 2012, {{ISBN|0620537256}}, quoted in Ronnie Kasrils, [https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/jun/24/anc-faustian-pact-mandela-fatal-error &quot;How the ANC's Faustian pact sold out South Africa's poorest&quot;], ''The Guardian'' 24 June 2013. Accessed 26 October 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kusama ===
Nyengo ya apartheid yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakafumamo mu charu ichi chifukwa cha masuzgo gha vigeŵenga. Mu 2008, wupu unyake (South African Institute of Race Relations) ukati kufuma mu 1995, pa ŵanthu pafupifupi 4,000,000 awo ŵakaŵa mu charu cha South Africa apo muwuso wa katangale ukamalira, pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵatuŵa 800,000 panji kujumpha. Ŵazungu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa awo ŵakayowoyanga Chingelezi na Cifurikansi ŵakamba kukhala mu Australia, New Zealand, North America, na ku UK uko ŵanthu pafupifupi 550,000 ŵa ku South Africa ŵakasamukira.&lt;ref&gt;''The Economist'', [http://www.economist.com/node/12295535 &quot;White flight from South Africa&quot;] 25 September 2008. Accessed 18 July 2015&lt;/ref&gt; Mu 2021, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku South Africa ŵakuluta ku vyaru vinyake chaka chilichose. Kufika mu 2019, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake awo ŵakafumanga mu charu ichi chikaluska cha ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Brophy |first=Selene |date=25 August 2019 |title=More black than white South Africans leaving the country |url=https://www.news24.com/news24/Travel/more-black-than-white-south-africans-leaving-the-country-20190825 |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=News24 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=26 August 2019 |title=More skilled black professionals are leaving South Africa |url=https://businesstech.co.za/news/business/336809/more-skilled-black-professionals-are-leaving-south-africa/ |access-date=2022-09-20 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Ngongole za boma===
{{main|South Africa national debt}}
Boma la apartheid likapharazga kuti lilekenge kuwezga ngongoli za caru cinyake pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1980, apo likapharazga kuti kuli suzgo likuru cifukwa ca vivulupi. Apo muwuso wa apartheid ukamara mu 1994, boma liphya la demokilase likaŵa na ngongoli yikuru ya R86.7 B (US$14 B pa mtengo wa ndalama) iyo boma la apartheid likaŵa nayo. Boma ilo likaŵa na suzgo la ndalama likakhumbikwiranga kuwezga ngongoli iyi panji kuchepeskeka ngongoli ku vyaru vinyake. Paumaliro, ngongoli yikamara mu Seputembala 2001.&lt;ref&gt;Fin24.com, [http://www.fin24.com/Economy/Apartheid-debt-settled-20010903 Apartheid debt settled] 3 September 2001. Accessed 26 July 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;

Boma liphya ilo likaŵako pamanyuma pa muwuso wa apartheid likaŵaso na suzgo la ndalama chifukwa likakhumbikwiranga kupeleka munkhwala ku ŵanthu ŵakavu awo ŵakasuzgika na HIV/AIDS. Ku South Africa ndiko kuli ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene awo ŵali na HIV/AIDS kuluska charu chilichose pa charu chapasi. Mu 2011, ŵanthu 5,600,000 ŵakaŵa na nthenda iyi ndipo ŵanthu 270,000 ŵakafwa na HIV. Pa nyengo iyi, ŵana ŵakujumpha 2,000,000 ŵakaŵa ŵalanda cifukwa ca nthenda iyi. Mu 2011, ŵanthu 100,000 ŵakafwa na nthenda ya AIDS kuluska mu 2005.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103314/http://www.aids.org.za/hivaids-in-south-africa/ Aids Foundation of South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103314/http://www.aids.org.za/hivaids-in-south-africa/ |date=25 September 2015 }}. Accessed 24 September 2015.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Labour relations===
[[File:Church on Green Market Square Marikana.JPG|thumb|Church on [[Greenmarket Square]] in Cape Town, South Africa with a banner memorialising the Marikana massacre]] Ŵalendo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu migodi ya ku South Africa, ndipo ŵakagwiranga nchito ŵanthu pafupifupi hafu ya miliyoni. Mu Ogasiti 2012, apo ŵapolisi ŵakakomanga ŵanthu 34 awo ŵakagwiranga ntchito mu migodi, ŵanandi ŵakakomeka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi, mawupu gha wupu wakulongozga, na ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa ŵakasuska ivyo vikacitika. Ŵakawona kuti suzgo likuru ndakuti ŵanthu ŵakugwira nchito mu vyaru vinyake. Makampani gha migodi gha vyaru vinandi, kusazgapo Anglo-American Corporation, Lonmin, na Anglo Platinum, ŵakasuskika kuti ŵakatondeka kumazga suzgo la apartheid.&lt;ref&gt;''Financial Times'',[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e0b9bee0-b0e4-11e3-bbd4-00144feab7de.html#axzz3Ze1AyNHG &quot;South African mining stuck in the past&quot;]. Accessed 9 May 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

===Poverty===
{{Main|Poverty in South Africa}}
Mu 2014, pafupifupi 47% ya ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa (ŵanandi ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko lakuda) ŵakakhalanga mu ukavu, ndipo ichi chikupangiska kuti charu ichi chiŵe chimoza mwa vyaru vyambura mtende chomene pa charu chose.&lt;ref&gt;James L. Gibson, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150822232932/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/south-africa/2015-02-10/apartheid-s-long-shadow &quot;Apartheid's Long Shadow&quot;],  ''Foreign Affairs'', March/April 2015. Accessed 27 July 2015&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakondwa yayi na kusintha kwa vinthu pa umoyo wa ŵanthu, boma likaŵa lambura mahara, kweniso ŵanthu ŵakakwiya chomene. Mu 2007, ŵanthu ŵambura kukwana hafu ya awo ŵakachitanga viwawa ŵakaŵa na nkhaza, pakuyaniska na awo ŵakachitanga mu 2014, apo pafupifupi 80% ŵakachitanga nkhaza na ŵamazaza. Kuchedwa kwa kusintha kwa vinthu kukapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano mu wupu wa ANC, Communist Party na Congress of South African Trade Unions.&lt;ref&gt;Independent Online, [http://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/spat-within-tripartite-alliance-runs-deep-1.226909#.Vhpwluyqqko &quot;Spat within tripartite alliance runs deep&quot;], 14 November 2004. Accessed 12 October 2015&lt;/ref&gt;

===Corruption===
{{Main|Corruption in South Africa}}
Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Pulezidenti Jacob Zuma, vimbundi vikakura comene mu South Africa. Mu nyengo iyi pakaŵa vigeŵenga vinandi ivyo vikachitikanga chifukwa cha vigeŵenga. Vinthu ivi vikakhwaskanga na masuzgo gha ndalama agho ghakaŵapo chifukwa cha vimbundi mu makampani ghanyake gha boma nga ni Eskom na South African Airways. Vinthu vinyake vya vimbundi ivyo vikachitika mu nyengo iyi ni VBS Mutual Bank na Bosasa.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gevisser&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|last=Gevisser|first=Mark|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/jul/11/state-capture-corruption-investigation-that-has-shaken-south-africa|title='State capture': the corruption investigation that has shaken South Africa|date=2019-07-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-02-14|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; Khoti la Zondo la Kupenjerezga likimikika pa nyengo iyo Cyril Ramaphosa wakaŵa purezidenti kuti lipenjepo pa milandu ya vimbundi.

=== Energy crisis ===
{{Main articles|South African energy crisis}}
Kwambira mu 2007, ku South Africa kuli suzgo la magesi ilo lakhwaska chomene chuma cha charu ichi. Chifukwa chakwamba cha suzgo ili chikaŵa chakuti pakaŵavya vyakugwilirapo pa kupanga magesi ghaphya kweniso magesi ghakale chomene. Wupu wakupeleka magesi wa Eskom wa boma ukusuzgika na vimbundi na vinthu viheni, chomenechomene pa nyengo iyo Jacob Zuma wakaŵa pulezidenti.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |author=Staff Writer |title=How the ANC government broke Eskom – 2008 versus 2018 |url=https://mybroadband.co.za/news/energy/288412-how-the-anc-government-broke-eskom-2008-versus-2018.html |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=myBoardband |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2022-05-09 |title=South Africa: How Jacob Zuma helped destroy Eskom |url=https://www.theafricareport.com/201543/south-africa-how-jacob-zuma-helped-destroy-eskom/ |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=The Africa Report.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===Xenophobia===
{{See also|Xenophobia in South Africa}}
Nyengo ya apartheid yikati yajumphapo, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kuwukira ŵalendo awo ŵakafumanga ku vyaru vinyake na ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kupenja malo ghakubisamamo. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2006, wakalongora kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku South Africa ŵakutinkha ŵalendo chomene. Wupu wa United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) ukasanga kuti kuphalizgana pa nkhani ya nchito, bizinesi, mauteŵeti gha boma, na nyumba kukapangiska kuti paŵe mphindano pakati pa ŵanthu ŵakuchimbira kwawo, awo ŵakupenja ciphokwero, ŵanthu ŵakusamukira kunyake, na ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake. Mu 2008, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 207,000 ŵakapempha malo ghakuponerako ku South Africa, ndipo mu 2009, 222,300 ŵakapempha malo ghakuponerako. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafuma ku Zimbabwe, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Eritrea, Ethiopia, na Somalia.&lt;ref&gt;UNHCR,
[http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e485aa6 2011 UNHCR country operations profile – South Africa]&lt;/ref&gt;

===2021 civil unrest===
{{Main|2021 South African unrest}}
Nkhondo za ŵanthu mu vigaŵa vya KwaZulu-Natal na Gauteng ku South Africa zikacitika mu Julayi 2021, chifukwa cha kukakika kwa President wakale Jacob Zuma chifukwa cha kuswa malango, pamanyuma pakuti wakana kupeleka ukaboni ku Zondo Commission, kafukufuku wa milandu ya vimbundi apo wakaŵa president kufuma mu 2009 mpaka 2018. Chiwonetsero chotsutsana ndi kusungidwa m'ndende chinayambitsa chipolowe chachikulu ndi kuba, zomwe zinawonjezereka chifukwa cha kuchotsedwa ntchito ndi mavuto azachuma omwe akuwonjezeka chifukwa cha mliri wa COVID-19.&lt;ref name=cnbc20210713&gt;{{Cite web|date=2021-07-13|title=Deaths climb to 72 in South Africa riots after Zuma jailed|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/13/deaths-climb-to-72-in-south-africa-riots-after-zuma-jailed.html|access-date=2021-07-15|website=CNBC|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=aj20210714&gt;{{Cite web|last=Bauer|first=Nickolaus|title='Little to lose': Poverty and despair fuel South Africa's unrest|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/7/14/little-to-lose-poverty-and-despair-fuel-south-africas-unrest|access-date=2021-07-16|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Magazini ya [[The Economist]] yikati nkhaza izi zikaŵa ziheni comene kuluska zose izo zacitikapo mu caru ca South Africa kufuma apo muwuso wa apartheid ukamalira.

Ŵapolisi na ŵasilikari ŵakaŵawovwira kuti ŵamazge vivulupi.&lt;ref name=wapo20210712&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/07/12/south-africa-zuma-protests/|title=South Africa deploys military as protests turn violent in wake of Jacob Zuma's jailing|first=Lesley|last=Wroughton|newspaper=Washington Post|date=12 July 2021|access-date=13 July 2021|archive-date=14 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714012249/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/07/12/south-africa-zuma-protests/|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/gauteng/live-updates-looting-violence-continues-in-gauteng-kzn-1f4e0b9c-8c88-494e-8160-aeacff164ec1|title=LIVE UPDATES: Looting and violence in Gauteng and KZN|website=www.iol.co.za|access-date=12 July 2021|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712153317/https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/gauteng/live-updates-looting-violence-continues-in-gauteng-kzn-1f4e0b9c-8c88-494e-8160-aeacff164ec1|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;Kuzakafika pakati pa mwezi wa Julayi, ŵasilikari pafupifupi 25,000 ŵa South African National Defence Forces ŵakaŵa kuti ŵatumika. Pa Julayi 18, ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 3,400 ŵakakakika, ndipo pa Julayi 22, ŵanthu 337 ŵakafwa chifukwa cha vivulupi.

Chiwawa cha mu Julayi 2021 chikukolerana na chiwawa cha taxi ku Cape Town na chiwawa cha Transnet ransomware icho chikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵayowoye kuti vinthu ivi vikukolerana.

===Post-apartheid heads of state===
Kuyana na dango ilo likaŵako pamanyuma pa apartheid, pulezidenti ndiyo ni mulara wa boma. Pulezidenti wakusankhika na wupu wa National Assembly ndipo nyengo yake yikumalira pa chisankho. Pulezidenti wangateŵetera nyengo ziŵiri. Para malo ghaŵavya, wachiŵiri wa pulezidenti ndiyo wakuteŵetera nga ni pulezidenti.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! colspan=3|President
! colspan=3|Term of office
! rowspan=2|Political party
|-
! #
! Portrait
! Name
! Took office
! Left office
! Duration
|-
! style=&quot;background:{{party color|African National Congress}}; color:white;&quot;|1
| [[File:Nelson Mandela.jpg|60px]]
| '''[[Nelson Mandela]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1918–2013)&lt;/small&gt;
| 10 May 1994
| 16 June 1999
| {{nowrap|5 years}}, {{nowrap|37 days}}
| [[African National Congress]]
|-
! style=&quot;background:{{party color|African National Congress}}; color:white;&quot;|2
| [[File:SthAfrica.ThaboMbeki.01.jpg|60px]]
| '''[[Thabo Mbeki]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1942–)&lt;/small&gt;
| 16 June 1999
| 24 September 2008&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(resigned)&lt;/small&gt;
| {{nowrap|9 years}}, {{nowrap|100 days}}
| [[African National Congress]]
|-
! style=&quot;background:{{party color|African National Congress}}; color:white;&quot;|3
| [[File:GeorgeBushKgalemaMotlanthe crop.jpg|60px]]
| '''[[Kgalema Motlanthe]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1949–)&lt;/small&gt;
| 25 September 2008
| 9 May 2009
| {{nowrap|226 days}}
| [[African National Congress]]
|-
! style=&quot;background:{{party color|African National Congress}}; color:white;&quot;|4
| [[File:Jacob G. Zuma - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 2010.jpg|60px]]
| '''[[Jacob Zuma]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1942–)&lt;/small&gt;
| 9 May 2009
| 14 February 2018&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(resigned)&lt;/small&gt;
| {{nowrap|8 years}}, {{nowrap|264 days}}
| [[African National Congress]]
|-
! style=&quot;background:{{party color|African National Congress}}; color:white;&quot;|5
| [[File:Cyril Ramaphosa.jpg|60px]]
| '''[[Cyril Ramaphosa]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(1952–)&lt;/small&gt;
| 15 February 2018
| Present
| {{Age in years and days|2018|2|15}}
| [[African National Congress]]
|}

==Wonaniso==
*[[Freedom Day (South Africa)]]
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[Scramble for Africa]]
*[[History of Cape Colony]]
*[[History of Johannesburg]]
*[[History of the Northern Cape]]
*[[History of South African wine]]
*[[President of South Africa|List of presidents of South Africa]]
*[[List of prime ministers of South Africa]]
*[[List of heads of state of South Africa]]
*[[List of South Africa-related topics]]
*[[Military history of South Africa]]
*[[Politics of South Africa]]
*[[Timeline of South Africa]]
*[[Timeline of liberal parties in South Africa]]
*[[Years in South Africa]]
* History of cities in South Africa:
** Cape Town [[History of Cape Town|history]] and [[Timeline of Cape Town|timeline]]
** Durban [[Durban#History|history]] and [[Timeline of Durban|timeline]]
** Johannesburg [[History of Johannesburg|history]] and [[Timeline of Johannesburg|timeline]]
** Pietermaritzburg [[History of Pietermaritzburg|history]] and [[Timeline of Pietermaritzburg|timeline]]
** Port Elizabeth [[History of Port Elizabeth|history]] and [[Timeline of Port Elizabeth|timeline]]
** Pretoria [[History of Pretoria|history]] and [[Timeline of Pretoria|timeline]]

==Ukaboni==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Vyakulemba vinyake ==

===General===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* [[William Beinart|Beinart, William]]. ''Twentieth-Century South Africa''. [[Oxford University Press]]. 2001.
* Beck, Roger S. ''History of South Africa'', Greenwood Press, Westport CT: 2000
* Blignaut, Charl. &quot;Untold History with a Historiography: A Review of Scholarship on Afrikaner Women in South African History.&quot; ''South African Historical Journal'' 65.4 (2013): 596–617.
* Bunting, Brian. ''Rise of the South African Reich'' First published by Penguin Africa Library 1964, revised 1969.
* Christopher, A. J. ''The Atlas of Changing South Africa''. 2000. 216 pages. {{ISBN|0-415-21178-6}}.
* Deegan, Heather. ''The Politics of the New South Africa''. 2000. 256 pages. {{ISBN|0-582-38227-0}}.
* Elbourne, Elizabeth. ''Blood Ground: Colonialism, Missions, and the Contest for Christianity in the Cape Colony and Britain, 1799–1853''. McGill-Queen's University Press. December 2002. 560 pages. {{ISBN|0-7735-2229-8}}.
*  Hamilton, Carolyn and Bernard K. Mbenga, eds. ''The Cambridge History of South Africa: Volume 1: From Early Times to 1885'' (2009) [https://web.archive.org/web/20150709095458/http://www.langtoninfo.com/web_content/9780521517942_frontmatter.pdf excerpt]
* Hetherington, Penelope. &quot;Women in South Africa: the historiography in English.&quot; ''The International Journal of African Historical Studies'' 26#2 (1993): 241–269.
* {{Cite book |author-link=:cs:Ivan Hrbek |author=Hrbek, Ivan |title=Methodology and African Prehistory |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |year=1981 |isbn=0435948075 |editor-last=J. Ki-Zerbo |series=[[General History of Africa]] |volume=1 |pages=121–124 |chapter=Written sources from the fifteenth century onwards |quote=Republic of South Africa |chapter-url=http://www.unesco.org/new/index.php?id=50851}}
* Johnson, R.W.  ''South Africa's Brave New World: The Beloved Country Since the End of Apartheid'' (Overlook Press; 2011) 702 pages; a history since 1994
* Joyce, Peter.  ''The Making of a Nation South Africa's Road to Freedom'', Zebra Press, 2004, {{ISBN|978-1-77007-312-8}}
* Le Cordeur, Basil Alexander. ''The War of the Axe, 1847: Correspondence between the governor of the Cape Colony, Sir Henry Pottinger, and the commander of the British forces at the Cape, Sir George Berkeley, and others''. Brenthurst Press. 1981. 287 pages. {{ISBN|0-909079-14-5}}.
* Mabin, Alan. ''Recession and its aftermath: The Cape Colony in the eighteen eighties''. University of the Witwatersrand, African Studies Institute. 1983. 27 pages.
* Meiring, Hannes. ''Early Johannesburg, Its Buildings and People'', Human &amp; Rousseau, 1986, 143 pages, {{ISBN|0-7981-1456-8}}
* Mitchell, Laura. ''Belongings: Property, Family, and Identity in Colonial South Africa: An Exploration of Frontiers, 1725-c. 1830.'' [[Columbia University Press]], 2008. [http://www.gutenberg-e.org/mitchell/ Gutenberg-e.org]
* Pakenham, Thomas. ''The Boer War'', Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1979, {{ISBN|9780349104669}}
* Rosenthal, Eric. ''Gold! Gold! Gold! The Johannesburg Gold Rush'', AD. Donker, 1970, {{ISBN|0-949937-64-9}}
* Ross, Robert, and David Anderson. ''Status and Respectability in the Cape Colony, 1750–1870 : A Tragedy of Manners''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. 1999. 220 pages. {{ISBN|0-521-62122-4}}.
* Ross, Robert, Anne Kelk Mager and Bill Nasson, eds. ''The Cambridge History of South Africa: Volume 2 since 1885'' (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-History-South-Africa/dp/0521869838/ excerpt]
* Thompson, Leonard. ''A History of South Africa, Third Edition''. Yale University Press. 2001. 384 pages. {{ISBN|0-300-08776-4}}.
* Tomlinson, Richard, et al. ''Emerging Johannesburg: Perspectives on the Postapartheid City''. 2003. 336 pages. {{ISBN|0-415-93559-8}}.
* [[Frank Welsh (writer)|Welsh, Frank]]. ''South Africa: A Narrative History''. Kodansha America. 1 February 1999. 606 pages. {{ISBN|1-56836-258-7}}.
* Worden, Nigel.  ''Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid''. 2000. 194 pages. {{ISBN|0-631-21661-8}}.
{{Refend}}

===VOC period===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* Barend-van Haeften, Marijke; Paasman, Bert: ''De Kaap: Goede Hoop halverwege Indië. Bloemlezing van Kaapteksten uit de Compagnietijd''. (Hilversum: Verloren, 2003)
* Biewenga, A.: ''De Kaap de Goede Hoop: Een Nederlandse Vestigingskolonie, 1680–1730''. (Amsterdam: Promotheus and Bert Bakker, 1999)
* Botha, Colin Graham: ''The [[Huguenots in South Africa|French Refugees at the Cape]]''. (1919; reprint, Cape Town: C. Struik, 1970)
* Bryer, Lynne; Theron, Francois: ''The Huguenot Heritage: The Story of the [[Huguenots in South Africa|Huguenots at the Cape]]''. (Diep River, Chameleon Press, 1987)
* Coertzen, Pieter: ''Die Hugenote van Suid Afrika, 1688–1988''. (Cape Town: Tafelberg Publishers Limited, 1988)
* Delmas, Adrien, 'The Role of Writing in the First Steps of the Colony: A Short Enquiry in the Journal of Jan van Riebeeck, 1652–1662', in ''Contingent Lives: Social Identity and Material Culture in the VOC World'', ed. [[Nigel Worden]] (Cape Town: Royal Netherlands Embassy, 2007)
* Elphick, Richard; Giliomee, Hermann (eds.): ''The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1840''. (Wesleyan University Press, 1989, {{ISBN|978-0819562111}})
* Fourie, J.; Boshoff, W. (2008). 'Explaining the Ship Traffic Fluctuations in the Early Cape Settlement: 1652–1793', South African Journal of Economic History, 23 (2008), pp.&amp;nbsp;1–27.
* Fourie, J.; Boshoff, W. (2010). 'The significance of the Cape trade route to economic activity in the Cape Colony: a medium-term business cycle analysis', European Review of Economic History, 14 (2010), pp.&amp;nbsp;469–503.
* Fourie, J. (2014). 'The quantitative Cape: A review of the new historiography of the Dutch Cape Colony', South African Historical Journal 66.1, 2014, pp.&amp;nbsp;142–168.
* Franken, J. L. N.: ''Die Hugenote aan die Kaap''. (Pretoria: Die Staatsdrukker, 1978)
* Gerstner, Jonathan Neil: ''The Thousand Generation Covenant: Dutch Reformed Covenant Theology and Group Identity in Colonial South Africa, 1652–1814''. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1991)
* Godée Molsbergen, E.C.: ''Reizen in Zuid-Afrika in de Hollandse tijd: eerste deel, Tochten naar het noorden, 1652–1686''. ('s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976)
* Godée Molsbergen, E.C.: ''Reizen in Zuid-Afrika in de Hollandse tijd: tweede deel, Tochten naar het noorden, 1686–1806''. ('s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976)
* Godée Molsbergen, E.C.: ''Jan van Riebeeck en zijn tijd. Een stuk zeventiende-eeuws Oost-Indië'' [Jan van Riebeeck and his times: A piece of seventeenth-century East Indies]. (Amsterdam: P. N. Van Kampen en Zoon, 1937)
* Groenewald, Gerald: ''Een Dienstig Inwoonder: Entrepreneurs, Social Capital and Identity in Cape Town, c. 1720–1750''. South African Historical Journal, 59, 1(2007), pp.&amp;nbsp;126–152
* Guelke, Leonard (1976). &quot;Frontier Settlement in Early Dutch South Africa,&quot;. (''Annals of the Association of American Geographers'' 66, no. 1 (March 1976): 25–42)
* Huigen, Siegfried: ''Knowledge and Colonialism: Eighteenth-Century Travellers in South Africa''. (Leiden: Brill, 2009, pp. xii + 273 pp)
* Hunt, John: ''[[Dutch Cape Colony|Dutch South Africa]]: Early Settlers at the Cape, 1652–1708''. (Leicester, UK: Matador, 2005, {{ISBN|978-1904744955}})
* Johnson, David: ''Imagining the Cape Colony: History, Literature and the South African Nation''. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012)
* Lucas, Gavin: ''An Archaeology of Colonial Identity: Power and Material Culture in the Dwars Valley, South Africa''. (New York: Springer, 2006)
* Marais, J.S.: ''The Cape Coloured People, 1652–1937''. (1939; reprint, Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1968)
* Mitchell, L.J.: ''Belongings: Property and Identity in Colonial South Africa, an Exploration of Frontiers, 1725–c. 1830''. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009, pp. xv + 232)
* Newton-King, Susan: ''Masters and Servants on the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1760–1803''. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
* Raven-Hart, Rowland (ed.): ''Cape Good Hope, 1652–1702: The First Fifty Years of Dutch Colonisation as Seen by Callers'' [2 vols]. (Cape Town: A.A.Balkema, 1971)
* Schoeman, Karel: ''Early Slavery at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1717''. (Pretoria: Protea Book House, 2007)
* Schoeman, Karel: ''Portrait of a Slave Society: The Cape of Good Hope, 1717–1795''. (Pretoria: Protea Boekhuis, 2012)
* Shell, Robert: ''Children of Bondage: A Social History of the Slave Society at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1838''. (Hanover, Conn.; Wesleya University Press, 1994)
* Singh, Daleep: ''From Dutch South Africa to Republic of South Africa, 1652–1994. The Story of Three and a Half Centuries of Imperialism''. (New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 2010)
* [[Dan Sleigh|Sleigh, Dan]]: ''Die Buiteposte: VOC-buiteposte onder Kaapse Bestuur, 1652–1795''. (Pretoria: HAUM, 1993)
* Stapleton, Timothy J.: ''A Military History of South Africa: From the [[Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars|Dutch-Khoi Wars]] to the End of Apartheid''. (Santa Barbara, CA.: Praeger, 2010)
* Terreblanche, Sampie: ''A History of Inequality in South Africa, 1652–2002''. (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 2002)
* Theal, George McCall: ''History of South Africa under the Administration of the Dutch East India Company, 1652 to 1795''. Nabu Press, 2010, 474pp
* Theal, George McCall: ''History of the Boers in South Africa; Or, the Wanderings and Wars of the Emigrant Farmers from Their Leaving the Cape Colony to the Acknowledgment of Their Independence by Great Britain''. (Greenwood Press, 1970, {{ISBN|0-8371-1661-9}})
* Twidle, Hedley (2013). ''Writing the Company: From VOC Daghregister to Sleigh's Eilande'', South African Historical Journal 65(1) (2013): 125–52.
* [[Francois Valentijn|Valentijn, Francois]]: ''Description of the Cape of Good Hope with Matters Concerning It''. (Amsterdam, 1726). [Edited and annotated by Prof. P. Serton, Maj. B. Raven-Hart, Dr. W. J. de Kock.]
* Van der Merwe, P. J. : ''The Migrant Farmer in the History of the Cape Colony, 1657–1842''. Translated from the Dutch by Roger B. Beck. (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1995)
* Van Duin, Pieter; Ross, Robert: ''The Economy of the Cape Colony in the Eighteenth Century''. (Leiden: Centre for the History of European Expansion, 1987, pp. viii + 166)
* [[Jan van Riebeeck|Van Riebeeck, Jan]]: ''1652–1662, Daghregister gehouden by den oppercoopman Jan Anthonisz van Riebeeck''. In Bosman, D.B. &amp; B. Thorn (eds). ''Daghregister Gehouden by den Oppercoopman Jan Anthonisz van Riebeeck'', 3 vols. [Treated as a sequence of eleven manuscripts]. (Cape Town: Balkema, 1952–1957)
* Verstegen, M.: ''De Indische Zeeherberg, De stichting van Zuid-Afrika door de VOC''. (Zaltbommel, 2001)
* Viljoen, Russel: ''Jan Paerl: A Khoikhoi in Cape Colonial Society, 1761–1851''. (Boston, MA: Brill, 2006, pp. xviii + 213)
* Viljoen, Russel S. (1995). &quot;Disease and Society: VOC Cape Town, Its People, and the Smallpox Epidemics of 1713, 1755, and 1767,&quot; Kleio 27
* Welch, Sidney: ''Portuguese and Dutch in South Africa, 1641–1806''. (Cape Town: Juta Press, 1951)
* {{Cite book |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |title=Slavery in Dutch South Africa |isbn=9780521258753 |date=1985 |pages=xiii, 207}}
* {{Cite book |author-link1=Nigel Worden |last1=Worden |first1=Nigel |last2=van Heyningen |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Bickford-Smith |first3=Vivian |title=Cape Town: The Making of a City |isbn=9780864866561 |date=1998}}
* {{Cite book |editor-link1=Nigel Worden |editor-last1=Worden |editor-first1=Nigel |editor-last2=Groenewald |editor-first2=G. |title=Trials of Slavery: Selected Documents Concerning Slaves from the Criminal Records of the Council of Justice at the Cape of Good Hope, 1705–1794 |location=Cape Town |publisher=Van Riebeeck Society for the Publication of South African Historical Documents |date=2005}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2007 |title=Contingent Lives: Social Identity and Material Culture in the VOC World |isbn=9780620385091 |page=vi, 612}}
* {{Cite book |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2007 |title=VOC Cape Town as an Indian Ocean Port |editor-first1=Himanshu Prabha |editor-last1=Ray |editor-first2=Edward A. |editor-last2=Alpers |work=Cross Currents and Community Networks: The History of the Indian Ocean World |isbn=9780195677058 |pages=142–162}}
* {{Cite journal |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2007 |title=New Approaches to VOC History in South Africa |journal=[[South African Historical Journal]] |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=3–18|doi=10.1080/02582470709464770 |s2cid=145747452 }}
* {{Cite journal |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2010 |title=After Race and Class: Recent Trends in the Historiography of Early Colonial Cape Society |journal=[[South African Historical Journal]] |volume=62|issue=3 |pages=589–602 |doi=10.1080/02582473.2010.519904 |hdl=11427/28195 |s2cid=161070564 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |editor-link=Nigel Worden |editor-last=Worden |editor-first=Nigel |date=2012 |title=Cape Town between East and West: Social Identities in a Dutch Colonial Town |isbn=9781431402922 |page=xxii, 264}}
* {{Cite journal |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2014 |title=Cape Slaves in the Paper Empire of the VOC |journal=Kronos |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=23–44}}
* {{Cite journal |author-link=Nigel Worden |last=Worden |first=Nigel |date=2016 |title=Indian Ocean Slaves in Cape Town, 1695–1807 |journal=[[Journal of Southern African Studies]] |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=389–408|doi=10.1080/03057070.2016.1171554 |s2cid=147980814 }}
{{Refend}}

== Vigaŵa vya kuwalo ==
* [http://www.saha.org.za/collections.htm South African History Archive]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200534/http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=%2Fp164001coll21&amp;CISOPTR=224&amp;CISOBOX=1&amp;REC=3 Democratic Development in South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200534/http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=%2Fp164001coll21&amp;CISOPTR=224&amp;CISOBOX=1&amp;REC=3 |date=3 March 2016 }} from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20120112062354/http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/ Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112062354/http://cdm164001.cdmhost.com/krogh/ |date=12 January 2012 }}
* [http://www.sahistory.org.za South African History Online]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160407183735/http://mediaclub.co.za/culture/35-culture/culture-bg/104-history The History of South Africa] Brand South Africa. Accessed 24 November 2017.
* [http://www.gov.za South Africa Government Online]. Accessed 20 February 2005.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070621043856/http://www.villagelife.co.za/NewFiles/15_hromnik.pdf Dr Cyril Hromník on research into ancient history of Africa] – an article written by Maré Mouton.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050414045450/http://www.afrikanerbond.org.za/Dokideal.pdf ''Bearer of an Ideal''] – a public-release document of the Afrikanerbond (formerly ''Afrikaner Broederbond''): think-tank which influenced policies of separate development in South Africa
* [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/11.htm Full text of the UN convention]
* [https://www.npr.org/news/specials/mandela/ South Africa, 10 years later] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130112958/https://www.npr.org/news/specials/mandela/ |date=30 November 2018 }} from US [[National Public Radio]]
* {{cite web |work=LibGuides |title= History: Useful links |url=http://libguides.ukzn.ac.za/content.php?pid=470272&amp;sid=3850521 |publisher=[[University of KwaZulu-Natal]] Libraries }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.archivalplatform.org/registry/ |title=Registry |work=[[Archivalplatform.org]] |location=Rondebosch |access-date=5 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005151526/http://www.archivalplatform.org/registry/ |archive-date=5 October 2017 }} (Directory of South African archival and memory institutions and organisations)

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    <title>Hissène Habré</title>
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      <text bytes="34841" sha1="l9l8cv7v1puvyq73hywquxu768j415t" xml:space="preserve">{{Short description|Chadian politician and convicted war criminal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| native_name         = حسين حبري
| native_name_lang    = ar
| image               = President Hissène Habré of Chad.jpg
| caption             = Habré during a visit to the United States in 1987
| order               = 5th
| office              = President of Chad
| primeminister       = [[Djidingar Dono Ngardoum]] (1982)
| vicepresident       = 
| term_start          = 7 June 1982
| term_end            = 1 December 1990
| predecessor         = [[Goukouni Oueddei]]
| successor           = [[Idriss Déby]]
| order2              = 1st
| office2             = Prime Minister of Chad
| term_start2         = 29 August 1978
| term_end2           = 23 March 1979
| predecessor2        = [[François Tombalbaye]] (of [[French Chad]])
| successor2          = Djidingar Dono Ngardoum
| birth_date          = {{birth date|df=yes|1942|8|13}}
| birth_place         = [[Faya-Largeau]], [[French Chad]], [[French Equatorial Africa]]
| death_date          = {{death date and age|df=yes|2021|8|24|1942|8|13}}
| death_place         = [[Dakar]], Senegal&lt;ref name=Senegal /&gt;
| resting_place       = [[Yoff]] Muslim cemetery
| spouse              = Fatime Raymonde&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=24 August 2021|title=Hissène Habré is dead|url=https://www.theafricareport.com/121313/hissene-habre-is-dead/|access-date=25 August 2021|publisher=[[The Africa Report]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| party               = {{ubl|[[FROLINAT]] (1972–1984) |[[National Union for Independence and Revolution|UNIR]] (1984–1990)}}
| alma_mater          = {{ubli|[[École nationale de la France d'Outre-Mer]]|[[Aosta Valley University]]|[[University of Paris II Panthéon-Assas]]}}
| blank1   = Religion
| data1      = [[Muslim]]
| allegiance          = {{Flagu|Chad}}
| serviceyears        = 1972–1990
| branch              = [[Chadian Armed Forces]]
| battles             = {{Tree list}}
* [[Chadian–Libyan conflict]]
**[[Toyota War]]
**[[First Chadian Civil War]]{{Tree list/end}}
| module              = {{Infobox |child=yes |headerstyle=background:lavender;
| header1             = Criminal details
{{Infobox criminal|child=yes
| conviction          = [[Crimes against humanity]] {{List collapsed|title=''See list''
|(1) Rape
|(2) Forced [[slavery]]
|(3) [[voluntary homicide]]
|(4) systematic and massive practice of [[summary execution]]s
|(5) kidnapping of people
|(6) [[Torture]] and inhumane acts
}}
| victims             = &amp;gt;40,000 alleged Chadian dissidents
| beginyear           = 1982
| endyear             = 1990
| penalty             = [[Life imprisonment]]
| imprisoned          = [[Prison du Cap Manuel]]
| apprehended         = 15 November 2005
}}}}
}}

'''Hissène Habré''' ([[Arabic]]: {{lang|ar|حسين حبري}} ''Ḥusaīn Ḥabrī'',&amp;nbsp;[[Chadian Arabic]]: {{IPA-ar|hiˈsɛn ˈhabre|pron}}; {{IPA-fr|isɛn abʁe}}; 13 August 1942 – 24 August 2021),&lt;ref name=Senegal&gt;{{cite news |title=Chad's former President Habre, convicted of war crimes, dies in Senegal |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/chads-former-president-habre-convicted-war-crimes-dies-senegal-2021-08-24/ |access-date=24 August 2021 |publisher=Reuters |date=24 August 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;wakaŵa wandale wa ku [[Chad]] ndipo wakaŵa wa mulandu wa nkhondo. Wakaŵa purezidenti wa 5 wa charu cha Chad kwambira mu 1982 mpaka apo wakawuskikira mu 1990.

Munthu uyu wakaŵa Musulumani ndipo wakaŵa wa ku Northern Chad. Chifukwa cha mphindano na Goukouni Oueddei, Habré na gulu lake la ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka ŵakajipeleka kwa Felix Malloum. Kufuma apo, Habré wakapika udindo wa Minisita wa vya Vyankhondo mu boma liphya la Tchad, ndipo Oueddei wakaŵa purezidenti. Mwaluŵiro ubwezi wawo ukamara, ndipo ŵasilikari ŵa Habré ŵakawuskapo Oueddei mu 1982.

Wakati waŵa pulezidenti muphya wa caru ici, Habré wakambiska muwuso wa wupu umoza uwo ukawusikanga na wupu wake wa National Union for Independence and Revolution. Wakafika pa mazaza na wovwiri wa France na United States, awo ŵakapeleka masambiro, vilwero, na ndalama mu nyengo yose ya muwuso wake cifukwa cakuti wakasuskanga Muammar Gaddafi mulongozgi wa ku Libya.&lt;ref name=&quot;hartford-hwp.com&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2000/11/27/chads-torture-victims-pursue-habre-in-court/9da03c6b-ed13-477e-9e94-7f80450ca3b8/|title=Chad's Torture Victims Pursue Habre in Court|author=Douglas Farah|date=27 November 2000|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=3 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Wakalongozga chalo mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Libya na Chad, ndipo wakatonda nkhondo ya Toyota kufuma mu 1986 mpaka 1987 na wovwiri wa France. Pakati pajumpha vyaka vitatu, Idriss Déby wakathereska Tchad mu 1990 ndipo wakachimbilira ku Senegal.

Mu Meyi 2016, khoti la pa charu chose ku Senegal likasanga Habré na mulandu wa kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kusazgapo kuzgeriska, kugwiliska ntchito za uzga, na kukoma ŵanthu 40,000, ndipo ŵakamuphalira kuti wakakhale mu jele umoyo wake wose. Wakaŵa mutu wa boma wakwamba uyo wakeruzgika na khoti la caru cinyake cifukwa ca kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Wakafwa pa 24 August 2021, pamanyuma pa kuyezga kuti wali na COVID-19.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=24 August 2021|title=Sénégal : Hissène Habré est mort – Jeune Afrique|url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1222220/politique/senegal-hissene-habre-est-mort/|access-date=24 August 2021|website=JeuneAfrique.com|language=fr-FR}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Décès en prison au Sénégal de l'ex-président tchadien Hissène Habré|url=https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/deces-en-prison-au-senegal-de-l-ex-president-tchadien-hissene-habre-20210824|url-status=live|access-date=24 August 2021|website=Le Figaro|date=24 August 2021|language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Umoyo==
Habré wakababika mu 1942 ku Faya-Largeau, kumpoto kwa charu cha Chad. Wakaŵa wa fuko la Anakaza la fuko la Daza Gourane, ilo nalo ni fuko la fuko la Toubou. Wakati wamalizga masambiro ghake gha ku pulayimale, wakasanga nchito mu boma la France, ndipo wakakondweska ŵalara ŵake. Wakamalizga masambiro gha ku yunivesite mu Paris, ndipo wakawelera ku Chad mu 1971. Kweniso wakasanga madigiri ghanyake ghanandi na kupokera digiri ya udokotala. Pamanyuma pa nyengo yichoko waka yakuteŵetera boma nga ni Deputy Prefect, wakaluta ku Tripoli na kunjira gulu la National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT) uko wakazgoka mulongozgi wa Second Liberation Army ya FROLINAT pamoza na Goukouni Oueddei. Abba Siddick wati watora mazaza gha FROLINAT, Second Liberation Army, pakwamba pasi pa Oueddei ndipo pamanyuma pa Habré, yikapatukana na FROLINAT ndipo yikazgoka Council of Command of the Armed Forces of the North (CCFAN). Mu 1976 Oueddei na Habré ŵakakwesana ndipo Habré wakapatura gulu lake liphya la Armed Forces of the North (Forces Armées du Nord panji FAN) ku ŵalondezgi ŵa Goukouni awo ŵakamba kucemeka People's Armed Forces (Forces Armées Populaires panji FAP).

Habré wakamba kumanyikwa pa caru cose apo gulu ilo wakaŵa mulongozgi wake likawukira tawuni ya Bardaï ku Tibesti, pa Epulero 21, 1974, na kutora ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵa ku Europe kuŵa ŵakayidi. Munthu uyo ŵakamukora wakaŵa dokotala wa ku Germany, Dr. Christoph Staewen (uyo muwoli wake Elfriede wakakomeka), na ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵa ku France, Françoise Claustre, uyo wakumanya vya mipukutu yakale, na Marc Combe, uyo wakugwira ntchito yakovwira ŵanthu. Pa Juni 11, 1974, Staewen ŵakamufumiska pamanyuma pakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku West Germany ŵamupa ndalama zinandi.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=6 July 1974|title=Entführung: Bedenkliches Zugeständnis aus Bonn: Diplomatische Beziehungen abgebrochen – Dr. Staewen berichtet über Gefangenschait im Tschad (Abduction: dubious sanction from Bonn: Diplomatic relations broken off – Dr. Staewen reported hostage in Chad)|newspaper=Das Ostpreußenblatt|page=5|url=http://archiv.preussische-allgemeine.de/1974/1974_07_06_27.pdf|language=de}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-41696557.html |title=Deutscher Rebellen-Funk |date=17 June 1974 |work=Der Spiegel |language=de |access-date=3 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-41443747.html |title=Zum Weinen |date=15 September 1975 |work=Der Spiegel |language=de |access-date=3 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;Combe wakacimbira mu 1975, kweni nangauli boma la France likacitapo kanthu, Claustre (uyo mfumu wake wakaŵa mulara wa boma la France) wakafwatulika pa 1 Febuluwale 1977. Habré wakapatukana na Oueddei, cifukwa ca nkhani iyi (iyo yikamanyikwa kuti &quot;nkhani ya Claustre&quot; mu France).&lt;ref name=&quot;Chad-CS&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://cdn.loc.gov/master/frd/frdcstdy/ch/chadcountrystudy00coll/chadcountrystudy00coll.pdf |title=A Country Study: Chad |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |year=1990 |editor-last=Collelo |editor-first=Thomas |edition=Second |orig-year=December 1988}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Kuŵa na mazaza ==
Mu Ogasiti 1978 Habré wakapika maudindo gha Prime Minister wa Chad na Vice President wa Chad nga ndi chigaŵa cha mgwirizano na Gen. Ndipouli, phangano la kugaŵikana mazaza likamara yayi. Mu Febuluwale 1979, ŵasilikari ŵa Habré na ŵasilikari ŵa Malloum ŵakarwa nkhondo mu N'Djamena. Nkhondo iyi yikapangiska kuti charu cha Chad chileke kuŵa na boma. Vyaru vinyake vikayezga nthowa zinandi kuti vimazge suzgo ili, ndipo mu Novembala 1979 boma liphya likapangika, ndipo Habré wakasankhika kuŵa nduna ya vyavikiliro. Mu Disembala 1980, Habré wakatolekera ku Sudan.:354 Mu 1982, wakambaso kulimbana na boma la Chad. FAN yikapoka mazaza pa N'Djamena mu Juni ndipo yikimika Habré kuŵa mulongozgi wa boma.&lt;ref name=&quot;Chad-CS&quot;/&gt;{{Rp|30, 151}}

==Kulamula==
[[File:President Ronald Reagan During a Working Visit of President Hissein Habre of Chad and His Departure Statements at The Diplomatic Entrance - DPLA - 394ffc8f3e4dc286e8cb4ed1949b868e.jpg|left|thumb|306x306px|[[Ronald Reagan]] na Habré ku White House]]
Habré wakawusa mu charu cha Chad kwambira mu 1982 m'paka mu 1990 apo Idriss Déby wakamulekeska. Ufumu wa chipani chimoza wa Habré, nga umo ukaŵira na maparita ghanyake ghakale, ukaŵanga na kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Wakakana kukoma na kutambuzga ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamususkanga, nangauli mu 2012, khoti la United Nations' International Court of Justice (ICJ) likalangura kuti Senegal yimweruzge panji kumupeleka ku caru cinyake.

Wakati wafika pa mazaza, Habré wakambiska gulu la ŵapolisi lakucemeka Documentation and Security Directorate (DDS). Ŵanyake mwa nthowa izo DDS yikugwiliskira nchito pakusuzga ŵakayidi ni kuwotcha mathupi ghawo na vinthu vyakugolera, kuŵapopera gasi mu maso, makutu na mphuno, kuŵachichizga kumira maji, na kuŵachichizga kuti ŵajumphe milomo yawo mu viŵiya vya galimoto. Boma la Habré likacitangaso vyakukanizga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Sara, Hadjerai na Zaghawa, kukoma na kukora ŵanthu ŵanandi para ŵawona kuti ŵalongozgi ŵawo mbakofya ku boma.

Habré wakacimbira na ndalama za boma zakukwana $11 miliyoni, kuya ku Senegal pamanyuma pa kuwuskika mu 1990. Wakaŵikika mu jele mu 2005 mpaka apo wakakakikira mu 2013. Wakasoleka na milandu ya nkhondo na kutambuzga ŵanthu mu vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri ivyo wakaŵira pa mazaza mu Chad, uko magulu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakuti ŵanthu pafupifupi 40,000 ŵakakomeka. Wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu (Human Rights Watch) ukuti ŵanthu 1,200 ŵakakomeka ndipo 12,000 ŵakayuzgika, ndipo wupu unyake wa ku Chad ukati ŵanthu 40,000 ŵakakomeka ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 200,000 ŵakayuzgika. Human Rights Watch pamanyuma pake yikati Habré ni &quot;Pinochet wa ku Africa&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5140818.stm |title=Profile: Chad's Hissene Habre |date=3 July 2006 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=3 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6919022.stm |title=France to help try Chad ex-leader |date=27 July 2007 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=3 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2013/02/201329142812801421.html &quot;Africa's Pinochet&quot; or the beginning of &quot;Africa's solutions&quot;?] Al Jazeera&lt;/ref&gt;

== Nkhondo na Libya ==
{{Main|Chadian–Libyan conflict}}
[[File:Idriss Déby - 2004.jpg|thumb|Idriss Deby, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Habré, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wa ŵasilikari pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya Chadi na Libya, wakakomeka myezi yinayi pambere Habre wandafwe.]]
Mu Julayi 1980, charu cha Libya chikapoka charu cha Chad na kupoka chigaŵa cha Aozou. Boma la United States na la France likapokelera wovwiri wa Chadi kuti likanizge ŵanthu ŵa mu charu cha Libya awo ŵakaŵa na mtima wa kuwukira boma la Muammar al-Gaddafi.:354

Mu 1980, boma la umoza likasazga phangano la ubwezi na kukolerana na Libya. Phangano ili likazomerezga boma la Chadi kupempha wovwiri ku Libya usange wanangwa wa Chadi uli pangozi.:191 Gulu la ŵasilikari la ku Libya likamba kovwira ŵasilikari ŵa boma, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Goukouni. Mu 1983, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya ŵakawelera ku Chad ndipo ŵakakhalira mu charu ichi, kovwira ŵasilikari ŵa Goukouni, mpaka mu 1988.:193?? 198:354?? 356

Nangauli boma la Habré likathereska ŵalwani ŵake, kweni likaŵa na nkhongono yayi. Mu Novembala 1990, ŵakugaluka awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Idriss Déby, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Zaghawa, ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Habré. Ŵafarisi ŵakasankha kuleka kovwira Habré pa nyengo iyi, ndipo ŵakamulekeska ntchito. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakughanaghana kuti chifukwa icho charu cha France chikagwenthera ku Tchad chikaŵa chakuti chindanjirepo pa nkhondo izo zikaŵa mukati mwa charu cha Chad. Ŵanyake ŵakukhorwa yayi na ivyo Habré wakachita chifukwa chakuti wakakhumba yayi kuchita vinthu mwakukolerana na vyaru vinandi. Habré wakacimbilira ku Cameroon, ndipo ŵakugaluka ŵakanjira mu N'Djamena pa 2 Disembala 1990; Habré wakaluta ku Senegal.&lt;ref&gt;Bernard Lanne, &quot;Chad: Regime Change, Increased Insecurity, and Blockage of Further Reforms&quot;, ''Political Reform in Francophone Africa'' (1997), ed. Clark and Gardinier, page 274 (see also note 26).&lt;/ref&gt;

== Wovwiri wa United States na France ==
{{See also|CIA activities in Chad}}

{{quote box
| quote = Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, United States yikaŵa na udindo ukuru pakuwuska Hissène Habré ku mazaza, ndipo yikamuwona kuti ni munthu wakujivikilira mwachikanga kuti Muammar Gaddafi wa ku Libya waleke kusazgikira, ntheura yikapeleka wovwiri wa usilikari ku gulu lake na ku boma lake, nangauli boma ili likacitanga viheni vikuru na vyakukhozga wanangwa wa ŵanthu.| source = —[[Human Rights Watch]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|date =June 28, 2016| title=Enabling a Dictator: The United States and Chad's Hissène Habré 1982-1990|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/06/28/enabling-dictator/united-states-and-chads-hissene-habre-1982-1990|access-date=December 10, 2019 |publisher= [[Human Rights Watch]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| width = 340px}}

United States na France vikawovwira Habré, ndipo vikamuwona kuti ni munthu wakuvikilirika ku boma la Gaddafi ku Libya. Mu nyengo ya Pulezidenti Ronald Reagan, boma la United States likapeleka wovwiri ku CIA kuti wawovwire Habré kutora mazaza. Boma la United States likagwiliskiraso nchito msasa unyake mu caru ca Chad kusambizga ŵasilikari ŵa ku Libya awo ŵakakoleka.

Donald Norland, uyo wakaŵa thenga la United States ku Chad kwambira mu 1979 m'paka 1981, wakati: &quot;Nkhukayika usange CIA yikamanya ivyo vikacitikanga. Kweni pakaŵavya kudumbiskana za ndondomeko iyi, kweniso tikaŵavya kuyowoyapo usange ivyo tikachita vikaŵa vyavinjeru&quot;.

Malipoti agho Human Rights Watch yikasanga ghakulongora kuti boma la United States likapeleka masambiro, mauthenga gha mu charu, vilwero, na wovwiri unyake ku gulu la DDS la Habré nangauli likamanyanga uheni uwo likachitanga. Mabuku agho ghakasangika mu mabuku gha DDS ghakulongosora umo ŵasambizgi ŵa boma la United States ŵakasambizgiranga ŵantchito ŵa DDS. Kuyana na Chadian Truth Commission, United States yikapelekaso DDS wovwiri wa ndalama mwezi uliwose ndipo yikagwiliskira nchito ndalama zakwendeskera maofesi gha vyenjezgo agho ghakacemekanga kuti &quot;Mosaic&quot; agho Chad yikagwiliskiranga nchito pakulondezga ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga kuti ŵakususka boma la Habré nangauli ŵakachimbira mu caru.

Mu cihanya ca 1983, apo Libya wakawukira kumpoto kwa Chad ndipo wakakhumbanga kuwuskapo Habré, France yikatuma ŵasilikari ŵa parachute na wovwiri wa mu mphepo, apo boma la Reagan likapeleka ndege ziŵiri za AWACS kuti ziwovwire ŵanthu. Kuzakafika mu 1987, ŵasilikari ŵa Gaddafi ŵakawerako.

Mulara munyake wa boma la United States wakati: &quot;Habré wakaŵa munthu wavinjeru comene ndipo wakamanyanga makora umo wangacitira vinthu na ŵanthu ŵa mu caru. Kweniso wakaŵa munthu wankhaza na wakusuzga. Tingayowoya kuti tikamanyanga uyo wakaŵa na ivyo wakachitanga, kweni tikamuleka waka&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;hartford-hwp.com&quot;/&gt;

== Milandu ==

=== Kuyowoya vya kuswa malango ===
Magulu ghakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu ghakuwona kuti Habré ndiyo wakakoma ŵanthu ŵanandi, kweni unandi wawo ukumanyikwa yayi. Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakomeka pakaŵa ŵanthu ŵa mafuko ghanyake kumwera (1984), ŵa Hadjerai (1987), na ŵa Zaghawa (1989). Wupu wa Human Rights Watch ukamupa mulandu wakuti wakazomerezga kuti ŵanthu masauzandi ghanandi ŵakomeke na kutambuzgika. Habré ŵakamucemanga kuti &quot;Pinochet wa ku Africa&quot;, pakuyowoya za Augusto Pinochet, muwusi wa ku Chile. Habre wakasayinanga yekha vyeruzgo vya nyifwa na kulaŵilira vyakuyuzga ŵanthu, ndipo ŵakamusanga na mulandu wa kunjilirapo pa kutambuzga ŵanthu na kuŵakolelera. Kuyana na nkhwantha zinyake, khoti ilo likweruzga mulandu uwu likaŵa &quot;khoti la caru cose&quot;, nangauli ndilo likaŵa 'likuru comene' pa makhoti ghose&quot;.

Boma la Idriss Déby likakhazikiska Commission of Inquiry into the Crimes and Misappropriations Committed by Ex-President Habré, His Complices and/or Accessories in 1990, ilo likati ŵanthu 40,000 ŵakakomeka, kweni likalondezga yayi ivyo likayowoya.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url = http://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/commissions/Chad-Charter.pdf|title = Decree No. 014 /P.CE/CJ/90|date = 29 December 1990|access-date = 25 August 2021|website = usip.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=24 August 2021|title=Convicted ex-Chadian leader Hissène Habré dies at 79|language=en-GB|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-58316923|access-date=25 August 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News 2015&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Chad's Hissene Habre: Battle to bring 'Africa's Pinochet' to court|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33566865|access-date=30 May 2016|publisher=BBC News|date=20 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NYTimes&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News&quot; /&gt;

=== Kuyezgayezga kwambiro (Initial trial attempts) ===
Pakati pa 1993 na 2003, boma la Belgium likaŵa na dango lakuti ŵanthu wose ŵeruzgike (Loi belge des crimes de guerre) ilo likazomerezganga kuti ŵanthu awo ŵakuswa chomene wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵeruzgike mu makhoti gha mu charu chawo kweniso gha pa charu chose. Nangauli dango ili likawuskikapo, kweni ŵapolisi ŵakalutilira na kusanda mulandu wa Habré, ndipo mu Seputembala 2005 ŵakamupa mulandu wa kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu, kutambuzga ŵanthu, na kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Ku Senegal, uko Habré wakaŵa ku wuzga kwa vilimika 17, ŵakamujalira mu nyumba yake ku Dakar.

Pa Malichi 17, 2006, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Europe yikapempha Senegal kuti yipeleke Habré ku Belgium kuti wakeruzgike. Senegal wakapulikira yayi, ndipo pakwamba wakakana ivyo wupu wa African Union ukayowoya kuti waŵapeleke kwa iyo. Wupu wa Chadian Association for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights, ukazomerezga fundo iyi. Usange mphanyi ŵakamupeleka, mphanyi wakaŵa munthu wakwamba uyo charu chinyake chikamupeleka ku khoti chifukwa cha kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Mu 2007, boma la Senegal likakhazikiska khoti lakunozga la milandu ya nkhondo kuti limweruzge Habré. Pa Epulero 8, 2008, wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa ku Senegal ukazomerezga kusintha malango gha charu ichi kuti Habré wasangike na mulandu. Pa ungano wa wupu wa National Assembly na Senate mu Julayi 2008, ŵakazomerezga dango ilo likapeleka mazaza ku makhoti gha ku Senegal kuti gheruzgenge ŵanthu chifukwa cha milandu iyo ŵakacita mu vyaru vinyake kweniso milandu iyo ŵakacita vyaka vyakujumpha 10 kumasinda. Nduna ya vya Malango ya ku Senegal, Madicke Niang, yikimika ŵeruzgi ŵanayi.

Filimu ya mu 2007 ya Klaartje Quirijns, The Dictator Hunter, yikulongosora vya Souleymane Guengueng na Reed Brody, awo ŵakalongozga ntchito ya kuzenga mulandu Habré.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.democracynow.org/2008/6/12/the_dictator_hunter_victims_of_us |title=&quot;The Dictator Hunter&quot;: Victims of US-Allied Chadian Dictator Hissene Habre Lead Quest to Bring Him to Justice |author=Amy Goodman and Juan González |date=12 June 2008 |work=Democracy Now! |access-date=3 July 2012}}]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5ilSuW-bsoOgcqLzkuQthox0qGrig |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130124143928/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5ilSuW-bsoOgcqLzkuQthox0qGrig |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 January 2013 |title=Sénégal: les députés modifient la Constitution pour juger Hissène Habré |language=fr |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=8 April 2008 |access-date=3 July 2012 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/Senegal-amends-constitution-20080409 |title=Senegal amends constitution |agency=Associated Press |date=9 April 2008 |publisher=News 24 |access-date=3 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kuyezgeka ku Chad ===
Pa 15 Ogasiti 2008, khoti la ku Chad likadumura kuti Habré wakomeke kwambura mulandu chifukwa cha milandu ya nkhondo na yakwimikana na wanangwa wa ŵanthu chifukwa cha ivyo ŵakamuyowoyera kuti wakagwiranga lumoza ntchito na ŵakugaluka mukati mwa Chad kuti wafumiske Déby. François Serres, loya wa Habré, wakasuska mulandu uwu pa Ogasiti 22 cifukwa cakuti ukaŵa wambura urunji ndiposo wachisisi. Kuyana na Serres, mulandu uwo upharazgi uwu ukajintha ukaŵa wambura kumanyikwa ndipo Habré wakapokera yayi uthenga uliwose wakukhwaskana na mulandu uwu.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/01/28/african-union-press-senegal-habr-trial &quot;African Union: Press Senegal on Habré Trial&quot;], Human Rights Watch, 28 January 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kuyezgeka ku Senegal ===
Mu 2008, boma la Senegal likasazgirako fundo yinyake iyo yikapeleka mwaŵi wakuti Habré weruzgike. Kweni pamasinda, boma la Senegal likasintha maghanoghano ghake, ndipo likapempha wovwiri wa ndalama zakujumpha 27 miliyoni za ku caru cose pambere ŵandambe kuyezga. Ici cikapangiska Belgium kuti wacimbizge khoti la International Court of Justice (ICJ) kuti liŵachichizge Senegal kuti wapeleke Habré ku Belgium panji kuti walutilire na mulandu wake. Khoti la ICJ likakana kupeleka mulandu uwu, ndipo likati para munthu waswa dango ili ndikuti wabuda. Boma la Senegal likasuskika cifukwa ca kuleka kufiska ivyo likakhumbanga pa nkhani ya ucigeŵenga, kweniso cifukwa ca kuleka kupeleka mulandu uwu ku ŵalara ŵa boma kuti ŵeruzgike. Khoti la ICJ likakana ivyo boma la Senegal likayowoya vyakuti ndarama ni zichoko kweniso kuti likususka malango gha mu charu.

Mu Novembala 2010, khoti la Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) likadumura kuti Senegal yingachita yayi mulandu uwu kwizira mu khoti la ku malo pera, ndipo likapempha kuti paŵe khoti lapadera lakweruzgira mulandu wa Habré. Mu Epulero 2011, Senegal yikakolerana kuti paŵe wupu wa ad hoc mu Africa, Chad, na vyaru vinyake.

Ndipouli, boma la Senegal likasintha maghanoghano ghake, ndipo likafumamo mu khoti ili pa Meyi 30, 2011 kwambura kulongosora. Komiti ya African Union pa nkhani ya Habré, pakunozgekera ungano wawo wakulondezgapo wa pa Juni 30, yikalemba lipoti ilo likapempha Senegal kuti yipeleke Habré ku Belgium.

Pa Julayi 8, 2011, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Senegal ŵakapharazga kuti Habré wazamumupeleka ku Chad pa Julayi 11, kweni ivi vikamara.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14101258 |title=Senegal suspends Hissene Habre's repatriation to Chad |date=10 July 2011 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=3 July 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mu Julayi 2012, khoti la ICJ likadumura kuti Senegal yambe kweruzga Habré &quot;kwambura kuchedwa&quot;. Bungwe la Amnesty International likapempha boma la Senegal kuti lipulikire ivyo khoti la ICJ ladumura. Khoti la pa caru cose (ICC) likakana kweruzga mulandu uwu, cifukwa milandu iyi yikacitika pambere khoti ili lindambe kuwumbika mu 2002, ndipo likulongozga waka vinthu ivyo vikacitika pamanyuma pa nyengo iyi.

Mu Disembala 2012, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Senegal yikapeleka dango lakuti mu Senegal mupangike khoti la ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose kuti limweruzge Habre. Ŵeruzgi ŵa khoti ili ŵakwimikika na wupu wa African Union, ndipo ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake vya mu Africa.

Pa Juni 30, 2013, ŵapolisi ŵa ku Senegal ŵakamukora Habré ku Senegal. Pulezidenti wa Chadi, Idriss Déby, wakati kukakika kwake kukaŵa &quot;nthowa yakulongozgera ku Africa uko kulije uheni uliwose, uko kulije maboma ghakupusa&quot;. Khoti la ku Senegal, ilo likakhazikiskika pamoza na wupu wa African Union, likamuphalira mulandu wa kusuzga ŵanthu. Mu caka ici, khoti la ku Chad likamuphalira kuti wakomeke cifukwa ca kuswa malango. Khoti ilo likeruzga mulandu wa Hissène Habré ku Senegal likuyowoyeka kuti lili na vinthu vinandi.

Pa Julayi 20, 2015, mulandu uwu ukamba. Apo wakalindiliranga kuti mulandu uwu wambike, Habré wakacemerezga kuti: &quot;Ŵalwani ŵa boma ŵaparanyike. [Ceruzgo ici] nchinthu caucindere ico ŵandyali ŵa ku Senegal ŵakucita. Ŵapusikizgi ŵa ku Africa. Muteŵeti wa ku America&quot;. Kufuma apo, Habré ŵakamufumiska mu khoti ndipo mulandu ukayamba kwambura iyo. Pa Julayi 21, 2015, mulandu wa Habré ukasinthika kufika pa Seputembala 7, 2015, pamanyuma pakuti maloya ghake ghakana kwiza ku khoti.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| title =Trial of Chad's ex-dictator Habré adjourned to September 7| newspaper =[[France 24]]| date =21 July 2015| url =http://www.france24.com/en/20150721-senegal-trial-chad-ex-dictator-habre-adjourned-september-7| access-date = 24 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| title =Chad's Hissene Habre forced to appear in court| quote =The trial has been suspended until 7 September after Mr Habre and his lawyers refused to speak to the judge.|publisher=[[BBC News]]| date =21 July 2015| url =https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-33607843| access-date = 24 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| author = Diadie Ba| title =Trial of Chad's Habre suspended after boycott by his lawyers|publisher=[[Reuters]]| date = 21 July 2015| url =https://www.reuters.com/article/us-senegal-justice-habre-idUSKCN0PV11K20150721| access-date = 24 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news| author = Thierry Cruvellier| title =For Hissène Habré, a Trial by Refusal| newspaper =[[The New York Times]]| date =27 July 2015| url =https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/28/opinion/for-hissene-habre-a-trial-by-refusal.html| access-date =28 July 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Khoti Lapadera ku Senegal Likatumizga Mulandu ===
Pa 30 May 2016, makhoti gha ku Africa ghakasanga kuti Habré ngwakwananga cifukwa ca kucitiska uleŵi, uzga wa kugonana, na kuphalira ŵanthu 40,000 kuti ŵakomeke apo wakaŵa pulezidenti wa Chad ndipo ŵakamupa chilango cakuti wakhale mu jele la Cap Manuel ku Senegal umoyo wake wose. Uwu ukaŵa ulendo wakwamba kuti khoti lakuwovwirika na wupu wa African Union limare mulandu wa kuswa wanangwa wa ŵanthu wa munthu uyo kale wakaŵa mulongozgi wa charu chinyake.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC News&quot;&gt;{{cite news|title=Hissene Habre: Chad's ex-ruler convicted of crimes against humanity|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36411466|access-date=30 May 2016|publisher=BBC News|date=30 May 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Burke|first1=Jason|title=Hissène Habré trial provides model for international justice|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/30/hissene-habre-trial-provides-model-for-international-justice|access-date=30 May 2016|work=The Guardian|date=30 May 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;CNN&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dewan|first1=Angela|last2=Swails|first2=Brent|title=Ex-Chad dictator sentenced to life for war crimes|url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/05/30/africa/habre-africa-chad-war-crimes/|access-date=30 May 2016|publisher=CNN|date=30 May 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;NYTimes&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Searcey|first1=Dionne|title=Hissène Habré, Ex-President of Chad, Convicted of War Crimes|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/31/world/africa/hissene-habre-leader-chad-war-crimes.html?_r=0|access-date=30 May 2016|work=The New York Times|date=30 May 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mu Meyi 2017, Mweruzgi Ougadeye Wafi wakakhozgera chilango cha umoyo wake wose kwa Habre pamoza na milandu yose iyo ŵakamupa, kupaturako wacigeŵenga. Khoti likati nkhani iyi yikakhwaska ndondomeko ya mulandu uwu, cifukwa cakuti ivyo mwanakazi uyu wakayowoya vikapelekeka mwakucedwa comene mwakuti vingaŵa nga ni mulandu wa nkhaza za kugonana izo ŵantchito ŵake ŵakacita. Pa 7 April 2020, mweruzgi ku Senegal wakapeleka kwa Habre myezi yiŵiri kuti waleke kukhala mu jele, pakuti jele ili likugwiliskirika nchito kuti ŵakayidi ŵaphya ŵa COVID-19 ŵaŵikikenge mu malo ghakupatulika. Wakati wafuma mu jele, wakawelera mu jele pa Juni 7.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/996420/societe/senegal-le-tchadien-hissene-habre-regagne-sa-prison/|title=Sénégal : le Tchadien Hissène Habré regagne sa prison – Jeune Afrique|date=7 June 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.notimerica.com/politica/noticia-chad-expresidente-chad-hissene-habre-vuelve-prision-senegal-permiso-covid-19-20200608115455.html|title=Chad.- El expresidente de Chad Hissne Habré vuelve a prisión en Senegal tras el permiso por la COVID-19|first=Europa|last=Press|date=8 June 2020|website=www.notimerica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2020/06/former-chadian-strongman-hissene-habre-returns-to-prison/|title=Former Chadian strongman Hissene Habre returns to prison|date=7 June 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Seelinger|first=Kim Thuy |date=10 May 2017 |title=Hissène Habré's rape acquittal must not be quietly airbrushed from history|url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/may/10/hissene-habre-acquittal-not-airbrushed-from-history-khadidja-zidane-kim-thuy-seelinger|work=The Guardian |access-date=10 December 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |date=7 April 2020 |title=Chad: Ex-president temporarily released from jail due to COVID-19|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/04/chad-president-temporarily-released-jail-due-covid-19-200407070630471.html|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]] |agency= [[AFP news agency]] |access-date=7 April 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Nyifwa ==
cHabré wakafwira ku Senegal pa 24 August 2021, sabata yimoza pamanyuma pa zuŵa lake lakubabikira la 79, wati wafika ku chipatala chikuru ku Dakar na nthenda ya COVID-19.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last1=Maclean|first1=Ruth|last2=Camara|first2=Mady|date=24 August 2021|title=Hissène Habré, Ex-President of Chad Jailed for War Crimes, Dies at 79|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/24/world/africa/hissene-habre-dead.html|access-date=25 August 2021|issn=0362-4331}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Chad's former president Hissène Habré dies at 79 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210824-chad-s-former-president-hiss%C3%A8ne-habr%C3%A9-dies-at-79 |access-date=24 August 2021 |work=[[France24]] |date=24 August 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Wakalwara apo wakaŵa mu jele sabata yimoza kumasinda.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=Chad's former President Hissene Habre dies of COVID aged 79|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/8/24/chads-former-president-hissene-habre-dies-of-covid-aged-79|access-date=24 August 2021|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mu mazgu, muwoli wa Habré, [[Fatimé Raymonne Habré]], wakasimikizga kuti wali na COVID-19. Wakasungika mu dindi la Ŵasilamu la Yoff.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2021-08-27|title=Sénégal : Hissène Habré enterré en l'absence de représentants officiels – Jeune Afrique|url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/1223629/politique/senegal-hissene-habre-enterre-en-labsence-de-representants-officiels/|access-date=2021-08-30|website=JeuneAfrique.com|language=fr-FR}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=rfi&gt;{{cite news |first=|last=|title=L'ancien président tchadien Hissène Habré est mort |url=https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20210824-l-ancien-pr%C3%A9sident-tchadien-hiss%C3%A8ne-habr%C3%A9-est-d%C3%A9c%C3%A9d%C3%A9-du-covid-19 |work=[[Radio France International]] |date=2021-08-24 |access-date=2021-09-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Wonaniso==
* [[Rose Lokissim]]

==Ukaboni==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160804154204/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&amp;p2=3&amp;code=bs&amp;case=144&amp;k=5e ''Belgium v. Senegal Hissene Habre'' Case of 19 February 2009]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101124151137/http://www.hrw.org/justice/habre/ The Case against Hissène Habré, an &quot;African Pinochet&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124151137/http://www.hrw.org/justice/habre/ |date=24 November 2010 }}, [[Human Rights Watch]].
* [http://www.democracynow.org/2016/5/31/from_us_ally_to_convicted_war &quot;From U.S. Ally to Convicted War Criminal: Inside Chad's Hissène Habré's Close Ties to Reagan Admin&quot;]. ''[[Democracy Now!]]'' 31 May 2016.

{{ChadPres}}
{{ChadPMs}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Habre, Hissene}}
[[Category:1942 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century criminals]]
[[Category:Chadian anti-communists]]
[[Category:Chadian people convicted of crimes against humanity]]
[[Category:Chadian people imprisoned abroad]]
[[Category:Chadian politicians convicted of crimes]]
[[Category:Chadian prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment]]
[[Category:Chadian rebels]]
[[Category:People of the Chadian–Libyan War]]
[[Category:Critics of Islamism]]
[[Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Senegal]]
[[Category:Heads of government of Chad]]
[[Category:Heads of government who were later imprisoned]]
[[Category:Heads of state of Chad]]
[[Category:National Union for Independence and Revolution politicians]]
[[Category:People convicted of genocide]]
[[Category:Chadian people convicted of rape]]
[[Category:People from Faya-Largeau]]
[[Category:People sentenced to death in absentia]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:Prisoners and detainees of Senegal]]
[[Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by international courts and tribunals]]
[[Category:Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Senegal]]
[[Category:Toubou people]]
[[Category:Vice presidents of Chad]]
[[Category:Prisoners who died from COVID-19]]
[[Category:20th-century Chadian politicians]]
[[Category:21st-century Chadian politicians]]</text>
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| national_anthem        = &lt;br /&gt;{{nowrap|{{lang|ru|Государственный гимн Российской Федерации}}}}&lt;br /&gt;{{transliteration|ru|Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii}}&lt;br /&gt;&quot;[[State Anthem of the Russian Federation]]&quot;{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Russia (2000), instrumental, one verse.ogg]]}}
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:Russian Federation (orthographic projection) - All Territorial Disputes.svg|frameless]]|Show globe (incl. claimed and disputed territories){{Efn|[[Crimea]], which was [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed by Russia]] in 2014, remains [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262|internationally recognised]] as a part of Ukraine.&lt;ref name=&quot;dispute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Pifer |first=Steven |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/03/17/crimea-six-years-after-illegal-annexation/ |title=Crimea: Six years after illegal annexation |publisher=[[Brookings Institute]] |date=17 March 2020 |access-date=30 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|annexed]]—though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/4|internationally recognised]] as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost [[Kuril Islands]] have been the subject of a territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapple-2019&quot; /&gt;}}|[[File:Map of Russia-en.svg|frameless]]|Show region with labels|default=1}}
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| largest_city           = capital
| languages_type         = Official and national language
| languages              = [[Russian language|Russian]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Russian&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Chevalier |first=Joan F. |title=Russian as the National Language: An Overview of Language Planning in the Russian Federation |jstor=43669126 |journal=Russian Language Journal |pages=25–36 |volume=56 |year=2006 |publisher=American Councils for International Education ACTR / ACCELS}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| languages2_type        = {{nobold|Recognised regional languages}}
| languages2             = See [[Languages of Russia#Official languages|Languages of Russia § Official languages]]
| ethnic_groups          = {{unbulleted list
 | 71.7% [[Russians|Russian]]
 | 3.2% [[Tatars|Tatar]]
 | 1.1% [[Chechens|Chechen]]
 | 1.1% [[Bashkirs|Bashkir]]
 | 22.9% [[Ethnic groups in Russia|other]] or not reported
 }}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2021, including Russia and Crimea
| ethnic_groups_ref      = &lt;ref name=EthnicGroups2021&gt;{{cite web|title=Национальный состав населения|url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx|publisher=[[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Federal State Statistics Service]]|accessdate=30 December 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| demonym                = Russian
| government_type        = [[Federal republic|Federal]] [[semi-presidential]] [[republic]] under an [[authoritarian]] [[dictatorship]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Krzywdzinski&quot;&gt;{{cite book | author = Martin Krzywdzinski |year= 2020 | title = Consent and Control in the Authoritarian Workplace: Russia and China Compared | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | pages = 252– | isbn = 978-0-19-252902-2 | oclc = 1026492383 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gz5MDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA252|quote=''officially a democratic state with the rule of law, in practice an authoritarian dictatorship''}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Russia: Freedom in the World 2023 Country Report | website=Freedom House | date=2019-07-20 | url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2023 | access-date=2023-04-17}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;authoritarianness&quot;/&gt; &lt;!--- Before adding [[Dominant-party system]] here, discuss in the talk page, additions before any consensus will be challenged and removed. ---&gt;
| leader_title1          = [[President of Russia|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[Vladimir Putin]]
| leader_title2          = [[Prime Minister of Russia|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2           = [[Mikhail Mishustin]]
| legislature            = [[Federal Assembly (Russia)|Federal Assembly]]
| upper_house            = [[Federation Council (Russia)|Federation Council]]
| lower_house            = [[State Duma]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[History of Russia|Formation]]
| established_event1     = {{nowrap|[[Kievan Rus']]}}
| established_date1      = 879
| established_event2     = {{nowrap|[[Vladimir-Suzdal]]}}
| established_date2      = 1157
| established_event3     = [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Grand Duchy of&lt;br&gt;Moscow]]
| established_date3      = 1263
| established_event4     = [[Tsardom of Russia]]
| established_date4      = 16 January 1547
| established_event5     = [[Russian Empire]]
| established_date5      = 2 November 1721
| established_event6     = {{nowrap|[[February Revolution|Monarchy abolished]]}}
| established_date6      = 15 March 1917
| established_event7     = {{nowrap|[[Soviet Union]]}}
| established_date7      = 30 December 1922
| established_event8     = {{nowrap|[[Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Declaration of State&lt;br&gt;Sovereignty]]}}
| established_date8      = 12 June 1990
| established_event9     = {{nowrap|[[Belovezha Accords|Russian Federation]]}}
| established_date9      = 12 December 1991
| established_event10    = [[Constitution of Russia|Current constitution]]
| established_date10     = 12 December 1993
| established_event11    = [[Union State|Union State formed]]
| established_date11     = 8 December 1999
| area_km2               = 17,098,246
| area_footnote          = &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publications/pocketbook/files/world-stats-pocketbook-2016.pdf#page=182 |title=World Statistics Pocketbook 2016 edition |publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Statistics Division |access-date=24 April 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; (within internationally recognised borders)
{{convert|17,234,028|km2|abbr=on}} (including claimed territories)
| area_rank              = 1st
| percent_water          = 13&lt;ref name=gen&gt;{{cite web |title=The Russian federation: general characteristics |url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728064121/http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1%2F010000R |archive-date=28 July 2011 |website=Federal State Statistics Service |access-date=5 April 2008 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; (including swamps)
| population_estimate    = {{plainlist|
* {{IncreaseNeutral}} 147,182,123 ([[Russian Census (2021)|2021 Census]])&lt;ref name=&quot;census2021&quot;&gt;Including 2,482,450 people living on the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexed]] [[Crimea|Crimean Peninsula]] {{cite web |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/vpn_popul# |script-title=ru:Том 1. Численность и размещение населения|language=ru |work=[[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Russian Federal State Statistics Service]] |access-date=3 September 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* {{nowrap|(including Crimea)&lt;ref name=&quot;gks.ru-popul&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/PrPopul2022_Site.xls |format=XLS|script-title=ru:Предварительная оценка численности постоянного населения на 1 января 2022 года и в среднем за 2021 год|trans-title=Preliminary estimated population as of 1 January 2022 and on the average for 2021 |language=ru |work=[[Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)|Russian Federal State Statistics Service]] |access-date=30 January 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
* {{IncreaseNeutral}} 144,699,673
* (excluding Crimea)&lt;ref name=&quot;gks.ru-popul&quot;/&gt;}}
| population_estimate_year = 2022
| population_estimate_rank = 9th
| population_density_km2 = 8.4
| population_density_sq_mi = 21.5
| population_density_rank = 181st
| GDP_PPP                = {{Increase}} $4.771 trillion&lt;ref name=&quot;IMFWEORU&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/weo-report?c=922,&amp;s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&amp;sy=2022&amp;ey=2022&amp;ssm=0&amp;scsm=1&amp;scc=0&amp;ssd=1&amp;ssc=0&amp;sic=0&amp;sort=country&amp;ds=.&amp;br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2022
| GDP_PPP_rank           =
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{Increase}} $33,263&lt;ref name=&quot;IMFWEORU&quot;/&gt;
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
| GDP_nominal            = {{Increase}} $2.215 trillion&lt;ref name=&quot;IMFWEORU&quot;/&gt;
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2022
| GDP_nominal_rank       =
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{Increase}} $15,444&lt;ref name=&quot;IMFWEORU&quot;/&gt;
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
| Gini                   = 36.0 &lt;!--number only--&gt;
| Gini_year              = 2020
| Gini_change            = decrease &lt;!--increase/decrease/steady--&gt;
| Gini_ref               = &lt;ref name=&quot;WBgini&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=RU |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=23 June 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| HDI                    = 0.822&lt;!--number only--&gt;
| HDI_year               = 2021&lt;!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--&gt;
| HDI_change             = increase &lt;!--increase/decrease/steady--&gt;
| HDI_ref                = &lt;ref name=&quot;HDI&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2021-22pdf_1.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2021/2022|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=8 September 2022|access-date=8 September 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| HDI_rank               = 52nd
| currency               = [[Russian ruble|Ruble]] ([[₽]])
| currency_code          = RUB
| utc_offset             = +2 to +12
| drives_on              = right
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Russia|+7]]
| cctld                  = {{unbulleted list |[[.ru]]|[[.рф]]}}
| religion_year          = 2020
| religion_ref           = &lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;&gt;https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/russia/&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ArenaAtlas2012&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Арена: Атлас религий и национальностей|trans-title=Arena: Atlas of Religions and Nationalities|year=2012|publisher=Среда (Sreda)|url=https://docviewer.yandex.com/view/0/?*=rvAv5PGTc%2Fw%2BBFV6QOUZtaf5gYF7InVybCI6InlhLWRpc2stcHVibGljOi8vMWV1aDl5RDFpcnZKeVZNNSswWWFaZktqRFhoOXZDNWhldUlGTU5uQU4zQT0iLCJ0aXRsZSI6IlNyZWRhX2Jsb2tfcHJlc3Nfc20yLnBkZiIsInVpZCI6IjAiLCJub2lmcmFtZSI6ZmFsc2UsInRzIjoxNTI0NDg3NTUzMTcwfQ%3D%3D&amp;page=1|format=PDF}} See also the results' '''[http://sreda.org/arena main interactive mapping]''' and the static mappings: {{cite map|title=Religions in Russia by federal subject|journal=Ogonek|volume=34|issue=5243|date=27 August 2012|url=http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421154615/http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg|archive-date=21 April 2017}} The Sreda Arena Atlas was realised in cooperation with the [http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=census All-Russia Population Census 2010 (Всероссийской переписи населения 2010)], the [http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=minust Russian Ministry of Justice (Минюста РФ)], the Public Opinion Foundation (Фонда Общественного Мнения) and presented among others by the Analytical Department of the Synodal Information Department of the Russian Orthodox Church. See: {{cite journal|title=Проект АРЕНА: Атлас религий и национальностей|trans-title=Project ARENA: Atlas of religions and nationalities|url=http://russ.ru/Mirovaya-povestka/Proekt-ARENA-Atlas-religij-i-nacional-nostej|journal=Russian Journal|date=10 December 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| religion               = {{ublist|item_style=white-space;|{{Tree list}}
* 69.4% [[Christianity in Russia|Christianity]]
** 63% [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodoxy]]&lt;ref name=&quot;auto&quot;/&gt;
** 6.4% other [[List of Christian denominations|Christian]]
{{Tree list/end}}|16.7% [[Irreligion in Russia|unaffiliated/no answer]]|6.5% [[Islam in Russia|Islam]]{{efn|name=ArenaAtlasIslam}}|2.4% [[Religion in Russia|other]] (including [[Buddhism in Russia|Buddhism]])&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/327646-kalmykia-buddhism-russia |title=Check out Russia's Kalmykia: The only region in Europe where Buddhism rules the roost |last=Shevchenko |first=Nikolay |date=February 21, 2018 |website=[[Russia Beyond]] |access-date=February 11, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;|5% atheism}}&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy|title=Russia - Soviet Union Dissolution, Privatization Process, and Economic Hardship &amp;#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

'''Russia''' ({{Lang-ru|Россия|Rossiya}}, {{IPA-ru|rɐˈsʲijə| }}), panji kuti '''Wupu wa Russia''',&lt;!-- Both names are equally official - see: [[Talk:Russia/Archive 12#Equality of the names]]. --&gt;{{efn|{{lang-rus|Российская Федерация|r=Rossiyskaya Federatsiya|p=rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə|links=yes}}}} ni charu icho chili ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa [[Europe]] na kumpoto kwa [[Asia]]. Ni caru cikuru comene pa caru capasi, ndipo cikupanga cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza pa vigaŵa vyose vya caru capasi. Charu cha Russia chili na vigaŵa 11 vya nyengo ndipo chili na vyaru 14. Ni caru cacinkhondi na cinayi pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene pa caru cose ndiposo caciŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene mu Europe. Msumba ukuru wa Russia ni [[Moscow]]. Msumba wa [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] ndiwo ni msumba ukuru comene wa Russia. Malo ghanyake ghakurughakuru mu charu ichi ni [[Novosibirsk]], [[Yekaterinburg]], [[Kazan]], [[Krasnoyarsk]], [[Nizhny Novgorod]], [[Chelyabinsk]], [[Ufa]], na [[Krasnodar]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://citypopulation.de/en/russia/cities/|title=Russia: Federal Districts and Major Cities|work=citypopulation.de|accessdate=2026-01-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slav ŵakamba kukhala ku Europe pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 300 na 800 C.E. Boma lakwamba la ŵanthu ŵa ku [[East Slavic]], la Kievan Rus', likaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ndipo mu 988, likamba kugomezga Chikhristu cha Orthodox kufuma ku [[Ufumu wa Byzantium]]. Paumaliro, caru ca Russia cikamara, ndipo u[[fumu wa Grand Duchy]] wa [[Moscow]] ukakura na kuzgoka Ufumu wa Russia. Kuzakafika kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, charu cha Russia chikakura chomene chifukwa cha kuthereska ŵanthu na kuŵawukira. Ndipouli, apo ku Russia kukawuka vivulupi mu 1917, muwuso wa ufumu wa Russia ukamara ndipo pamasinda SFSR yikamba kulamulira. Pamanyuma pa [[Nkhondo ya ku Russia]], [[Soviet Socialist Socialist Republic of Russia]] yikambiska Soviet Union pamoza na vyaru vinyake vitatu vya Soviet Union. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1930, [[Soviet Union]] yikasuzgika chomene na vinthu vya m'ma 1930. Apo Nkhondo Yakuzizima yikambanga, charu cha Russia chikamba kuphalizgana na charu cha [[United States]] kuti chiŵe na maghanoghano ghakupambanapambana pa charu chose.

Mu 1991, boma la Russia SFSR likafuma mu wupu wa Soviet Union. Dango liphya likapelekeka, ilo likakhazikiska muwuso wa boma. Kufuma waka apo vyaka vya m'ma 1900 vikambira, boma la Russia likuwusika na Vladimir Putin. Russia wali kunjilirapo pa nkhondo zinandi izo zikacitika mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, kusazgapo kupoka Crimea mu 2014 kufuma ku Ukraine.

Pa caru cose, caru ca Russia nchakutowa comene pa nkhani ya demokilase, wanangwa wa ŵanthu, na wanangwa wa vyalo. Charu cha Russia chili pa nambara 11 pa nkhani ya GDP. Vinthu vyakununkhira na nkhongono ivyo charu ichi chili navyo ni vikuru comene pa caru cose, ndipo mafuta na gasi ivyo vikusangika mu caru ici ni vyakuzirwa comene. Pa caru cose, caru ca Russia cili na vilwero vya nyukiliya vinandi comene, ndipo ni cacitatu pa vyaru ivyo vili na vilwero vya nkhondo vinandi. Charu ichi chili mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council; nchigaŵa ca G20, SCO, BRICS, APEC, OSCE, na WTO; ndipo nchigaŵa cikuru comene ca mawupu agho ghakaŵako pamanyuma pa Soviet Union nga ni CIS, CSTO, na Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). Ku Russia kuli malo 30 agho ghali kulembeka na wupu wa UNESCO kuti ni malo ghakukondweska ŵanthu.

==Kwiza kwa zina==
{{Main|Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia}}
Zina lakuti Russia lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachilatini lakuti Rus' ilo likung'anamura charu icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku East Slavs.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Webster's II New College Dictionary. |date=1999 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co |location=Boston |isbn=978-0395962145 |pages=970}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Kuchkin|first=V. A.|title=|publisher=Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Ladomir|year=2014|editor-last=Melnikova|editor-first=E. A.|location=Moscow|pages=700–701|language=ru|script-title=ru:Древняя Русь в средневековом мире|trans-title=Old Rus' in the medieval world|script-chapter=ru:Русская земля|trans-chapter=Russian land|editor-last2=Petrukhina|editor-first2=V. Ya.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mu mabuku gha mdauko wa mazuŵa ghano, boma ili likuchemeka Kiev Rus' chifukwa cha msumba wake ukuru. Zina lakuti Rus' likufuma ku ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga ku Russia, awo ŵakaŵa ŵamalonda na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Scandinavia awo ŵakafuma ku nyanja ya Baltic na kwamba kukhala ku Novgorod, ndipo pamanyuma ŵakambiska boma la Kiev. Zina linyake la Cilatini ilo likazunulika kuti Rus' likaŵa Ruthenia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Nazarenko |first=Aleksandr Vasilevich|author-link=Aleksandr Nazarenko|script-title=ru:Древняя Русь на международных путях: междисциплинарные очерки культурных, торговых, политических связей IX–XII веков |year=2001 |publisher=Languages of the Rus' culture |isbn=978-5-7859-0085-1 |pages=40, 42–45, 49–50 |chapter=1. Имя &quot;Русь&quot; в древнейшей западноевропейской языковой традиции (XI–XII века)|trans-title=Old Rus' on international routes: interdisciplinary essays on cultural, trade, and political ties in the 9th–12th centuries |language=ru|trans-chapter=The name Rus' in the old tradition of Western European language (XI-XII centuries)|chapter-url=http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814143443/http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu |archive-date=14 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu Chirasha, zina la lero la charu ichi, Россия (Rossiya), likufuma ku zina la Chigiriki la Byzantine la Rus', Ρωσία (Rosía). Zina lakuti Rus' (Росия) lili kufuma ku lizgu Lachigiriki ndipo likasangika mu 1387. Kweni likamba kugwiliskirika ntchito mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500. Mu Chirasha muli mazgu ghaŵiri agho ghakung'anamulika kuti &quot;ŴaciRussian&quot; mu Cingelezi kuti: Russian (russkiye), agho ghakung'anamura ŵanthu ŵa ciyowoyero ca ku Russia, na Russian (rossiyane), agho ghakung'anamura ŵanthu ŵa ciyowoyero ca ku Russia, kwali mba fuko wuli.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hellberg-Hirn&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Hellberg-Hirn |first1=Elena |title=Soil and Soul: The Symbolic World of Russianness |date=1998 |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=1855218712 |location=Aldershot [Hants, England] |pages=54}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Merridale |first=Catherine |title=Redesigning History in Contemporary Russia |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |year=2003 |volume=38 |number=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.1177/0022009403038001961 |jstor=3180694 |s2cid=143597960}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mbili ==
{{Main|History of Russia}}

=== Mbiri yakwambilira ===
{{further|Ancient Greek colonies||Early Slavs|Huns|Turkic expansion|Prehistory of Siberia}}
{{See also|Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Uralic homeland}}
Malo ghakwamba agho ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga ku Russia ghakaŵako mu nyengo ya Oldowan mu nyengo ya Lower Paleolithic. Vyaka pafupifupi 2 miliyoni ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Homo erectus ŵakaluta ku Taman Peninsula, kumwera kwa Russia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Shchelinsky |first1=V.E. |last2=Gurova |first2=M. |last3=Tesakov |first3=A.S. |last4=Titov |first4=V.V. |last5=Frolov |first5=P.D. |last6=Simakova |first6=A.N. |title=The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia): Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results) |journal=[[Quaternary International]] |volume=393 |pages=51–69 |date=30 January 2016 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.032|bibcode=2016QuInt.393...51S }}&lt;/ref&gt; Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito vyaka pafupifupi 1.5 miliyoni ivyo ŵakavisanga ku North Caucasus. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikulongora kuti munthu uyu wakaŵako vyaka 195,122,700 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu mphanji iyi mukaŵaso viswaswa vya munthu munyake zina lake Denny, uyo wakababika mu nyengo yakale chomene. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Russia ndiwo ŵakakhalako vyaka pafupifupi 45,000 ivyo vyajumpha.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1= Igor V. Ovchinnikov |last2= Anders Götherström |last3= Galina P. Romanova |last4= Vitaliy M. Kharitonov |last5= Kerstin Lidén |last6= William Goodwin |date= 30 March 2000 |title= Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the northern Caucasus |journal= [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume= 404 |issue= 6777 |pages= 490–493 |bibcode= 2000Natur.404..490O |doi= 10.1038/35006625 |pmid= 10761915 |s2cid= 3101375}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakaŵako mu nyengo yithu iyi ŵakaŵako vyaka 45,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ku Western Siberia. Ŵakasanga viswaswa vya ŵanthu ŵa mazuŵa ghano vyaka 40,000 ivyo vyafuma ku Kostyonki Borshchyovo na Sungir, vyaka 34,600 ivyo vyafuma ku Russia. Ŵanthu ŵakafika ku Russia vyaka pafupifupi 40,000 ivyo vyajumpha, ku Mamontovaya Kurya. Ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku Siberia awo ŵakakhalanga ku North Eurasia, awo ŵakayananga na ŵanthu ŵa ku Mal'ta Buret na Afontova Gora, ndiwo ŵakapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku America na ŵanthu ŵa ku Eastern Hunter-Gatherers ŵakhalenge ku malo agha.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Balter |first1=M. |title=Ancient DNA Links Native Americans With Europe |journal=Science |date=25 October 2013 |volume=342 |issue=6157 |pages=409–410 |doi=10.1126/science.342.6157.409 |pmid=24159019 |bibcode=2013Sci...342..409B |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Yamnaya Steppe Pastoralists.jpg|thumb|320px|left|Ŵanthu ŵa ku Yamnaya Steppe awo ŵakaliskanga viŵeto pakati pa 3300 na 1500 B.C.E., kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵa ku Siberia&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title=Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population |journal=Science |date=21 February 2017 |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-population}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

Chiphunzitso cha Kurgan chikulongora kuti chigaŵa cha Volga-Dnieper icho chili kumwera kwa Russia na Ukraine ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kwa ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Indo-Europe awo ŵakafuma ku vigaŵa vya ku Pontic-Caspian ku Ukraine na Russia ŵakamba kuyowoya viyowoyero vya Yamnaya na viyowoyero vya ku Indo-Europe mu vigaŵa vinandi vya ku Eurasia. Vinyama vya viŵeto vikamba kukhala mu chipalamba cha Pontic-Caspian mu nyengo ya Chalcolithic. Vinthu ivyo vikakhalako vya ŵanthu ŵa mu vigaŵa ivi vikasangika ku malo nga ni Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim, na Pazyryk. Ŵanthu awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku Urals kumpoto kwa Europe, ŵakamba kusama kufuma ku Siberia vyaka 3,500 ivyo vyajumpha.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Lamnidis |first1=Thiseas C. |last2=Majander |first2=Kerttu |last3=Jeong |first3=Choongwon |last4=Salmela |first4=Elina |last5=Wessman |first5=Anna |last6=Moiseyev |first6=Vyacheslav |last7=Khartanovich |first7=Valery |last8=Balanovsky |first8=Oleg |last9=Ongyerth |first9=Matthias |last10=Weihmann |first10=Antje |last11=Sajantila |first11=Antti |last12=Kelso |first12=Janet |last13=Pääbo |first13=Svante |last14=Onkamo |first14=Päivi |last15=Haak |first15=Wolfgang |date=2018-11-27 |title=Ancient Fennoscandian genomes reveal origin and spread of Siberian ancestry in Europe |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=5018 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-07483-5 |pmid=30479341 |pmc=6258758 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.5018L |s2cid=53792952 |issn=2041-1723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 300 C.E. m'paka 400 C.E., ufumu wa Oium ukaŵa kumwera kwa Russia. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 300 na 600 C.E., Ufumu wa Bosporus, uwo ukaŵa ufumu wa Ŵagiriki, nawo ukaparanyika chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake nga ni Hun na Avars. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Khazars, awo ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Turkey, ndiwo ŵakalongozganga chigaŵa cha ku Caucasus kumwera, kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Mlonga wa Volga, na kumanjiliro gha dazi m'paka ku Kyiv pa Mlonga wa Dnieper m'paka mu 100 C.E. Pamanyuma pa iwo, Ŵachichenichi ŵakamba kuwungana pamoza, ndipo pamasinda Ŵacumani na Ŵachipaki ŵakamba kuwungana.

Ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵali kufuma ku mafuko gha Ŵaslaviki agho ghakapambana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Indo-Europe awo ŵakaŵako kumpoto kwa Europe vyaka 1,500 ivyo vyajumpha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slavs ŵakamba kukhala ku Russia mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Chimoza chikafuma ku Kiev na kuluta ku Suzdal na Murom, ndipo chinyake chikafuma ku Polotsk na kuluta ku Novgorod na Rostov. Kwambira mu ma 700 C.E., ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia ŵakaŵa ŵa ku East Slavs.&lt;ref name=&quot;EarlyH&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |year=1998 |title=Russia – Early History |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/2.htm |access-date=29 June 2021 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kievan Rus' ===
{{Main|Rus' Khaganate|Kievan Rus'|List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine}}
[[File:Kievan-rus-1015-1113-(en).png|thumb|Rus' wa ku Kiev pamanyuma pa ungano wa Lyubech mu 1097]]
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 900 C.E., ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slavic ŵakamba kukhala mu vyaru vya Varangians, awo ŵakaŵa Ŵaviking awo ŵakendanga mu maji kufuma kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Baltic kuya ku Black na Caspian Seas. Mu 882, Oleg, uyo wakanjira mu ufumu wake, wakaluta kumwera na kuwukira Kiev, uko kale kukaŵanga na ŵanthu awo ŵakapelekanga mithulo ku Ŵakazari. Mwana wa Rurik, Igor, na mwana wa Igor, Sviatoslav, ŵakathereska mafuko ghose gha ku East Slavic, ŵakaparanya Khazar Khaganate, ndipo ŵakaluta ku Byzantium na Persia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Obolensky |first=Dimitri |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantiumslavs0000obol |title=Byzantium &amp; the Slavs |date=1971 |isbn=978-0-88141-008-2 |pages=75–108 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=[[Francis Donald Logan|Logan, Donald F.]] |url=https://archive.org/details/vikingsinhistory00loga |title=The Vikings in History|edition=2nd |date=1992 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-08396-6 |page=201 |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1000 m'paka mu 1100, caru ca Kievan Rus' cikazgoka cimoza mwa vyaru vikuru comene na vyakutukuka comene mu Europe. Mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Vladimir Mukuru (980-1015) na mwana wake Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054) kukaŵa nyengo ya golide ku Kiev. Nyengo ya muwuso wa ŵasilikari na kuleka kwendera boma yikaŵa kuti yakwana. Chigaŵa cha Kiev chikamba kuchepa, ndipo chikaŵa ku chigaŵa cha Vladimir-Suzdal, kumpoto, Novgorod Republic, na Galicia-Volhynia, kumwera cha kumanjiliro gha dazi. Kuzakafika m'ma 1200 C.E., Kiev yikaŵa kuti yindaŵepo na mazaza pa caru cose, ndipo yikaŵa kuti yagawikana mu vigaŵa vinandi. Fumu Andrey Bogolyubsky yikawukira Kiev mu 1169 ndipo yikapangiska Vladimir kuŵa msasa wake.&lt;ref name=&quot;EarlyH&quot;/&gt;

Ŵanalume ŵa ku Novgorod awo ŵakalongozgekanga na fumu Alexander Nevsky, ŵakathereska Ŵaswede mu Nkhondo ya ku Neva mu 1240, kweniso ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany mu Nkhondo ya ku Ice mu 1242.

Paumaliro, Ŵamongoliya ŵakanjira mu charu cha Kievan Rus mu 1237 na 1240. Ŵalwani aŵa, awo pamasinda ŵakacemeka kuti Ŵataliyani, ndiwo ŵakambiska ufumu wa Golden Horde, uwo ukawusa Russia kwa vilimika vinandi. Boma la Novgorod ndilo likapona ku ŵasilikari ŵacilendo apo likajipeleka na kuzomera kupeleka msonkho ku Ŵa Mongol. Pamanyuma, chigaŵa cha Galicia-Volhynia chikapokeka na Lithuania na Poland, ndipo chigaŵa cha Novgorod chikalutilira kukura kumpoto. Ku mpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi, mitheto ya Byzantine-Slavic iyo yikaŵa mu caru ca Kievan Rus' yikasintha na kupanga boma la Russia.&lt;ref name=&quot;EarlyH&quot; /&gt;

=== Grand Duchy ya Moscow ===
{{Main|Grand Duchy of Moscow}}
[[File:Lissner TroiceSergievaLavr.jpg|thumb|Sergius wa ku Radonezh wakutumbika Dmitry Donskoy mu Trinity Sergius Lavra, pambere nkhondo ya Kulikovo yindambe]]
Kuwuskika kwa charu cha Kievan Rus' kukapangiska kuti ufumu wa Grand Duchy of Moscow, uwo pakwamba ukaŵa chigaŵa cha Vladimir-Suzdal, uŵeko. Apo mpositole wa Tchalitchi la Orthodox ku Russia wakasamira ku Moscow mu 1325, nkhongono zake zikakura comene. Ufumu wa Novgorod, uwo ukaŵa mulwani waumaliro wa Moscow, ndiwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa malonda gha vikumba vya nyama na dowoko lakumafumiro gha dazi chomene la Hanseatic League.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Halperin |first=Charles J. |title=Novgorod and the 'Novgorodian Land' |jstor=20171136 |volume=40 |number=3 |pages=345–363 |date=September 1999 |publisher=EHESS |journal=Cahiers du Monde russe}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu 1380, ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu wa Russia ŵakathereska Ŵamongoliya na Ŵatata mu Nkhondo ya Kulikovo. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, Moscow wakayamba kulamulira vigaŵa vinyake nga ni Tver na Novgorod.

Ivan III (&quot;Mukuru&quot;) wakawuskapo ufumu wa Golden Horde na kukhozga charu chose cha kumpoto kwa Russia. Mu 1453, msumba wa Constantinople ukati wabwangandulika, boma la Moscow likati ndilo liŵenge themba la Ufumu wa Roma. Ivan III wakatora Sophia Palaiologina, muzukuru wa Constantine XI, themba la ku Byzantium, ndipo wakazgora nombo ya nombo ya ku Byzantium kuŵa yake, ndipo pamanyuma yikazgoka ya Russia. Vasili III wakakolerana na caru cose ca Russia mwa kunjizga vyaru vinyake vya ku Russia ivyo vikaŵa vyambura mazaza mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=M.S. |title=The Origins of the Modern European State System, 1494–1618 |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317892755 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smCgBAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT281}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Tsardom wa Russia ===
{{Main|Tsardom of Russia}}
{{See also|Moscow, third Rome}}
[[File:Ivan IV by anonim (18th c., GIM).jpg|thumb|upright|Ivan IV wakaŵa Karonga Mukuru wa Moscow kwambira mu 1533 m'paka mu 1547, ndipo pamanyuma wakaŵa Themba la Russia m'paka apo wakafwira mu 1584.]]
Mu 1547, Themba Ivan IV (&quot;Wakofya&quot;) ndilo likaŵa themba lakwamba la Russia. Themba ili likapeleka malango ghaphya (Sudebnik wa mu 1550), likakhazikiska wupu wakwimira boma la Russia (Zemsky Sobor), likasintha ŵasilikari, likakanizga ŵalongozgi ŵa visopa kuti ŵaleke kuŵa na mazaza pa ŵanthu, ndipo likambaso kuwunganya maboma. Pa nyengo iyo wakaŵira themba, Ivan wakasazgirako pafupifupi malo ghaŵiri gha Russia agho ghakaŵa ghakuru chomene. Paumaliro, kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, caru ca Russia cikamba kwenda kumafumiro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha Ural. Ndipouli, ufumu wa Tsardom ukalopwa cifukwa ca Nkhondo ya ku Livonia iyo yikacitika kwa nyengo yitali, ndipo yikaŵa yambura kucitika makora. Mu 1572, ŵasilikari ŵa Crimean Tatars ŵakathereskeka pa Nkhondo ya Molodi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |date=2015 |last=Skrynnikov |first=R. G. |title=Reign of Terror: Ivan IV |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-9-004-30401-7 |pages=417–421}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Nyifwa ya ŵana ŵa Ivan yikapangiska kuti muwuso wa Rurik umare mu 1598, ndipo njara yikuru iyo yikachitika mu 1601-1603 yikapangiska kuti paŵe nkhondo ya pawenenawene. Boma la Poland na Lithuania likapoka vigaŵa vinyake vya Russia na kufika ku Moscow. Mu 1612, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Russia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Muwukirano Kuzma Minin na fumu Dmitry Pozharsky, ŵakachimbizga Ŵapoliki. Mu 1613, nyumba ya ŵawusi ya ŵa Romanov yikamba kuwusa, ndipo charu chikamba kuchira.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, caru ca Russia cikalutilira kukura. Mu 1654, mulongozgi wa ku Ukraine, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, wakapeleka Ukraine ku muwuso wa themba la Russia, Alexis. Paumaliro, Ukraine yikagaŵikana mumphepete mwa Dnieper, ndipo chigaŵa chakumafumiro gha dazi (Left-bank Ukraine na Kiev) chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Russia. Ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakalutilira kupenja vinthu vyakuzirwa nga ni vikumba na mino gha zovu. Ŵalendo ŵa ku Russia ŵakendanga kumafumiro gha dazi chomene na nthowa za ku Siberia, ndipo m'ma 1700, kukaŵa vyaru vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakakhalanga kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Siberia, ku Chukchi Peninsula, mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Amur, na mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Pacific. Mu 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov wakaŵa munthu wakwamba wa ku Europe kwendera mu nyanja ya Bering Strait.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Oliver |first=James A. |title=The Bering Strait Crossing: A 21st Century Frontier between East and West |year=2006 |publisher=Information Architects |pages=36–37 |isbn=978-0-9546995-8-1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ufumu wa Russia ===
{{Main|Russian Empire}}
[[File:Territorial Expansion of Russia.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Kukula na kusintha kwa chigaŵa cha Grand Duchy of Moscow, Tsardom of Russia na Russian Empire pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1400 na 1900]]
Mu 1721, mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Peter Mukuru, caru ca Russia cikazgoka ufumu, ndipo cikaŵa cimoza mwa vyaru vikuru comene vya ku Europe. Peter wakawusa kwambira mu 1682 m'paka 1725, ndipo wakathereska Sweden mu Nkhondo Yikuru ya ku Northern (1700-1721) ndipo wakawovwira kuti Russia yambe kwenda pa nyanja. Mu 1703, Petrosi wakazenga msumba wa St. Petersburg, uwo uli mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Baltic. Mu nyengo yose iyo wakalamuliranga, vinthu vikasintha chomene mu charu cha Russia. Mu nyengo ya kuwusa kwa mwana mwanakazi wa Peter I, Elizabeti mu 1741-1762, caru ca Russia cikamba kurwa nkhondo ya vilimika vinkhondi na viŵiri (1756-1763). Apo nkhondo yikaŵa mukati, ŵasilikari ŵa Russia ŵakanjira mu East Prussia na kufika ku Berlin. Kweni Elizabeti wakati wafwa, vinthu vyose ivi vikawezgeka ku Ufumu wa Prussia na Peter III wa ku Russia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Raeff |first=Marc |title=The Domestic Policies of Peter III and his Overthrow |journal=[[The American Historical Review]] |volume=75 |number=5 |date=June 1970 |pages=1289–1310 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |jstor=1844479 |doi=10.2307/1844479}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Catherine II (&quot;Mukuru&quot;), uyo wakawusa mu 1762-1796, ndiyo wakawusa mu nyengo iyo ŵanthu ŵakasambizgikiranga vinthu mu Russia. Wakapeleka mazaza gha ndyali ku Russia pa charu cha Poland na Lithuania, ndipo wakawunjika vigaŵa vinandi mu Russia. Kumwera, pamanyuma pa Nkhondo za ku Russia na Turkey, Catherine wakawoneseska kuti mphaka ya Russia yifike ku Nyanja Yiswesi. Cifukwa ca kuthereska Ŵaqajar ku Iran mu Nkhondo za ku Russia na Peresiya, mu hafu yakwamba ya vyaka vya m'ma 1800, caru ca Russia cikathereskaso caru ca Caucasus. Mwana wake Paul, uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Catherine, wakaŵa wambura kukhazikika ndipo wakatemwanga chomene vinthu vya mu nyumba. Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo wakawusira, Alexander I (1801-1825) wakathereska charu cha Finland ku Sweden mu 1809 na Bessarabia ku Ottomans mu 1812. Ku North America, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ndiwo ŵakaŵa ŵakwamba kufika ku Alaska na kukhalamo. Mu 1803-1806, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakazingilira charu. Mu 1820, ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakasanga charu cha Antarctica.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Blakemore |first=Erin |title=Who really discovered Antarctica? Depends who you ask. |date=27 January 2020 |access-date=12 January 2022 |work=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/who-discovered-antarctica-depends-who-ask}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Nkhongono yikuru na kukura kwa ŵanthu, sayansi na luso ====
Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo za Napoleon, Russia wakakolerana na maboma gha ku Europe, ndipo wakarwa nkhondo na France. Nkhondo ya ku France iyo yikafika ku Russia mu 1812 yikafika ku Moscow, kweni yikathera yayi chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakagomezgeka yayi, kweniso nyengo yakuzizima ya ku Russia yikatimbanizga ŵasilikari. Ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Russia, awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Mikhail Kutuzov na Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, ŵakawuskapo Napoleon na kwenda mu Europe yose mu Nkhondo ya Gulu Lachinkhondi na Chimoza. Alexander I ndiyo wakalongozganga ŵimiliri ŵa ku Russia pa ungano wa ku Vienna, uwo ukalongosora umo caru ca ku Europe cikaŵira pamanyuma pa nyengo ya Napoleon.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Ghervas |first=Stella |title=The Long Shadow of the Congress of Vienna |jstor=26266203 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishers]] |journal=Journal of Modern European History |volume=13 |number=4 |pages=458–463 |year=2015|doi=10.17104/1611-8944-2015-4-458 |s2cid=151713355 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Napoleons retreat from Moscow by Adolph Northen.jpg|thumb|Kupoka kwa Napoleon ku Moscow na Albrecht Adam (1851)]]
Ŵasilikari awo ŵakalondezganga Napoleon mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe ŵakiza na maghanoghano gha ku Russia, ndipo ŵakayezga kukanizga mazaza gha fumu mu nyengo ya kuwukira kwa Decembrist mu 1825. Paumaliro wa muwuso wa Nicholas I (1825-1855), nyengo iyo ufumu wa Russia ukaŵa na nkhongono zinandi ku Europe, yikamara chifukwa cha kutondeka ku nkhondo ya ku Crimea.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Vincent |first=J.R. Vincent |title=The Parliamentary Dimension of the Crimean War |journal=[[Transactions of the Royal Historical Society]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=37–49 |volume=31 |year=1981 |jstor=3679044 |doi=10.2307/3679044|s2cid=153338264 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Kusintha Kwambiri kwa Chikhalidwe ndi Chikapitale ====
Alexander II (1855-1881) uyo wakanjira mu malo gha Nicholas, wakasintha vinthu vinandi mu charu chose, kusazgapo kusintha kwa boma mu 1861. Vinthu ivi vikawovwira kuti vinthu vyendenge makora mu charu cha Russia, ndipo vikawovwira kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Russia ŵambe kugwira ntchito mazuŵa ghano. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na m'ma 1900, Russia na Britain ŵakakolerananga pa nkhani ya Afghanistan na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Central na South Asia.

Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ku Russia kukawuka magulu ghakupambanapambana gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti vinthu vyende makora. Mu 1881, Alexander II wakakomeka na ŵanthu ŵakugaluka. Muwuso wa mwana wake Alexander III (1881-1894) ukaŵa wambura kujikora kweni wamtende.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Taranovski |first=Theodore |title=Alexander III and his Bureaucracy: The Limitations on Autocratic Power |journal=[[Canadian Slavonic Papers]] |volume=26 |number=2/3 |year=1984 |pages=207–219 |doi=10.1080/00085006.1984.11091776 |jstor=40868293}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Ufumu wa Wupu Wakulongozga na Nkhondo ya Caru Cose ====
Mu nyengo ya muwusi waumaliro wa Russia, Nicholas II (1894-1917), Nkhondo ya ku Russia na Japan yikatimbanizgika. Nkhondo iyi yikamara, kweni boma likakanizgika kusintha vinthu vinandi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Doctorow |first=Gilbert S. |title=The Fundamental State Laws of 23 April 1906 |journal=[[The Russian Review]] |year=1976 |jstor=127655 |doi=10.2307/127655 |volume=35 |number=1 |pages=33–52}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kuwukira na nkhondo ya cikaya ===
{{main|Russian Revolution|Russian Civil War}}
[[File:Russian Imperial Family 1913.jpg|thumb|left|Muwusi Nicholas II wa ku Russia pamoza na mbumba ya Romanov ŵakakomeka na Bolsheviks mu 1918.]]
Mu 1914, caru ca Russia cikanjira mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose cifukwa cakuti Austria-Hungary yikapharazga kuti yikukhumba kurwa nkhondo na Serbia. Mu 1916, ŵasilikari ŵa Ufumu wa Russia ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Austria na Hungary. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga yayi kuti boma ili lichitenge vinthu mwamahara. Vyose ivi vikawovwira kuti paŵe Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Russia mu 1917, iyo yikacitika mu vigaŵa viŵiri vikuruvikuru. Kukwambilira kwa 1917, Nicholas II wakacicizgika kuleka ufumu wake. Iyo na mbumba yake ŵakakakika ndipo pamanyuma ŵakakomeka pa Nkhondo ya pa Cikaya ya ku Russia. Mu ufumu wa ufumu uwu mukaŵa magulu gha ndyali agho ghakajiphara kuti ni boma la kanyengo kachoko, ndipo ghakapharazga kuti ni charu cha Russia. Pa Janyuwale 19 [O.S. 6 January], 1918, Russian Constituent Assembly yikapharazga kuti Russia ni fuko la demokilase (pakuzomerezga fundo ya boma la kanyengo). Zuŵa lakulondezgapo, Wupu Wakulongozga ukawuskapo ungano uwu.

Pa nyengo iyi, pakaŵaso wupu unyake wa Petrograd Soviet, uwo ukaŵa na mazaza gha kuwusa mu vyaru vinyake. Boma liphya likasazgirako waka suzgo mu caru m'malo mwa kulimazga, ndipo paumaliro, Nkhondo ya Okutobala, iyo yikalongozgekanga na Vladimir Lenin, yikathereska boma la nyengo yicoko na kupeleka mazaza ghose ku maboma gha Soviet, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti caru cikhazikike. Nkhondo ya ku Russia yikamba pakati pa gulu la White movement na Bolsheviks. Pamanyuma pa kusazga phangano la Brest-Litovsk ilo likamalizga nkhondo na ŵamazaza ŵa ku Central Powers mu Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, caru ca Russia cikapeleka vigaŵa vyake vinandi vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, umo mukaŵa 34% ya ŵanthu ŵake, 54% ya mafakitale ghake, 32% ya vyaru vyake, na pafupifupi 90% ya migodi yake ya malasha.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Figes |first=Orlando |author-link=Orlando Figes |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/russian-revolution-history-lenin |title=From Tsar to U.S.S.R.: Russia's Chaotic Year of Revolution |work=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]] |date=25 October 2017 |access-date=27 November 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Vladimir_Lenin_Speech_in_May_1920.jpg|thumb|Vladimir Lenin na Leon Trotsky apo ŵakayowoyanga nkhani mu Moscow mu 1920]]
Ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake ŵakacita nkhondo kuti ŵawovwire ŵasilikari awo ŵakasuskanga boma la Germany. Pa nyengo yeneyira, ŵa Bolshevik na ŵa White ŵakacitiskana nkhondo ya kusonkhaniska ŵanthu na kuŵakoma. Paumaliro wa nkhondo ya pawenenawene, chuma na vinthu vinyake vya ku Russia vikaparanyika comene, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 10 miliyoni ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi, comenecomene ŵanthu bweka. Ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakafuma mu vyaru vyawo na kuluta ku vyaru vinyake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Haller |first=Francis |url=https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/5rfhjy.htm |title=Famine in Russia: the hidden horrors of 1921 |work=[[Le Temps]]|publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]] |date=8 December 2003 |access-date=26 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Soviet Union ===
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Russian SFSR in Soviet Union (1936).svg|thumb|left|Location of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] (red) within the [[Soviet Union]] in 1936]]

====Command economy and Soviet society====
Pa Disembala 30, 1922, Lenin na ŵantchito ŵake ŵakapanga Soviet Union, ndipo ŵakasazga Soviet Socialist Republic of Russia na vyaru vya Belarus, Transcaucasia, na Ukraine. Paumaliro, pa nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, caru cikaŵa na vyaru 15 ivyo vikakolerananga.

Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Lenin mu 1924, gulu la ŵasilikari ŵatatu likimikika kuti licitenge mulimo uwu. Paumaliro, Joseph Stalin, mulembi mukuru wa chipani cha Communist Party, wakamazga magulu ghose ghakwimikana na boma na kukhozga mazaza ghake mwakuti waŵe muwusi wankhongono wa caru mu ma 1930. Leon Trotsky, uyo wakaŵa wakuwovwira comene pa kusintha vinthu pa caru cose, wakacimbizgika mu Soviet Union mu 1929, ndipo fundo ya Stalin yakuti Socialism in One Country yikazgoka fundo ya boma. Nkhondo iyo yikalutilira mukati mwa chipani cha Bolshevik yikafika paheni comene.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Kuromiya |first=Hirosaki |title=Accounting for the Great Terror |jstor=41051345 |publisher=[[Franz Steiner Verlag]] |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |year=2005 |pages=86–101 |volume=53 |number=1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Stalinism and violent modernization====
Mu muwuso wa Stalin, boma likambiska vinthu vyakuti ŵanthu ŵagwirenge ntchito mwakufwatuka, kupanga vyamuminda, na kupanga vyakurya vinandi. Mu nyengo iyi, vinthu vikasinthanga comene pa nkhani ya cuma na umoyo wa ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakatumizgika ku misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu, kusazgapo ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakakakika cifukwa ca ndyali. Mu 1932-33 mu Soviet Union mukaŵa njara yikuru, ndipo ŵanthu 8.7 miliyoni ŵakafwa. Paumaliro, mu nyengo yicoko waka, Soviet Union yikasintha kufuma ku cuma ico cikagwiranga nchito ya vyakurya kuya ku caru ico cikagwiranga nchito ya kupanga vinthu.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |title=Excess Deaths and Industrialization: A Realist Theory of Stalinist Economic Development in the 1930s |jstor=260849 |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |year=1988 |volume=23 |number=2 |pages=277–289 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]]|doi=10.1177/002200948802300207 |pmid=11617302 |s2cid=26592600 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

====World War II and United Nations====
{{main|Soviet Union in World War II}}
[[File:RIAN archive 602161 Center of Stalingrad after liberation.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the [[German Army (1935–1945)|German army]].]]
Soviet Union yikanjira mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose pa Seputembala 17, 1939 apo yikawukira Poland, mwakuyana na dango lakubisika la Molotov Ribbentrop Pact na Nazi Germany.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Roberts |first=Geoffrey |title=The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany |jstor=152247 |publisher=[[Taylor &amp; Francis]] |volume=44 |number=1 |year=1992 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |pages=57–78}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pa 22 Juni, 1941, Germany yikawukira Soviet Union, ndipo yikajura chigaŵa chikuru chomene cha Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose.

Paumaliro, ŵasilikari pafupifupi 5 miliyoni ŵa Red Army ŵakakoleka na Nazi;:272 Ŵasilikari aŵa ŵakakomeka na njara panji ŵakakoma ŵanthu 3.3 miliyoni ŵa ku Soviet, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanandi, pakuti &quot;Ndara&quot; yikaŵa ndondomeko ya kufiska Generalplan Ost.:175-186 Nangauli ŵasilikari ŵa German ŵakaŵa na viwemi vyakwambilira, kweni nkhondo ya ku Moscow yikaŵakoma. Pamanyuma, Ŵachijeremani ŵakathereskeka comene pakwamba pa Nkhondo ya Stalingrad mu nyengo ya cihanya ya 1942-1943 ndipo pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Kursk mu cihanya ca 1943.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Mulligan |first=Timothy P. |title=Spies, Ciphers and 'Zitadelle': Intelligence and the Battle of Kursk, 1943 |jstor=260932 |pages=235–260 |volume=22 |number=2 |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary History]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |date=April 1987|doi=10.1177/002200948702200203 |s2cid=162709461}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuwina kunyake uko Ŵachijeremani ŵakacita kukaŵa kuzingilizga msumba wa Leningrad, uko msumba uwu ukazingilizgika na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany na Finland pakati pa 1941 na 1944. Ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakaluta ku vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi na vya pakati pa Europe mu 1944 na 1945, ndipo ŵakapoka Berlin mu Meyi 1945. Mu Ogasiti 1945, ŵasilikari ŵa Reds ŵakanjira mu charu cha Manchuria na kuchimbizga Ŵapaniya ku North East Asia.

Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Charu Chose ya mu 1941 m'paka mu 1945, ku Russia ŵakachemanga kuti Nkhondo Yikuru ya Charu. Soviet Union, pamoza na United States, United Kingdom na China ŵakawonekanga kuti ni Big Four of Allied powers mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, ndipo pamasinda ŵakazgoka Four Policemen, iyo yikaŵa musisi wa United Nations Security Council.:27 Mu nyengo ya nkhondo, ŵanthu pafupifupi 2627 miliyoni ŵakafwa pa nkhondo iyi. Ndipouli, Soviet Union yikajipeleka comene kuti yiŵe ufumu wankhongono pa caru cose.&lt;ref name=&quot;superpower&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Reiman |first=Michael |title=About Russia, Its Revolutions, Its Development and Its Present |chapter=The USSR as the New World Superpower |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2t4dn7.14 |date=2016 |publisher=[[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang]] |pages=169–176 |jstor=j.ctv2t4dn7.14 |isbn=978-3-631-67136-8}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Superpower and Cold War====
[[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&amp;W).jpg|thumb|The &quot;[[Grand Alliance (World War II)|Big Three]]&quot; at the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Joseph Stalin]]]]
Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose, vigaŵa vinyake vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe, na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Austria, vikapokeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Red Army. Maboma gha Chikomyunizimu ghakaŵapo mu vyaru vya ku Eastern Bloc. Nkhondo iyi yikati yamara, Soviet Union yikamba kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa United States na NATO.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wagg |first1=Stephen |last2=Andrews |first2=David |title=East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War |year=2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-134-24167-5 |page=11}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development====
Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Stalin mu 1953 na nyengo yifupi ya muwuso wa wupu, mulongozgi muphya Nikita Khrushchev wakachenya Stalin ndipo wakambiska ndondomeko ya kulekeska Stalin, kufumiska ŵakayidi ŵanandi ŵa ndyali mu misasa ya Gulag. Nyengo yikati yajumphapo, vinthu vikamba kwenda makora. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo pera, nkhondo ya pa caru cose yikafika paheni comene apo ŵasilikari ŵaŵiri aŵa ŵakasuskananga pa nkhani ya kuŵika mabomba gha Jupiter ku Turkey na mabomba gha Soviet ku Cuba.

Mu 1957, Soviet Union yikaponya pa mtunda satellite yakwamba pa caru cose yakucemeka Sputnik 1. Munthu wakwamba kuzingilira caru capasi wakaŵa Yuri Gagarin, uyo wakaluta pa Vostok 1 pa Epulero 12, 1961.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210409-yuri-gagarin-the-spaceman-who-came-in-from-the-cold |title=Yuri Gagarin: the spaceman who came in from the cold |last=Dowling |first=Stephen |date=12 April 2021 |access-date=15 January 2022 |publisher=BBC}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation====
Khrushchev wakati waparanyika mu 1964, pakaŵaso muwuso unyake wa ŵanthu wose, m'paka apo Leonid Brezhnev wakaŵira mulongozgi. Nyengo ya m'ma 1970 na kuuyambiro wa m'ma 1980 yikamanyikwa kuti nyengo ya kukhazikika. Mu 1965, boma la Soviet likasintha vinthu vinyake mu Soviet Union. Mu 1979, ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakanjira mu charu ichi, ndipo paumaliro nkhondo ya ku Afghanistan yikamba. Mu Meyi 1988, ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakamba kufumamo mu Afghanistan, cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yose awo ŵakasuskanga ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet, nkhondo ya kuwukira ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet, ndiposo cifukwa ca kuleka kukhozgeka na ŵanthu ŵa Soviet.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Daley |first=Tad |title=Afghanistan and Gorbachev's Global Foreign Policy |jstor=2644534 |doi=10.2307/2644534 |journal=[[Asian Survey]] |volume=29 |number=5 |date=May 1989 |pages=496–513 |publisher=[[University of California Press]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:President Ronald Reagan Meeting with Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev at Hofdi House During The Reykjavik Summit Iceland - DPLA - af5603d8cc5dc9f3bd2f69b218e112bd.jpg|thumb|[[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in one-to-one discussions with [[Ronald Reagan]] in the [[Reykjavík Summit]], 1986]]

====Perestroika, democratization and Russian sovereignty====
Kwambira mu 1985, mulongozgi waumaliro wa Soviet, Mikhail Gorbachev, uyo wakakhumbanga kusintha vinthu mu Soviet Union, wakambiska ndondomeko ya glasnost (kujulika) na perestroika (kuweleramo mu vinthu vinyake) kuti wamazge suzgo la vyachuma na kuzgora boma kuŵa la ŵanthu ŵanandi. Ndipouli, ici cikapangiska kuti mu caru cose muŵe vyaru vyakupambanapambana. Pambere caka ca 1991 cindafike, caru ca Soviet Union cikaŵa caciŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na cuma cikuru comene, kweni mu vilimika vyaumaliro vya umoyo wake, cikaŵa mu suzgo.

Mu 1991, vinthu vikamba kunangika mu vyaru vya ku Baltic apo vyaru ivi vikafumako ku Soviet Union. Pa Malichi 17, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakazomerezga kuti Soviet Union yiŵe wupu wakukolerana. Mu Juni 1991, Boris Yeltsin wakaŵa pulezidenti wakwamba uyo wakasankhika mwakudunjika mu Russia. Mu Ogasiti 1991, boma la Gorbachev likayezga kuwuskapo boma, ndipo likaŵa na cilato cakuti likhalilire mu Soviet Union. Pa Disembala 25, 1991, pamanyuma pa kuparanyika kwa Soviet Union, pamoza na Russia wa mazuŵa ghano, vyaru vinyake 14 vikafuma mu wupu wa Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/soviet-union-collapse-timeline/31487661.html |title=The Undoing Of The U.S.S.R.: How It Happened |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |last=Foltynova |first=Kristyna |date=1 October 2021 |access-date=15 January 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Independent Russian Federation ===
{{Main|History of Russia (1991–present)}}
{{Further|Presidency of Boris Yeltsin|Russia under Vladimir Putin|Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev}}
[[File:Vladimir Putin taking the Presidential Oath, 7 May 2000.jpg|thumb|right|[[Vladimir Putin]] takes the oath of office as president on his [[First inauguration of Vladimir Putin|first inauguration]], with [[Boris Yeltsin]] looking over, 2000.]]

====Transition to a market economy and political crises====
Charu cha Russia chikaŵa mu suzgo yikuru chifukwa cha suzgo la vyachuma na ndyali. Pa nyengo iyo Soviet Union yikaparanyikira na pamanyuma pake, pakaŵa kusintha kukuru, kusazgapo kupanikizga vinthu vya boma na kulekeska malonda, kusazgapo kusintha kukuru kwa vinthu nga ni &quot;chock therapy&quot;. Kuŵika vinthu vya boma pa malo ghake kukapangiska kuti maboma gha Russia ghaleke kulamulira mabungwe gha boma na kwamba kulamulira ŵanthu awo ŵakamanyikwanga na boma. Ŵanandi awo ŵakaŵa ŵasambazi ŵakawuskamo ndalama zinandi mu charu ichi. Kuchepa kwa ndalama kukapangiska kuti vinthu vyendenge makora yayi mu charu. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika chikakhira chomene, ndipo ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi ŵakamba kusuzgika na ukavu.

Kuumaliro wa 1993, mphindano pakati pa Yeltsin na Nyumba ya Malamulo ya Russia zikakura comene mwakuti pakaŵa suzgo la ndyali. Mu nyengo ya suzgo iyi, Yeltsin wakawovwirika na maboma gha ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 100 ŵakakomeka.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Goncharenko |first=Roman |date=3 October 2018 |title=Russia's 1993 crisis still shaping Kremlin politics, 25 years on |work=[[DW News]] |publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]] |url=https://www.dw.com/en/russias-1993-crisis-still-shaping-kremlin-politics-25-years-on/a-45733546 |access-date=2 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilization ====
Mu Disembala, ŵakachita pharazgo na kuzomerezga dango liphya ilo likapa pulezidenti mazaza ghakuru. M'ma 1990, ku North Caucasus kukaŵa nkhondo, kuswa malango kwa mafuko na kugaluka kwa ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Islam. Kufuma waka apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Chechnya ŵakapharazgira kuti ŵajiyimire ŵekha mu ma 1990, nkhondo ya ŵasilikari yikamba pakati pa gulu la ŵakugaluka na ŵasilikari ŵa Russia. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku Chechnya ndiwo ŵakacitiska vivulupi na kukoma ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia.

Pamanyuma pakuti Soviet Union yaparanyika, Russia ndiyo wakeneranga kulipira ngongoli za caru ici. Mu 1992, ŵakawuskapo malango ghanandi ghakwendeskera mitengo ya vinthu, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti ndalama za Russia zichepe chomene. Kuchepa kwa ndalama mu boma la Russia, pamoza na kusazgikira kwa ndalama na kutondeka kuwezga ngongoli, ndivyo vikapangiska suzgo la ndalama mu Russia mu 1998.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Chiodo |first1=Abbigail J. |last2=Owyang |first2=Michael T. |url=https://files.stlouisfed.org/files/htdocs/publications/review/02/11/ChiodoOwyang.pdf |title=A Case Study of a Currency Crisis: The Russian Default of 1998 |pages=7–18|publisher=[[Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis]] |journal=[[Canadian Parliamentary Review]] |year=2002 |volume=86 |number=6}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Most notably the [[Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis]], the [[Russian apartment bombings]], the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]], and the [[Beslan school siege]]}}

====Movement towards a modernized economy, political centralization and democratic backsliding====
Pa Disembala 31, 1999, pulezidenti Yeltsin wakafumapo mwamabuchi, ndipo wakalekera ntchito iyo nduna yikuru iyo yikaŵa kuti yasankhika waka, Vladimir Putin. Pamanyuma pake, Putin wakathereska ŵanthu ŵa ku Chechnya mu nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ku Chechnya.

Mu 2004, Putin wakathereskeka. Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa mtengo wa mafuta na kukwera kwa ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakugwiliskira ntchito, chuma cha Russia chikamba kwenda makora kweniso ŵanthu ŵakamba kukhala makora. Muwuso wa Putin ukakhozga mtende, uku uku Russia wazgoka boma lakugaluka. Mu 2008, Putin wakamba kuŵa nduna yikuru, apo Dmitry Medvedev wakasankhika kuŵa pulezidenti kwa nyengo yimoza, kuti walutilire kuŵa na mazaza nangauli nyengo yake yikaŵa yakukwana yayi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last=Monaghan|first=Andrew|title=The vertikal: power and authority in Russia|volume=88|number=1|date=January 2012|pages=1–16|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]]|doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01053.x |jstor=41428537}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Annexation of Southern and Eastern Ukraine.svg|thumb|[[Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine]] as of 30 September 2022 at the time their [[Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts|annexation was declared]]]]
Nkhondo ya Russia na Georgia yikacitika pa 1 na 12 Ogasiti, 2008, pamanyuma pa suzgo ya ndyali na Georgia. Iyi yikaŵa nkhondo yakwamba ya ku Europe ya m'ma 2000.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=http://aei.pitt.edu/9382/2/9382.pdf|number=167|title=Post-Mortem on Europe's First War of the 21st Century|last=Emerson|first=Michael|publisher=[[Centre for European Policy Studies]]|date=August 2008|access-date=6 April 2022|doi=10.2139/ssrn.1333553|s2cid=127834430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

====Invasion of Ukraine====
Kuuyambiro wa chaka cha 2014, Russia yikapoka charu cha Crimea kufuma ku Ukraine. Mu suzgo yikuru ya nkhondo, Russia yikamba nkhondo ya ku Ukraine pa 24 February 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/putin-orders-military-operations-in-eastern-ukraine-as-un-meets|title=Russian forces launch full-scale invasion of Ukraine|publisher=[[Al Jazeera]]|date=24 February 2022|access-date=5 April 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Nkhondo iyi ndiyo yikaŵa yikuru comene mu Europe kufuma apo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikambira, ndipo yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasuskanga. Pa cifukwa ici, Russia wakafumiskika mu wupu wa Council of Europe mu Malichi, ndipo wakasoleka mu wupu wa United Nations Human Rights Council mu Epulero. Mu Seputembala, pamanyuma pa nkhondo zakutonda za ku Ukraine, Putin wakapharazga za &quot;kuwungana kwa vigaŵa&quot;, kuwungana kwa Russia kakwamba kufuma apo Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikambira. Kuumaliro wa Seputembala, Putin wakapharazga kuti vigaŵa vinayi vya Ukraine vyatoleka na boma la Russia. Putin na ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Russia ŵakasazgapo phangano lakuti ŵanjire mu caru ca Russia, ilo caru cose cikumanya yayi ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuliwona kuti ndakuswa malango. Pa maparamende ghanandi gha pa caru cose na gha pa caru cose, pakaŵa fundo izo zikati Russia ni boma ilo likuwovwira vigeŵenga. Kweniso, Latvia, Lithuania, na Estonia ŵati Russia ni boma la vigeŵenga. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵakafwa cifukwa ca nkhondo iyi. Nkhondo ya ku Ukraine yasazgirako suzgo la ŵanthu ku Russia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Putin’s War Escalation Is Hastening Demographic Crash for Russia |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-10-18/putin-s-war-escalation-is-hastening-demographic-crash-for-russia |work=Bloomberg |date=18 October 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Makhalilo gha charu ==
{{Main|Geography of Russia}}
[[File:Russian Federation Relief Map.png|thumb|upright=1.34|[[Topographic map]] of Russia]]
Charu cha Russia chili kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Europe na kumpoto kwa Asia. Chigaŵa ichi chili kumpoto chomene kwa charu cha Eurasia. Charu cha Russia chili pakati pa latitude 41° na 82° N, na longitude 19° E na 169° W, ndipo chili na mtunda wa makilomita pafupifupi 9,000 (5,600 mi) kufuma kumafumiro gha dazi kuya kumanjiliro gha dazi, na makilomita 2,500 mpaka 4,000 (1,600 mpaka 2,500 mi) kufuma kumpoto kuya kumwera. Ku Russia, charu ichi chili na vigaŵa vikuruvikuru kuluska vyaru vitatu.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2015/jul/28/pluto-ten-things-we-now-know-about-the-dwarf-planet |title=Pluto: ten things we now know about the dwarf planet |work=[[The Guardian]] |first=Stuart |last=Clark |date=28 July 2015 |access-date=20 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia|title=Russia – Land|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia#ref38573|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=14 December 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of [[Australia (continent)|Australia]], [[Antarctica]], and Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.}}{{efn|Russia has an additional {{convert|comma=5|850|km|mi|abbr=on}} of coastline along the [[Caspian Sea]], which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/08/16/is-the-caspian-a-sea-or-a-lake |title=Is the Caspian a sea or a lake? |newspaper=[[The Economist]]  |date=16 August 2018 |access-date=27 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}

Russia yili na mapiri ghakuru ghankhondi na ghatatu, ndipo ghakusangika mu vigaŵa vya kumwera chomene, uko kuli mapiri ghanandi gha Caucasus (uko kuli Phiri la Elbrus, ilo lili pa mtunda wa mamita 5,642 (18,510 ft) ndilo ni phiri likuru chomene mu Russia na Europe); Mapiri gha Altai na Sayan mu Siberia; na mu mapiri gha East Siberia na Kamchatka Peninsula mu Russian Far East (uko kuli Klyuchevskaya Sopka, ilo lili pa mtunda wa mamita 4,750 (15,584 ft) ndilo phiri likuru chomene mu Eurasia). Mapiri gha Ural, agho ghali kumpoto na kumwera kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, ghali na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi. Malo ghapasi chomene mu Russia na Europe, ghali ku mphepete mwa Nyanja ya Caspian, uko maji gha mu Nyanja ya Caspian ghakukwera mamita 29.

Russia njimoza mwa vyaru vitatu ivyo vili na nyanja zitatu. Virwa vikuruvikuru vya charu ichi ni Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, Kuril Islands (vigaŵa vinayi ivyo vikususkana na Japan), na Sakhalin. Virwa vya Diomede, ivyo vili pasi pa boma la Russia na United States, vili pa mtunda wa makilomita 3.8 pera kufuma pa chirwa ichi. Ndipo chirwa cha Kunashir chili pa mtunda wa makilomita 20 pera kufuma ku Hokkaido, Japan.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapple-2019&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Chapple |first=Amos |title=The Kurile Islands: Why Russia And Japan Never Made Peace After World War II |date=4 January 2019 |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/the-disputed-islands-where-world-war-2-never-ended/28402307.html |access-date=26 January 2022 |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Sea of Azov]], to its west: the [[Baltic Sea]], to its north: the [[Barents Sea]] ([[White Sea]], [[Pechora Sea]]), the [[Kara Sea]], the [[Laptev Sea]], and the [[East Siberian Sea]], to its northeast: the [[Chukchi Sea]] and the [[Bering Sea]], and to its southeast: the [[Sea of Okhotsk]] and the [[Sea of Japan]].}}

Ku Russia kuli milonga yakujumpha 100,000, ndipo kuli maji ghanandi chomene pa charu. Nyanja ya Baikal, iyo njakukhora comene pa nyanja zose za ku Russia, njakunyang'amira comene, njakutowa comene, yakale comene, ndiposo njakutowa comene. Nyanja ya Ladoga na ya Onega, izo zili kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Russia, ni zinandi comene mu Europe. Ku Russia, maji ghose agho ghakusangika ku malo ghakusangikako ghakusangika waka ku Brazil. Mlonga wa Volga uwo uli kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Russia, ndiwo ni mlonga utali chomene mu Europe. Mlonga wa Ob, Yenisey, Lena, na Amur, uwo uli mu Siberia, ngumoza mwa milonga yitali comene pa caru.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/15/russias-largest-rivers-from-the-amur-to-the-volga-a65593 |title=Russia's Largest Rivers From the Amur to the Volga |work=[[The Moscow Times]] |date=15 May 2019 |access-date=26 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Nyengo ===
{{Main|Climate of Russia}}
[[File:Russia Köppen.svg|thumb|upright=1.38|[[Köppen climate classification]] of Russia]]
Chifukwa cha ukuru wa caru ca Russia ndiposo cifukwa cakuti vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici vili kutali comene na nyanja, mu caru ici muli nyengo yakuzizima, kweni mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici muli vyakumera vyambura maji. Mapiri agho ghali kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi ghakovwira kuti mphepo yakufuma ku nyanja za Indian na Pacific yileke kwiza, apo mapiri gha ku Europe agho ghali kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumpoto ghakovwira kuti mphepo izo zikufuma ku nyanja za Atlantic na Arctic zileke kwiza. Chigaŵa chikuru cha kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Russia na Siberia chili na mphepo ya subarctic, ndipo mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Siberia muli nyengo yakuzizima chomene. Mphepete mwa nyanja ya Arctic na pa virwa vya ku Russia, pali mphepo yakuzizima.

Chigaŵa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja cha Krasnodar Krai pa Nyanja Yiswesi, chomenechomene Sochi, na vigaŵa vinyake vya mumphepete mwa nyanja na vya mukati mwa North Caucasus, vili na mphepo yakuzizima chomene. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Siberia na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Russia, nyengo ya chiwuvi njakomira chomene pakuyaniska na nyengo ya chihanya. Mu nyengo ya chiwuvi, mu vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi, vula yikuwa nga ni chiwuvi. Chigaŵa chakumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Kaliningrad Oblast na vigaŵa vinyake kumwera kwa Krasnodar Krai na North Caucasus vili na mphepo ya nyanja. Malo agha ghali mumphepete mwa Lower Volga na Caspian Sea, kweniso mu vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera kwa Siberia.

Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya caru ici, pali nyengo ziŵiri pera, nyengo ya cihanya na ya cihanya. Mwezi wakuzizima comene ni Janyuwale (February pa mumphepete mwa nyanja). Nyengo zinyake matenthedwe ghakupambanapambana. Mu nyengo yakuzizima, kuzizima kukukulirakulira kufuma kumwera kuya kumpoto ndiposo kufuma kumanjiliro gha dazi kuya kumafumiro gha dazi. Nyengo ya chihanya yikuŵa yakotcha comene, nanga nkhu Siberia. Kusintha kwa mphepo ku Russia kukupangiska kuti moto wa mu nkhorongo ulokenge kanandi waka, kweniso kuti charu ichi chiŵe na chiwuvi chikuru.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2022/01/22/1075108299/why-russias-thawing-permafrost-is-a-global-problem|title=Why Russia's thawing permafrost is a global problem|work=[[NPR]]|date=22 January 2022|access-date=7 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Wildlife of Russia}}
{{See also|List of ecoregions in Russia}}
[[File:Саблинский хребет.jpg|thumb|[[Yugyd Va National Park]] in the [[Komi Republic]] is the largest [[national park]] in Europe.&lt;ref name=&quot;urals&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=13 July 2011 |title=The Ural Mountains |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/87198/the-ural-mountains |access-date=27 May 2021 |work=[[NASA Earth Observatory]] |publisher=[[NASA]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Chifukwa cha ukuru wake, caru ca Russia cili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Vinyake mwa vyakumera ivi ni mapopa gha ku mpoto, vyakumera vya tundra, vyakumera vya tundra, vyakumera vya taiga, vyakumera vya makuni ghakupambanapambana, vyakumera vya makuni, vyakumera vya makuni, vyakumera vya mu mapopa, vyakumera vya mu mapopa, na vyakumera vya mu vigaŵa vyakumwera. Pa caru cose ca Russia, hafu ya caru ici yili na makuni, ndipo ni malo ghakurughakuru comene pa caru cose gha makuni, agho ghakukanizga mphepo ya carbon dioxide.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gardiner 2021&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last=Gardiner | first=Beth | title=Will Russia's Forests Be an Asset or an Obstacle in Climate Fight? | website=Yale University| date=2021-03-23 | url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/will-russias-forests-be-an-asset-or-obstacle-in-the-climate-fight | access-date=2022-12-11}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Schepaschenko Moltchanova Fedorov Karminov 2021 p.&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Schepaschenko | first1=Dmitry | last2=Moltchanova | first2=Elena | last3=Fedorov | first3=Stanislav | last4=Karminov | first4=Victor | last5=Ontikov | first5=Petr | last6=Santoro | first6=Maurizio | last7=See | first7=Linda | last8=Kositsyn | first8=Vladimir | last9=Shvidenko | first9=Anatoly | last10=Romanovskaya | first10=Anna | last11=Korotkov | first11=Vladimir | last12=Lesiv | first12=Myroslava | last13=Bartalev | first13=Sergey | last14=Fritz | first14=Steffen | last15=Shchepashchenko | first15=Maria | last16=Kraxner | first16=Florian | title=Russian forest sequesters substantially more carbon than previously reported | journal=Scientific Reports | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=11 | issue=1 | date=Jun 17, 2021 | issn=2045-2322 | doi=10.1038/s41598-021-92152-9 | page=12825| pmid=34140583 | pmc=8211780 | bibcode=2021NatSR..1112825S }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu vyakumera vya ku Russia muli vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 12,500, vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 2,200, vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 3,000, vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 7,000, na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana 20,000, 25,000. Vinyama vya ku Russia vili na vyamoyo vyakukwana 320, viyuni vyakukwana 732, vyamoyo vyakukhala pasi vyakukwana 75, vyamoyo vyakukhala pasi na pasi vyakukwana 30, somba za mu maji ghawemi vyakukwana 343, somba za mu maji gha mchere vyakukwana 1,500, vyamoyo vyakukwana 9 na vyamoyo vyambura msana vyakukwana 100,000 na 150,000. Vinyama na vyakumera vyakujumpha 1,100 ivyo ni vichoko chomene na ivyo vili pangozi ya kumara vili kulembeka mu buku la Russian Red Data Book.

Vinthu vyose vyakuthupi vya ku Russia vili mu malo pafupifupi 15,000 agho ghali na malo ghakupambanapambana ghakuvikilirika. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni vyaru 45 ivyo vili na vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana, vyaru 64 ivyo vili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana, na vyaru 101 ivyo vili na vyakumera vyakupambanapambana. Nangauli charu ichi chikulutilira kunangika, kweni viyuni vinandi vichalipo, chomenechomene ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu cha Siberia. Russia wakaŵa na chiŵelengero cha 9.02 mu 2019, ndipo wakaŵa wa nambara 10 pa vyaru 172.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Grantham HS, ''et al''. |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2020 |page=5978 |issn=2041-1723 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |pmid=33293507 |pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Boma na ndale ==
{{Main|Politics of Russia}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300
| align            = right
| caption_align    = center
| image1           = Владимир Путин (18-06-2023) (cropped).jpg|caption1=[[Vladimir Putin]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[President of the Russian Federation|President]]&lt;/small&gt;
| image2           = Mikhail Mishustin (2020-07-09).jpg|caption2=[[Mikhail Mishustin]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[Prime Minister of the Russian Federation|Prime Minister]]&lt;/small&gt;
}}
[[File:Chart Constitution of Russia EN.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|A chart of the Russian political system]]
Mu 1993, boma la Russia likaŵa na fundo yakuti boma la Russia likwenera kuŵa na pulezidenti yumoza. Boma ili lili na vigaŵa vitatu:&lt;ref name=&quot;DeRouenHeo2005&quot;&gt;{{cite book |first1=Karl R. |last1=DeRouen |first2=Uk |last2=Heo |title=Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdeBgfmZI0cC&amp;pg=PA666 |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-781-4 |page=666}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Wupu Wakulongozga: Wupu Wakulongozga wa Russia, uwo uli na ŵanthu 450 ndipo uli na ŵanthu 170, ndiwo ukukhazikiska malango gha boma, kupharazga nkhondo, kukolerana na vyaru vinyake, ndipo uli na mazaza ghakulongozga ndalama za boma na kukaka pulezidenti.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Chapter 5. The Federal Assembly {{!}} The Constitution of the Russian Federation|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|access-date=4 February 2022|website=www.constitution.ru}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Muwuso: Pulezidenti ndiyo ni mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa Russia, ndipo wakwimika boma la Russia (Cabinet) na ŵantchito ŵanyake, awo ŵakwendeska na kufiska malango gha boma. Pulezidenti wangapeleka vyeruzgo vyambura mphaka, kweni vikususkana yayi na dango la boma.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Remington |first1=Thomas F. |title=Presidential Decrees in Russia: A Comparative Perspective |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-04079-3 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TK-BAwAAQBAJ&amp;dq=russia+decree+of+the+president+inpublisher:university&amp;pg=PA48 |access-date=August 13, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Ŵeruzgi: Khoti Likuru Chomene, Khoti Likuru Chomene, na makhoti ghachokoghachoko, agho ŵeruzgi ŵawo ŵakwimikika na Wupu wa Federation pa ulongozgi wa pulezidenti, ŵakung'anamura malango ndipo ŵangawuskapo malango agho ŵakughanaghana kuti ngakususkana na dango. Mulara wa boma wakusankhika na ŵanthu wose kuti waŵe na vyaka vinkhondi na cimoza. Maofesi gha boma ghakukhala na nduna yikuru na ŵantchito ŵake, nduna, na ŵanthu ŵanyake; wose ŵakwimikika na pulezidenti pa ulongozgi wa nduna yikuru (pakuwona kuti kwimika nduna iyi kukukhumba kuzomerezgeka na boma la Duma). United Russia ni chipani cha ndyali icho chili na mazaza chomene mu Russia, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuti ni &quot;chipani cha nkhongono&quot;. Mu muwuso wa Vladimir Putin, caru ca Russia caweleramo ku demokilase, ndipo cazgoka boma la wupu wakulongozga pasi pa muwuso wa wupu wa Putin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | author = Brian D. Taylor | date = 2018 | title = The Code of Putinism | publisher = Oxford University Press | pages = 2–7 | isbn = 978-0-19-086731-7 | oclc = 1022076734}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|In 2020, [[2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia|constitutional amendments]] were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.&lt;ref name=&quot;reformvote&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53255964 |title=Putin strongly backed in controversial Russian reform vote |publisher=BBC |date=2 July 2020 |access-date=18 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Konitzer|first1=Andrew|last2=Wegren|first2=Stephen K.|title=Federalism and Political Recentralization in the Russian Federation: United Russia as the Party of Power|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|volume=36|number=4|year=2006|pages=503–522|journal=[[Publius (journal)|Publius]]|doi=10.1093/publius/pjl004|jstor=4624765}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;authoritarianness&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last=Kuzio|first=Taras|title=Nationalism and authoritarianism in Russia|journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies|year=2016|volume=49|number=1|pages=1–11|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.12.002|jstor=48610429}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Political divisions ===
{{Main|Political divisions of Russia}}
Mu 1993, boma la Russia likaŵa na malango ghakwendera lumoza. Mwakupambana na umo vinthu vikaŵira mu R.S.F.S.R., apo vyaru vikaŵa waka &quot;vinthu vya mu wupu&quot;, dango ili likawovwira kuti vigaŵa vinyake viŵe nga ni vyaru vinyake. Vyaru vya Russia vili na vigaŵa ivyo vili na mazaza ghake, kweni palije vigaŵa ivyo vili na mazaza ghake, vilije mazaza gha boma, vilije wanangwa wa kulongora mazaza ghake mu malango ghawo, ndipo vilije wanangwa wa kujipatura ku caru. Malango gha vigaŵa ghangatimbanizga yayi malango gha boma.

Vyaru vyose vya ku Germany vili na ŵimiliri ŵaŵiri mu wupu wa Federation Council, uwo ni wupu wa ŵalara ŵa boma. Kweni ŵakupambana pa umo ŵakuchitira vinthu. Mu 2000, Putin wakambiska maboma gha Russia kuti ghaŵe na mazaza pa ŵanthu awo ŵakulongozgeka na boma. Pakwamba kukaŵa vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri, kweni sono kuli vigaŵa vinkhondi na viŵiri, ndipo chigaŵa chilichose chili na nthumi yake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Russell |first=Martin |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/569035/EPRS_IDA(2015)569035_EN.pdf |title=Russia's constitutional structure |journal=[[European Parliamentary Research Service]] |publisher=[[European Parliament]] |date=2015 |access-date=3 November 2021 |isbn=978-92-823-8022-2 |doi=10.2861/664907}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{efn|Including the [[Republic of Crimea]], and the federal city of [[Sevastopol]], which are disputed between Russia and Ukraine, since the internationally unrecognised annexation of Crimea in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;dispute&quot;/&gt;}}[[File:Map of federal subjects of Russia (2022), disputed Crimea and Donbass.svg|center|600px|frameless]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Federal subjects
! Governance
|-
| {{legend|#FFEC77|46&amp;nbsp;[[oblasts of Russia|oblast]]s}}
| The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Hale |first=Henry E. |title=The Makeup and Breakup of Ethnofederal States: Why Russia Survives Where the USSR Fell |journal=[[Perspectives on Politics]] |pages=55–70 |volume=3 |number=1 |date=March 2005 |publisher=[[American Political Science Association]] |doi=10.1017/S153759270505005X |jstor=3688110|s2cid=145259594 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#00C160|22&amp;nbsp;[[Republics of Russia|republics]]}}
| Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific [[Ethnic groups in Russia|ethnic minority]], and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Orttung |first1=Robert |last2=Lussier |first2=Danielle |last3=Paetskaya |first3=Anna |title=The Republics and Regions of the Russian Federation: A Guide to Politics, Policies, and Leaders |publisher=[[EastWest Institute]] |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-7656-0559-7 |location=New York |pages=523–524}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#FF9400|9&amp;nbsp;[[krais of Russia|krai]]s}}
| For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title &quot;krai&quot; (&quot;frontier&quot; or &quot;territory&quot;) is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Shabad |first=Theodore |title=Political-Administrative Divisions of the U.S.S.R., 1945 |journal=[[Geographical Review]] |publisher=[[Taylor &amp; Francis]] |volume=36 |number=2 |pages=303–311 |date=April 1946 |doi=10.2307/210882 |jstor=210882}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#006989|4&amp;nbsp;[[autonomous okrugs of Russia|autonomous okrugs]]}}
| Occasionally referred to as &quot;autonomous district&quot;, &quot;autonomous area&quot;, and &quot;autonomous region&quot;, each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Sharafutdinova |first=Gulnaz |title=When Do Elites Compete? The Determinants of Political Competition in Russian Regions |pages=273–293 |volume=38 |number=3 |date=April 2006 |journal=[[Comparative Politics]] |publisher=Comparative Politics, Ph.D. Programs in Political Science, [[City University of New York]] |doi=10.2307/20433998 |jstor=20433998}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#FF0037|3&amp;nbsp;[[federal cities of Russia|federal cities]]}}
| Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as [[Sevastopol]] in Russian-occupied Ukraine).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Kelesh |first1=Yulia V. |last2=Bessonova |first2=Elena A. |title=Digitalization management system of Russia's federal cities focused on prospective application throughout the country |journal=SHS Web of Conferences |url=https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/pdf/2021/21/shsconf_icemt2021_05011.pdf |volume=110 |number=5011 |doi=10.1051/shsconf/202111005011 |date=11 June 2021 |page=05011 |s2cid=236655658 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| {{legend|#C300FF|1&amp;nbsp;autonomous oblast}}
| The only autonomous oblast is the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Alessandro |first=Vitale |title=Ethnopolitics as Co-operation and Coexistence: The Case-Study of the Jewish Autonomous Region in Siberia |journal=Politeja |year=2015 |number=31/2 |pages=123–142 |jstor=24919780 |publisher=Księgarnia Akademicka |doi=10.12797/Politeja.12.2015.31_2.09|s2cid=132962208 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Russia}}
[[File:2019 Foto de família dos Líderes do G20.jpg|thumb|Putin with G20 counterparts in [[Osaka]], 2019]]
Mu 2019, caru ca Russia cikaŵa pa nambara 5 pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵasilikari ŵanandi. Likukolerana na vyaru 190 ivyo vili mu wupu wa United Nations, vyaru vinayi ivyo vili na wupu uwu, na vyaru vitatu ivyo vili na wupu uwu. Russia njimoza mwa vyaru vinkhondi ivyo vili mu wupu wa United Nations Security Council. Kwamba kale, caru ici nchankhongono comene, ndipo nchakumanyikwa comene pakuŵa cigaŵa cikuru ca Soviet Union. Russia njumoza wa vyaru vya G20, OSCE, na APEC. Russia nayo wakulongozga mu mawupu nga ni CIS, EAEU, CSTO, SCO, na BRICS.

Russia wali na ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru viŵiri ivi. Kwamba kale, Serbia ni muwukirano wa Russia, cifukwa vyaru viŵiri ivi vikukolerana comene pa nkhani ya mitheto, mafuko, na visopa. India ndiyo wakuguliska comene vya nkhondo ku Russia, ndipo vyaru viŵiri ivi vili na ubwezi wakukhora wa vyaru vyakupambanapambana kwambira mu nyengo ya Soviet Union. Russia wali na mazaza pa vyaru vyakuzirwa nga ni South Caucasus na Central Asia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Nation |first=R Craig. |title=Russia and the Caucasus |journal=Connections |year=2015 |volume=14 |number=2 |pages=1–12 |jstor=26326394 |publisher=[[Partnership for Peace Consortium of Defense Academies and Security Studies Institutes]] |doi=10.11610/Connections.14.2.01}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Swanström |first=Niklas |title=Central Asia and Russian Relations: Breaking Out of the Russian Orbit? |journal=[[Brown Journal of World Affairs]] |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2012 |pages=101–113 |jstor=24590931|quote=The Central Asian states have been dependent on Russia since they gained independence in 1991, not just in economic and energy terms, but also militarily and politically.}}&lt;/ref&gt;[[File:Russian-list-of-unfriendly-countries.svg|thumb|right|{{legend2|#3F48CC}} Russia&lt;br /&gt; {{legend2|#AA0000}} Countries on Russia's &quot;[[Unfriendly Countries List]]&quot;. The list includes countries that have imposed [[International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War|sanctions against Russia]] for its invasion of Ukraine.]]
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Russia wakulondezga fundo zakususkana na vyaru vinyake kuti wasange mazaza pa charu chose kweniso kuti wawovwire boma lake. Kuwukira ŵasilikari mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Soviet Union, ni nkhondo na Georgia mu 2008, kweniso kuwukira Ukraine na kutimbanizga mtende mu 2014. Russia nayo wakukhumba kusazgirako nkhongono zake ku Middle East, comenecomene kwizira mu nkhondo ya ku Syria. Nkhondo za pa Intaneti na kunanga malo gha mu mlengalenga, pamoza na kunjilirapo pa mavoti, vyawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵawonenge kuti Russia ngwankhongono. Ubwezi wa Russia na Ukraine na vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi, chomenechomene United States, European Union, United Nations na NATO, watimbanizgika; comenecomene pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Russia na Ukraine mu 2014 na kunjira mu suzgo mu 2022. Ubwezi pakati pa Russia na China wakukhozga comene pa vigaŵa viŵiri ndiposo vya cuma cifukwa ca ivyo ŵanthu wose ŵakutemwa. Turkey na Russia ŵakukolerana comene pa nkhani ya ndyali, nkhongono, na kuvikilira caru. Russia wali na ubwezi uwemi na Iran, cifukwa ni mubwezi wake wa ndyali ndiposo wa vya cuma. Kweniso Russia wakulimbikira kuti wasanuzge mazaza ghake mu vyaru vya ku Arctic, Asia-Pacific, Africa, Middle East, na Latin America. Kuyana na lipoti la Economist Intelligence Unit, ŵanthu ŵaŵiri pa ŵanthu ŵatatu ŵaliwose pa caru capasi ŵakukhala mu vyaru nga ni China na India ivyo ni vyakutemwera yayi nkhondo panji ivyo vikutemwa Russia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine |last1=Stengel |first1=Richard |title=Putin May Be Winning the Information War Outside of the U.S. and Europe |url=https://time.com/6179221/putin-information-war-column/ |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]] |date=20 May 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ŵankhondo ===
{{Main|Russian Armed Forces}}
[[File:Sukhoi Design Bureau, 054, Sukhoi T-50 (Su-57 prototype) (49581303977).jpg|thumb|[[Sukhoi Su-57]], a [[fifth-generation fighter]] of the [[Russian Air Force]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Sukhoi&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rand.org/blog/2020/08/russias-su-57-heavy-fighter-bomber-is-it-really-a-5th.html |title=Russia's Su-57 Heavy Fighter Bomber: Is It Really a Fifth-Generation Aircraft? |work=[[RAND Corporation]] |author=Ryan Bauer and Peter A. Wilson |date=17 August 2020 |access-date=28 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Ŵasilikari ŵa Russia ŵali kugaŵika mu magulu ghaŵiri: ŵasilikari ŵa pa mtunda, ŵasilikari ŵa mu nyanja, na ŵasilikari ŵa mu mlengalenga. Kufika mu 2021, ŵasilikari ŵali na ŵasilikari pafupifupi 1 miliyoni, ndipo ŵali na ŵasilikari ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=International Institute for Strategic Studies|author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies |title=The Military Balance |date=2021 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-85743-988-5 |page=191}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Nichol |first=Jim |url=https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/R42006.pdf |title=Russian Military Reform and Defense Policy |work=[[Congressional Research Service]] |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |date=24 August 2011 |access-date=22 December 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵanalume wose ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 18 na 27 ŵakwenera kunjira usilikari.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Russia – The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |access-date=4 March 2022 |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Boma la Russia ndilo lili na vilwero vya nyukiliya vinandi chomene kuluska vyaru vinyake. Russia ni yimoza mwa vyaru vitatu ivyo vili na sitima za pasi pa nyanja za balistic missile. Boma la Russia ndilo lili na ndalama zinandi chomene pa charu chose pa nkhani ya vya nkhondo, ndipo likagwiliskira ntchito madola 86.4 biliyoni mu 2022, panji kuti 4.1% ya GDP. Mu 2021, yikaŵa yikuluta yaciŵiri pa caru cose pakuguliska vilwero, ndipo yikaŵa na makampani ghakurughakuru gha kuvikilira caru, ndipo yikapanganga vilwero vinandi vya nkhondo.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Bowen |first=Andrew S. |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46937 |title=Russian Arms Sales and Defense Industry |work=[[Congressional Research Service]] |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |date=14 October 2021 |access-date=20 December 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Wanangwa wa ŵanthu na vimbundi ===
{{Main|Human rights in Russia|Corruption in Russia}}
[[File:Protest against the invasion of Ukraine (Yekaterinburg, February 24, 2022).jpg|thumb|Pamanyuma pakuti Russia wanjira mu Ukraine mu 2022, ŵanthu ŵakamba kususka nkhondo mu Russia. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakanizgika kwiza pa ungano uwu ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 15,000 ŵakakakika.&lt;ref name=&quot;massarrest&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Shevchenko |first=Vitaliy |date=15 March 2022 |title=Ukraine war: Protester exposes cracks in Kremlin's war message |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60749064 |access-date=3 April 2022 |publisher=BBC}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka ivyo boma la Russia likuchita pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa ŵanthu. Mwaciyerezgero, wupu wa Amnesty International na wa Human Rights Watch ŵakuti Russia ni caru ca demokilase yayi ndipo ŵanthu ŵake ŵalije wanangwa wa ndyali panji wanangwa wa kucita vinthu vinyake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/russian-federation/ |title=Russian Federation |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |access-date=16 March 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/europe/central-asia/russia |title=Russia |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |access-date=20 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kwambira mu 2004, wupu wa Freedom House, ukuwona kuti caru ca Russia nchambura wanangwa. Kwambira mu 2011, bungwe la Economist Intelligence Unit likuwona kuti charu cha Russia ni &quot;chipani cha ŵanthu ŵankhongono&quot; ndipo mu 2022 chiŵenge pa malo 146. Pa nkhani ya wanangwa wa vyalo, Russia wali pa malo gha 155 pa vyalo 180 mu lipoti la Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index la 2022. Boma la Russia lakususkika comene na ŵanthu awo ŵakususka ndyali na awo ŵakuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu cifukwa ca maungano ghambura urunji, kukanizga magulu gha visopa na viyezgelero, kutambuzga mawupu ghambura vya boma, kukanizga na kukoma ŵapharazgi ŵakujiyimira paŵekha, na kukanizga ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye vinandi pa nkhani ya vya boma.

Ndyali za ku Russia zikuchemeka kleptocracy, oligarchy, na plutocracy. Charu ichi ndicho chikaŵa pasi chomene pa vyaru vyose vya ku Europe pa ndondomeko ya Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index ya chaka cha 2021. Ku Russia, vimbundi vyazara comene, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti ni suzgo likuru. Likukhwaska vigaŵa vinandi, nga ni vya vyachuma, bizinesi, boma, malango, vyakusungilira umoyo, masambiro, na ŵasilikari.

Ŵasilamu, comenecomene ŵa Salafi, ŵakutambuzgika mu Russia. Kuti ŵamazge viwawa ivyo vikucitika ku North Caucasus, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Russia ŵakususkika kuti ŵakukoma ŵanthu, kuŵakaka, kuŵachimbizga, na kuŵatambuzga. Ku Dagestan, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu gulu la Salafi ŵakusuzgika na boma cifukwa ca kawonekero kawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Chechnya na Ingush awo ŵali mu majele gha ku Russia ndiwo ŵakusuzgika chomene kuluska ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Ukraine mu 2022, Russia wakhazikiska misasa ya ŵanthu awo ŵakusuzgika ndipo ŵakutumika ku Russia. Misasa iyi yikayaniskika na iyo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito pa nkhondo za ku Chechnya.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Marquise Francis |date=April 7, 2022 |title=What are Russian 'filtration camps'? |url=https://news.yahoo.com/what-are-russian-filtration-camps-194643731.html |website=[[Yahoo! News]] |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Katie Bo Lillis, Kylie Atwood and Natasha Bertrand |title=Russia is depopulating parts of eastern Ukraine, forcibly removing thousands into remote parts of Russia |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/26/politics/ukraine-filtration-camps-forcibly-remove-russia/index.html |access-date=2022-11-17 |website=[[CNN]]|date=26 May 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Dango na upusikizgi ===
{{Main|Law of Russia|Crime in Russia}}
Dango lakwamba na lakuzirwa chomene mu Russia ni Dango la Wupu Wakulongozga. Malango, nga ni Russian Civil Code na Russian Criminal Code, ndigho ghakovwira chomene pa malango gha Russia.&lt;ref name=&quot;Yılmaz 2020&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last=Yılmaz | first=Müleyke Nurefşan İkbal | title=With its Light and Dark Sides; The Unique Semi-Presidential System of the Russian Federation | website=Küresel Siyaset Merkezi | date=31 August 2020 | url=https://www.kureselsiyaset.org/with-its-light-and-dark-sides-the-unique-semi-presidential-system-of-the-russian-federation/ | access-date=23 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Partlett 2010&quot;&gt;{{cite web | last=Partlett | first=William | title=Reclassifying Russian Law: Mechanisms, Outcomes, and Solutions for an Overly Politicized Field | website=Search eLibrary | date=7 July 2010 | ssrn=1197762 | url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1197762 | access-date=23 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;butler99&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=William E. |title=Criminal Code of the Russian Federation |year= 1999 |publisher=Springer}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Russia ni caru caciŵiri pa caru cose ico cikuguliska vilwero mwambura kuzomerezgeka, pamanyuma pa United States.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Organized Crime Index 2023&quot;&gt;{{cite web | title=Criminality in Russia | website=The Organized Crime Index | date=4 May 2023 | url=https://ocindex.net/country/russia | access-date=23 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot; The Organized Crime Index&quot;&gt;{{cite web | title=The Organized Crime Index | website= The Organized Crime Index | url=https://ocindex.net/ | access-date=23 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OSW Centre for Eastern Studies 2019&quot;&gt;{{cite web | title=Russia behind bars: the peculiarities of the Russian prison system | website=OSW Centre for Eastern Studies | date=7 February 2019 | url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2019-02-07/russia-behind-bars-peculiarities-russian-prison-system | access-date=23 May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chuma ==
{{Main|Economy of Russia}}
{{Further|Economic history of the Russian Federation|Taxation in Russia}}
[[File:Business Centre of Moscow 2.jpg|thumb|The [[Moscow International Business Center|Moscow International Business Centre]] in Moscow. The city has one of the world's [[List of cities by GDP|largest urban economies]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Churkina|first1=Natalie|last2=Zaverskiy|first2=Sergey|title=Challenges of strong concentration in urbanization: the case of Moscow in Russia|doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2017.07.095|volume=198|year=2017|pages=398–410|journal=Procedia Engineering|publisher=[[Elsevier]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]

Boma la Russia lili na chuma cha msika, ndipo lili na vinthu vinandi chomene, chomenechomene mafuta na gasi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/59.htm |title=Russia – Natural Resources |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |year=1998 |publisher=Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]] |access-date=25 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Charu ichi chili na cuma cikuru comene cacinkhondi na cinayi pa caru cose pa nkhani ya GDP, ndipo nchicinkhondi na cimoza pa vyaru vyose pa nkhani ya malonda. Vigaŵa vikuruvikuru vya uteŵeti vikupanga 62% vya GDP yose, ivi vikulondezgana na vigaŵa vya vyamaseŵera (32%), apo vigaŵa vya vyakurya ni vichoko chomene, ndipo vikupanga 5% pera vya GDP yose. Ku Russia, ŵanthu awo ŵakutondeka kugwira nchito mbacoko comene. Vinthu ivyo charu ichi chikusunga ni vyacinkhondi pa vyaru vyose pa caru, ndipo vili na ndalama zakukwana madola 540 biliyoni. Mu caru ici muli ŵanthu pafupifupi 70 miliyoni, ndipo ni caru ca nambara sikisi pa vyaru ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi.

Russia ni caru ca nambara 13 pa vyaru ivyo vikuguliska vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake ndipo ni caru ca nambara 21 pa vyaru ivyo vikuguliska vyakurya ku vyaru vinyake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c643%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1|title=List of importing markets for the product exported by Russian Federation in 2021|work=[[International Trade Centre]]|access-date=27 June 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c643%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1|title=List of supplying markets for the product imported by Russian Federation in 2021|work=[[International Trade Centre]]|access-date=27 June 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Boma la Russia likuthemba chomene pa ndalama izo likusanga kufuma ku misonkho ya mafuta na gasi kweniso misonkho ya vyakurya ivyo vikupanga vyakurya vinyake. Russia ni yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na ngongoli yichoko chomene pa vyaru vikuruvikuru, nangauli ni vyaru vyakupambanapambana ivyo vili na ndalama zinandi. Kweniso pali mphambano yikuru pakati pa vigaŵa.

Pamanyuma pa virimika vyakujumpha 10 vya kukura kwa cuma mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, kwakovwirika na mtengo wa mafuta ndiposo kukwera kwa ndalama zakwendakwenda, cuma ca Russia cikapwetekeka cifukwa ca nkhondo ya Russia na Ukraine na kunjizga Crimea mu 2014. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Russia ya ku Ukraine mu 2022, chalo ichi chikakumana na viyezgo vikuru na vyakuti mabungwe gha vyamalonda ghalekerethu kugwiliskira nchito ndalama zawo, ndipo chikazgoka chalo ico ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakucicizga pa caru cose. Chifukwa cha suzgo ili, boma la Russia laleka kufumiska vinthu vinandi vya vyachuma kufuma mu Epulero 2022. Ogwira ntchito zachuma akunena kuti zilangozi zidzakhudza kwambiri chuma cha Russia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.dw.com/en/is-russias-economy-really-hurting/a-63000166|last=Martin|first=Nik|title=Is Russia's economy really hurting?|work=[[DW News]]|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|date=6 September 2022|access-date=2 October 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Transport and energy ===
{{Main|Transport in Russia|Energy in Russia}}
[[File:VL 85-022 container train.jpg|thumb|The [[Trans-Siberian Railway]] is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to [[Vladivostok]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trans-siberian-railway-russia-what-its-like-photos-2019-7 |title=I rode the legendary Trans-Siberian Railway on a 2,000-mile journey across 4 time zones in Russia. Here's what it was like spending 50 hours on the longest train line in the world. |work=[[Business Insider]] |first=Katie |last=Warren |date=3 January 2020 |access-date=10 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Mu Russia, njanji zikwendeskeka na boma la Russia. Mtunda wose wa njanji izo zikugwiliskirika nchito ni mtunda wacitatu pa mtunda wose pa caru, ndipo ukujumpha makilomita 87,000.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/railways/country-comparison |title=Railways – The World Factbook |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=15 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mu 2016, Russia wakaŵa wa nambara 5 pa vyaru ivyo vili na misewu yinandi chomene. Misewu ya maji ya ku Russia ndiyo yitali chomene pa charu chose. Pa ma eyapoti 1,218 gha ku Russia, agho ghali na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ni Sheremetyevo International Airport ku Moscow. Doko likuru comene mu Russia ni Novorossiysk Port mu Krasnodar Krai mumphepete mwa Nyanja Yiswesi.

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakatenge Russia ni boma la nkhongono chomene pa nkhani ya magesi. Charu ichi chili na mafuta ghanandi chomene pa charu chose chapasi, ndipo chili pa nambara 8 pa vyaru ivyo vili na mafuta ghanandi chomene. Kweniso charu cha Russia ndicho chikupanga mafuta ghanandi chomene pa charu chose. Kupanga mafuta na gasi mu Russia kukapangiska kuti paŵe ubwezi wakukhora na vyaru vya ku Europe, China, na vyaru vinyake ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Soviet Union.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian-supplies-to-global-energy-markets/oil-market-and-russian-supply-2 |access-date=18 May 2022 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Gas Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/russian-supplies-to-global-energy-markets/gas-market-and-russian-supply-2 |access-date=18 May 2022 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mwachiyelezgero, mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha, chiŵelengero cha Russia icho chikupeleka mafuta ku vyaru vyose vya ku Europe (mwakusazgapo United Kingdom) chikakwera kufuma pa 25% mu 2009 kufika pa 32% mu masabata ghakwambilira pambere charu cha Russia chindanjire mu Ukraine mu Febuluwale 2022.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000, chiŵelengero cha mafuta na gasi mu GDP chikaŵa pafupifupi 20%, ndipo mu 2013 chikaŵa 20~21% ya GDP. Malire gha mafuta na gasi mu vyakurya vya ku Russia (pafupifupi 50%) na ndalama za boma (pafupifupi 50%) ni ghanandi, ndipo GDP ya Russia yikuthemba pa mtengo wa mafuta na gasi, kweni ndalama izo zili mu GDP ni zicoko comene kuluska 50%. Kuyana na kafukufuku wakudumura wakudumura uyu uyo wakalembeka na wupu wa Russian Statistics Agency Rosstat mu 2021, chiŵelengero cha mafuta na gasi mu GDP ya Russia, kusazgapo kunozga mafuta na gasi, kwendeska, kuguliska mafuta na gasi, vinthu vyose ivyo vikugwiliskirika nchito, na milimo yose yakovwira, ni 19.2% mu 2019 na 15.2% mu 2020. Ivi vikuyana waka na GDP ya Norway na Kazakhstan. Ni pacoko comene kuluska GDP ya ku Saudi Arabia na United Arab Emirates.&lt;ref&gt;https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/1b5RpebS/Maximov-tezisy.pdf {{bare URL PDF|date=May 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.rbc.ru/economics/13/07/2021/60ec40d39a7947f74aeb2aae|title=Росстат впервые рассчитал долю нефти и газа в российском ВВП|website=РБК|date=13 July 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://neftegazru.com/news/economics-markets-stocks/688594-oil-gas-share-of-russia-s-gdp-dropped-to-15-in-2020/|title=Oil &amp; gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020|website=neftegazru.com|date=14 July 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://norvanreports.com/oil-gas-share-of-russias-gdp-dropped-to-15-in-2020/|title=Oil &amp; gas share of Russia's GDP dropped to 15% in 2020 &amp;#124; NORVANREPORTS.COM &amp;#124; Business News, Insurance, Taxation, Oil &amp; Gas, Maritime News, Ghana, Africa, World|date=14 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Oil-Gas-Share-Of-Russias-GDP-Dropped-To-15-In-2020.html|title=Oil &amp; Gas Share Of Russia's GDP Dropped To 15% In 2020|website=OilPrice.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Russia yikazomera phangano la Paris mu 2019. Ku Russia ndiko kuli na vyakumera vinandi comene kuluska vyakumera vinyake vyose pa caru. Russia ni caru cacinayi pa caru cose ico cikupanga magesi. Kweniso ni caru cakwamba pa caru cose kupanga nkhongono za nyukiliya, na kuzenga sitima yakwamba ya nyukiliya. Mu 2019, Russia ndiyo yikaŵa na nkhongono zinandi chomene pa charu chose pa nkhani ya nyukiliya.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Whiteman |first1=Adrian |last2=Akande |first2=Dennis |last3=Elhassan |first3=Nazik |last4=Escamilla |first4=Gerardo |last5=Lebedys |first5=Arvydas |last6=Arkhipova |first6=Lana |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Apr/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2021.pdf |title=Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2021 |access-date=3 January 2022 |location=[[Abu Dhabi]] |publisher=[[International Renewable Energy Agency]] |date=2021 |isbn=978-92-9260-342-7}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Agriculture and fishery ===
{{Main|Agriculture in Russia|Fishing industry in Russia}}
[[File:Wheat Tomsk.jpg|thumb|left|Wheat in [[Tomsk Oblast]], Siberia]]
Vyaru vya Russia vikupanga pafupifupi 5% ya GDP ya caru ici, nangauli vikugwirapo nchito pafupifupi cigaŵa cimoza pa vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza vya ŵanthu wose awo ŵakugwira nchito. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakurughakuru ghachitatu pa charu chose, ghakukwana 1,265,267 sq. km. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca umo caru ici ciliri, pafupifupi 13.1% ya caru ici ni vyakurya, ndipo 7.4% pera ni vyakurya. Malo gha vyakurya gha mu caru ici ghakumanyikwa kuti ni malo gha ku Europe. Malo ghakujumpha hafu gha malo agha ghakupambika vyakurya vya viŵeto. Vipambi vikuru comene mu vyaru vya Russia ni vyakurya vya tirigu, ivyo vikukwana pafupifupi hafu ya malo gha vyakurya. Russia ni caru ico cikuguliska tirigu comene pa caru cose, ndipo ndico cikuguliska balere na buckwheat comene.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/3/cb9236en/cb9236en.pdf|title=The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict|date=25 March 2022|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]|location=[[Rome]]|access-date=8 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/wheat/reporter/rus?redirect=true|title=Wheat in Russia &amp;#124; OEC|website=OEC – The Observatory of Economic Complexity}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-22/russia-s-dominance-of-the-wheat-world-keeps-growing |title=Russia's Dominance of the Wheat World Keeps Growing |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]] |first1=Anatoly |last1=Medetsky |first2=Megan |last2=Durisin |date=23 September 2020 |access-date=15 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakumanya umo vyakumera vingasinthira na kusintha kwa nyengo ŵakuwona kuti mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 vyakurya vya ku Russia vizamusambazgika chomene. Chifukwa cha mumphepete mwa nyanja zikuruzikuru zitatu na nyanja 12 izo zili mumphepete mwa nyanja, charu cha Russia chili pa nambara 6 pa vyakumera vikuruvikuru pa charu chose chapasi. Mu chaka cha 2018, ŵanthu pafupifupi 5 miliyoni ŵakakora somba. Mu charu ichi ndimo mukusangika somba ziwemi chomene za beluga.&lt;ref name=&quot;agriculturebritannica&quot;&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Russia – Economy |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy |access-date=1 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in Russia}}
{{See also|Timeline of Russian innovation|List of Russian scientists|List of Russian inventors}}
&lt;!--section full of name spamming see Canada#Science and technology for proper example--&gt;
[[File:M.V. Lomonosov by L.Miropolskiy after G.C.Prenner (1787, RAN).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mikhail Lomonosov]] (1711–1765), [[polymath]] scientist, inventor, poet and artist]]
Boma la Russia likagwiliskira nchito pafupifupi 1% ya GDP yake pa kafukufuku mu 2019, ndipo ndilo lili na ndalama zinandi comene pa caru cose. Kweniso yikaŵa ya nambara 10 pa charu chose pa nkhani ya mabuku gha sayansi agho ghakalembeka mu 2020. Kwambira mu 1904, ŵanthu 26 ŵa ku Soviet Union na Russia ŵali kupokera chawanangwa cha Nobel mu vyaru vya physics, chemistry, medicine, economics, literature na peace. Russia ili pa malo 45 pa Global Innovation Index mu 2021.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_gii_2021/ru.pdf |title=RUSSIAN FEDERATION |work=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |publisher=United Nations |access-date=17 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kufuma waka mu nyengo ya Nikolay Lobachevsky, uyo wakambiska masamu agho ghakusambizga vya Euclid yayi, na Pafnuty Chebyshev, uyo wakaŵa msambizgi wakumanyikwa chomene, ŵasayansi ŵa masamu ŵa ku Russia ndiwo ŵakaŵa na mazaza chomene pa charu chose. Dmitry Mendeleev ndiyo wakambiska sayansi ya vinthu vyamunthazi. Ŵasayansi 9 ŵa ku Russia na Soviet ŵali kupokera chawanangwa ichi. Mu 2002, Grigori Perelman wakapokera chawanangwa chakuchemeka Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award chifukwa cha ukaboni wake waumaliro wa fundo ya Poincaré, kweniso Fields Medal mu 2006.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Frank |title=Manifolds with Density and Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture |jstor=27642690 |volume=116 |number=2 |pages=134–142 |date=February 2009 |journal=[[The American Mathematical Monthly]] |publisher=[[Taylor &amp; Francis]]|doi=10.1080/00029890.2009.11920920 |s2cid=6068179 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Alexander Popov wakaŵa yumoza wa awo ŵakapanga wayilesi, ndipo Nikolai Basov na Alexander Prokhorov ndiwo ŵakapanga laser na maser. Oleg Losev wakacita vinandi comene pa nkhani ya kudumura vinthu mu viŵiya, ndipo wakabowozga viŵiya vyakufumiska ungweru. Vladimir Vernadsky wakuwoneka kuti ndiyo wakambiska sayansi ya geochemistry, biogeochemistry, na radiogeology. Eli Metchnikoff wakumanyikwa na kafukufuku wake wakukhwaskana na munkhwala wakuvikilira thupi. Ivan Pavlov wakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca mulimo wake wa kusambizga ŵanthu kuti ŵaŵe na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Lev Landau wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya sayansi.

Nikolai Vavilov wakumanyikwa comene cifukwa ca kumanya malo agho vyakumera vikupangikira. Trofim Lysenko wakamanyikwanga comene cifukwa ca cisopa ca Lysenko. Ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa ŵa ku Russia ŵakafuma ku vyaru vinyake. Igor Sikorsky wakaŵa mupayiniya wa vya ndege. Vladimir Zworykin ndiyo wakapanga makina gha pa TV ghakucemeka iconoscope na kinescope. Theodosius Dobzhansky wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya umo vinthu vikalengekera. George Gamow wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵakasambizganga fundo yakuti vinthu vikachita kuphulika kufuma ku chinthu chinyake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.colorado.edu/physics/events/outreach/george-gamow-memorial-lecture-series/distinguished-life-and-career-george-gamow |title= The Distinguished Life and Career of George Gamow |date= 11 May 2016 |publisher=[[University of Colorado Boulder]] |access-date=21 January 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Space exploration ====
Roscosmos ni wupu wakuwona vya mlengalenga wa Russia. Ivyo charu cha Russia chafiska pa nkhani ya sayansi ya mlengalenga vikamba na Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, uyo wakaŵa wiske wa sayansi ya mlengalenga.

Mu 1957, Satellite yakwamba ya Sputnik 1 yikaponyeka kucanya. Mu 1961, Yuri Gagarin ndiyo wakaluta mu mlengalenga kakwamba. Pakajumpha nyengo yitali kufuma apo ku Russia na ku Soviet Union kukaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakasanda mlengalenga. Mu 1963, Valentina Tereshkova wakaŵa mwanakazi wakwamba kweniso muchoko comene kuluta mu mlengalenga. Mu 1965, Alexei Leonov wakaŵa munthu wakwamba kwenda mu mlengalenga.

Mu 1957, Laika, ntcheŵe yakufuma ku Soviet, ndiyo yikaŵa nyama yakwamba kuzingilira caru capasi. Mu 1966, ndege ya Luna 9 ndiyo yikaŵa yakwamba kufika pa mwezi. Mu 1968, Zond 5 yikawovwira ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ŵa pa charu chapasi kuti ŵende kuzingilira mwezi. Mu 1970, Venera 7 ndiyo yikaŵa ndege yakwamba kukhira pa caru cinyake, Venus. Mu 1971, Mars 3 yikaŵa ndege yakwamba kukwera pa Mars.:34 ¢60 Mu nyengo yeneyiyo, Lunokhod 1 yikaŵa ndege yakwamba kukwera mu mlengalenga, ndipo Salyut 1 yikaŵa sitima yakwamba ya mlengalenga. Mu Epulero 2022, caru ca Russia cikaŵa na mapulaneti 172 mu mlengalenga.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Satellite Database |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database |access-date=18 August 2022 |website=[[Union of Concerned Scientists]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Russia}}
[[File:Grand Cascade in Peterhof 01.jpg|thumb|[[Peterhof Palace]] in Saint Petersburg, a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]
Kuyana na wupu wa World Tourism Organization, charu cha Russia chili pa nambara 16 pa vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku malo agha. Wupu wakuwona vya maulendo ku Russia (Federal Agency for Tourism) ukati mu 2019, ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakaluta ku Russia maulendo ghakukwana 24.4 miliyoni. Mu 2018, ndalama izo charu cha Russia chikapokera kufuma ku ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda zikakwana madola 11.6 biliyoni. Mu chaka cha 2019, maulendo na vyakukopa ŵanthu vikaŵa pafupifupi 4.8% ya GDP ya charu chose.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://knoema.com/atlas/Russian-Federation/topics/Tourism/Travel-and-Tourism-Total-Contribution-to-GDP/Contribution-of-travel-and-tourism-to-GDP-percent-of-GDP|title=Russian Federation Contribution of travel and tourism to GDP (% of GDP), 1995–2019 |website=Knoema}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ŵalendo ŵanandi ŵakuluta ku malo ghakupambanapambana ku Russia. Ŵalendo aŵa ŵakwenda mu malo ghakuchemeka Golden Ring of Russia. Vinyake mwa malo agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuluta ku Russia ni Red Square, Peterhof Palace, Kazan Kremlin, Trinity Lavra of St. Petersburg, na Moscow Cathedral. Sergius na Nyanja ya Baikal.

Moscow, msumba ukuru wa caru ici, ni msumba ukuru comene. Nyumba iyi yili na vyakuzengeka vya nyengo ya Soviet ndipo yili na vinthu vyakuzirwa nga ni vyakusanguluska, maseŵero gha ballet, na nyumba zikuruzikuru. Msumba wa St. Petersburg, uwo ni msumba ukuru wa Ufumu wa Russia, ukumanyikwa na vyakuzengeka, matchalitchi, nyumba zakusungiramo vinthu vyakale, mise yituŵa, milonga na migelo yinandi. Charu cha Russia ntchakumanyikwa pa charu chose chifukwa cha malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale nga ni State Russian, State Hermitage, na Tretyakov Gallery. Nyumba ya Moscow Kremlin na Cathedral ya St. Basil ni vinyake mwa vinthu vyakuzirwa comene mu Russia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=Kremlin and Red Square, Moscow|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/545/|access-date=20 February 2022|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ŵanthu ==
{{Main|Demographics of Russia|Russians|List of cities and towns in Russia|List of cities and towns in Russia by population}}
{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| caption_align     = center
| align             = right
| title             = Ethnic groups across Russia
| image1            = Ethnic groups in Russia of more than 1 million people 2010 Census English.png
| caption1          = {{font|size=100%|text=Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over 1 million according to the 2010 census}}
| image2            = Percentage of Russians by region.svg
| caption2          = {{font|size=100%|text=Percentage of ethnic Russians by region according to the 2010 census}}
}}

Charu cha Russia chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa charu chose ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu misumba. Ŵanthu ŵakukwana 142.8 miliyoni kuyana na kalembera wa mu 2010, ndipo ŵakukwana 145.5 miliyoni mu 2022. Charu cha Russia ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ku Europe, ndipo chili pa nambara 9 pa vyaru vyose pa charu chapasi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST |title=Population density (people per sq. km of land area) |work=[[The World Bank]] |access-date=16 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kwamba m'ma 1990, ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakufwa ku Russia cajumpha ca awo ŵakubabika. Mu 2019, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika mu Russia chikaŵa 1.5 pa mwanakazi waliyose, ndipo ichi ntchichoko chomene pakuyaniska na chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika mu charu ichi. Ntheura, caru ici nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵake mbacekuru comene pa caru cose, ndipo ŵali na vilimika 40.3. Mu 2009, caru ici cikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene kwa nyengo yakwamba mu vilimika 15, ndipo pamanyuma pake ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakamba kufwa cifukwa ca kuchepa kwa unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakufwa, kunjira mu caru cinyake cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakubabika.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Foltynova |first=Kristyna |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/migrants-welcome-is-russia-trying-to-solve-its-demographic-crisis-by-attracting-foreigners-/30677952.html |title=Migrants Welcome: Is Russia Trying To Solve Its Demographic Crisis By Attracting Foreigners? |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |quote=&quot;Russia has been trying to boost fertility rates and reduce death rates for several years now. Special programs for families have been implemented, anti-tobacco campaigns have been organized, and raising the legal age to buy alcohol was considered. However, perhaps the most successful strategy so far has been attracting migrants, whose arrival helps Russia to compensate population losses.&quot; |date=19 June 2020 |access-date=9 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ndipouli, kwambira mu 2020, chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ku Russia chawelerapo, chifukwa ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakufwa na nthenda ya COVID-19 yikapangiska kuti chiŵelengero chake chichepe chomene mu nyengo ya mtende. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya Russia ya ku Ukraine mu 2022, suzgo la ŵanthu mu chalo ichi likasazgikira comene, cifukwa boma ili likapwetekeka comene na ŵasilikari awo ŵakafwa.

Boma la Russia lili na vyaru vinandi ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵachoko waka. Mu caru cose ici muli mafuko ghakujumpha 193. Mu 2010, ŵanthu pafupifupi 81% ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Russia, ndipo 19% ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko linyake. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Europe. Kuyana na wupu wa United Nations, caru ca Russia ndico cili na ŵanthu ŵanandi comene ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake, ndipo ŵalipo ŵakujumpha 11.6 miliyoni.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-03/russia-and-ukraine-fight-but-their-people-want-reconciliation |title=Russia and Ukraine Fight, But Their People Seek Reconciliation |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.]] |first=Leonid |last=Ragozin |date=3 April 2019 |access-date=19 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{Largest cities of Russia}}

=== Viyowoyelo ===
{{Main|Russian language|Languages of Russia}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
| align            = right
| title            = Minority languages across Russia
| image1           = Linguistic map of the Altaic, Turkic and Uralic languages (en).png|caption1=[[Altaic languages|Altaic]] and [[Uralic languages]] spoken across Russia
| image2           = Caucasus-ethnic en.svg|caption2=The [[North Caucasus]] is [[Peoples of the Caucasus|ethno]]-[[North Caucasian languages|linguistically]] diverse.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lazarev |first1=Vladimir |last2=Pravikova |first2=Ludmila |title=The North Caucasus Bilingualism and Language Identity |publisher=Pyatigorsk State Linguistic University |quote=The North Caucasus, inhabited by more than 100 of autochthonous and allochthonous peoples, including Russians, is a unique locus for conducting a large-scale research in the area of bilingualism and multilingualism. |page=1325 |url=http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/103ISB4.PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}
Chiyowoyero cha ku Russia ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene.&lt;ref name=&quot;Russian&quot;/&gt; Chiyowoyero ichi ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene ku Europe, kweniso ndicho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene ku Eurasia. Chiyowoyero cha Chirussia ndicho chikuyowoyeka pa malo ghakuchemeka International Space Station.

Russia ni charu icho ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vinandi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=2011 |last=Iryna |first=Ulasiuk |title=Legal protection of linguistic diversity in Russia: past and present |journal=[[Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development]] |publisher=[[European University Institute]] |volume=32 |number=1 |pages=71–83 |doi=10.1080/01434632.2010.536237 |s2cid=145612470 |issn=0143-4632 |quote=Russia is unique in its size and ethnic composition. There is a further linguistic complexity of more than 150 co-existing languages.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38595 |title=Russia – Ethnic groups and languages |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |quote=&quot;Although ethnic Russians comprise more than four-fifths of the country's total population, Russia is a diverse, multiethnic society. More than 120 ethnic groups, many with their own national territories, speaking some 100 languages live within Russia's borders.&quot; |access-date=8 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; Kuyana na kalembera uyo wakachitika mu 2010, ŵanthu 137.5 miliyoni ŵakayowoyanga Chirussia, 4.3 miliyoni ŵakayowoyanga Chitata, ndipo 1.1 miliyoni ŵakayowoyanga Chiukraine. Ndondomeko iyi yikupeleka wanangwa ku vigaŵa vya caru ici kuti viŵe na viyowoyero vyawo vya boma padera pa Cirasha, kweniso yikovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵasungilire ciyowoyero cawo na kupanga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa kuti ŵacisambire na kucikura. Ndipouli, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti viyowoyero vinandi vya ku Russia vikumara chifukwa viyowoyero vinandi vili pangozi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Jankiewicz |first1=Szymon |last2=Knyaginina |first2=Nadezhda |last3=Prina |first3=Federic |url=http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/208165/1/208165.pdf |title=Linguistic rights and education in the republics of the Russian Federation: towards unity through uniformity |date=13 March 2020 |volume=45 |number=1 |pages=59–91 |journal=[[Review of Central and East European Law]] |doi=10.1163/15730352-bja10003 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |s2cid=216273023 |issn=0925-9880}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bondarenko |first1=Dmitry V. |last2=Nasonkin |first2=Vladimir V. |last3=Shagieva |first3=Rozalina V. |last4=Kiyanova |first4=Olga N. |last5=Barabanova |first5=Svetlana V. |year=2018 |title=Linguistic Diversity In Russia Is A Threat To Sovereignty Or A Condition Of Cohesion? |url=https://mjltm.org/article-1-146-en.pdf |journal=Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods |pages=166–182 |volume=8 |number=5 |issn=2251-6204}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Russia}}
[[File:Moscow StBasilCathedral d18.jpg|thumb|[[Saint Basil's Cathedral]] in Moscow is the most iconic religious architecture of Russia.]]
Ku Russia kuli boma la ŵanthu ŵanandi yayi, ndipo cisopa cikuru comene ni Cikhristu ca Eastern Orthodox, ico cikumanyikwa comene na Tchalitchi la Russian Orthodox. Dango la Russia likuti cisopa ca Orthodox, pamoza na Cisilamu, Cibuda, na Cikhristu ca Ŵamitundu Yinyake (icho cilipo sono panji caŵasopo), ni visopa vya mu caru ici, ndipo ni vigaŵa vya &quot;mbiri ya caru ici&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Bourdeaux|first=Michael|chapter=Trends in Religious Policy|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPP3ti4hysUC&amp;pg=PA46|title=Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=2003|isbn=978-1857431377|pages=46–52 [47]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Fagan|first=Geraldine|title=Believing in Russia: Religious Policy After Communism|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|isbn=9780415490023}} p. 127.&lt;/ref&gt;

Chisopa cha Chisilamu ndicho ntchikuru chomene pa visopa vyose mu Russia, ndipo ntchisopa cha ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku North Caucasus, kweniso ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Turkmenistan awo ŵakukhala ku chigaŵa cha Volga na Ural. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa chisopa cha Chibuda ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, na Tuva. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia ŵakulondezga visopa vinyake, kusazgapo Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism), Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism), mitundu yinyake ya ŵanthu awo ŵakusopa ŵangoza, na visopa vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵangoza nga ni Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism, visopa vyakupambanapambana vya Chihindu, Siberian shamanism na Tengrism, visopa vyakupambanapambana vya Neo-Theosophical nga ni Roerichism, na visopa vinyake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|year=2006|editor-surname1=Bourdeaux|editor-given1=Michael|editor-surname2=Filatov|editor-given2=Sergey|title=Современная религиозная жизнь России. Опыт систематического описания|trans-title=Contemporary religious life of Russia. Systematic description of experiences|place=Moscow|publisher=[[Keston Institute]]; Logos|volume=4|language=ru|isbn=5987040574}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|editor-last1=Menzel|editor-first1=Brigit|editor-last2=Hagemeister|editor-first2=Michael|editor-last3=Glatzer Rosenthal|editor-first3=Bernice|title=The New Age of Russia: Occult and Esoteric Dimensions|publisher=Kubon &amp; Sagner|year=2012|isbn=978-3866881976|url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903042320/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf|archive-date=3 September 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakusopa mu visopa vichokovichoko ŵakutambuzgika ndipo ŵanyake ŵakukanizgika mu charu ichi. Mu 2017, Ŵakaboni ŵa Yehova ŵakaŵakanizga mu Russia.

Mu 2012, wupu wakuwona vya chisopa wa Sreda, pamoza na Unduna wa vya Malango, ukafumiska buku la Arena Atlas, ilo likasazgako ku kalembera wa mu 2010, ilo likulongosora vya chisopa na mitundu ya ŵanthu mu Russia. Ivyo vikachitika vikalongora kuti ŵanthu 47.3% ŵa ku Russia ŵakajiphara kuti Mbakhristu, kusazgapo 41% ŵa tchalitchi la Orthodox, 1.5% ŵa Orthodox panji ŵa matchalitchi ghanyake, 4.1% ŵa Ŵakhristu ŵambura kukolerana na tchalitchi linyake, ndipo ŵambura kukolerana na tchalitchi la Orthodox, Ŵakatorika, panji Ŵaprotesitanti, ndipo ŵakakwana 1%.&lt;ref name=&quot;ArenaAtlas2012&quot;/&gt;

=== Masambilo ===
{{Main|Education in Russia}}
[[File:МГУ, вид с воздуха.jpg|thumb|[[Moscow State University]], the most prestigious educational institution in Russia&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/lomonosov-moscow-state-university |title=Lomonosov Moscow State University |work=[[QS World University Rankings]] |access-date=28 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Russia ŵakumanya kulemba na kuŵazga, ndipo sukulu iyi njakukakamiza kwa vyaka 11. Dango la caru ici likuti ŵanthu ŵasambirenge kwawanangwa.&lt;ref name=&quot;CEPES&quot;&gt;{{cite book |date=1997 |last=Kouptsov |first=Oleg |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000129839 |title=Mutual recognition of qualifications: the Russian Federation and the other European countries |location=[[Bucharest]] |work=[[UNESCO-CEPES]] |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |page=25 |isbn=929-0-69146-8}}&lt;/ref&gt; Unduna wa vya masambiro ku Russia ndiwo ukupeleka masambiro gha ku pulayimale na gha ku sekondare, kweniso masambiro gha mauteŵeti. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa vigaŵa ŵakulongozga masambiro mu vigaŵa vyawo mwakuyana na malango gha boma. Russia ni yimoza mwa vyaru ivyo vili na masambiro ghapacanya comene pa caru cose, ndipo ni caru ca nambara 6 pa vyaru vyose ivyo vili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵali kumalizga masambiro ghapacanya.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://data.oecd.org/eduatt/population-with-tertiary-education.htm |title=Population with tertiary education |publisher=[[OECD]] |doi=10.1787/0b8f90e9-en |year=2022 |access-date=21 January 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mu 2018, charu ichi chikagwiliskira ntchito ndalama zakukwana 4.7% pa GDP yake pa masambiro.

Ŵana ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa vitatu na vinkhondi na cimoza mu caru ca Russia ŵakusambira mu masukulu gha ŵana ŵachoko. Ŵana ŵa vyaka 6 m'paka 7 ndiwo ŵakwenera kusambira sukulu ya pulayimale. Kuti munthu wafike ku sekondare wakwenera kusambira vyaka viŵiri panji vitatu, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 7 pa ŵanthu 8 ŵa ku Russia ŵakulutilira kusambira sukulu iyi.

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakunjira masukulu ghapachanya ndipo ŵakusanga mwaŵi wa kusambira. Maunivesite ghakale chomene na ghakuru chomene mu Russia ni Moscow State University na Saint Petersburg State University. Mu vyaru vyose ivi muli masukulu ghapachanya 10 gha boma. Russia ndiyo yikaŵa malo ghachinkhondi pa charu chose agho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasambirangako ku charu ichi mu 2019.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://uis.unesco.org/en/uis-student-flow |title=Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=4 January 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Umoyo ===
{{Main|Healthcare in Russia}}
[[File:Metallurg Sochi.jpg|thumb|Metallurg, a Soviet-era [[sanatorium]] in [[Sochi]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last=Morton |first=Elise |url=https://www.calvertjournal.com/features/show/9981/beyond-the-game-sochi-seaside-walking-guide-soviet-sanatoriums-gardens |work=[[Calvert 22 Foundation]] |title=Russian rivieia: from Soviet sanatoriums to lush gardens, your walking guide to seaside Sochi |date=25 May 2018 |access-date=7 January 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Ku Russia, malango ghakwendeskera umoyo ghakupeleka wovwiri waulere ku ŵanthu wose ŵa mu charu ichi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Cook |first=Linda |url=https://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAuxPages)/3C45C5A972BF063BC1257DF1004C5420/$file/Cook.pdf |date=February 2015 |work=[[United Nations Research Institute for Social Development]] |publisher=United Nations |title=Constraints on Universal Health Care in the Russian Federation |location=Geneva |access-date=3 January 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Unduna wa vya Umoyo wa Ŵanthu wa Russia ndiwo ukuwona vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵakugwira ntchito mu charu ichi. Vigaŵa vya boma navyo vili na maofesi gha vyaumoyo agho ghakuwona vya boma. Kuti munthu wasange wovwiri wa ku chipatala ku Russia wakwenera kuŵa na inshuwalansi yapadera.

Boma la Russia lagwiritsa ntchito 5.65% ya GDP yake pa zaumoyo mu 2019.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=RU |title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Russian Federation |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=21 April 2021|quote=Data retrieved on January 30, 2022.}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ndalama izo charu ichi chikugwiliskira nchito pa vya cipatala ni zicoko comene pakuyaniska na za vyaru vinyake vyakutukuka. Chifukwa cha unandi wa ŵanalume awo ŵakufwa, caru ca Russia nchimoza mwa vyaru ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene ŵanakazi. Mu 2019, umoyo wose wa ŵanthu ku Russia ukaŵa wa vyaka 73.2 (68.2 kwa ŵanalume na 78.0 kwa ŵanakazi).

Mu Russia, matenda gha mtima ndigho ghakwamba kufwa. Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakututuŵa chomene. Ndipouli, nangauli mu vyaka 10 ivyo vyajumpha ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumwa chomene moŵa ku Russia, kweni ni suzgo likuru chomene pa charu chose. Kukhweŵa hona ni suzgo linyake mu caru ici. Nangauli chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakujikoma chikukhira, kweni ni suzgo likuru chomene.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/mental-health/news/news/2020/9/preventing-suicide-russian-federation-adapts-who-self-harm-monitoring-tool |title=Preventing suicide: Russian Federation adapts WHO self-harm monitoring tool |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |date=9 October 2020 |access-date=3 January 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Mwambo ==
{{Main|Russian culture}}
[[File:Moscow-Bolshoi-Theare-1.jpg|thumb|The [[Bolshoi Theatre]] in Moscow, at night]]
Ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakulondezga mitheto yawo chifukwa cha mbiri ya charu ichi, malo agho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi, chisopa na mitheto ya ŵanthu, kweniso vinthu vya ku Western.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/western-culture-comes-russia |title=Western Culture Comes to Russia |date=10 October 1970 |volume=20 |number=10 |last=Lincoln |first=W.B. |publisher=[[History Today]] |access-date=14 January 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; Awo ŵakulemba mabuku na ŵavinjeru ŵa ku Russia ŵali kovwirapo chomene pa nkhani ya mabuku na maghanoghano gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia ŵakukhwaskaso chomene sumu, maseŵero, kupenta, na mafilimu. Charu ichi chachitaso vinandi pa nkhani ya sayansi na vyakupangapanga ndiposo kupenja malo.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Hachten |first=Elizabeth A. |title=In Service to Science and Society: Scientists and the Public in Late-Nineteenth-Century Russia |jstor=3655271 |publisher=The [[University of Chicago Press]] |journal=[[Osiris]] |year=2002 |volume=17 |pages=171–209|doi=10.1086/649363 |s2cid=144835649 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Ipatieff |first=V.N. |title=Modern Science in Russia |jstor=125254 |doi=10.2307/125254 |year=1943 |pages=68–80 |journal=[[The Russian Review]] |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |volume=2 |number=2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ku Russia kuli malo 30 agho ghali kulembeka na UNESCO kuti ni malo ghakukondweska ŵanthu. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Russia awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake ŵali kovwirapo chomene pa kusambizga ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia. Chizindikiro cha charu cha Russia, nombo ya mitu yiŵiri, yikamba mu nyengo ya ufumu wa Tsardom, ndipo yili pa vikozgo vya charu ichi. Kanandi nkhalamira ya ku Russia na Mama Russia ni vimanyikwiro vya caru ici.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Platoff |first=Anne M. |title=The 'Forward Russia' Flag: Examining the Changing Use of the Bear as a Symbol of Russia |journal=[[Raven: A Journal of Vexillology]] |volume=19 |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt5xz8x2zc/qt5xz8x2zc.pdf?t=n02jtk |pages=99–126 |doi=10.5840/raven2012197 |year=2012 |issn=1071-0043 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Riabov |first=Oleg |title=The Symbol of the Motherland in the Legitimation and Delegitimation of Power in Contemporary Russia |journal=[[Nationalities Papers]] |issn=0090-5992 |year=2020 |doi=10.1017/nps.2019.14 |pages=752–767 |volume=48 |number=4|s2cid=214578255 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Vidoli vya Matryoshka ni vyakuzirwa chomene ku Russia.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Mother Russia: The Feminine Myth in Russian Culture |page=19 |first=Hubbs |last=Joanna |year=1993 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-20842-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Holidays ===
{{main|Public holidays in Russia}}
[[File:Алые паруса.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Scarlet Sails (tradition)|Scarlet Sails]] being celebrated along the [[Neva]] in Saint Petersburg]]
Mu Russia muli maholide ghankhondi na ghatatu. Chaka chikwamba na Zuŵa la Caka Ciphya pa 1 Janyuwale, ndipo pamanyuma pake pa 7 Janyuwale pakaŵanga Khisimasi. Zuŵa la kuvikilira caru, lakupelekeka ku ŵanalume, likukondwelereka pa Febuluwale 23. Zuŵa la Ŵanakazi pa 8 Malichi, likakura comene mu Russia mu nyengo ya Soviet Union. Zuŵa la ŵanakazi ilo likuŵako chaka chilichose lakhumbikwa chomene na ŵanalume ŵa ku Russia. Zuŵa la Khisimu na la Ŵantchito, ilo likaŵa holide ya mu nyengo ya Soviet, likukondwelereka pa Meyi 1.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Zuŵa la Nkhondo, ilo likukumbukira kuwina kwa Soviet pa Nazi Germany na umaliro wa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose mu Europe, likukondwelereka pa Red Square mu Moscow. Maholide ghanyake agho ŵanthu ŵakukondwelera ni Zuŵa la Russia, ilo likuchitika pa Juni 12, kuti likumbukire umo charu cha Russia chikapharazgira kuti chili na mazaza pa charu chinyake kufuma ku Soviet Union.

Pali maholide ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa. Chaka Ciphya cikukondwelereka pa 14 Janyuwale. Maslenitsa ni holide yakale ya ŵanthu ŵa ku East Slavic. Zuŵa la Cosmonautics pa 12 Epulero, kucindika ulendo wakwamba wa ŵanthu mu mlengalenga. Maholide ghaŵiri ghakuru gha Cikristu ni Isitara na Sabata ya Utatu.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Leonov |first=Tatyana |title=Celebrate: Russian Orthodox Easter |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2013/04/04/celebrate-russian-orthodox-easter |work=[[Special Broadcasting Service]] |date=5 April 2018 |access-date=12 January 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Maluso na kuzenga ===
{{Main|Russian artists|Russian architecture|List of Russian architects}}
{{multiple image
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| image1            = Karl Brullov - The Last Day of Pompeii - Google Art Project.jpg
| caption1          = {{font|size=100%|text=[[Karl Bryullov]], ''[[The Last Day of Pompeii]]'' (1833)}}
| image2            = Winter Palace Panorama 3.jpg
| caption2          = {{font|size=100%|text=The [[Winter Palace]] served as the [[official residence]] of the [[Emperor of all the Russias|Emperor of Russia]].}}
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Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵakujambura vithuzithuzi vyakutowa chomene. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1400, Andrei Rublev, uyo wakaŵa nkhwantha ya kupenta vikozgo, wakapanga vinthu vinyake vya cisopa vyakuzirwa comene mu Russia. Wupu wa Russian Academy of Arts, uwo ukakhazikiskika mu 1757, kuti usambizge ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia umo ŵangapangira vithuzithuzi. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵasayansi ŵanyake nga ni Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, na Vladimir Borovikovsky ŵakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵakajambura vithuzithuzi vinandi vya Karl Briullov na Alexander Ivanov.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |year=2018 |volume=77 |number=1 |jstor=26565352 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |journal=[[Slavic Review]] |last=Dianina |first=Katia |title=The Making of an Artist as National Hero |pages=122–150|doi=10.1017/slr.2018.13 |s2cid=165942177 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Sibbald |first=Balb |title=If the soul is nourished ... |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |date=5 February 2002 |volume=166 |number=3 |pages=357–358 |pmc=99322}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ivan Aivazovsky, uyo nayo wakaŵa na nkharo iyi, wakuwoneka kuti wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene pa nkhani ya vyakumera.

Mu ma1860, gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga vinthu (Peredvizhniki), awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin, na Vasiliy Perov, ŵakaleka kughanaghanira chomene vya sukulu iyi. Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Reeder |first=Roberta |title=Mikhail Vrubel': A Russian Interpretation of &quot;fin de siècle&quot; Art |jstor=4207296 |publisher=[[Modern Humanities Research Association]] |journal=[[The Slavonic and East European Review]] |volume=54 |number=3 |date=July 1976 |pages=323–334}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Archer |first=Kenneth |title=Nicholas Roerich and His Theatrical Designs: A Research Survey |jstor=1478046 |doi=10.2307/1478046 |volume=18 |number=2 |publisher=Dance Studies Association |journal=[[Congress on Research in Dance#Dance Research Journal|Dance Research Journal]] |pages=3–6 |year=1986|s2cid=191516851 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵaluso ŵa ku Russia awo ŵakamanyikwanga kuti ŵali na nkharo yiwemi ŵakamba kuzura mu 1890 m'paka mu 1930. Ŵaluso ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyikwa chomene mu nyengo iyi ŵakaŵa El Lissitzky, Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, na Marc Chagall.

Mbiri ya vyakuzengeka vya ku Russia yikamba na vyakuzengeka vyakwambilira vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Slavonia, kweniso vya matchalitchi gha ku Kiev. Pamanyuma pakuti charu cha Kievan Rus' chazgoka Chikhristu, kwa vyaka vinandi chikaŵa na vyakuzengeka vya Byzantine. Aristotle Fioravanti na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Italy ndiwo ŵakambiska nyengo ya kuwuka kwa Yesu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵakazenga matchalitchi agho ghakaŵa nga ni mahema. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700, &quot;nthowa ya moto&quot; ya kusongonora yikakura chomene mu Moscow na Yaroslavl, ndipo pachoko na pachoko yikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye umo ŵakazengeranga vinthu mu nyengo ya Naryshkin.

Pamanyuma pa kusintha kwa vinthu kwa Peter the Great, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kutolera kalembero ka ku Russia. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na vyakuzengeka vya Rococo, ndipo ŵakalemba milimo yiwemi chomene ya Bartolomeo Rastrelli na ŵalondezgi ŵake. Ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene awo ŵakazenganga vinthu ku Russia mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, nga ni Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, na Ivan Starov, ŵakapanga vinthu vyakukumbukika ku Moscow na Saint Petersburg. Mu nyengo ya Catherine Mukuru, msumba wa St. Petersburg ukazgoka malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale. Mu nyengo ya Alexander I, nyumba izo ŵakazenganga zikaŵa za Ufumu. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuzgoŵera kalembero kakupambanapambana ka ku Russia. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwana chomene na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu iyi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://iseees.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/doc/2013_8-eady.pdf |title=To the New Shore: Soviet Architecture's Journey from Classicism to Standardization |last=Zubovich-Eady |first=Katherine |year=2013 |publisher=[[University of California, Berkeley]] |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120150146/https://iseees.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/doc/2013_8-eady.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Music ===
{{Main|Music of Russia}}
[[File:Porträt des Komponisten Pjotr I. Tschaikowski (1840-1893).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] (1840–1893), in a 1893 painting by [[Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov (painter)|Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov]]]]
M'paka m'ma 1700, sumu za ku Russia zikaŵa za ku tchalitchi, na za ŵanthu.&lt;ref name=&quot;Music&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Curtis |first=Glenn E. |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/44.htm |title=Russia – Music |year=1998 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington D.C. |access-date=25 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, sumu iyi yikamanyikwa na umo ŵanthu ŵakakhalira pakati pa Mikhail Glinka, uyo wakaŵa wakwimba wakwimba, na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa gulu la The Mighty Handful. Ivyo wakalemba Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, uyo wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene awo ŵakalemba sumu zachitemwa, Sergei Rachmaninoff ndiyo wakalutilira kulemba m'ma 1900. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa chomene awo ŵakalemba sumu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ni Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev na Dmitri Shostakovich, kweniso Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina, Georgy Sviridov, na Alfred Schnittke.&lt;ref name=&quot;music2&quot;&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |title=Russia – Music |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Music |access-date=7 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, ŵanthu ŵakamanyikwanga chomene na sumu nga ni Vladimir Vysotsky na Bulat Okudzhava. Nangauli boma la Soviet likakanizganga sumu za jazz, kweni zikalutilira kukura ndipo zikazgoka sumu zakumanyikwa comene mu caru ici. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1980, sumu za rock zikaŵa zakutchuka chomene mu Russia, ndipo zikafumiska magulu nga ni Aria, Aquarium, DDT, na Kino. Sumu za pop zikulutilira kukura mu Russia kwambira mu ma 1960, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakumanyikwa pa caru cose nga ni t.A.T.u.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/music/tatu-bad-to-be-true-20030614-gdvvq0.html |title=Tatu bad to be true |work=[[The Age]] |date=14 June 2003 |access-date=7 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Literature and philosophy ===
{{Main|Russian literature|Russian philosophy}}
{{multiple image
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| image1            = Ilya Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1887).jpg
| caption1          = {{font|size=100%|text=[[Leo Tolstoy]] (1828–1910), is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time, with works such as ''[[War and Peace]]''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Thirlwell |first=Adam |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/oct/08/classics.leonikolaevichtolstoy |title=A masterpiece in miniature |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=8 October 2005 |access-date=25 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
| image2            = Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg
| caption2          = {{font|size=100%|text=[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] (1821–1881), one of the great novelists of all time, whose masterpieces include ''[[Crime and Punishment]]''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Dahlkvist |first=Tobias |date=October 2015 |title=The Epileptic Genius: The Use of Dostoevsky as Example in the Medical Debate over the Pathology of Genius |jstor=43948762 |journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]] |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |volume=76|number=4 |pages=587–608 |doi=10.1353/jhi.2015.0028 |pmid=26522713 |s2cid=37817118 |issn=0022-5037}}&lt;/ref&gt;}}
}}

Mabuku gha ku Russia ghakumanyikwa kuti ndigho ghakupambanapambana pa charu chose. Baibolo ili likamba kulembeka mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba nkhani za mu Baibolo mu ChiSlavonic chakale. Kuzakafika mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakusambizga Ŵanthu, mabuku ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa chomene, ndipo pakaŵa mabuku gha Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, na Nikolay Karamzin. Kwambira mu ma 1830, apo mabuku gha ku Russia ghakaŵa mu nyengo ya ndakatulo, mabuku agha ghakaŵa gha ndakatulo chomene. Vinthu vikamba kwenda makora mu nyengo iyi. Vasiliy Zhukovsky na Alexander Pushkin ŵakamba kuyowoya makora. Kuyana na ivyo Pushkin wakalemba, ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalembako ŵakababika nga ni Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev na Afanasy Fet.&lt;ref name=&quot;literature&quot;&gt;{{cite web |year=1998 |editor=Glenn E. Curtis |title=Russia – Literature |url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/43.htm |access-date=27 July 2021 |publisher=Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington D.C.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mulembi mukuru wakwamba wa ku Russia wakaŵa Nikolai Gogol. Kufuma apo, pakaŵa Ivan Turgenev, uyo wakalemba nkhani zicoko na mabuku ghanyake. Mwaluŵiro Fyodor Dostoevsky na Leo Tolstoy ŵakamanyikwa pa caru cose. Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wakalembanga vyakusekeska, apo Nikolai Leskov wakumanyikwa na mabuku ghake ghafupi. Mu hafu yaciŵiri ya vilimika vya m'ma 1900, Anton Chekhov wakalemba nkhani zicoko comene ndipo wakaŵa mulembi wa maseŵero. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, pakaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakalemba mabuku nga ni Ivan Krylov, Vissarion Belinsky, na Alexander Griboyedov. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti kukaŵa nyengo iyo visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia vikamba kulembeka. Mu nyengo iyi mukaŵa ŵanthu ŵakulemba nga ni Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, na Konstantin Balmont. Kweniso pakaŵa ŵalembi ŵa mabuku na mabuku gha nkhani zichoko waka nga ni Aleksandr Kuprin, Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky na Andrei Bely.&lt;ref name=&quot;literature&quot;/&gt;

Pamasinda pa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Russia mu 1917, mabuku gha ku Russia ghakagaŵikana mu vigaŵa vya Soviet na White émigré. Mu m'ma 1930, fundo yakuti vinthu vikuchitika nadi ndiyo yikamba kulamulira mu Russia. Munthu uyo wakawovwira pakusintha kalembero aka wakaŵa Maxim Gorky. Mikhail Bulgakov wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵalembi ŵakumanyikwa comene mu nyengo ya Soviet Union. Buku la Nikolay Ostrovsky lakuti How the Steel Was Tempered ndilo ndakumanyikwa chomene mu mabuku gha ku Russia. Ŵanandi awo ŵakalemba mabuku agha ŵakaŵa Vladimir Nabokov na Isaac Asimov. Ŵalembi ŵanyake ŵakasuska maghanoghano gha Soviet, nga ni Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, uyo wakalemba vya umoyo wa mu misasa ya Gulag.

Fundo za ŵanthu ŵa ku Russia zikawovwira chomene. Alexander Herzen wakumanyikwa kuti njumoza wa ŵanthu awo ŵakambiska vyaru. Ŵanthu ŵakuti Mikhail Bakunin ndiyo wakambiska chisambizgo chakuti ŵanthu ŵaleke kulamulira ŵanyawo. Peter Kropotkin wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa comene pa nkhani ya cikomyunizimu. Ivyo Mikhail Bakhtin wakalemba vyawovwira chomene ŵasayansi. Helena Blavatsky wakaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakamulondezganga pa charu chose. Vladimir Lenin, uyo wakaŵa munthu wankhongono comene, wakambiska cisopa ca cikomyunizimu. Kweni Leon Trotsky ndiyo wakambiska cisopa ca Trotsky. Alexander Zinoviev wakaŵa wavinjeru wakuzirwa comene mu hafu yaciŵiri ya vilimika vya m'ma 1900. Alexander Dugin, uyo wakumanyikwa cifukwa ca maghanoghano ghake gha ucigaluka, wakucemeka &quot;mulongozgi wa vyaru vya caru&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rutland|first=Peter|date=December 2016|title=Geopolitics and the Roots of Putin's Foreign Policy|journal=[[Russian History (Brill journal)|Russian History]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|volume=43|issue=3–4|pages=425–436|doi=10.1163/18763316-04304009|jstor=26549593}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=The myth of Trotskyism |year=1973 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/leon-trotsky-and-the-politics-of-economic-isolation/myth-of-trotskyism/95EE597BFA047615C393337F30CF63AF |work=Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation |pages=3–16 |editor-last=Day |editor-first=Richard B. |series=Cambridge Russian, Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies |place=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511524028.002 |isbn=978-0-521-52436-0 |access-date=14 March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Brom |first=Libor |title=Dialectical Identity and Destiny: A General Introduction to Alexander Zinoviev's Theory of the Soviet Man |jstor=1347433 |doi=10.2307/1347433 |volume=42 |number=1/2 |year=1988 |pages=15–27 |publisher=Rocky Mountain Modern Language Association |journal=Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature|s2cid=146768452 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kuphika ===
{{See also|Russian cuisine}}
[[File:Mint bread kvas.jpg|thumb|[[Kvass]] is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.]]
Vyakurya vya ku Russia vikukolerana na umo charu chiliri, mitheto yake, chisopa chake, kweniso malo agho charu ichi chili. Vipambi vya mpunga, tirigu, balere, na mpiru ndivyo vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵapange vingwa, makeke, na vyakurya vinyake. Cingwa ca mitundu yakupambanapambana cikumanyikwa comene mu Russia. Vyakurya vinyake vyakunowa ni shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, na okroshka. Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakusazgako smetana na mayonesi ku sopo na saladi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/05/15/spotlight-on-smetana-russias-sour-cream-a73909 |title=Spotlight on Smetana: Russia's Sour Cream |work=[[The Moscow Times]] |first=Jennifer |last=Eremeeva |date=15 May 2021 |access-date=18 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Shearlaw |first=Maeve |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/21/-sp-understanding-russias-obsession-with-mayonnaise |title=Understanding Russia's obsession with mayonnaise |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=21 November 2014 |access-date=5 December 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pirozhki, blini, na syrniki ni vyakurya ivyo vikupangika mu charu ichi. Nyama ya nyama yakuchemeka Stroganoff, nyama ya nkhuku yakuchemeka Kiev, nyama ya nyama yakuchemeka pelmeni, na nyama yakuchemeka shashlyk ni vyakurya ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kurya. Vyakurya vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakurya ni mphangwe zakuzura na nyama. Pa saladi iyi pali saladi ya Olive, vinegret, na hering'i.

Vyakumwa vya ku Russia ivyo ni vyakumwa vyakuloŵezga yayi ni kvass, ndipo vyakumwa vyakuloŵezga ni vodka. Charu ichi ndicho chikumwa moŵa unandi chomene pa charu chose, ndipo moŵa ndiwo ŵanthu ŵakumwa chomene. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Russia ŵakutemwa vinyo. Mu Russia ŵanthu ŵakutemwa comene tiyi kwa vilimika vinandi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Teslova |first=Elena |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/russian-samovars-make-tea-time-distinctive-tradition/1720329 |publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]] |title=Russian samovars make tea-time distinctive tradition |date=31 January 2021 |access-date=17 November 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report |url=https://ac.gov.ru/uploads/2-Publications/alcogol/al%D1%81o.2020.4.pdf |script-title=ru:Обзор российского рынка алкогольной продукции. IV квартал 2020 |title=Obzor rossiyskogo rynka alkogol'noy produktsii. IV kvartal 2020 |publisher=[[Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation]] |page=11 |lang=ru |date=February 2021 |access-date=10 February 2022 |archive-date=22 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422110728/http://www.ac.gov.ru/uploads/2-Publications/alcogol/al%D1%81o.2020.4.pdf |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/07/04/kvas-russias-national-tipple-a70784 |title=Kvas: Russia's National Tipple |work=[[The Moscow Times]] |first=Jennifer |last=Eremeeva |date=4 July 2020 |access-date=19 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-to-drink-vodka-like-a-russian |title=How To Drink Vodka Like a Russian |work=[[Atlas Obscura]] |first=Dan |last=Nosowitz |date=7 April 2016 |access-date=19 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Mass media and cinema ===
{{Main|Media of Russia|Cinema of Russia}}
[[File:2019-07-28-3385-Moscow-Ostankino-Tower.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ostankino Tower]] in Moscow, the [[List of tallest freestanding structures|tallest freestanding structure]] in Europe&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/2017/08/08/the-high-life-how-to-get-to-ostankino-tower-and-what-to-do-there_818720 |title=The high life: How to get to Ostankino Tower and what to do there |work=[[Russia Beyond]] |last=Sinelschikova |first=Yekaterina |date=8 August 2017 |access-date=23 December 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Mu Russia muli mawupu gha nkhani ghakujumpha 400, ndipo ghanyake ghakuru chomene ni TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, na Interfax. Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuwonelera TV.&lt;ref name=&quot;bbcmedia&quot;&gt;{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17840134 |title=Russia profile – Media |publisher=BBC |date=8 June 2021 |access-date=25 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;mediaarchive&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/russia#link_312 |title=Russia – Media Landscape |work=[[European Journalism Centre]] |first=Natalya |last=Krasnoboka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320003807/http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/russia#link_312 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |url-status=dead |access-date=15 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Pa mawayilesi 3,000 agho ghali na malayisensi pa charu chose, ghapadera chomene ni Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, na Russkoye Radio. Pa manyuzipepara 16,000 agho ghali kulembeka, ghakumanyikwa chomene ni Argumenty i Fakty, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, na Moskovskij Komsomolets. TV ya boma ya Channel One na Russia-1 ndiyo yikulongozga pa nkhani izi, apo RT ndiyo yikulongozga pa nkhani za ku Russia. Russia ndiyo ni caru cikuru comene pa vyamaseŵera gha pa vidiyo mu Europe, ndipo pali ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 65 miliyoni awo ŵakuseŵera.

Mu Russia, ndipo pamanyuma, mu Soviet Union, ŵanthu ŵakamba kupanga mafilimu ghanandi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Jamie |jstor=20451166 |title=Soviet Cinema, 1929–41: The Development of Industry and Infrastructure |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |volume=58 |number=1 |year=2006 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1080/09668130500401715 |s2cid=153570960}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Hodgson |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.play.mdx.ac.uk/media/EISENSTEIN%2C+Sergei+-+BATTLESHIP+POTEMKIN+-+1925+Russia/1_sub9wj41 |title=Eisenstein, Sergei – Battleship Potemkin – 1925 Russia |publisher=[[Middlesex University]] |date=4 December 2020 |access-date=10 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ŵalongozgi ŵa mafilimu ŵa mu nyengo ya Soviet Union, comenecomene Sergei Eisenstein na Andrei Tarkovsky, ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene pa caru cose.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.inverse.com/article/40392-sergei-eisenstein-google-doodle |title=Sergei Eisenstein: How the &quot;Father of Montage&quot; Reinvented Cinema |work=[[Inverse (website)|Inverse]] |first=Mike |last=Brown |date=22 January 2018 |access-date=27 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.bfi.org.uk/features/where-begin-with-andrei-tarkovsky |title=Where to begin with Andrei Tarkovsky |work=[[British Film Institute]] |quote=He made only seven features, but Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky is widely regarded as one of cinema's true masters. |first=Carmen |last=Gray |date=27 October 2015 |access-date=27 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Eisenstein wakaŵa msambiri wa Lev Kuleshov, uyo wakambiska fundo ya ku Soviet ya kusinthira mafilimu pa sukulu yakwamba ya mafilimu pa charu chose, ya All-Union Institute of Cinematography. Fundo ya Dziga Vertov yakuti &quot;Kino-Eye&quot; yikakhwaska chomene pa nkhani ya kupanga mafilimu ghavidiyo. Mafilimu ghanandi gha Soviet Socialist Realism ghakaŵa ghakovwira chomene, nga ni Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, na Ballad of a Soldier.

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1960 na 1970, mu Soviet Union mukaŵa mafilimu ghanandi. Vyakusanguluska vya Eldar Ryazanov na Leonid Gaidai vya nyengo yira vikaŵa vyakutchuka chomene, ndipo mazgu agha ghachali kugwiliskirika ntchito mazuŵa ghano.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/eldar-ryazanov-films/27398408.html |title=Eldar Ryazanov And His Films |publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] |date=30 November 2015 |access-date=27 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Prokhorova |first1=Elena |last2=Beumers |first2=Birgit |title=A History of Russian Cinema |date=2008 |section=The Man Who Made Them Laugh: Leonid Gaidai, the King of Soviet Comedy |isbn=978-1-84520-215-6 |publisher=[[Berg Publishers]] |pages=519–542}}&lt;/ref&gt; Mu 1961-68, Sergey Bondarchuk wakalongosora filimu ya Leo Tolstoy yakuchemeka War and Peace, iyo yikapokera mphotho ya Oscar. Iyi yikaŵa filimu yakuzirwa comene iyo yikaŵako mu Soviet Union. Mu 1969, Vladimir Motyl wakafumiska filimu yakuchemeka White Sun of the Desert. Pamasinda pa kuparanyika kwa Soviet Union, makampani gha mafilimu gha ku Russia ghakaŵa na masuzgo ghakuru, kweni kwamba m'ma 2000, ghakambaso kukura.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/01/18/the-revival-of-russias-cinema-industry-a64197 |title=The Revival of Russia's Cinema Industry |work=[[The Moscow Times]] |first=Ben |last=Aris |date=18 January 2019|access-date=25 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Maseŵera ===
{{Main|Sport in Russia}}
[[File:Maria Sharapova (18405201199).jpg|thumb|[[Maria Sharapova]], uyo kale wakaŵa na maudindo ghapachanya pa maseŵero gha tenesi, ndiyo wakapokeranga ndalama zinandi chomene pa maseŵero agha kwa vyaka 11.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2016/03/08/how-maria-sharapova-earned-285-mill-during-her-tennis-career/ |title=How Maria Sharapova Earned $285 Million During Her Tennis Career |work=[[Forbes]] |first=Kurt |last=Badenhausen |date=8 March 2016 |access-date=15 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;]]
Mpira wa pasi ni maseŵero ghakumanyikwa comene mu Russia. Gulu la mpira la Soviet Union likaŵa lakwamba kuwina maseŵera gha ku Europe apo likathereska vyalo vya ku Europe mu 1960, ndipo likaluta ku ma finals gha ku Europe mu 1988. Gulu la Russia la CSKA Moscow na Zenit Saint Petersburg likathereska nkhonya ya UEFA mu 2005 na 2008.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/0253-0d806e352f9f-e83f37a18d8b-1000--sporting-cska-moskva-watch-their-2005-final/ |title=Sporting-CSKA Moskva: watch their 2005 final |work=[[UEFA Champions League]] |date=7 August 2015 |access-date=31 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://thesefootballtimes.co/2019/11/18/how-a-brilliant-zenit-saint-petersburg-lifted-the-uefa-cup-in-2008/ |title=How a brilliant Zenit Saint Petersburg lifted the UEFA Cup in 2008 |work=[[These Football Times]] |first=Joe |last=Terry |date=18 November 2019 |access-date=31 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025d-0f859f66fcba-c8d3aa08dfa3-1000--classics-ussr-vs-netherlands-1988/ |title=Classics: Soviet Union vs Netherlands, 1988 |work=[[UEFA Champions League]] |date=29 May 2020 |access-date=31 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025a-0eb0ecf360cc-a9532565e049-1000--euro-1960-all-you-need-to-know/ |title=EURO 1960: all you need to know |work=[[UEFA Champions League]] |date=13 February 2020 |access-date=31 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;Gulu la mpira la Russia likafika ku semi-final ya Euro 2008. Russia ndiyo yikachitiska nkhonya ya FIFA Confederations Cup ya 2017, na World Cup ya 2018. Ndipouli, sono timu za ku Russia zilije mwaŵi wa kuseŵera pa maseŵera gha FIFA na UEFA.

Hockey yikumanyikwa chomene mu Russia, ndipo timu ya ku Soviet Union ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa maseŵera agha. Bandy ni maseŵero gha caru ca Russia, ndipo ni caru ico cikucita makora comene pa maseŵero agha. Gulu la mpira la Russia ndilo likathereska EuroBasket 2007, ndipo gulu la mpira la Russia la PBC CSKA Moscow lili pakati pa magulu a mpira opambana kwambiri ku Ulaya. Mpikisano wa chaka chilichonse wa Formula One Russian Grand Prix unachitikira ku Sochi Autodrom mu Sochi Olympic Park, mpaka kutha kwake chifukwa cha kuwukira kwa Russia ku Ukraine mu 2022.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.formula1.com/en/information.russia-sochi-autodrom.3nDdZPizsnPEtlHysv115Y.html |title=Russia – Sochi |publisher=[[Formula One]] |access-date=31 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/60601632|last=Benson|first=Andrew|title=Formula 1 terminates contract with Russian Grand Prix|work=[[BBC]]|date=3 March 2022|access-date=7 July 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/sport/2013/02/14/bandy_a_concise_history_of_the_extreme_sport_22867.html |title=Bandy: A concise history of the extreme sport |work=[[Russia Beyond]] |first=Ilya |last=Trisvyatsky |date=14 February 2013 |access-date=7 July 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.euroleague.net/news/i/15364/eurobasket-2007-final-september-16-2007 |title=EuroBasket 2007 final: September 16, 2007 |work=[[EuroLeague]] |first=Javier |last=Gancedo |date=16 September 2007 |access-date=31 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kwamba kale, ŵanthu ŵakuchita maseŵero gha maseŵero gha ku Russia ndiwo ŵakuchita makora chomene maseŵero agha. Russia ndiyo wakwendeska maseŵero gha maseŵero gha maseŵero ghakukhozga thupi. Ku Russia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuseŵera maseŵero ghakuchemeka skating. Mu Russia muli ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanyikwa pa maseŵero gha tennis. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kuseŵera maseŵero gha chesi mu charu ichi. Maseŵera gha Olimpiki gha 1980 ghakachitikira ku Moscow, ndipo maseŵera gha Olimpiki gha mu 2014 gha mu nyengo yakuzizima na gha mu nyengo yakuzizima gha mu 2014 ghakachitikira ku Sochi.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/sochi-2014 |title=Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics – Athletes, Medals &amp; Results |publisher=[[International Olympic Committee]] |date=23 April 2018 |access-date=31 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.paralympic.org/sochi-2014 |title=Sochi 2014 |publisher=[[International Paralympic Committee]] |access-date=31 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ndipouli, caru ca Russia cikapokaso mendulo 43 pa maseŵero gha Olimpiki cifukwa ca kuswa malango gha doping.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |last1=Keh |first1=Andrew |last2=Panja |first2=Tariq |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/sports/olympics/Wada-Russing-doping.html |title=Will Russia Be Thrown Out of the Olympics on Monday? A Primer |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=8 December 2019 |access-date=9 January 2022|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Wonaniso ==
{{Portal|Russia}}
* [[Outline of Russia]]

== Vyakulemba ==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=Note}}

== Mwakufuma vyakulemba ==
{{Free-content attribution
| title = Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security
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| documentURL = https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently-asked-questions-on-energy-security
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== Ukaboni ==
{{reflist}}

== Vyakulemba vinyake ==
{{main|Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus'|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)|Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)}}
{{refbegin|3}}
* Bartlett, Roger P. ''A history of Russia''  (2005) [https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00bart online]
* Breslauer, George W. and Colton, Timothy J. 2017.  ''Russia Beyond Putin'' ([[Daedalus (journal)|Daedalus]]) [https://www.amacad.org/daedalus/russia-beyond-putin online]
* Brown, Archie, ed. ''The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (1982) [https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00brow online]
* {{cite book | last1=Dutkiewicz | first1=P. | last2=Richard | first2=S. | last3=Vladimir | first3=K. | title=The Social History of Post-Communist Russia | publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis | series=Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-317-32846-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vo7DCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP1 | access-date=11 April 2022}}
* Florinsky, Michael T. ed. ''McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (1961).
* Frye, Timothy. ''Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia'' (2021) [https://www.amazon.com/Weak-Strongman-Limits-Putins-Russia/dp/0691212465/ excerpt]
* Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. ''Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia'' (Yale UP, 2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Putin-v-People-Perilous-Politics/dp/0300238398/ excerpt]
* Hosking, Geoffrey A. ''Russia and the Russians: a history'' (2011) [https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi2ndehosk online]
* Kort, Michael. ''A Brief History of Russia'' (2008) [https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofru0000kort online]
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Russia | volume= 23 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link=Peter Kropotkin|last2= Bealby |first2=John Thomas|last3=Phillips|first3=Walter Alison |author3-link=Walter Alison Phillips|pages = 869–912}}
* Lowe, Norman. ''Mastering Twentieth Century Russian History'' (2002) [https://www.amazon.com/Mastering-Twentieth-Century-Russian-History/dp/0333963075/ excerpt]
* Millar, James R. ed. ''Encyclopedia of Russian History'' (4 vol 2003). [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofru0001unse online]
* Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. ''A History of Russia'' (9th ed. 2018) [https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia0000rias 9th edition 1993 online]
* Rosefielde, Steven. ''Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Putins-Russia-Economy-Defense-Foreign/dp/9811212678/ excerpt]
* Service, Robert. ''A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century'' (Harvard UP, 3rd ed., 2009) [https://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Russia-Tsarism-Twenty-First/dp/0674034937/ excerpt]
* Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Contemporary-Russian-Culture-Encyclopedias/dp/0415758629/ excerpt]; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics.
* Walker, Shauin. ''The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past'' (2018, Oxford UP) [https://www.amazon.com/Long-Hangover-Putins-Russia-Ghosts/dp/0190659246 excerpt]
{{refend}}

== Vigaŵa vya kuwalo ==
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'''Government'''
* [http://www.gov.ru/index_en.html Official Russian governmental portal]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223744/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/RS.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] (archived 4 October 2013)

'''General information'''
* {{curlie|Regional/Europe/Russia}}
* {{wikiatlas|Russia}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|60189}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20210109173026/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ Russia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081022164202/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/russia.htm Russia] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 22 October 2008)
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17839672 Russia] from [[BBC News]]
* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia Russia] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=RU Key Development Forecasts for Russia] from [[International Futures]]

'''Vinyake'''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121215070149/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552653 Post-Soviet Problems] from the [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] (archived 15 December 2012)

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